Definitions of Satellite Communications Terms

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This series of slides provides explanations for terms frequently used in satellite communications. Where applicable, the formula related to a term is included with the explanation.

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Power
dBm the ratio (in dB) of power relative to 1mW
0 dBm = 1mW dBm = 10Log(P) or P = 10dBm/1 0 where P is power in mW

dBW the ratio (in dB) of power relative to 1W

0 dBW = 1W dBW = 10Log(P) or P = 10dBW/10 where P is power in Watts 0 dBW = +30 dBm
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Generally, IF signal levels are measured in dBm. For example, the power level at the IF output of a modem may be in the range -20dBm to 0dBm (0.01mW to 1mW). HPA output power levels are often measured in dBW. A 20W SSPA, for example, has a maximum output power capability of +13dBW (20W). This may also be expressed in dBm and is simply calculated by adding 30 to get +43dBm.

Antenna Gain
Expressed in dBi (dBs relative to the the gain of an isotropic antenna) The gain figure of an antenna is only applicable to a particular direction and frequency Typical figures:
2.4m C-Band antenna - Tx Gain: 42 dBi, Rx Gain: 38 dBi 3.8m C-Band antenna - Tx Gain: 46 dBi, Rx Gain: 42 dBi

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An Isotropic antenna radiates the power fed to it uniformly in all directions. An antenna with gain radiates more power in some directions than others. The gain of an antenna is the ratio (in dB) of the power radiated in the direction of interest to the power that would be radiated in the same direction by an isotropic antenna. By definition, an isotropic antenna has 0 dBi gain. For satellite dish antennas, most of the power is concentrated in the main beam of the antenna radiation pattern. The beam width of an antenna is the width of the main beam (in degrees) at the point where the gain has fallen by 3dB from the peak value. Typical values are 1.5o for a 2.4m antenna and 1.0o for a 3.8m antenna. Some residual power is also radiated in the side lobes. Antenna gain and side lobe performance is a function of antenna diameter and antenna geometry (i.e. prime focus, offset fed, Gregorian etc). Side lobes are an unavoidable property of antennas and cannot be completely suppressed. Side lobes can be minimised by proper design and, more importantly, by correct antenna feed alignment during installation. The manufacturer often provides alignment jigs for this purpose. Correct feed alignment also maximises antenna gain. The side lobe characteristics of earth station antennas is one of the main factors determining the minimum spacing between satellites and therefore orbit and spectrum utilisation efficiency.

Antenna Noise Temperature

It is the measure of all the external noise collected by a receiving antenna Measured in Kelvins (K) Noise sources include
Cosmic noise (from the sun, m oon, radio s tars etc) Ground noise (from noise energy radiated from the soil - the smaller the side lobes in the direction of the ground, the lower the ground noise) Miscellaneous sources (losses, cross-pol leakages)

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The noise temperature of an antenna varies with antenna diameter, elevation angle and antenna polarisation: The larger the antenna, the lower the noise temperature. At higher elevation angles, the noise contribution from the ground is less as the side lobes no longer point at the ground. Circularly polarised antennas have noise temperatures several Kelvins lower than those of linearly polarised antennas. Typical clear sky noise temperatures for linearly polarised antennas are shown below (circularly polarised antennas are about 2 K to 3 K lower). Elevation angle 10o 20o 30o 40o 2.4m 52 K 46 K 45 K 44 K 3.8m 31 K 25 K 21 K 21 K

Note that it is incorrect to say degrees Kelvin or write oK. The units of noise temperature are simply Kelvins!

EIRP
(Effective Isotropic Radiated Power)
Used to indicate the power transmitted from an antenna EIRP = Power + Antenna Gain
Both EIRP and Power expressed in dBW Antenna Gain expressed in dBi

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When considering the power radiated in a particular direction from an antenna, the EIRP is the power that would need to be fed into an isotropic antenna (i.e. one that transmits power uniformly in all directions) to get the same signal strength in that direction. By definition, an isotropic antenna has 0 dBi gain.

