Myths & Legends Egyptian Mythology Many books have been written on religion in ancient Egypt.

This brief overview is meant only to explain some of the basic concepts and to introduce some of the gods. Religion in ancient Egypt was not unlike modern times. Today, not everyone believes in the same way, or of the same god. Egypt was no different. Individual kings worshipped their own gods, as did the workers, priests, merchants and peasants. Pre-dynastic Egypt had formulated the ideas and beliefs of a "greater being", which was expressed in pictures, but some scholars suggest that "writing" was invented in order to communicate spiritual thoughts to the masses. Now the pictures had ideas, and took on human traits. The gods lived, died, hunted, went into battle, gave birth, ate, drank, and had human emotions. The gods reigns overlapped, and, in some instances, merged. Their was no organized hierarchy structure of their reign. The dominance of the gods depended on the beliefs of the reigning king. Their area of dominance depended on where the king wanted his capital. Likewise, the myths changed with the location of the gods, as did their names. Names in ancient Egypt were very mystic and powerful. It was thought that if you inscribed your enemies' name on something, then broke it, that enemy would either be afflicted, or possibly die. If you knew a name you had power. In the same respect, using a name could be beneficial. Each god had five names, and each was associated with an element, such as air, with celestial bodies, or were a descriptive statement about the god, such as strong, virile or majestic. The creator of all things was either Re, Amun, Ptah, Khnum or Aten, depending on which version of the myth was currently in use. The heavens were represented by Hathor, Bat, and Horus. Osiris was an earth god as was Ptah. The annual flooding of the Nile was Hapi. Storms, evil and confusion were Seth. His counterpart was Ma'at, who represented balance, justice and truth. The moon was Thoth and Khonsu. Re, the sun god, took on many forms, and transcended most of the borders that contained the other gods. The actual shape of the sun, the disk (or, aten), was deified into another god, Aten. As stated earlier, certain gods were worshipped in different areas. Local cities or villages, known as nomes, often had unique gods that were known only to that region. On occasion, these gods attained country -wide recognition and became the myths and legends that were passed on from century to century. Below is a listing of the main gods and their primary place of worship. Amaunet - A female counterpart to Amon and one of the primordial gods of the Hermopolitian Ogdoad (group of eight gods). She was also worshipped at Thebes along with Amon and Mut. Amon - Usually associated with the wind, or things hidden, and was also of the Hermopolitian Ogdoad. At Thebes he became Amon-Re, king of the gods. He was part of the Theban Triad, along with Mut and Khonsu. Antaios - He was originally a double god, "the two falcons", that was later joined to create one, probably that of Horus. Anuket - Worshipped at Elephantine, she was associated with the gazelle. Apis - Seen as the bull with a solar disk between its horns, Apis was associated with Osiris and Ptah. Aton - Also known as Aten, he was worshipped at Tell 'Amarna. Atum - A primordial god that was represented in the form of a human and a serpent. He was the supreme god in the Heliopolitan Ennead (group of nine gods) and formed with Re to create Re-Atum.

Hathor - The goddess of love, dance and alcohol was depicted as a cow. At Thebes she was also the goddess of the dead. She was worshipped at Dendera as the consort of Horus and Edfu, and was associated with Isis at Byblos. Horus - The earliest royal god was the shape of a falcon, with the sun and moon as his eyes. The skygod was the ruler of the day. The many forms of Horus are; Re-Harakhti, Harsiesis, Haroeris, Harendotes, Khenti-irti, Khentekhtay (the crocodile-god), and Harmakhis, which is Horus on the horizons, in which the Sphinx of Giza is considered to be his aspect. Isis - The mother of Horus and sister and consort of Osiris was worshipped at Philae. Associated with Astarte, Hathor, Nut and Sothis, she was later worshipped over the entire Roman Empire. Khnum - Resembling a human with a rams head, he was worshipped in Hypselis, Esna, Antinoe and Elephantine. Khonsu - the moon god was the son of Amon and Mut. The main temple at Karnak is dedicated to him. Min - God of fertility coalesced with Amon and Horus. Min was mainly worshipped at Coptos and Akhmim. Mut - Worshipped at Thebes, she was a consort of Amon and part of the Theban Triad (group of three gods). Nut - Mother of the sun, moon and heavenly bodies. Osiris - He is regarded as the dead king that watches over the nether world and is rejuvenated in his son Horus. As the symbol of eternal life he was worshipped at Abydos and Philae. Ptah - Worshipped in Memphis, he coalesced with Sokaris and Osiris. Re - He was the sun god of Heliopolis. From the fifth Dynasty onwards he becomes a national god and is combined with the supreme deity Amon. Serapis - He was mainly worshipped in Alexandria and was later worshipped by the Greeks as Zeus. He was never fully accepted by the Egyptians in the Ptolemaic period. Sekhmet - She was part of the Memphite Triad with Ptah and Nefertem. She was the mistress of war and sickness. Seth - The son of Geb and Nut in the Heliopolitan Ennead was in the form of an animal that has no zoological equivalent. This powerful god was regarded as god of the desert, making him a god of foreign lands. Shu - He was an ancient cosmic power and was regarded as the god of the air and the bearer of heaven. Sobek - He was a crocodile god and was worshipped at the Faiyum and Ombos. During the middle Kingdom he coalesced with Re, Sobek-Re, and was worshipped as primordial deity and creator-god. Thoth - He was worshipped as a baboon in Hermopolis. He was the god of sacred writings and wisdom. The kings of ancient Egypt were an integral part of religion. They formed a bridge over the chasm dividing the people and the gods. In pre-dynastic times the kings were considered to be gods.

