Thurber Eberhart Phillips

Local earthquake tomography with exible gridding
p
Cliord Thurber
a,
*, Donna Eberhart-Phillips
b, 1
a
Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
b
Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences, Private Bag 1930, Dunedin, New Zealand
Received 22 September 1998; accepted 8 February 1999
Abstract
In local earthquake tomography (LET) problems, the spatial resolution of velocity structure varies signicantly in
a model due to the naturally heterogeneous distribution of earthquake sources. We present a exible gridding
strategy for tailoring the velocity model parameterization to the dataset being analyzed. The strategy combines
regular gridding with two forms of node `linking' to allow for ner-scale resolution where warranted by the data, to
provide improved model stability where resolution is relatively poor and to allow for the incorporation of a priori
information on structure, for example the location of signicant discontinuities. Flexible gridding has been
incorporated into a widely-used LET inversion algorithm. The inversion approach is documented along with a
discussion of other recent advances and improvements to the algorithm. We discuss various situations in which
exible gridding can be useful. An example application of exible gridding to a dataset from the San Andreas fault
in central California illustrates how the approach can yield a sharper image of the fault while at the same time
improving the overall quality of the model and the t to the data. # 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Seismic tomography; Local earthquakes; Inversion; Gridding
1. Introduction
Seismic tomography has had widespread appli-
cations over the last two decades on spatial scales ran-
ging from meters to the whole Earth and even the Sun.
For crustal-scale studies, the two primary `passive'
methods (that is, not explosion-source methods) are
teleseismic tomography (Aki et al., 1977) and local
earthquake tomography (LET) (Kissling, 1988). One
of the advantages of LET over teleseismic tomography
is the potential for higher-resolution imaging of struc-
ture, as both the higher frequency content of local
earthquake seismograms and the presence of the earth-
quake sources within the model volume generally allow
for ner spatial sampling. An important drawback,
however, is the variability of model sampling due to
non-uniform earthquake source distribution. The po-
tential for ne-scale resolution can be high in areas
where earthquakes and stations are densest, but rather
low in seismically less-active areas and around the per-
iphery of the array.
Previous LET studies have dealt with this drawback
in a number of ways. One example is combining `regu-
lar' node or block spacing (nodes or block boundaries
that can be represented by orthogonal sets of planes)
with progressive grid- or block-size reduction
(Roecker, 1982) and the capability to x model values
at subsets of nodes (Eberhart-Phillips, 1990). Others
Computers & Geosciences 25 (1999) 809818
0098-3004/99/$ - see front matter # 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S0098- 3004( 99) 00007- 2
p
Code available at http://www.iamg.org/CGEditor/
index.htm
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +1-608-262-6027; fax: +1-
608-262-0693.
E-mail address: thurber@geology.wisc.edu (C. Thurber)
1
Fax: +64-3-479-7527.
have non-regular block sizes (Roecker et al., 1987) or
use variable-sized tetrahedral model elements (Lin and
Roecker, 1997). These and other similar strategies can
be applied to global tomography problems
(Widiyantoro and van der Hilst, 1997; Sambridge and
Gudmundsson, 1998) as well as borehole tomography
problems (Michelini, 1995; Curtis and Sneider, 1997).
This paper presents an alternative, exible strategy
for allowing heterogeneous gridding, based on the
approaches of Abers and Roecker (1991) and Bijwaard
et al. (1998). Flexible gridding has been incorporated
into a new version (simul2000) of the three-dimen-
sional (3D) LET algorithm SIMUL3 (Thurber, 1983,
1984), based on the updated version simulps12 (Evans
et al., 1994). The strategy combines regular gridding
with xed-node capability and two types of node `link-
ing' to allow the user to tailor the inversion grid to the
dataset being analyzed. This approach preserves the
computational eciencies of the regular gridding
approach and retains the inversion algorithm's adapta-
bility to a variety of travel-time computation schemes.
A brief review of some of the key components of the
simul2000 algorithm is presented, emphasizing the
recent program enhancements. This is followed by a
discussion of the new exible gridding strategy and an
example of its application.
2. LET algorithm simulps
Following Thurber (1993), the body-wave travel
time T from an earthquake i to a seismic station j is
expressed using ray theory as a path integral
T
ij
=
receiver
source
u ds (1)
where u is the slowness eld (reciprocal of velocity)
and ds is an element of path length. The data are the
arrival times t
ij
, where
t
ij
= t
i
T
ij
(2)
and t
i
is the earthquake origin time. The source coor-
dinates (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
), origin times, ray paths and slow-
ness eld are the unknowns.
