Project report submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements For the award of the degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY IN ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
By
Abhishek.ch K. Naresh
08241A0201 08241A0227
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering GOKARAJU RANGARAJU INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY, BACHUPALLY, HYDERABAD-72 2008 2012
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project report entitled THERMAL OVERLOAD RELAY USING LABVIEW that is being submitted by Abhishek.ch, K. Naresh, P.Ravi Kumar, B.Satyanarayana in partial fulfillment for the award of the Degree of Bachelor of Technology in Electrical and Electronics Engineering to the Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University is a record of bonafide work carried out by them under my guidance and supervision. The results embodied in this project report have not been submitted to any other University or Institute for the award of any Graduation degree.
Prof.P.M. Sarma
External
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This is to place on record, my appreciation and deep gratitude to the persons without whose support this project would never see its design-level aspect and its success. I have immense pleasure in expressing my thanks and deep sense of gratitude to my guide Mr. Sarfaraz Nawaz Syed, Assistant Professor, Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, G.R.I.E.T for his guidance throughout this project.
I also express my sincere thanks to Prof. P.M. Sharma, Head of the Department, and G.R.I.E.T for his ever-lasting, success driven guidance, all through the acute problems faced during the project work. I express my gratitude to Dr. S.N. Saxena, Professor, Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Coordinator, Project Review Committee, G.R.I.E.T for his valuable recommendations and for accepting this project report. Finally I express my sincere gratitude to Mr. Shiva Kumar, Assistant Professor, Ms. Madhuri, Assistant Professor, Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, G.R.I.E.T and all the members of faculty and my friends who contributed their valuable advice and helped to complete the project successfully.
ABSTRACT
Thermal overload relay using labVIEW is the project which makes use of labVIEW to monitor and control operation of the electrical machine. The real time variables of electrical machine are measured and given to labVIEW through DAQ. LabVIEW allows us to program as per our requirements. We continuously observe the operating temperature and Trip the circuit if the temperature exceeds a safe value. Ambient working temperature of the machine is taken as safe value of temperature. The temperature rise is calculated based on the machine temperature constant (degree centigrade per kilowatt). A comparison has been made such that the temperatures above safe value would turn on an LED emitting red light. When the light glows, a digital signal of 5V is generated at the selected line on DAQ. This 5V is drawn into the relay arrangement, which is used to energized itself and trip the contact, hence isolating the machine from the main supply A Data Acquisition Card (DAQ) is used to perform the core of the control action by switching ON the relay. The DAQ, USB 6009 is selected for this project. In order to provide precise input voltages to the DAQ, such that change in each degree of temperature is observable, the current is read to the DAQ through current transformer.
A suitable logic using is written into the DAQ in the LabVIEW. Observing the voltages that are obtained from the current transformer the relay is operated. When the temperature exceeds 40 degree centigrade the relay is operated.
ABBREVIATIONS
GND - Ground DAQ - Data Acquisition LabVIEW - Laboratory Visual Instrumentation Engineering Workbench NI - National Instruments IC - Integrated Circuit PCB - Printed Circuit Board TTL - Transistor-Transistor Logic IO - Input-Output RAM - Random Access Memory ADC - Analog to Digital Converter DAC - Digital to Analog Converter PC - Personal Computer USB - Universal Serial Bus PCI - Peripheral Component Interconnect VI - Visual Interactive FPGA - Field Programmable Gate Array LED - Light Emitting Diode
II
CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF TABLES
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 NEED FOR TEMPERATURE CONTROL 1.2 MACHINE USED IN PROJECT
1
1 2
3
4 4
6
6
9
10
17 18 20
III
5.2 CORRESPONDING LABVIEW PROGRAM 26 5.3 CALCULATION OF TEMPERATURE RISE CONSTANT K (*C/KW) 5.4 FINAL HARDWARE SETUP 30 33
REFERENCES APPENDIX
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IV
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig 2.1a Fig 2.2a Fig 3.1a Fig 4.1a Fig 4.1b Fig 4.3a Fig 4.4a Fig 4.4b Fig 4.4c Fig 5.1a Fig 5.2a Fig 5.2b Fig 5.2c Fig 6 block diagram 5 pin relay current transformer process of data acquisition ease of access of NI-DAQ interfacing with labVIEW input module menu for programming DAQ assistant initial analysis while loop structure in labVIEW programming USB-6009 control panel labVIEW program display under normal conditions display under overload conditions Final Hardware setup 2 3 5 14 15 18 19 20 23 24 26 27 28 32
LIST OF TABLES:
Table 5.3a Determination of machine temperature rise constant K V 31
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
INDUCTION MOTOR
CURRENT TRANSFOEMER
RELAY
Fig 2.1a
Above block diagram shows the chronological occurrences of the processes that are to be Carried out in order to protect the machine from overload. Also, the sequence of equipment used in the entire control process is as listed in the block diagram. The flow from each sequence to the next sequence is also clearly shown in the block diagram.
