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Journal of US-China Public Administration, ISSN 1548-6591 November 2011, Vol. 8, No. 11, 1227-1241

Cultural Planning as a Solution at Displacement and Recovery Problem in the Porong Mud Volcano Disaster
Achmad Room Fitrianto
The State Institute for Islamic Studies of Sunan Ampel, Surabaya, Indonesia

The Porong Mud Volcano in Sidoarjo represents a major environmental and social disaster in Indonesia. In order to mitigate the negative impact of the Mud eruption government set up some policies. However those policies that are set up still cannot fulfill community satisfaction especially for the victims. Policies that cannot achieve community expectation are a sign that there are missing links in the mitigation and redevelopment plan mechanism. There are four gaps that are observed between the mitigation program and the community needs: firstly, there was no adequate support given to the affected small and medium businesses which could have been empowered through assistance programs; secondly, there was insufficient retraining for those who lost their jobs; thirdly, there were inadequate educational incentives and very little support was given to the victims; and lastly, there were no cultural settlement assistance programs for those moving to new settlement areas. Ramesh and Howlett stated that every policy was always related to politics. Policy that has a long term dimension could create more favorable outcomes for landowners, and create greater opportunities for investment. As a possible solution, it is believed that the implementation of cultural planning, in combination with the principles of the sustainable livelihood framework, would be an effort to increase the attractiveness of the region. In the long term, it could increase the potential opportunity that could be gained by the societies by increasing income, reducing vulnerability, developing networking, building national identity and providing the sustainable use of natural resources. Keywords: Indonesia Sidoarjo mudflows, environmental disasters, community need, government policy, cultural planning

The Porong mudflow disaster occurred on May 29, 2006 (see Figure 1). Five thousand cubic meters of mud a day spurted up in the beginning. This has now increased to around 130,000 cubic meters a day and remains constant (Williamson, 2006). There is now a lake of mud, which has buried approximately 600 ha of land and villages. Therefore a major environmental and social disaster has been the consequence of the Porong mudflow disaster. Consideration of this case provides strong insight into the Indonesian governments recent environmental management of the disaster, which demonstrates weaknesses, particularly in terms of enforcement and accountability . The government policies to mitigate the impact of the mudflow showed as political image building just to keep the ruling party popular. As a result, the mitigation body that had task and duty to solve the negative impacts of this disaster seemed to have no holistic planning. They had seen just as technical body whose only
Corresponding author: Achmad Room Fitrianto, lecturer and researcher, Department of Islamic Economic, Syariah Faculty, The State Institute for Islamic Studies of Sunan Ampel; research fields: government reform, community development. E-mail: ar.fitrianto@sunan-ampel.ac.id.

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effort was to dam the mud without considering other aspects. The use of appropriate approaches based on the best knowledge and available technology that would reduce the negative effects of the disaster was ignored. The policy initiatives that were set up to cope with the disaster demonstrated the willingness of the government to mitigate the effects of the disaster.

Figure 1. The map location of the mudflow. Sources: Centre for Remote Imaging, Sensing and Processing (CRISP) (2008); Sidoarjo Tourism (2008);

This paper is aimed at evaluation for the government in tackling social and economy problems that are occurred. As solution, cultural planning approaches are introduced. Some advantages and handicap of using this approach are elaborated. This paper consists of five sections. The first section discusses the positions of the government and the corporate body in solving the problems. The second section describes the community needs. The third section discusses the gaps between the community needs in the disaster area and central government policies. The fourth section describes cultural planning as a way out. The last section discusses the lessons that could be learned from the mitigation policy toward Porong mudflow disaster.

Government and Corporate Body Positions

The Porong mudflow volcano located near the Banjarpanji-1 (BJp-1) well exploration site, produced not only hot toxic mud but also caused a significant amount of damage to infrastructure, the environment, and to society . Moreover, the exploration permits in Block Brantas that was granted to PT. Lapindo Brantas by the central government was not compatible with the Sidoarjo site plan (BPK report, 2007). According to the Indonesian Supreme Audit Board, the drilling location of BJp-1 well is located just five metres from residential areas, 37 metres from Porong freeway and less than 100 metres from the gas pipe. Based on the decree of Badan Standar Nasional Indonesia No. 13-6910-2002
1 2

and Presidential Decree (Inpres) No. 1/1976

, PT

Lapindo should not have been allowed to conduct its mining activities near residential areas and near public

1 2

This decree regulates the off-shore and in-shore drill procedures. This decree expels the synchronisation of the agrarian sector to the forestry, mining, transmigration and general work that is

stated in the law No. 11/1967.