In simulps, the calculated arrival times t
ij
cal
are deter-
mined from Eqs. (1) and (2) using trial hypocenters
and origin times and an initial model of the seismic
velocity structure and the pseudo-bending ray tracing
method (Um and Thurber, 1987). The residuals r
ij
(the
dierence between observed arrival times t
ij
obs
and cal-
culated arrival times t
ij
cal
) can be related to pertur-
bations to the hypocenter and velocity model
parameters by a linear approximation
r
ij
=
3
k=1
dT
ij
dx
k
Dx
k
Dt
i

receiver
source
du ds (3)
Eq. (3) has the same form for P and S arrival time
data. Note that the unknown hypocenter location is
one of the limits of integration of the last term in Eq.
(3). The hypocenter partial derivatives dT
ij
/dx
k
are pro-
portional to the components of the ray vector times
the slowness at the source point (Thurber, 1986):
dT
ij
dx
k
=
u
dx
k
ds
!
source
X (4)
If a nite parameterization of the velocity structure is
adopted, then Eq. (3) can be rewritten as
r
ij
=
3
k=1
dT
ij
dx
k
Dx
k
Dt
i

L
l=1
dT
ij
dm
l
Dm
l
(5)
where m
l
are the L parameters of the velocity model.
In the case of simulps, the model perturbation is
expressed in terms of fractional slowness perturbation
(Du/u ). The model partial derivatives dT
ij
/dm
l
are line
integrals along the ray path (approximated by nite
sums) reecting the relative inuence of each model
parameter m
l
on a given travel time T
ij
.
The goal of LET is to improve the estimates of the
model parameters (velocity structure and hypocenters)
by perturbing them in order to minimize the weighted
root-mean-square (RMS) mist. This generally requires
an iterative scheme for solution, as the hypocenter-vel-
ocity structure coupling in Eq. (5) usually involves sig-
nicant nonlinearity (Thurber, 1992). Our algorithm
uses a combination of parameter separation (Pavlis
and Booker, 1980; Spencer and Gubbins, 1980) and
damped least squares inversion to solve for the model
perturbations. The appropriate damping value is gener-
ally found using a trade-o analysis (Eberhart-Phillips,
1986). An F-test is used to provide a stopping cri-
terion. The model resolution and covariance matrices
(Menke, 1989) can be calculated directly because the
full matrix inversion is carried out, although they are
approximate because the problem is nonlinear.
One of the relatively unique features of the
simulps12 version of the LET algorithm (Evans et al.,
1994) is its treatment of S-wave data. Inversion of P
and S arrival time data directly for V
P
and V
S
struc-
ture has been more common in the past, but the V
P
/V
S
ratio (or equivalently Poisson's ratio) can be more use-
ful in terms of model interpretation (Eberhart-Phillips
et al., 1995). However, simply taking the ratio of the
3D V
P
and V
S
models to determine the 3D V
P
/V
S
structure can lead to severe artifacts in areas where V
P
is well resolved but V
S
is not (Eberhart-Phillips, 1990;
Thurber, 1993). Thus, in many cases it is preferable to
invert directly for V
P
/V
S
.
C. Thurber, D. Eberhart-Phillips / Computers & Geosciences 25 (1999) 809818 810
In simulps, P arrival times and SP times are
inverted for earthquake locations and V
P
and V
P
/V
S
variations. P- and S-wave travel times are calculated
using the corresponding velocity models to yield the
expected SP times dt
ij
cal
. The SP time residuals (dt
i-
j
obs
dt
ij
cal
) are related to perturbations to V
P
/V
S
at the
nodes of the 3D grid (d(V
P
/V
S
)) using
dt
obs
ij
dt
cal
ij
=
path
[d(V
P
aV
S
) 1]aV
P
ds (6)
where the integration is carried out along the S-wave
path. After the rst iteration, Eq. (6) is an approxi-
mation (since V
P
/V
S
is no longer constant, the P and S
paths will dier), but extensive testing has shown that
this approximation is adequate to permit rapid and
stable convergence. The full system of equations is
inverted for V
P
/V
S
along with V
P
and hypocenters in a
manner similar to Eq. (5). This approach has been
applied successfully to 3 studies of the San Andreas
fault (Thurber et al., 1995; Thurber et al., 1997;
Eberhart-Phillips and Michael, 1998), to volcanic and
geothermal areas (Foulger et al., 1995; Julian et al.,
1996) and to subduction zones (Eberhart-Phillips and
Reyners, 1997; Reyners et al., 1997).