In later times, around the third dynasty, the kings became "transformed into" gods. This was a crucial part of the governing of the people. The heirs to the throne were not kept out of public display. At a young age they were known to many, and were known as children, not future gods. A king may have had many heirs and may not have known who would assume the throne until a much later time. In order for the people , (and the future king), to accept the transformation, certain procedures had to be worked out. This dilemma was beautifully solved by the ritual that merged the king with the god. Belief was that all future kings had two aspects of his being, his physical being and his "ka." The ka was his spiritual counterpart that was part of the king at birth and remained with him throughout his life. Before assuming the throne a ritual was performed that united the king's ka and his person. The king and his priests would enter a temple, perform the ritual, and emerge as a god. All of the people would wait outside to witness the miracle of the transformation when the king re-emerged from the temple. In this way was the new king accepted as a god and his word was accepted as law. Concerning religious matters, directly under the king were the priests. Their duty was to take care of the images of the gods. They also prepared the statues, or images, for the religious festivals. It was the priests role to read the scrolls before religious events. In later dynasties the priests were the voices of the oracles. Special compartments, called priest holes, were strategically placed inside the temple. The priests were able to speak from these holes unseen by the person asking questions or favors of the gods. Oracles were considered the pinnacle of the decision of the gods. The priests were in charge of the temple riches and granaries. They were on a rotation schedule and might work officially one week out of the month. Their laboratories were in the temples, where they prepared incense and healing potions. What we think of as wizards originated with the priests. Shrouded in mystery, they were seldom seen by the common people unless they were reading magical texts or performing religious rituals. Inside the temple sanctuaries they were seen only by the king.. During the 21st 'Dynasty tomb robbing was systematically done by the priests themselves. Throughout history tomb robbing had been a problem, but had generally been done by common thieves. The priests claimed that by removing the bodies, and stripping off all of the precious metals, that they were, in fact, saving the desecration of the bodies by the common thieves. Of course the priests re-wrapped the bodies and buried them in different tombs to help protect the corpses. Some of the stolen gold and silver went into the temple treasuries, but a large portion of it went to the purchase of wood and iron, resources that were not native to Egypt and were most costly. Thirdly, some of the riches went into the current kings' tomb, making the robberies sanctified by the throne. The ancient Egyptians were extremely devout in their beliefs. They were dedicated to their gods and worshipped daily in many different ways. Their way of life revolved around these beliefs. They had a strong sense of justice and endeavored to do that which was right. Just like our society today, the common people abhorred adultery, stealing, murder and lying. They were a highly sophisticated society with values and morals not unlike our own. Magic was commonplace for them as is demonstrated by the wearing of amulets to ward off evil. Magical texts were written in tombs to protect against would-be robbers. Many spells against snakebite have been discovered. Magical spells, rituals and concoctions were used to treat the sick or injured. If the magic did not work it was considered a will of the god, and not a failure of the magic. The peoples calm acceptance of the strange and unusual allowed them to reconcile themselves to either natural phenomena or to those things unseen. Every occurrence had spiritual meaning and had a unique god assigned to the act. In the 1st dynasty (2950 - 3110 B.C.E.) Menes, the king who is considered by many to be Ay or Narmer, united upper and lower Egypt. He created his capital at Memphis and dedicated a temple to the god Ptah. Existing beliefs at that time were revised to explain these events, and almost all other myths of gods came from this event. Over a period of time all of the surrounding local gods were brought into this scheme, creating a sort of order of the hierarchy of the gods. All of the gods were included in one story or another, so no one was offended. This composition of the gods was like laying bricks for a building and, in essence, created the foundation for history's longest lived civilization. AMEN OSIRIS

HORUS NEPHTHYS ISIS SET ANUBIS ATEN SERAPIS NUT THE GODS OF HELIOPOLIS THE TRIAD OF THEBES MUT KHENSU HAPI THE TRIAD OF ABU KHNEMU SATET ANQET To understand the Myth of Creation, one must first understand that it is a complicated story. Four "cosmologies," or theories about creation are involved, each developing over different periods in ancient Egypt. There are some common elements to each theory. For example, each theory holds that in the beginning, only a primordial, stagnant ocean called Nu existed. In addition, the four theories agree that out of Nu, rose the primeval hill. Each cosmology believed it was their temple that stood on this hill. The first step-pyramids are no doubt symbolic of this mound. All cosmologies share the belief that creation was a slow process, not catastrophic. Finally, they also all agree that there was a "First Time," or a time period when the gods actually lived on earth. With this foundation, the Heliopolitan cosmogony develops the myth further. The first event was the creation of Atum, the god of Heliopolis. There is dispute over whether he created himself, or was the son of Nu. Some texts say he first appeared over the hill, others say he was, himself, the hill. Eventually, Atum became associated with Ra, the sun-god. Ra-Atum at this point is said to be the coming of the light to disperse the darkness of Nu. Ra-Atum is symbolized by the Phoenix in this context. His next task was to create other gods. He did this by masturbation, not having a mate. This was not offensive to ancient Egyptians, but in fact intensified his power in their minds. Ra-Atum gave birth to twins. Shu, his son and god of the air, was spit out, and his daughter, Tefnut, goddess of world order was vomited out by Ra-Atum. The Twins were raised by Nu and supervised by Ra-Atum's eye. The story of Ra-Atums eye will be told later. Shu and Tefnut gave birth to Geb, god of the earth, and his wife and sister, Nut, goddess of the sky. Geb and Nut, in turn, were the parents of Isis, Osiris, Nephthys, and Set. These four gods, especially Osiris play a major role in later myths. Horus, another god was the son of Isis and Osiris. These five younger gods and goddesses may have been incorporated by the priests of Heliopolis. Whatever the case, this "Ennead," or grouping of gods, were very much a part of tradition during this time. From here, the order of dominance or precedence becomes contradictory. Some text place Horus in a very high position, others give the right to Nut. Still others claim that Atum placed Geb over the Ennead, which included himself. The priests during this period believed themselves to represent Geb and Nut, not Atum. Eventually, it is Ra, the sun-god, who is considered supreme. However, Osiris later assumes this role. All of this will be discussed later. Later, in 3100 B.C., Upper and Lower Egypt were joined and the capital became Memphis. This began a new theory of creation. Ptah, the high god of Memphis was deemed creator. At some point Ptah was even declared to be Nu (thus placed above Atum, high god of Heliopolis). The Ennead of Heliopolis was said to be merely a manifestation of Ptah. This displacement of Heliopolitan cosmogony was necessary to establish and maintain the Memphite superiority.