The current transformer first senses the current and gives out a corresponding voltage, which goes to the input terminals of the DAQ USB-6009.This voltage is read by LabVIEW and analysis has been made over it and other manipulations were added, so as to provide the apt control logic. The output terminals of the DAQ are given to relay which were able to isolate the machine from the main supply.
2
Fig 2.2a
5 pin relay
Relay operation:
All relays operate using the same basic principle. In our project we use 5 pin relay as shown in the above figure. Relays have two circuits: A control circuit and the load circuit. The control circuit has a small control coil and the load circuit has a switch. The coil controls the operation of the switch.
Figure 3.1aCurrent transformer Like any other transformer, a current transformer has a primary winding, a magnetic core, and a secondary winding. The alternating current flowing in the primary produces a magnetic field in the core, which then induces a current in the secondary winding circuit. A primary objective of current transformer design is to ensure that the primary and secondary circuits are efficiently coupled, so that the secondary current bears an accurate relationship to the primary current. The most common design of CT consists of a length of wire wrapped many times around a silicon steel ring passed over the circuit being measured. The CT's primary circuit therefore consists of a single 'turn' of conductor, with a secondary of many tens or hundreds of turns. The primary winding may be a permanent part of the current transformer, with a heavy copper bar to carry current through the magnetic core. Window-type current transformers are also common, which can have circuit cables run through the middle of an opening in the core to provide a single-turn primary winding.
When conductors passing through a CT are not centered in the circular (or oval) opening, slight inaccuracies may occur. Shapes and sizes can vary depending on the end user or switchgear manufacturer. Typical examples of low voltage single ratio metering current transformers are either ring type or plastic molded case. High-voltage current transformers are mounted on porcelain bushings to insulate them from ground. Some CT configurations slip around the bushing of a high-voltage transformer or circuit breaker, which automatically centers the conductor inside the CT window. The primary circuit is largely unaffected by the insertion of the CT. The rated secondary current is commonly standardized at 1 or 5 amperes. For example, a 4000:5 CT would provide an output current of 5 amperes when the primary was passing 4000 amperes. The secondary winding can be single ratio or multi ratio, with five taps being common for multi ratio CTs. The load, or burden, of the CT should be of low resistance. If the voltage time integral area is higher than the core's design rating, the core goes into saturation towards the end of each cycle, distorting the waveform and affecting accuracy
2. Split Core CT's are available for measuring currents from 100 to 5000 amps, with windows in varying sizes from 1" by 2" to 13" by 30". Split core CT's have one end removable so that the load conductor or bus bar does not have to be disconnected to install the CT.
3. Wound Primary CT's are designed to measure currents from 1 amp to 100 amps. Since the load current passes through primary windings in the CT, screw terminals are provided for the load and secondary conductors. Wound primary CT's are available in ratios from 2.5:5 to 100:5 (Models 189 and 190 are examples of wound primary CT's).
CT's used with watt transducers enable the owner to control demand as well as monitor building and/or tenant power consumption. When CT's are used with Current Transducers, the result are an excellent method of diagnosing the performance of fans, Pumps, chillers, etc. Current Transducers provide alarms for each motor so the owner is warned immediately of any abnormal operating condition. Low pump flows will be alarmed if the strainer is dirty or the coupling is broken. Low fan flows will be alarmed if filters are dirty, belts are slipping, or dampers (fire, smoke, etc.) are closed.
Signal conditioning circuitry to convert sensor signals into a form that can be converted to digital values.