The algorithm has also been modied to include an
option for inversion for 3D Q structure following
Rietbrock (1996). The Q inversion approach is based
on that of Scherbaum (1990). Observed earthquake
spectra S
ij
( f ) (event i and station j, frequency f ) are
modeled as the product of the source spectrum A
i
( f ),
radiation pattern R
ij
( f ), path attenuation B
ij
( f ) and
instrument response I
j
( f ). Assuming frequency-inde-
pendent Q, the relation between B
ij
( f ) and t
+
is
log(B( f)) = pft + X (7)
Given a set of t
+
values for a set of earthquakes
observed by a network of stations and a 3D velocity
model, the t
+
values can be inverted for Q structure
using
t+ =
path
1
QV
dsX (8)
The input velocity model le consists of V
P
, which
must have been determined previously for the model
region and an initial Q
P
model. The input data are t
+
values from earthquake spectra and the hypocenters
from the 3D V
P
solution, which are treated as shots
(known location and origin time) and are not per-
turbed in the Q inversion. The Q inversion works
equally well for Q
S
if the input data are t
+
values for S
waves and the input model consists of the 3D V
S
struc-
ture and an initial Q
S
model.
3. Model gridding approach
The LET algorithms SIMUL3 and simulps use a 3D
grid of velocity nodes (in a Cartesian coordinate sys-
tem with units of km) dened by the intersection
points of 3 sets of orthogonal planes positioned at con-
stant values of x, y and z. The grid planes are num-
bered (indexed) in order from minimum to maximum
and negative values are permitted. The velocity value
at any point is computed from the velocity values at
Fig. 1. (A) In regions of model with high density of sources
(or receivers), one might wish to have localized area of denser
model gridding (gray circles). (B) Regular gridding approach
prevents introduction of highly localized denser gridding
because denser gridding must extend across full grid (gray cir-
cles).
the surrounding eight nodes using tri-linear interp-
olation.
When the algorithm was originally developed
(Thurber, 1981, 1983, 1984), one of the keys to e-
ciency was the use of a rapid look-up scheme for deter-
mining the position of a given point (x, y, z ) within
the grid. Details of the scheme are presented in
Appendix 1. The look-up scheme required the grid to
be regular (as dened in Section 1) but not uniformly
spaced. For the original implementation of the scheme,
all nodes were required to be at integral coordinate
values. Subsequently, the integral node coordinate
restriction was relaxed by allowing for scaling of the
entire grid by a factor of 10 (Evans et al., 1994). Thus
node coordinates were permitted to have values speci-
ed to 0.1 km and the entire grid system was simply
scaled by a factor of 10 to convert to integral units, at
which point the original look-up table scheme could be
used (see Appendix 1).
This approach provided a versatile gridding capa-
bility with an ecient means for determining where a
particular point was located within the velocity grid.
However, the regular spacing restriction prohibited the
ability to vary the density of the nodes in highly loca-
lized areas where sources or receivers may be particu-
larly dense (Fig. 1A), as any densied gridding within
the model volume would necessarily extend to all edges
of the model (Fig. 1B).
Thurber (1987) and Eberhart-Phillips (1990) devised
one approach for improving the versatility of the
gridding by specifying grid points whose velocity
values would remain xed throughout the inversion.
The progressive inversion strategy began with a large
scale, coarsely gridded inversion (Fig. 2A). Then the
coarse-grid inversion result was used as the input
model for an inversion with a ner grid in a target
portion of the model, but keeping velocity values xed
at nodes outside the target volume (Fig. 2B). This
approach has a number of advantages: (1) the target
volume can be precisely tailored to the area of best res-
olution and densest ray coverage from the coarse-grid
Fig. 2. Illustration of progressive inversion strategy. (A)
Coarsely-gridded model (black circles) for initial inversion
stage. (B) Finer-scale gridding introduced in localized area
(black circles) with all model values at nodes outside area
xed at their values obtained in initial inversion stage (gray
circles) or interpolated from surrounding values (open circles).