Yet another cosmogony existed which was quite different from that of Heliopolis and Memphis. This was in a city in Upper Egypt called Hermopolis. It was said that this theory came before any other. Instead of an Ennead, Hermopolitans had a group of eight gods called an Ogdoad. This group consisted of Nun and Naunet, Huh and Hauhet, Kuk and Kauket, and Amon and Amaunet. According to this theory, these eight gods were responsible for creating the world. After this was done, the eight ruled the world during a time called the Golden Age. When they died, they went to the underworld, from where they still had power to make the Nile flow and the sun to rise. Nun and Naunet symbolize water, Huh and Hauhet represent "unendingness," Kuk and Kauket signify darkness, and Amon and Amaunet symbolize the air. Finally, in Thebes during the New Kingdom time from 1546-1085 B.C., a new cosmogony arose. At this time, all the other theories were widely accepted; therefore, it was essential that the Thebans incorporate the main features of these theories into their own. The chief god of Thebes was Amon, who was already associated with the air. This made it a simple task to also instill in Amon the power of the "supreme and invisible creator (Ames, 1965)." It was said that he created himself, having no father or mother, and was born in secret. Thebans claimed their city was the first city, and that all other cities were modeled after it. All of the cosmogonies claimed this. Thebans claimed that Thebes was the Eye of Ra, son of Amon. Going beyond what had been done in the past, Thebans claimed that entire cosmogonies were merely aspects of Amon; merely forms of him. It is important to mention at this point that each translation of ancient Egyptian text renders its own perspective on what is being said. There are many inconsistencies in each account. Therefor, it is a very complicated and difficult task to summarize the myth of creation, or any myth, for that matter. From source to source, the names of the gods differ; even spellings differ. This site attempts to give a brief outline or a basic knowledge of Egyptian mythology. With this in mind, we continue with a few myths related to the creation myth. The eye of Ra-Atum, mentioned above, is the mythological symbol for the sun. At one point, Shu and Tefnut, twin children of Ra-Atum, were separated from him. He sent his eye to find them. While the eye was searching, Ra-Atum replaced the eye with another. When the eye returned with Shu and Tefnut, Ra-Atum wept with joy, and the tears created humankind. However, the eye was enraged at having been replaced. Ra-Atum placed the eye on his forehead so that the eye could rule the world; thus becoming associated with the sun. The second eye is associated with the moon. Another mythological symbol associated with the Creation Myth is the Phoenix. The Phoenix was said to travel from Arabia to Heliopolis once every five hundred years. The cycles of time were said to be set by the Phoenix, also known as the Benu bird, and the temple of the Phoenix became the "centre of calendrical regulation (Clark, 1960)." During the Middle Kingdom, it became the soul of Osiris and it was also at this time that it became associated with the planet Venus, the morning star, which was said to be the suns guide. All of the above representations were minor associations, however. The Phoenixs main role was as the one who created himself, thus symbolizing Ra-Atum. Common to all cosmogonies of creation is the temple. Each theory places its temple on the hill rising up from Nu. Myths concerning the form, origin and significance are mostly Memphite in origin; myths about the daily temple rituals are primarily Heliopolitan in nature. One such temple, and possibly the earliest described in myth, was that of the Falcon, associated with the god Horus who was the hunters god, maybe a war god, and later, a sky god. Thus, the Falcon was a symbol of majesty and power, and the model for the pharaohs. According to myth, this temples erection was a natural event and signified the final event in the process of creation. It started out as a shelter for the Falcons perch and this portion remained the most sacred place in the temple. The detail in which the temple is described exemplifies the high level of development that was reached even before historic times. Many temples like this were constructed in predynastic Egypt, most likely.