Analog-to-digital converters, which convert conditioned sensor signals to digital values. Data acquisition applications are controlled by software programs, developed
Using various general purpose programming languages such as BASIC, C, FORTRAN, Java, Lisp, and Pascal.
Source
Data acquisition begins with the physical phenomenon or physical property to be measured. Examples of this include temperature, light intensity, gas pressure, fluid flow, and force. Regardless of the type of physical property to be measured, the physical state that is to be measured must first be transformed into a unified form that can be sampled by a data acquisition system. The task of performing such transformations falls on devices called sensors. A sensor, which is a type of transducer, is a device that converts a physical property into a corresponding electrical signal (e.g., a voltage or current) or, in many cases, into a corresponding electrical characteristic (e.g., resistance or capacitance) that can easily be converted to electrical signal. The ability of a data acquisition system to measure differing properties depends on having sensors that are suited to detect the various properties to be measured. There are specific sensors for many different applications. DAQ systems also employ various signal conditioning techniques to adequately modify various different electrical signals into voltage that can then be digitized using an Analog-to-digital converter (ADC).
DAQ Hardware
DAQ hardware is what usually interfaces between the signal and a PC. It could be in the form of modules that can be connected to the computer's ports (parallel, serial, USB, etc.) or cards connected to slots in the mother board. Usually the space on the back of a PCI card is too small for all the connections needed, so an external breakout box is required. The cable between this box and the PC can be expensive due to the many wires, and the required shielding. DAQ cards often contain multiple components (multiplexer, ADC, DAC, TTL-IO, high speed timers, RAM). These are accessible via a bus by a microcontroller, which can run small programs. A controller is more flexible than a hard wired logic, yet cheaper than a CPU so that it is permissible to block it with simple polling loops. For example: Waiting for a trigger, starting the ADC, looking up the time, waiting for the ADC to finish, move value to RAM, switch multiplexer, get TTL input, let DAC proceed with voltage ramp. Many times reconfigurable logic is used to achieve high speed for specific tasks and digital signal processors are used after the data has been acquired to obtain some results. 10
The fixed connection with the PC allows for comfortable compilation and debugging. Using an external housing a modular design with slots in a bus can grow with the needs of the user. Not all DAQ hardware has to run permanently connected to a PC, for example intelligent standalone loggers and oscilloscopes, which can be operated from a PC, yet they can operate completely independent of the PC.
Signals
Signals may be digital (also called logic signals sometimes) or analog depending on the transducer used. Signal conditioning may be necessary if the signal from the transducer is not suitable for the DAQ hardware being used. The signal may need to be amplified, filtered or demodulated. Various other examples of signal conditioning might be bridge completion, providing current or voltage excitation to the sensor, isolation, and linearization. For transmission purposes, single ended analog signals, which are more susceptible to noise, can be converted to differential signals. Once digitized, the signal can be encoded to reduce and correct transmission errors.
Signal Conditioning Sometimes transducers generate signals too difficult or too dangerous to measure directly with a data acquisition device. For instance, when dealing with high voltages, noisy environments, and extreme high and low signals, or simultaneous signal measurement, signal conditioning is essential for an effective data acquisition system. It maximizes the accuracy of a system, allows sensors to operate properly, and guarantees safety Amplification. Amplifiers increase voltage level to better match the analog-to-digital converter (ADC) range, thus increasing the measurement resolution and sensitivity. In addition, using external signal conditioners located closer to the signal source, or transducer, improves the measurement signalto-noise ratio by magnifying the voltage level before it is affected by environmental noise.
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Attenuation
Attenuation, the opposite of amplification, is necessary when voltages to be digitized are beyond the ADC range. This form of signal conditioning decreases the input signal amplitude so that the conditioned signal is within ADC range. Attenuation is typically necessary when measuring voltages that are more than 10 V.
Isolation
Isolated signal conditioning devices pass the signal from its source to the measurement device without a physical connection by using transformer, optical, or capacitive coupling techniques. In addition to breaking ground loops, isolation blocks high-voltage surges and rejects high common-mode voltage and thus protects both the operators and expensive measurement equipment.
Filtering
Filters reject unwanted noise within a certain frequency range. Oftentimes, low pass filters are used to block out high-frequency noise in electrical measurements, such as 60 Hz power. Another common use for filtering is to prevent aliasing from high-frequency signals. This can be done by using an antialiasing filter to attenuate signals above the Nyquist frequency.