Fig. 3. With exible gridding, ner-scale gridding can be
introduced in localized area (gray circles) and model values of
denser nodes extending away from target area (open circles)
can be linked (arrows) to values at adjacent nodes of original
coarser grid (black circles).
inversion; (2) a relatively smooth but realistic a priori
3D model (from the coarse-grid inversion) is used for
the region outside the target volume and (3) the num-
ber of model parameters can be kept to a manageably
small value while permitting ne-scale modeling of
structure. An obvious disadvantage is that this
approach forces all model perturbations into the target
volume, so that any deciencies in the coarse-grid
model will be mapped into artifacts in the ne grid.
We present an alternative èxible' gridding strategy
that removes this disadvantage of this approach while
preserving the key advantages. In fact, the `xed' and
èxible' gridding strategies can be used together to
optimally tailor a grid to the problem at hand. The
concept of the approach is based on that of Abers and
Roecker (1991) and Bijwaard et al. (1998). Rather
than simply xing node values, the values of desig-
nated subsets of nodes are linked, identifying `master'
nodes and sets of one or more `slave' nodes linked to
each master node (Fig. 3). During the construction of
the matrix of velocity model partial derivatives in Eq.
(5), terms corresponding to a slave are reallocated to
the corresponding master, so Eq. (5) becomes
r
ij
=
3
k=1
dT
ij
dx
k
Dx
k
Dt
i

R
r=1
S
R
s=0
dT
ij
dm
rs
Dm
r
X (9)
The L nodes dening the velocity model are reduced
to R inversion nodes, each of which has S
R
linked
slave nodes (s = 0 refers to the master node so that
the subscript rs=r0 indicates the master node and
rs=r1, r2, F F F , rS
R
refers to slave nodes for master
node r ). Linking is done in one of two optional ways
that dene how the calculated master node pertur-
bations are applied to slaves: either (1) as a constant
link so that the computed model perturbations are
assigned to each master and its associated slaves or (2)
as a linear link so that the slave value is linearly in-
terpolated between the values of its master and the
next adjacent node. If the slave and master have the
same initial values, a constant link will keep the values
identical. However, if the slave and master have dier-
ent initial values, that relative dierence will be
retained when the values are updated with the con-
stant-link perturbation. The linear link option follows
from the scheme of tri-linear interpolation between
nodes that describes the velocity in simulps. The link-
ing options provide the researcher with a great deal of
exibility since both constant links and linear links can
be used within the same velocity model for dierent
nodes.
As a result, there will be what we term a `velocity
denition grid' (large number of nodes, regular spa-
cing) and a smaller ìnversion grid' that has fewer
values to invert for because of linked and xed nodes.
For ray tracing and velocity description, the velocity
denition grid is used. For accumulating model partial
derivatives and solving for perturbations, the inversion
grid is used. After perturbations are obtained for the
inversion grid nodes, the velocity denition grid is
updated for the linked nodes.
As an aid to grid design, simul2000 also computes
and outputs the derivative weighted sum (DWS) for all
velocity model nodes, including slave and xed nodes:
DWS
j
=
N
i=1
L
l=1
dT
ij
dm
l
(10)
where N is the number of events. This is easily com-
puted for even a very large number of model nodes
since it does not involve any matrix inversion. Thus it
is often more practical than using the resolution matrix
to aid grid design. In designing the inversion grid, a
goal is to have a relatively even distribution of data
for each inversion node. This can be accomplished by
considering the DWS of the best sampled nodes and
then linking nodes in poorly sampled areas so that the
summed DWS of the master-slaves is not less than
about an order of magnitude smaller than that of the
best sampled nodes.
Simul2000 does not automatically regrid the inver-
sion nodes since in our LET experience there is often
local tectonic or crustal structure information that may
be used to guide regridding. Automated regridding has
been shown useful for global tomography (Bijwaard et
al., 1998) and borehole tomography (Michelini, 1995).
For simul2000, the output DWS information could be
used as input to a regridding post-processing algorithm
if that was desired for a particular study area.
There are a variety of situations in which the use of
exible gridding can be advantageous. A constant link
would be appropriate in a situation where a relatively
homogeneous region is bound by a sharp velocity
change. Examples include at the Moho or at a fault,
when a priori information on the location of the struc-
tural discontinuity is available. A linear link would be
appropriate in a situation where velocity changes are
expected to be more gradational, for example, within a
sedimentary sequence. In general, one can densify the
grid so that regions with a greater density of sources
(or receivers) have correspondingly ner model para-
meterization and use linking to manage the added
nodes outside those regions that would otherwise be
poorly resolved.