The temple of the sun-god was the second type of temple built. This began as one rectangular structure or sanctuary. Other chambers were added, and a wall surrounded the structure. Some research shows that there was another type of temple of the sun-god that consisted of one sanctuary only. This temple signifies the beginning of the history of the actual temple physically built in Egypt. Myth has it that the above temples descended from one primeval temple that was built to shelter the successor of the creator. This temple is said to have stood on the hill rising up from Nu, as did every other temple described in the various cosmogonies. However, this was a living temple, the body of the god of the temple, who took his physical form using the temple.

Egyptian goddesses
Hathor When one talks about the basic personification of creative/regenerative processes in Egyptian religion, one must start at its base with a goddess. Of the many goddesses which grace the pantheon, Hathor is one of the most easily recognizable, and yet mysterious, of deities - even to the casual observer. So vast is her influence, Hathor existed for the entire history of the ancient Egyptian culture as a powerful and influential deity. Iconographically, the goddess usually is represented as a beautiful woman, swathed in turquoise (her sacred color) or red raiment, wearing a headdress of the sun-disk surmounted between two elongated cow-horns. In Egyptian, she is called Hwt-Hr, which is usually translated as "House of Horus", referring to the elder Horus (Haroeris, or Re-Horakhty). In hieroglyphs, her name is represented as a large enclosure with a Horus falcon within. From this, we surmise that Hathor is to be seen as the great sky itself, holding Horus within her womb, which is poetically referred to as "house". In this form, we can see that Hathor is both a solar sky-goddess with a maternal aspect and a personification of the night-time sky as well. It is likely that these maternal aspects were combined via the cow attributes with her early identification with a much older sky-goddess called MHt wr.t (Mehetweret or Methyer), translated as "Great Flood", and referring to the nocturnal sky-ocean. This goddess, in the full form of a cow, is stated to have risen from the primeval sky-waters and as part of her various acts of creation, gave birth to the sun-god Ra, and after so bearing him, placed him (as a disk) between her horns. That Hathor is identified with MHt wr.t is certain by references of the two as one in the Book of the Dead (Spell 186) where both are referred to as the wD3t (wadjet, or "Eye of Horus"). However, this ancient cow-goddess appears to have had no independent cult of her own, and was likely a conceptual figure of primeval creation; it is presumed that Hathor absorbed most of her sky attributes as early as the Old Kingdom, as exhibited by the many references of the two as identical in both the Pyramid and Coffin Texts. Thus established as the "mistress of the sky", Hathor's identification with the sun-god gives rise to the various means by which she rules and influences the sun, and by mythological extension, the king on earth as the "Living Horus". In myth, she is referred to as both the Mother and Daughter of Ra, serving as both his purpose to continue his daily cycle, and alternately as an agent of his will. So, at dawn, Hathor gives birth to the sun through the moisture of mist, recalling her MHt wr.t attributes as described above. As the day progresses, so changes the image of the goddess, with her rosy dawn maternal aspect giving way in a "glittering" effect to the clear turquoise sky of day. In this way, the ancient Egyptians saw Hathor as beauteously dancing ahead of the sun, and with the rattling and shaking of the sistrum and mnj.t (menat) necklace, she provided a seductive means of attracting the sun to follow her. That Ra is compelled to follow her is expressed in the following hymn to Hathor from the 18th Dynasty: The beauty of your face Glitters when you rise Oh come in peace. One is drunk At your beautiful face, O Gold, Hathor.