Excitation
Excitation is required for many types of transducers. For example, strain gages, accelerometers thermistors, and resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) require external voltage or current excitation. RTD and thermistor measurements are usually made with a current source that converts the variation in resistance to a measurable voltage. Accelerometers often have an integrated amplifier, which requires a current excitation provided by the measurement device. Strain gages, which are very-low-resistance devices, typically are used in a Wheatstone bridge configuration with a voltage excitation source.
Linearization
Linearization is necessary when sensors produce voltage signals that are not linearly related to the physical measurement. 12
Linearization is the process of interpreting the signal from the sensor and can be done either with signal conditioning or through software. Thermocouples are the classic example of a sensor that requires linearization.
Cold-Junction Compensation
Cold-junction compensation (CJC) is a technology required for accurate thermocouple measurements. Thermocouples measure temperature as the difference in voltage between two dissimilar metals. Based on this concept, another voltage is generated at the connection between the thermocouple and terminal of your data acquisition device. CJC improves your measurement accuracy by providing the temperature at this junction and applying the appropriate correction.
Bridge Completion
Bridge completion is required for quarter- and half-bridge sensors to comprise a four resistor Wheatstone bridge. Strain gage signal conditioners typically provide half-bridge completion net works consisting of high-precision reference resistors. The completion resistors provide a fixed reference for detecting small voltage changes across the active resistor(s).
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Multifunction data acquisition boards combine analog, digital, and counter operations on a single device. Data acquisition hardware is offered on several different PC busses. Each bus offers different levels of ease-of-use and performance and is better suited for different applications.
Computer/Software
Unlike traditional instruments, a computer is a required component in a data acquisition system. Because of this, a user can take advantage of the ever-increasing performance of the computers processor, hard drive, and display for taking measurements, visualizing data, performing analysis, and storing data.
Software
Software is what transforms the PC and the data acquisition hardware into a complete data acquisition, analysis, and presentation tool. Without software to control or drive the hardware, the data acquisition device does not work properly.
Driver Software
Driver software is the layer of software for easily communicating with the hardware. It forms the middle layer between the application software and the hardware. Driver software also prevents a programmer from having to do register-level programming or complicated commands to access the hardware functions.
Application Software
The application layer can be either a development environment in which you build a custom application that meets specific criteria, or it can be a configuration-based program with preset functionality. Application software adds analysis and presentation capabilities to driver software. To choose the right application software, evaluate the complexity of the application, the availability of configuration-based software that fits the application, and the amount of time available to develop the application. If the application is complex or there is no existing program, use a development environment. 14
The complete process of the Data Acquisition is as per the following block diagram:
Figure 4.1a
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Figure 4.1b
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High-Performance I/O
Measurement accuracy is arguably one of the most important considerations in designing any data acquisition application. Yet equally important is the overall performance of the system, including I/O sampling rates, throughput, and latency. For most engineers and scientists, sacrificing accuracy for throughput performance or sampling rate for resolution is not an option. National Instruments wide selection of PC-based data acquisition devices have set the standard for accuracy, performance, and ease-of-use from PCI to PXI and USB to wireless.
High-Accuracy Designs
Many scientists and engineers mistakenly evaluate DAQ device error by just considering the bit resolution of the DAQ device. However, the error dictated by the device resolution, or quantization error, might account for only a very small amount of the total error in your measurement result. Other types of errors, such as temperature drift, offset, gain, and nonlinearity can vary drastically by hardware design. Through years of experience, NI has developed several key technologies to minimize these errors and maximize the absolute accuracy of your measurements.
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18
Fig 4.3a
19
Figure 4.4a
20
Figure 4.4b
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Express VI prompts you to select the channels you want to send and receive I/O to and from, and configure parameters such as sample rate, terminal configuration, scales, triggering, and synchronization. You also can preview the data within the interface before saving the configuration. Express VIs does not offer the same low-level control as VIs, which is why you may prefer to write the code entirely using VIs. New users interested in learning low-level constructs can easily convert an Express VI to the underlying G code by right-clicking the Express VI and selecting Open Front Panel. Normal VIs can do everything an Express VI can do. The LabVIEW Professional Development System also includes a utility for creating custom Express VIs.