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infrastructure facilities. However, even though their drilling activities were not compatible with the Sidoarjo site plan, the government still approved the exploration. These facts were parallel to Epsteins (1990) opinion that questioned the honesty of the company that conducted the feasibility study in preparing its business activities. The regulatory sy stem, the laws, and the bureaucratic process involved in the feasibility study imply that before any exploration goes ahead, an appropriate feasibility study that calculates and estimates the potentialities and the danger involved in exploration should be conducted beforehand. If the dangers outweigh the potencies, the exploration permit should not be issued. Therefore, in order to obtain a business permit, it is possible that a company could manipulate the feasibility study to guarantee approval. Moreover, Epstein (1990) also underlined that the ineffectiveness of the regulatory sy stem is exacerbated by the fact that private citizens and public interest groups have no right to bring a legal action to enforce the statute, which means that public involvement and participation could support and control the implementation of the regulatory sy stem. Moreover, the bottom-up planning mechanism such as Musrenbang but also as community watch tools. In addition, the government could do two things in order to reduce the abuse committed by businesses. Firstly , it should not give special privileges to business without acknowledging the community needs. For example, it is clearly stated in the Sidoarjo site plan that the BJp-1 well location is categorised as an area for residences, household industries, and industrial storage, not for mining. Nevertheless, in order to fulfill Indonesias oil shortages, BP Migas granted approval to PT Lapindo to explore in that location. Secondly , the government should reform its position to that of a facilitator and regulator. The government should minimise the miscommunication between itself and its agencies. For example, Kontrak kary a (working contracts) or Kuasa pertambangan (mining authorities) for gas and oil exploration in Porong should be considered on the basis of the implementation of an environmental impact assessment or AMDAL ( Analisis Mengenai Dampak Lingkungan, Environmental Impact Assessment [EIA]). The process in gaining an AMDAL should consider the laws and regulations that guarantee the safety of the communities and the environment surrounding the exploration areas. But facts showed that the process for obtaining a Kontrak kary a (working contract) or a Kuasa pertambangan (mining authority ) for gas and oil exploration in Porong contradicted the decree of Badan Standar Nasional Indonesia No. 13-6910-2002, Presidential Decree No. 1/1976 and the Sidoarjo District Regulation No. 16/2003. Yet, the exploration permit was issued. This also showed that there was a lack of coordination between government agencies in processing the exploration permit for Porong. Interference by private parties and businesses creates miscommunication or a lack of coordination among government agencies. It can be assumed that the bureaucrats attitude or the politicians behaviour reflects the pressure of organised groups outside the government and determines every single policy that the government adopts (Kingdon, 1995; Cobb & Ross, 1997; Tay lor et al., 1997). The businesses in particular are an organised group outside the government that tries to persuade the policy maker to formulate policy that supports business activities. The aims of businesses are to maximise production in order to maximise profits (Hirschey & Pappas 1996). However, besides maximising profit, the corporation should develop a philanthropy program in anticipation of the negative externalities. Such programs could build good public images for businesses.
3

, could function not only as community participation in development

Musrenbang is a mechanism that guides local governments in Indonesia in formulating development plans . It involves a process

of socialisation and participation in planning at government level. Moreover, it also is a guide used in the planning and the evaluation of regional development.