More than a flirtation, Hathor grants Ra life, love, and charisma, as well as a beneficent and ecstatic awareness of life about him. From her, he receives and gives love to her and all life about her, of which she is mistress. From the midday phase onwards, however, Hathor changes yet again, becoming ever younger, to the solar Daughter of Ra. In so becoming the sun's daughter, she provides a counterbalance to the older and fiery aspect of the sun-god. As his child, she distracts and placates his irascible heat, preventing it from overwhelming the land. Neith: Ancient Goddess of the Beginning, the Beyond, and the End Neith is generally regarded as the quintessential war-goddess and huntress deity of the Egyptians since the ancient predynastic period. However, she is a far more complex goddess than is generally known, and of whom ancient texts only hint of her true nature. In her usual representations, she is portrayed as a fierce deity, a human female wearing the R ed Crown, occasionally holding or using the bow and arrow, in others a harpoon. In fact, the hieroglyphs of her name are usually followed by a determinative containing the archery elements, with the "shield" symbol of the name being explained as either double bows (facing one another), intersected by two arrows (usually lashed to the bows)[1], or by other imagery associated with her worship[2] As a deity, Neith is normally shown carrying the wAs (was) scepter (symbol of rule and power) and the anH (ankh) (symbol of life). She is also called such cosmic epithets as the "Cow of Heaven," a sky-goddess similar to Nut and as the Great Flood, Mehetweret (MHt wr.t), who gives birth to the sun daily [3]. In these forms, she is associated with creation of both the primeval time and daily "recreation." As protectress of the Royal House, she is represented as a uraeus, and functions with the fiery fury of the sun, not unlike the Eye facets of Hathor, discussed earlier [4]. Neith is one of the most ancient deities associated with ancient Egyptian culture. Flinders Petrie noted the earliest depictions of her standards were known in predynastic periods, as can be seen from a representation of a barque bearing her crossed arrow standards in the Predynastic Period (Fig. 1, left) [5]. Her first anthropomorphic representations occur in the early dynastic period, can be seen in this representation from the diorite vase of King Ny-Netjer of the Second Dynasty (Fig. 2, right), found in the Step Pyramid of Djoser (Third Dynasty) as Saqqara. That her worship predominated the early dynastic periods is shown by a preponderance of theophoric names (personal names which incorporate the name of a deity) within which Neith appears as an element [6]. Predominance of Neiths name in nearly forty percent of early dynastic names, and particularly in the names of four royal women of the First Dynasty, only emphasizes the importance of this goddess in relation to the early society of Egypt, with special emphasis upon the Royal House [7]. In the very early periods of Egyptian history, the main iconographic representations of this goddess appear to have been limited to her hunting and war characteristics, although there is no Egyptian mythological reference to support the concept this was her primary function as a deity. It has been suggested the hunt/war features of Neiths imagery may indicate her origin from Libya, located west and southwest of Egypt, where she was goddess of the combative peoples there [8]. It has been theorized Neith's primary cult point in the Old Kingdom was established in Sas (modern Sa el-Hagar) by Hor-Aha of the First Dynasty, in an effort to placate the residents of Lower Egypt by the ruler of the unified country. It appears from textual/iconographic evidence she was something of a national goddess for Old Kingdom Egypt, with her own sanctuary in Memphis indicated the political high regard held for her, where she was known as "North of her Wall," as counterpoise to Ptahs "South of his Wall" epithet [9]. While Neith is generally regarded as a deity of Lower Egypt, her worship was not consistently located in that region. Her cult reached its height in Sas and apparently in Memphis in the Old Kingdom, and remained important, though to a lesser extent, in the Middle and New Kingdom. However, the cult regained political and religious prominence during the 26th Dynasties when worship at Sas flourished again, as well as at Esna in Upper Egypt. An analysis of her attributes shows she was a goddess with many roles. From predynastic and early dynasty periods, she was referred to as "Opener of the Ways" (wp wA.wt) which may have referred not only to her leadership in hunting and war, but also as a psychopomp in cosmic and underworld pathways [10]. The main imagery of Neith as wp wA.wt was as deity of the unseen and