There are some inter-related advantages provided by
this exible gridding approach. It allows the user to
tailor the inversion grid to the dataset being analyzed.
The results of a preliminary inversion with relatively
uniform grid spacing can be used to guide the de-
nition of master-slave node sets where poor resolution
is a concern and can indicate regions of excellent resol-
ution where ner gridding is possible without causing
degradation in model quality. The result can be a
rened model with high spatial resolution (i.e. ne grid
spacing) in localized areas and moderate to coarse
spatial resolution elsewhere, but with relatively uni-
form, good model resolution (as measured by the diag-
onal element of the resolution matrix) throughout
most of the model. The good resolution is achieved by
having larger model `cell' volumes in areas that are
sparsely sampled. In addition, the improved model
stability provided by linking less well resolved nodes
allows for the use of a reduced damping value without
causing excessive model perturbations or unacceptably
high model uncertainty. Reduced damping results in
additional improvement in model resolution. The
strengths of our approach are that it retains a simple,
regularly-dened velocity model grid and that it allows
the user many options for dening the grid used for
inversion.
We note that there are several alternatives to our
exible gridding approach. One is the use of variable-
sized tetrahedral model elements with linear velocity
gradients (Lin and Roecker, 1997), which permits an
analytic solution for ray paths and travel times given a
starting point and direction. The tetrahedral elements
can be arranged with variable sizes with a great degree
of versatility. Similarly, one can use a combination of
Delauney tetrahedra and/or Voroni polyhedra in a
sphere (Gudmundsson and Sambridge, 1998;
Sambridge and Gudmundsson, 1998) to represent
structures with a large range of length scales. The
methods of Michelini (1995) and Curtis and Sneider
(1997) perturb node positions automatically, resulting
in an irregular grid. Another approach is the use of a
dense regular grid but with spatial smoothing incor-
porated into the inversion (Lees and Crosson, 1990;
Sambridge, 1990), which results in a smooth model
where resolution is poor.
4. Example application of exible gridding
An example of the application of the exible gridd-
ing approach compared to regular gridding is shown in
Figures 4 and 5. The dataset of Thurber et al. (1997)
for the Cienega Valley area along the San Andreas
Fault in central California was used for a exible-grid
inversion aimed at evaluating two things: (1) the utility
of exible gridding for providing overall improvement
to model resolution, as measured by diagonal values of
the resolution matrix, and (2) the limits of spatial res-
olution capability for the most seismically active por-
tion of the fault zone in Cienega Valley. The original
results for the V
P
model (Fig. 4A; Thurber et al., 1997)
Fig. 4. Comparison of portion of 2D P-wave velocity models
(contour interval 0.25 km/s) on prole perpendicular to San
Andreas fault (surface trace at X = 0 km) determined (A)
without and (B) with exible gridding. In B, new nodes were
introduced at X=1.5 km, but above 0 km depth and below
7 km depth these new nodes were linked to horizontally adja-
cent nodes. Other nodes were linked in areas of poor resol-
ution. Note sharper lateral velocity gradient between X=1
and 2 km in B compared to A.
show a strong low velocity zone (LVZ) penetrating to
at least 7 km depth, below which model resolution
degrades signicantly (Fig. 5A). Note the fairly broad
transition from the LVZ to the higher-velocity base-
ment rocks to the southwest (negative direction) that
is a consequence of the 1-km horizontal grid spacing.
The results of inversions of the same dataset but
with exible gridding using the two dierent types of
links are shown in Fig. 4(B) (model) and Fig. 5(B) (res-
olution). The introduction of additional nodes on the
edge of the fault zone near the most active band of
seismicity (500 m horizontal node spacing from X=1
to 2 km, compared to 1 km spacing originally)
results in a sharper image of the transition from the
Fig. 5. (A and B) Contours of diagonal element of resolution matrix for models shown (in part) in Fig. 4(A) and (B), respectively.
(B) Symbols indicate normal (circles), master (star) and slave (triangle) nodes. Note substantial increase in resolution throughout
model in B compared to A. Model improvements were achieved with reduction in both model variance and weighted RMS data
mist.
LVZ to the basement rocks (Fig. 4B). The combi-
nation of linked nodes and slightly reduced damping
(from 5.0 to 2.0) also results in substantial resolution
improvement, nearly the entire model has resolution
diagonal elements above 0.5 and much is above 0.75
(Fig. 5B). These model improvements were achieved
with a reduction in both the model variance and the
weighted RMS data mist. Thus, the exible-gridding
approach can improve inversion modeling results with-
out negative impact on solution quality.