LNA Noise Temperature

Is measured in Kelvin (K) - the lower the better! Is a measure of the amount of noise generated by the LNA Typical performance: 30 K to 70 K Isolated LNAs have higher noise temperatures or cost more for the same performance (but have better input VSWR)
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LNA noise temperatures have been steadily decreasing as advancing technology provides better HEMT GaAs FET devices for use in LNA input stages. This reduction in noise temperature has made the measurement of LNA noise temperature a more complex task. Previously, Noise Figure meters were able to give sufficiently accurate measurements, but now Hot/Cold Noise source equipment with liquid nitrogen cooling is required. Noise temperature is calculated on the basis that a resistor generates noise, the level of which is dependent on its temperature (measured in Kelvins*). The noise temperature of an LNA is the temperature a terminating resistor would have to have if connected to the input of the LNA (assuming it does not generate any noise) to result in the same noise power at the LNA output. LNA noise performance is sometimes specified in terms of Noise Figure which is measured in dB. To convert from one to the other, use the following: NF = 10Log(1 + T/290) NF in dB, T in Kelvins T = 290 (10NF/10 - 1) e.g *Note: if T = 45 K, then NF = 0.63 dB 0 K = -273oC (absolute zero) 290 K = 17oC (about room temperature - in Adelaide!)

Note that it is incorrect to say degrees Kelvin or write oK. The units of noise temperature are simply Kelvins!

G/T ( Gain To Temperature Ratio)

G/T = Antenna Gain - 10 Log (Sys Noise Temp)
Antenna Gain in dBi System Noise Temperature in K

G/T is the Figure of Merit for an earth station and is expressed as dB/K (dB per K) The higher the better - G/T can be raised by using a higher gain antenna or a lower temperature LNA

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The earth station G/T determines the received carrier to noise ratio. Increasing station G/T will increase the C/N of the received carrier. For systems without a TRF, the system noise temperature is calculated as follows: TSYS = TA + TLNA where T A is the antenna noise temperature and TLNA is the LNA noise temperature If the system includes a TRF, the degradation due to the loss in the TRF must be taken into account as follows: TSYS = TA + TTRF (10L/10 - 1) + TLNA where L is the loss of the TRF (in dB) and TTRF is the actual temperature of the TRF in K (typ 298 K, 25oC) For example, if a system includes the following components: Antenna: TA = 44 K, G = 38 dBi (for a 2.4m antenna at 40o elevation angle) LNA: TLNA = 45 K TRF: L = 0.1dB, T TRF = 298 K then: and: TSYS = 44 + 7 + 45 = 96 K G/T = 18.2 dB/K

If the TRF is omitted, then G/T = 18.5 dB/K (i.e. the 0.1dB loss in the TRF degrades G/T by about 0.3dB)

VSWR
(Voltage Standing Wave Ratio)
VSWR is a measure of the accuracy of impedance matching at a point of connection VSWR is expressed as a ratio e.g. 1.3:1 A perfect match is a VSWR of 1:1 VSWR is usually used at microwave frequencies Return Loss (expressed in dB) is most commonly used at IF frequencies
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When interconnecting transmission systems, it is assumed that the impedances of the two systems are exactly matched (i.e. are the same). In practice, this is not the case as it is impossible to manufacture equipment that has input and output impedances which are 100% accurate. VSWR and Return Loss are both measures of how close to ideal the actual impedances are. Both VSWR or Return Loss can be used to describe impedance matching at any frequency, but VSWR is usually used to measure matching at microwave frequencies while Return Loss is commonly used to measure matching in IF systems . If the impedances are not matched (i.e. high VSWR or low Return Loss), standing wave patterns are created. If the transmission path is long enough (as can exist in IF and RF cables) the frequency response may no longer be flat and may exhibit ripples across the band. Ideal matching results in a VSWR of 1:1 or an infinite Return Loss (i.e. infinity dB!). Equipment such as SSPAs and converters have input and output VSWR figures of 1.3:1 to 1.5:1. Non-isolated LNAs may have an input VSWR as high as 2.5:1, however this is not usually a problem as the signal path length is very short (the LNA is directly connected to the antenna) and ripples due to the poor VSWR are very small. Return Loss is measured in dB and typical figures are 15dB to 26dB. To convert from VSWR to Return Loss and vice versa, use the following: VSWR = 10RL/20 + 1 RL = 20 Log VSWR+1 VSWR -1 10RL/20 - 1

OPBO, IPBO
Output Back-Off
The level of a signal at the output of an amplifier relative to the maximum possible output level e.g. if the maximum output level is +40dBm and the measured output level is +34dBm, the OPBO is 6dB