limitless sky, as opposed to Nut and Hathor, who represented the manifested night and day skies, respectively. As the "Opener of the Suns paths in all her stations" refers to how the sun is reborn (due to seasonal changes) at various points in the sky, beyond this world, of which only a glimpse is revealed prior to dawn and after sunset. It is at these changing points that Neith reigns as a form of sky goddess, where the sun rises and sets daily, or at its first appearance to the sky above and below [11]. It is at these points, beyond the sky that is seen, that her true power as deity who creates life is manifested [12]. Causing matter to exist and to live is the primary nature in Neiths primeval role in creation. That she does so without assistance of other deities is attested to her from the Pyramid Texts to the end of ancient Egyptian culture [13]. Of all Egyptian gods and goddesses, Neith is often referred to in Egyptian texts as the "eldest," and even as the "first" deity. She is reputed, especially in the Late Period, to be the great creator of the world, and is often called by some scholars the equivalent of the creator gods such as Atum and Ptah [14]. As in the case of these primeval gods (though generally referred to as male), Neith is described in texts as either undifferentiated in gender or possessing both genders [15]. As such, Neith should not be seen as a "original mother goddess" figure, as indicated in some references, but as an androgynous deity who creates the world from self-generation [16]. However, unlike these gods who act after "emerging" from the void, the texts from all periods of Egyptian history indicate she is, in fact, representation of the first conscious Act of Creation from the Void, who takes the inert potential of Nun and cause creation to begin. Lana Troy, in her Patterns of Queenship: in ancient Egyptian myth and history, indicates the weapons of Neith may be interpreted as symbolic examples of the goddess androgynous nature and her mode of creation. Though represented as female, her standard of crossed arrows indicates her masculine nature as well, which Troy argues is present in the Egyptian language itself: "it will be noted that the masculine function was related to the rays of the moon. The Egyptian word for rays is stwt (WB IV, 331). The association between the rays and male sexuality is notable in the relationship between the terms stwt and sti to eject, to impregnate, and styt semen (WB IV, 326 ff. Cf. and Faulkner 1962, 253). The verb from which these terms derive can also mean to shoot particularly in reference to the bow and arrow (WB IV, 326) As a female deity and personification of the primeval waters, Neith encompasses masculine elements which enable her to function as a creator. She is a feminine version of Ptah-Nun [17]. Her feminine nature is complemented with masculine attributes symbolized with her association with the bow and arrow. In the same manner, her personification as the primeval waters is Mehetweret [MHt wr.t], the Great Flood, conceptualized as streaming water, related to another use of the verb sti, meaning to pour." [18] (emphasis mine) Rather than a feminine counterpart of Nun, as has been theorized, Neith is the active element that causes creation, utilizing her powers as air and light, permeating the inert and void qualities of Nun [19] in an androgynous fashion to make living, formed matter [20]. Matter exists as experienced by human beings as the known universe, including this temporal world, and the gods. However, Neith herself, as well as Nun, exist in a place beyond what is known by the gods themselves. These two deities exist only in Duat [21]. Therefore, Neiths act of creation is to take inert (the potentiality existing in Nun), and through air and light, cause these qualities to develop (xpr, xprw), or "come into being." She floats upon the waters of Nun and is, in parse representation of her function as creator, the first primordial mound [22]. Her first act of creation is of Atum, the first "whole one," and that being is the first completed act of creation. From this completed creation comes all other creation, as defined in texts from the Pyramid Texts through the Papyrus Bremner-Rhind [23]. Neith is also a goddess designated as a protectress of the living and the dead. Her insignia of shield and crossed arrows is seen in the representational standards of the Hmswt, the female counterpart to the Ka (kA). Like the kA, the Hmswt guided in the formative phase in the development of a human being before birth, although there is no mention of this aspect to a human being after birth [24]. One of the four tutelary goddesses of the dead (along with Isis, Nephthys, and Selket), Neiths functions in the rebirth of the deceased after death is attested to from the Pyramid Texts [25] through the Books of the Dead through the end of Egyptian culture. It is in the funerary mode that Neith is depicted at her most fierce, shooting arrows at the evil spirits that would attack the deceased, either in the tomb or during the passage through the underworld [26].