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Corporate social responsibly (CSR concept) is aimed at giving more attention to social and moral aspects (Kemp, 2001), which demonstrate the company s social responsibility to society (UNISA, 2009). For example, the company should not use child workers in order to push down labor costs and should give priority to the locals when recruiting workers. Recent facts show that in Indonesia, the CSR concept is seen mostly as a community development program that supports and provides public facilities for society (Koestoer, 2007). Somehow, if this interpretation is not well defined and if all companies support and provide public facilities, such as public toilets and/or maintain drainage sy stems, the governments function as a public server would be taken over (Koestoer, 2007). As there was no legal obligation for companies to pay compensation, PT Lapindo maintained that the compensation they paid out was a part of PT Lapindo Brantas CSR program (Kompas, November 3, 2008). PT Lapindo Brantas was blamed by some for causing the mudflow disaster even though according to some others, it was triggered by the Yogjakarta earthquake. Despite of the possible causes, corporate social responsibility is needed in the mining sector. According to Warhursts notes in Jenkin and Yokovelva (2006), over the last 40 y ears of mining and petroleum exploration, industries have contributed significantly to environmental disasters and human rights abuses. Therefore, it is logical that corporations should be involved in land rehabilitation and in minimising the environmental impact of natural resource exploitation. Moreover, community development and social-cultural disruption must become subjects of routine dialogue between mining companies and the government as the administrative authority . For the mining industry , CSR is about balancing the diverse demands of communities and the imperative to protect the environment, with the ever present need to make a profit (Jenkin & Yokovelva, 2000). Newman mining company in Peru has set a good example: Newman adds to the social embeddedness construct in the extent multinational enterprises are reaching out to gain legitimacy in the local communities in which they are working (Gilford & Kestler, 2008). Meanwhile, the community and NGOs forced Newman to consider community welfare and to provide benefits by compensating for the environmental damage and social externalities that they might cause. These programs, by creating a network of trusted partnerships with diverse organisations and institutions, promoted the multinational enterprises products in the emerging economy (Gilford & Kestler, 2008). Moreover, Newman invited academics from the University of Colorado to investigate what it could do to improve the welfare of communities that surrounded the exploration site. What Newman did was rather different compared to other mining companies worldwide. Mining companies mostly spent their social program funding on health services, for example Angio Gold in South Africa funded and provided anti-retroviral therapy for their workers with HIV, and Freeport-Mcmoran launched community wide treatment for ly mphatic filariasis to decrease the impact of the debilitating disease on its workforce (Gilford & Kestler, 2008). Indeed, the business of the contribution in development planning through the empowerment of societies not only is a philanthropic mission but also brings significant advantages to business.

Community Needs
Porong and its surroundings have faced the effects of the mudflow disaster for almost more than three y ears since it first spewed on May 29, 2006. According to Moral and Walker (2007), humans have alway s been at the mercy of large natural disturbances, which meant that human life alway s depended on nature. However, in recent times, besides the natural hazards, human civilisation has also been threatened by massive population growth. Therefore, in order to fulfill human needs and its demand for goods and services, humans

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have actively modified the earth so much as to trigger further disturbances and other hazards. The increase in human population contributes significantly in creating a fragile environment and intensify ing the impacts of natural hazards (Walker & Moral, 2007). These threats provided challenges to humans when having to mitigate the negative effects of natural turbulences or human made disasters. The use of appropriate approaches based on the best knowledge and available technology would reduce the negative effects of the disaster. The Porong mudflow disaster buried around 600 ha of land and caused 15,000 factory workers to lose their jobs. Moreover, this disaster also forced 2,299 small and medium enterprises to collapse and become bankrupt (Hamzirwan, 2007; Tempo Interactive, January 22, 2007; Williamson, 2006). It caused not only environmental destruction but also social tension and dislocation. There are at least four programs that the community needs in order to reduce the social tension that has occurred: Firstly , the community needs capacity -building programs such as a job-seeking assistance program for the workers who lost their jobs. Another program could provide skills training for the victims who can no longer work in their previous jobs and therefore must retrain to earn an income; Secondly , a psy chosocial assessment of the victims was needed, especially for those who experienced the direct impact of the disaster and who were left mentally shocked as a result of having to leave their heritage land and culture and adapt to a new environment; Thirdly , the community needs adequate education support for its children. Providing mobile libraries for students who live in the vicinity of the disaster area to support their study is a good example. Besides that, providing alternative education for schools that were badly affected by the disaster would also help to minimise the disruption of the education process in this area. In addition, scholarships and free tuition could be granted to students who were directly affected, especially to those who have previously achieved high grades. In this way , students would not miss out of an education due to the disaster; Lastly , the government could assist in developing community networks aimed at, in the short term, the distribution of charity by philanthropy organisations to the victims. For example, the government could support the Indonesian Red Cross in distributing assistance to the victims. In the medium term, the networking could support private schools, whose land and buildings were buried by helping them obtain compensation. In the long term, the networking could become a program that could connect the small and medium businesses to banks in order to provide adequate capital to start their business.