Input Back-Off
The level of a signal at the input of an amplifier relative to that level at the input that would result in the maximum possible output level e.g. if an input level of -20dBm causes max output and the actual input level is -25dBm, the IPBO is 5dB
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OPBO and IPBO are commonly used to determine the operating levels in a satellite transponder TWTA. OPBO is also used when calculating intermodulation distortion levels at the output of SSPAs and TWTAs. For SSPAs, the OPBO reference point is the 1dB Gain Compressed Power, while for TWTAs, it is the saturated output power. Intermod figures are often given in as plots of the intermod levels vs the OPBO. The use of IPBO and OPBO for satellite transponders avoids the need to worry about actual signal levels. For example, the satellite operator simply specifies the transponder saturated output power and the satellite receiving antenna input flux density (Saturation Flux Density, SFD) to cause saturation. When doing link calculations, the flux density at the satellite is calculated and this is then used to determine the IPBO (i.e. difference between the actual flux density and the SFD). Using data provided by the satellite operator, the OPBO can then be calculated which can then be used to directly calculate the actual satellite EIRP. It should be noted that there is not necessarily a one-to-one correspondence between the IPBO and the OPBO because the input level vs output level response of any amplifier is non-linear near maximum output (i.e. they exhibit compression). This effect is greater for TWTAs than SSPAs.

Saturation Flux Density

Flux density is a measure of signal strength at a point in space and is measured in Watts/m2 or dBW/m 2 Saturation Flux Density
Usually applied to signals received at a satellite It is the flux density required to saturate a satellite transponder TWTA

Flux density may also be used to calculate output power from an earth station receiving antenna
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When a signal is transmitted from an antenna, it spreads out and the original power is distributed over a larger area. At a distance from the antenna, only a fraction of the original transmitted power will be received by an antenna. The amount of power received depends on the size of the antenna (in particular the area of the antenna intersecting the beam) and the amount of power in that area (measured in watts per square metre or, more commonly, dBW/m 2). Saturation Flux Density is the flux density (i.e. signal power ) required to saturate the transponder (i.e. cause maximum transponder TWTA output power). Saturation flux density is a parameter specified by the satellite operator and varies across the satellite reception beam area. It is, in effect, a transponder gain parameter since it indicates the output power that will result with a given input signal level. The satellite operator can usually change the gain of a transponder (via its onboard attenuators) in order to suit different system requirements (e.g. a transponder used for SCPC signals from small antennas is usually given higher gain than one used for TV broadcasting - this reduces the earth station EIRP requirements from these small earth stations). The different gain settings then result in different values of saturation flux density.

Polarisation
Circular
LHCP (Left Hand Circular Polarisation) RHCP (Right Hand Circular Polarisation)

Linear
Horizontal Vertical

Usage
Allows frequency reuse Circular used primarily on Intelsat Satellites Linear used on domestic and non-Intelsat Satellites
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The polarisation of an RF wave is used in satellite systems to separate two signals at the same frequency and allows frequency reuse in satellite systems. Because antennas can be constructed to receive and transmit a specific polarisation, by using LHCP and RHCP (or horizontal and vertical) polarisations, only a signal of the required polarisation will be received (or transmitted). The signal of the opposite polarisation will be rejected (or not transmitted) even if it is on the same frequency. The polarisation of an RF wave in space is defined by the orientation of the electric vector (E) of the wave. This vector - which is perpendicular to the direction of propagation - can vary in both direction and intensity during one RF cycle T (=1/f). That is, the E vector can both rotate and vary in intensity. Ideally in a circularly polarised wave, the E vector does not vary in intensity as it rotates (i.e. the tip of the E vector traces a circle). If it traces an ellipse, the ratio of the maximum and minimum values of the ellipse (i.e. the ratio of the major and minor axes) is called the Axial Ratio (AR). When AR=1, the wave is perfectly circularly polarised and an antenna designed to receive a LHCP signal will not receive a RHCP signal and vice versa. When AR<1, some of the opposite polarisation will be received and the isolation is not perfect and can be calculated as: Isolation = 20 log (AR + 1) (AR - 1) A similar effect occurs with linearly polarised signals when the two signals are not exactly 90 with respect to each other. Antennas typically achieve polarisation isolation figures of 30dB.

1dB Gain Compression Point

Abbreviated to 1dB GCP Also called 1dB Gain Compressed Power A measure of SSPA output power rating Definition
The 1dB GCP is the output power at which the input/output transfer response of an SSPA departs from a straight line by 1dB.

Note:
TWTAs are rated by saturated output power
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As the input signal level to an SSPA is raised, the output level also rises until the SSPA output starts to compress - i.e. the output power no longer rises as quickly as the input level. When the output level is 1dB less than it should be for the input level, that output power is the 1dB GCP. The graph below shows this effect for a 10W SSPA - i.e. the output 1dB GCP is +40dBm.
SSPA 1dB GCP
45.00

Output Power (dBm)

40.00

35.00

30.00 -35.0

-30.0

-25.0

-20.0

Input Pow e r (dBm)

Note that TWTAs are rated by their saturated output power. This is the output power that is reached when the input signal level is increased until the output power no longer increases.