In summary, Neith should be seen as an example of the entire Egyptian theological and cosmogonical systems personified in one deity. As one of the oldest deities of the Egyptians, the full range of her attributes and meaning in Egyptian religion has only begun to be fully explored. She encompasses the creative powers of the "first time," the period of creation that was the goal of the Egyptian culture in its daily ethical and religious life to cultivate and maintain. That her act of creation becomes many deities which make up the Egyptian pantheon, emerging from Atum, reflects Hornungs theory in which all divinity comes from Unity (via the Potential and the Act), making Neith a deity of the First Principle [27]. Notes 1. Ramadan el-Sayed, La Dese Neith de Sas: Importance et rayonnement de son cult,(IFAO, Cairo, 1982), p. 16. 2. Ludwig Keimer (ASAE, 31:151 (1931)) suggested the "shield" of Neith is, in fact, the two hindquarters of the beetle particular to Neith (Agrypnus notodonta LATR), or "click beetle." The luminous features of some insects in the family Elateridae may have become associated in religious terms with Neith as an "opener of the way" (discussed within this article), and may be the basis of the "Festival of Lights" associated with this goddess, as mentioned in late Greek sources. Its reproductive cycle, which includes burial of its larvae within the earth, only to emerge as full adults, can also find similarities within the creation and funereal mythology surrounding this goddess. 3. Robert Schlichting, "Neith," Lexikon der gyptologie, (L IV), (Harrasowitz, Wiesbaden, 1982), p. 393-394. 4. For the fiery Eye characteristics of these ancient goddesses, see: Katherine Griffis-Greenberg, "Hathor: Part I, Symbol of Attraction and Power," InScription: A Journal of Ancient Egypt, Vol. 1/1, January, 1998. 5. Flinders Petrie, Diopolis Parva, (London, 1901), Pl. XX, 11, as represented in Hollis, cited below. 6. Susan Tower Hollis, "5 Egyptian Goddesses in the Third Millenium B.C.: Neith, Hathor, Nut, Isis, Nephthys," KMT 5/4: 46 (1995). 7. For a full discussion of the predominance of the goddess during the early and very late dynastic periods, see Ramadan el-Sayed, La Dese Neith de Sas: Importance et rayonnement de son cult, (IFAO, Cairo, 1982). Peter Kaplony, Die Inschriften der gyptischen Frhzeit (Wiesbaden, 1963) is considered the standard reference for study of predynastic names. 8. For arguments concerning the connections of Libya and Egypt, with particular emphasis upon Neith, see, Oric Bates, The Eastern Libyans, (Frank Cass, London, 1914), pp. 205 ff.; Kees and Blissing, Re-Heligtum, II (Plate 7, figure 17) and III, Plate 9, where Neith and Libya figure prominently in the Sed festivals of Nuserre and Djoser, and A. R. David, The Ancient Egyptians: Religious Beliefs and Practices, (London, 1982), p. 145. 9. George Hart, Dictionary of Egyptian Gods and Goddesses (Routledge, London), 1996, p. 133. 10. References to Neith as the "Opener of Paths" occurs in Dynasties 4 through 6, and is seen in the titularies of women serving as priestesses of the goddess. Such epithets include: "Priestess of Neith who opens all the (path)ways," "Priestess of Neith who opens the good pathways," "Priestess of Neith who opens the way in all her places." (Ramadan el-Sayed, La Dese Neith de Sas, I, pp. 67-69). elSayed hypothesizes perhaps Neith should be seen as a feminine doublet of Wepwawet, the ancient jackal-god of Upper Egypt, who was associated with both royalty in victory and as a psychopomp for the dead. For more information on Wepwawet, as a deity and the characteristics as an epithet, see Dictionary of Egyptian Gods and Goddesses, George Hart, (Routledge, London), 1996. 11. George St. Clair, Creation Records, (London, 1898), pp. 177-178. St. Clair holds Neith is shown at times as a goddess with a line of stars across her back (as opposed to Nuts representations with stars across the belly) [See Doc. 644, above, in text], and maintains this indicates the ancient goddess represents the full ecliptic circle around the sky (above and below), and is seen iconographically in texts as both the regular and the inverted determinative for the heavenly vault, indicating the cosmos below the horizon. St. Clair maintains it is this realm Neith personifies, for she is the complete sky which surrounds the upper (Nut) and lower (Nunet?) sky, and which exists beyond the horizon, and thereby beyond the skies themselves. Neith, then, is that portion of the cosmos which is not seen, and in which the sun is reborn daily, below the horizon (for the statement assigned to Neith is "I come at dawn and at sunset daily").