While-Loop Structure
The While Loop structure is similar to the For Loop structure with its ability to repeatedly run a sub diagram, but the number of times is not fixed in advance. Instead, the while-loop structure will execute its sub diagram as long as a particular condition is true. The following screen shot will show you how to use the While Loop structure. 22
The While Loop executes the sub diagram until the conditional terminal, an input terminal, receives a specific Boolean value. The default behavior and appearance of the conditional terminal is Stop if True, shown as follows. When a conditional terminal is Stop if True, the While Loop executes its sub diagram until the conditional terminal receives a TRUE value. You can change the behavior and appearance of the conditional terminal by right-clicking the terminal or the border of the While Loop and selecting Continue if true, shown as follows, from the shortcut menu.
When a conditional terminal is Continue if True, the While Loop executes its subdiagram until the conditional terminal receives a FALSE value. You also can use the Operating tool to click the conditional terminal to change the condition. If you place the terminal of the Boolean control outside the While Loop, as shown in the following figure, and the control is set to FALSE if the conditional terminal is Stop if True when the loop starts, you cause an infinite loop. You also cause an infinite loop if the control outside the loop is set to TRUE and the conditional terminal is Continue if True. Changing the value of the control does not stop the infinite loop because the value is only read once, before the loop starts. To stop an infinite loop, you must abort the VI by clicking the Abort Execution button on the toolbar. You also can perform basic error handling using the conditional terminal of a While Loop. When you wire an error cluster to the conditional terminal, only the TRUE or FALSE value of the status parameter of the error cluster passes to the terminal. Also, the Stop if True and Continue if True shortcut menu items change to stop if Error and Continue while Error.
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Figure 4.4c
24
After successfully initializing the DAQ assistant, following control panel can be observed, where all the required control logic can be given-in and also, respective indicators can be allotted, so as to view their working status. Figure 5.1a USB-6009 CONTROL PANEL
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For this current project, two terminals are required for the output to be drawn out and displayed, one being the output voltage terminal, and the other being the corresponding ground terminal. Now referring to above figure, a ground terminal must be selected and the ground terminal respective to the output voltage of the current transformer must be coupled.
Correspondingly, the output voltage terminal has to be connected to any of the analog input Terminals of the DAQ, thereby concluding the process of making the hard-wire connections, to enable the opportunity to display the output and thereby proceed with control logic system. The above described process, at the end would appear as shown in the following figure. Another important connection of the DAQ USB-6009 with the PC has to be made using the Provided cable, through which the communication between the PC and the DAQ would be Possible to display the output and to further take any control action.
Viewing it step-wise, the output of the current transformer arrangement, which is read-in by the DAQ, is of the order 3.3V to 5.5V. A suitable multiplying factor has been formulated such that, the read voltages between 3.3V and 5.5V directly represent the temperature actually sensed by the temperature sensor.
The so obtained current value which would be displayed and further used for control logic purpose is more or less, accurately calibrated.
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Fig 5.2 a
LabVIEW program
27
28
A comparison has been made such that the temperatures above 40 degrees centigrade would turn on an LED emitting red light. When the light glows, a digital signal of 5V is generated at the selected line on DAQ. This 5V is drawn into the relay arrangement, which is used to energized itself
and trip the contact, hence isolating the machine from the main supply.
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Methods of Finding K:
1. Measurement of Resistance method 2. Using Digital Thermometer
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Formula:
R=Rref [1+ (T-Tref )] Where R = conductor resistance at temperature T Rref = conductor resistance at reference temperature Tref , usually 20* c, but sometimes 0*c.
= Temperature coefficient of resistance for the conductor material. T = Conductor temperature in degree Celsius.
Tref = Reference temperature that is specified at for the conductor material.
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OBSERVATIONS:
V(volts) 61 120 165 200 223 240 I(Amps) 1.07 2.02 3.05 4.07 5.02 6.10 P(kw) .01 .03 .08 .12 .2 .29
Table 5.3a
Duration(mins) 5 5 5 5 5 5
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Fig 6
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Choosing better temperature ICs like LM35 which would include much higher range of temperatures in their sensing and accuracy tables would be one incentive to proceed and bring development to this project.