The Gaps Between Government Policy and Community Needs

The policy initiatives that have been set up to cope with the disaster demonstrate the willingness of the government to mitigate the effects of the disaster (Ife & Tesoriero, 2006). The governments willingness is the result of a political process that reflects the impact of government on society (Hey wood, 2004). In more detail, Hey wood (2004) described the policy as a linkage among intentions, actions and results. By intention, Hey wood (2004) was referring to whether the government was for the people or for the interested groups. On the other hand, policy implementation reflects government action, whether the government really means to solve the problem or is just pay ing lip service. The level of community satisfaction demonstrates the result of the policy . If the community is satisfied with the government policy , it will support the government. The governments response to the disaster was demonstrated in the two presidential decrees: Presidential Decree 13/2006 (Keputusan Presiden 13/2006) and 14/2007 (Peraturan Presiden 14/2007). Both decrees clearly

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stated that the tasks and duties of the mitigation authority were to formulate methods to stop the mudflow, and manage the surface problems caused by it, including its social and economic impacts government effort to mitigate the impact of the mudflow showed lack of political willingness. The mitigation authority was just a technical body whose only effort was to dam the mud without considering other aspects. As Ife and Tesoriero (2006) explained, the community based services are seen as structures and processes for meeting human need, drawing on the resources, expertise and wisdom of the community itself. Structurally , the presidential decrees are on track for providing the expertise to stop the mudflow and to provide adequate compensation to the victims. However, the social construction programs that have been set up are not sufficient
5 4

. However, the

. The government simply assumed that giving society more money would solve the problems.

Community members need further assistance to normalise their lives after being disturbed by the disaster. There are four aspects that seem to have been neglected by the Sidoarjo Mudflow Mitigation Agency (Badan Penanggulangan Lumpur Sidoarjo): The first was that there was no adequate support for empowering and providing assistance programs for small and medium sized enterprises that were affected by the mud. It was reported that around 2,299 small businesses and medium sized enterprises collapsed and became bankrupt. Therefore, it is important to regenerate the local business activities; Secondly , there was no adequate training for the victims who lost their jobs. Chapter 10 of the Presidential Decree 14/2007, stated the duties of the social deputy
6

of the Sidoarjo Mudflow Mitigation Agency who was to

develop strategies to solve the social problem that resulted. Moreover, the Presidents direct instruction given on December 28, 2006 stated that the government agencies responsible for the disaster had to explore new employ ment opportunities for the victims who lost their jobs as a result of the disaster. However, the facts were that insufficient assistance was given to workers who lost their jobs. For example, there were around 1,022 farm workers registered in Renokenongo, Jatirejo, Siring Ketapang, and Kedungbendo villages (The Sidoarjo Statistics Board, 2006). When the mud buried the farmlands in those villages, these workers were not skilled to obtain employ ment in other sectors. Therefore, government involvement in providing special training to provide new working skills was important (Karpagam, 1999); Thirdly , there were no sufficient educational incentives for the victims. Logically , if 15,000 factory workers lost their jobs, none of those could replace the 1,022 farmers in order to undertake farm work without adequate re-training. As 2,299 small and medium sized enterprises collapsed and became bankrupt, many parents could not continue to pay tuition fees for their children. Therefore, these children would have found it difficult to enroll in a school or university . Moreover, based on the Indonesian Supreme Audit Board (BPK report, 2007), up to December 13, 2006, 18 schools were buried and about 5,397 students were affected. Therefore, special treatment for these affected students was essential; Finally , it is general knowledge in Indonesia that every village has its own customs; therefore, the government or the agencies must consider this when formulating resettlement programs. Providing social assistance in order to prevent social clash is essential as social clash could occur as a result of the difference in
4 5

Presidential decree 14/2007, article 1, sub-article two, mentions the social and physical reconstruction. The Surabaya post of May 27, 2009 reported that in 2008 the Indonesian footwear centre and BPLS trained 440 disaster victims

in a new life skill such as food processing, handicraft production, and automotive mechanic training. It planned to train another 420 victims in 12 rounds in 2009. 6 The Sidoarjo Mudflow Mitigation Agency is comprised of the head of agencies, vice head of agencies, secretary and three deputies that are responsible for the agencys operational activities with regards to infrastructure and social matters.