5. Conclusions and algorithm availability
The addition of a method for exible gridding to the
widely-used LET inversion algorithm simulps adds a
powerful tool for tailoring the velocity model parame-
terization to the dataset being analyzed. Most LET
datasets suer from highly irregular source distribution
and/or non-uniformly spaced stations. Flexible gridd-
ing permits the use of very dense model gridding in
localized areas where sources (or stations) are densest,
and allows grid nodes to be linked where sampling is
sparse. Flexible gridding can be used most eectively
after an inversion with regular gridding is completed,
so that areas with highest and lowest resolution can be
identied. The model grid can then be tailored to suit
the situation. In an example application, exible gridd-
ing yields a sharper image of the San Andreas Fault in
central California while improving the overall resol-
ution of the model and t to the data.
The new version of the simulps algorithm, called
simul2000, is available via anonymous FTP from the
pub/thurber directory on ice.geology.wisc.edu (IP#
144.92.137.14). Included are the source code, a
README le, example input and output les and
documentation. The code is written in FORTRAN
and is totally self-contained. The source code is also
available through the web site www.geology.wisc.edu/
~thurber/simul2000 and the Computers & Geosciences
web page, at http://www.iamg.org/CGEditor/index.htm
Acknowledgements
We thank a number of people who have contributed
directly or indirectly to the development of the
SIMUL3 code and related algorithms over the years,
including Kei Aki, Rob Comer, Bill Ellsworth, John
Evans, Florian Haslinger, Stephan Husen, Edi
Kissling, Willie Lee, Bill Prothero, Andreas Rietbrock
and Steve Roecker. We also thank Gary Pavlis and
Geo Abers for their constructive reviews and Wim
Spakman for sharing his ideas on exible gridding.
This research was supported by the Continental
Dynamics program of the National Science
Foundation under grant EAR-9317030 and the New
Zealand Foundation for Research, Science and
Technology. The instruments used in the Cienega
Valley eld program were provided by the PASSCAL
facility of the Incorporated Research Institutions for
Seismology (IRIS) through the Lamont and Stanford
Instrument Centers. The facilities of the IRIS
Consortium are supported by the National Science
Foundation under Cooperative Agreement EAR-
9023505.
Fig. A1. (A) Procedure for constructing look-up table for nd-
ing coordinate positions with respect to model grid. Model
grid coordinates (for example x
n
(i ), lled circles) are trans-
lated uniformly (diagonal black arrows) so that the smallest
coordinate is shifted to value 1. Integer values (starting with
1, numbered diamonds) are stepped through and compared to
shifted grid coordinate values (open circles), and index of
node with largest coordinate value that is less than or equal
to integer value is assigned to array element with index equal
to that integer value (vertical arrows). (B) Procedure for deter-
mining 8 grid points surrounding a point in model.
Coordinates of point (x, y, z ) (gray circle) are truncated to
integer values (l, m, n) (diamond). Indices of grid point (i, j,
k) with coordinate values just smaller than (or equal to) (l, m,
n ) values are found in look-up table. Remaining 7 grid points
are then obtained by appropriately incrementing i, j and/or k.
Appendix A
The velocity model parameter partial derivatives in
Eq. (5) are determined by dividing the ray path into
small segments and evaluating the derivative at the
mid-point of each segment. This requires a rapid look-
up scheme for determining the position of a given
point (x, y, z ) within the grid. A look-up table is con-
structed by (1) translating the grid by 1 minus the
minimum grid coordinate, (2) stepping through all
integers from 1 to 1 plus the grid width (maximum
coordinate value minus minimum coordinate value)
and (3) storing the number of the grid plane with the
largest grid coordinate value smaller than or equal to
each integer in an array at that integer index value
(Fig. A1A). This procedure is carried out for all coordi-
nate directions. Subsequently, one of the 8 nodes sur-
rounding a given point (x, y, z ), the one with the 3
smallest grid index numbers, is found by truncating
the coordinates to integers and obtaining the grid
numbers from the index arrays (Fig. A1B). The other 7
surrounding nodes are obtained by appropriately incre-
menting the indices by 1 (Fig. A1B). For comparison,
the irregular grid method of Sambridge and
Gudmundsson (1998) requires an iterative search strat-
egy for nding the model element within which a par-
ticular point falls.
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