ICs used for amplification could also be more aptly selected for other challenging environments provided and to be fulfilled.
For overload protection of large scale machines this project is to be modified by introducing LM35 temperature sensor. The actual operating temperature of the machine is monitored continuously and that is compared with the safe value of temperature limit.
This project not only provides overload protection but also provides protection over wide range of faults whose presence can be known by temperature measurement.
For electrical machines like Oil immersed type of Transformers more than 90% of faults are sensed through rise in oil temperature. Generally Buchholz relay is used for this purpose in oil immersed transformers. This project can be used in conjunction with Buchholz relay to provide a more effective and reliable method of protection.
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REFERENCES
1. Muhammad H. Rashid, Micro electric Circuits: Analysis and Design, 114-125, Cengage
Learning, 2010. 2. Bill Urmenyi, Electronics for Artists, 91-94, Bill Urmenyi Ltd., 2001. 3. National Instruments, NI-USB 6009, http://sine.ni.com/psp/app/doc/p/id/psp-115/lang/en 4. National Instruments, NI LabVIEW, www.ni.com/labview
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APPENDIX A :
Current transformers (CT's) provide a simple, inexpensive and yet accurate means of sensing current flow in power conductors. They are available in 3 basic configurations:
1. Ring Core CT's are available for measuring currents from 50 to 5000 amps, with windows (power conductor opening size) from 1" to 8" diameter. 2. Split Core CT's are available for measuring currents from 100 to 5000 amps, with windows in varying sizes from 1" by 2" to 13" by 30". Split core CT's have one end removable so that the load conductor or bus bar does not have to be disconnected to install the CT. 3. Wound Primary CT's are designed to measure currents from 1 amp to 100 amps. Since the load current passes through primary windings in the CT, screw terminals are provided for the load and secondary conductors. Wound primary CT's are available in ratios from 2.5:5 to 100:5 (Models 189 and 190 are examples of wound primary CT's). CT's used with watt transducers enable the owner to control demand as well as monitor building and/or tenant power consumption. When CT's are used with Current Transducers, the result is an excellent method of diagnosing the performance of fans, pumps, chillers, etc. Current Transducers provide alarms for each motor so the owner is warned immediately of any abnormal operating condition. Low pump flows will be alarmed if the strainer is dirty or the coupling is broken. Low fan flows will be alarmed if filters are dirty, belts are slipping, or dampers (fire, smoke, etc.) are closed. High motor loads will alarm if bearings are dry or worn, or belts are out of alignment.
Mounting CT's CT's are generally located in the main breaker panel or in branch distribution panels where space is always at a premium. Since CT's do not have to be installed 90 degrees to the conductor run (the conductors can go through the CT at any angle) they are generally held in place with plastic tie wraps. CT's with mounting feet are available if appearance is important and there is enough room to accommodate this type of mounting arrangement. Installing CT's Window type CT's should be mounted with the H1 side of the window towards the power source. The X1 secondary terminal is the polarity terminal (Figure 3).The polarity marks of a current transformer indicate that when a primary current enters at the polarity mark (H1) of the primary, a current in phase with the primary current and proportional to it in magnitude will leave the polarity terminal of the secondary (X1). If a CT test switch is used, the switch must have a "make-before-break" contact pattern to assure that the CT is not open-circuited during transition. Normally CT's should not be installed on "Hot" services. The power should be disconnected when the CT's are installed. Many times this is not possible because of critical loads such as computers, laboratories, etc. that cannot be shut down. Split core CT's should not be installed on "Hot" uninsulated bus bars under any conditions. On existing cable installations where the monitoring point is not close to a cable end, small ring core CT's can be shunt installed on #8 cable or smaller by using Hot Tap insulation piercing connectors similar to those made by 3M. A parallel shunt through the CT is connected to the power cable as shown in (Figure 4). Tape all bare ends. Check your work before leaving the installation. Make sure all connections are tight and the installation is neat.
CAUTION: Never open-circuit a CT secondary while the primary is energized. High crest voltages may occur across the open secondary circuit. To avoid personal injury or equipment damage, the secondary must always be short-circuited or connected to a burden. NOTE: A buzzing transformer is an indication of an open secondary.