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customs in new settlement areas. For example, in Indonesia there are two big Islamic movements: Nahdatul Ulama (NU) and Muhammadiyah. Both groups practise different customs and rituals as a part of their daily activities. If there was no social assistance from the government, this would create new tension between both Islamic movements. In short, the government should be aware of its policy gaps. A more proactive approach toward the formulation of creative programs to reduce the negative effects of the disaster is necessary . As discussed previously , the central government policies with regards to the Porong mudflow disaster are represented in the Presidential Degree 14/2007a decree that obligates PT Lapindo to be responsible for all the losses incurred from the disaster. Article 1, sub-article two of the decree, states that the social and phy sical reconstruction of affected areas should be conducted in order to minimise the negative effects of the disaster.
Analysis of the impacts of the disaster 1. Victims characteristics 2. Community perspective 3. Community hopes and wishes Analysis of the existing bodies responsible for mitigating damages 1. BPLS 2. Minarak Lapindo Jaya 3. Local government Analysis of the regulation and government policy regarding the disaster 1. 2. 3. 4. Two presidential decrees Two ministerial decrees Cash and resettlements policy Cash and carry policy

Community needs assessment analysis Analysis of the government and corporate capacities in governing the mitigation program

GAPS Community needs 1. Capacity building assessments 2. Psychosocial assessment 3. Education support 4. Networking development 1. Inadequate support in empowering and providing assistance programs for small and medium enterprises affected by the mud 2. Inadequate retraining for the victims who lost their jobs in order to obtain other jobs 3. Insufficient educational incentives for the victims 4. No cultural settlement assistance Figure 2. Gaps between government policy and the community needs. Source: Fitrianto (2009). 1. Government through mitigation bodies in Porong tend to concentrate on physical programs such as damming the mud or rebuilding the freeways 2. Lapindo assumes that buying all the buried land will solve the problems

However, the Sidoarjo Mudflow Mitigation Agency (BPLS), mandated to mitigate the effects of the disaster, but concentrated only on the conducting of phy sical mitigation programs such as the damming of the mud and rebuilding of the freeway s. In addition, the pay ment of compensation, also the responsibility of PT Lapindo
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, was implemented only by buy ing the land and the properties that were buried. This study found four

As it is stated in article 15 of the Presidential Degree 14/2007.

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gaps in the implementation of the Presidential Decree 14/2007 and the community needs: firstly , there was no adequate support given to the affected small and medium businesses which could have been empowered through assistance programs; secondly , there was insufficient retraining for those who lost their jobs; thirdly , there were inadequate educational incentives and very little support was given to the victims; and lastly , there were no cultural settlement assistance programs for those moving to new settlement areas. The complete description of the gaps between policy aims and community needs is outlined in Figure 2. Government has only conducted a part of the policy aims with regards to the Porong mudflow disaster. This was assumed as there was no legal decision made by the court as to who should be made responsible for the disaster in Porong. Two opinions existed regarding the causes of the disaster: the first was that the underground blowout that caused the mud volcano was triggered by PT Lapindos drilling activities at BJp-1 well; the second opinion was that the underground blowout was caused by the Yogjakarta earthquake. Despite of these opinions, an investigation should be conducted to demonstrate the correlation between drilling activities at BJp-1 well and the mud volcano. Based on this investigation, the court could then make a decision about the responsibilities of the parties involved. However, even though the court decision has not y et been made, redevelopment programs should be carried out immediately and integrated, and sustainable programs should be developed. It is believed that a three-prong involvement between the government, communities and businesses could solve the problems in Porong. As previously mentioned, Indonesia practises a participatory mechanism in development known as Musrenbanga bottom-up planning mechanism involving all the stakeholders in the society at every social level. Therefore, it is suggested that local wisdom can be used through cultural and cluster development planning. This planning involves the existing social capital, joint cooperation among communities, government and private companies. Such planning can narrow the gaps between government policy and the community needs.

Cultural Planning Through Community InvolvementA Way Out

Cultural planning could be defined as a tool that accommodates all elements of a community that involves and relates to development programs. As Krempl (2006) stated, cultural planning was a development tool that involved art and culture as central development processes that could create a sustainable framework and strategic planning best practices. Culture becomes a central theme of development as it represents dreams, values, beliefs and communication techniques within society (Krempl, 2008). Moreover, culture also portray s the human behaviour interaction in a modified nature and environment for supporting human needs. In more specific terms, cultural planning looks at the community as co-dwellers in one house (Krempl, 2008). In a house, there are many private spaces and common areas such as the dining room, kitchen, and garden. In cultural planning, the common area cannot be shaped, designed, or determined by a single interest. The common area should be seen as shared spaces, media to interact among society , and an area to develop togetherness. In order to keep the common area functional, collaboration from each society member is essential. Therefore, developing understanding among society members respects the roles of the play ers that are parts of the social contract, and developing trust among society members becomes a key instrument. However, developing common sense in a public space cannot be separated from the seven cultural factors. According to Krempl (2005), the seven cultural factors were artistic, commercial, educational, environmental, political, social and spiritual. Krempl (2005) described the factors that determine culture as a cultural wheel. A

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complete description of the cultural wheel is outlined in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Cultural wheel. Source: Krempl (2005).

Because each culture is determined by the seven factors, development cannot be conducted using the same methods and approaches. Such approaches could be conducted using the sustainable livelihoods framework (SLF). The SLF provides a holistic approach in addressing the most pressing constraints faced by the community (Ludi & Slater, 2008). It focuses on understanding how individuals and households obtain and use particular social and economic assets to seek further opportunities, reduce risk, minimise vulnerability and maintain or improve their livelihoods (DFID, 1997; Ludi & Slater, 2008). In addition, this framework assists other agencies to develop flexible and locally appropriate responses in reducing exposure to vulnerability and setting priorities for development programs (Ludi & Slater, 2008). This means that the SLF places humans at the centre of planning that is influenced by the social condition, the political environment, existing human problems, the financial situation and natural resources. Figure 4 outlines the complexity of the sustainable livelihoods framework. It could be observed from Figure 4 that there are multiple actors and pressures that come into operation in the mitigation program. This figure portray s the sustainable livelihood framework. The figure shows that the policy makers can use multiple strategies in limiting the dangers and risks. In addition, this framework also provides flexibility to the agencies in reducing the risk of vulnerability . The SLF also provides evidence of development problems that can be prioritized for tackling by the agencies (Ludi & Slater, 2008). In this study , there were four community needs that succeeded to be identified: capacity -building, psy chosocial assessment, educational support, and networking programs. Community needs should be central to the analy sis of the social condition, the political environment, existing human problems, the financial situation and natural resources. As shown in Figure 4, one of the final outcomes of this framework is to reduce social vulnerability and to provide more sustainable methods of exploring natural resources. Therefore, the use of the SLF makes the community the centre of attention. The government, as a public services provider, should mitigate the problems that occurred as a result of the disaster.

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Figure 4. The sustainable livelihoods framework. S = social; P = political; H = human; N = natural; F = financial. Source: DFID (1997).

As stated previously , the community in each region has its own characteristics and customs. Therefore, a cultural planning approach should go hand in hand with the use of the sustainable livelihood framework. In addition, clustering methods should also be considered. One of the advantages of the clustering development plan is that it could support the growth of industries, and its possible effects on the development process. In other words, clustering could inject economic dy namism into the region (OECD, 1999, p. 182). Moreover, Potter (1998) emphasized that the clustering method could create commonalities, complementarities and linkages among companies and interrelated institutions. With regards to the mudflow disaster case in Porong, the Sidoarjo government uses the Musrenbang mechanism. Moreover, Sidoarjo also has a site plan that could be used as a guidance in revitalising Porong and its surrounding areas. The Sidoarjo government divided its territories based on their geographical positions and potencies. In terms of geographical position, regions were divided into five groups of sub-districts known as SSWP- subsatuan wilayah pengembangan (development cluster areas) (Bappeda Kabupaten Sidoarjo, 2003). In terms of its potencies, the area was divided into conservation and production zones (Bappeda Kabupaten Sidoarjo, 2003). The production zone was further divided into five centres of development: the first are agropolitan or agricultural development areas, the second are Gemapolis or industrial areas, the third is a coastal development area and the fourth are areas allocated for residential development. The last area is to be developed into water-front cities in the east of Sidoarjo (Bappeda Kabupaten Sidoarjo, 2003). Based on this brief description, the Sidoarjo site plan has employ ed the cluster approach. The use of this approach is the right choice to promote rapid development across the sub-districts. Participatory planning also supports this approach. In addition, in order to gain optimal results in sustainable development, it is suggested that the sustainable livelihood framework and cultural plan should adopt a bottom-up approach. With regards to the Porong mudflow case, the government should classify the problems that occur and place them in the centre of an analy sis in considering the social condition, the political environment, existing human problems, the financial situation and natural resources. This analy sis would accommodate the existing customs and help to maximise the input of volunteer experts that would like to participate in solving the problems in Porong. It is believed that the participatory , disaster mitigation method is more sustainable and relatively more accommodating of all local interests.

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