This theory may be borne out with the actual position of the stars of the ancient Egyptian sky. Karine Gadre, an archaeoastronomer from Revel, France has indicated the following: "The period of invisibility of the decanal stars listed on the sarcophagus dating from the First Intermediate Period, and on the ceiling or on the walls of tombs and temples dating from the New Kingdom, is close to 70 days. That means that such stars should belong to a belt (the decanal belt, as defined by Neugebauer and Parker), situated south of the ecliptic. Some of these stars also belong to the Milky Way, which, in fact, is a view of our own galaxy. Here periodically occurs the birth of new stars, the death of old ones. Its white color is due to the presence of these molecular clouds whose collapse give birth to stars, and to the presence of numerous stars as well. The Milky Way intersects the ecliptic line in two points, the two equinoctial points. The stars situated close to one or the other positions occupied by the sun, on spring or autumn equinoxes, therefore belong to this intersection, to this specific region. Under the reign of the Egyptian pharaohs, the constellations of Taurus and Scorpius were occupied by the sun, on spring and autumn equinoxes respectively. The stars belonging to the constellations of Taurus and Scorpius therefore belonged to the Milky Way, too. As long as the sun is situated 18 degrees below the terrestrial horizon, the sky is completely dark : you can see each one of the celestial object shining in the nightly sky. But when the height of the sun below the horizon becomes superior to -18, some light begins to invade the nightly sky. The dark sky then gives way to the twilight sky. That is what we have called the astronomical twilight. Some of the celestial objects (the less brilliant ones) situated above the eastern horizon become unseen. As the sun moves towards the surface of the eastern horizon, more and more celestial objects become unseen from earth : the less brilliant ones first, then even the more brilliant ones like Sirius and the planets of the solar system disappear in the twilight sky. Between full darkness and full daylight, three phases follow one another : 1. -18 < h < -12 : astronomical twilight 2. -12 < h < -6 : nautical twilight 3. -6 < h < 0 : civil twilight where h is the height of the sun below the terrestrial horizon. During the first phase, which occurs between 1h30 and 1h before the sunrise, most of the celestial objects remain visible from earth. During the second phase (between 1h and 0h30 before sunrise) are only visible, from earth, the brightest objects. During the third phase, no star is visible; only some of the planets of our solar system can still be seen, close to the western horizon, like Venus or Jupiter." (Karine Gadre, private communication, October 12, 1998; see also Mlle. Gadres website on Ancient Egyptian Astronomy at http://perso.wanadoo.fr/karine.gadre for further information about "zodiacal light" InScription readers may be interested in her most recent publication, La Signification Astronomique des Pyramides dgypte). For a contra opinion, James Allen in his Genesis in Egypt: The Philosophy of Ancient Egyptian Creation Accounts, (Van Siclen, San Antonio, 1995), p. 4, believes this inverted "heavenly vault" glyph to merely represent the feminine counterpart of Nun (Nunet), although in the Pyramid Texts (166c, 207b, 446a, and 1691b), the name given for the entity is nnt, and which is alternately rendered with a and a . However, see Allens note as to this contradiction in Note 21, below. 12. In the Pyramid Texts, Neith is paired with Selket as braces for the sky, which places these two deities as the two supports for the heavens (see PT 1040a-d, following J. Gwyn Griffths, The Conflict of Horus and Seth, (London, 1961) p. 1). This ties in with the vignette in the Contendings of Seth and Horus when Neith is asked by the gods, as the most ancient of goddesses, to decide who should rule. In her message of reply, Neith selects Horus, and says she will "cause the sky to crash to the earth" if he is not selected.

13. Neith is said to have been "born the first, in the time when as yet there had been no birth." (Creation Records, p. 176). As a maternal figure (beyond being the birth-mother of the sun-god Ra) Neith is associated with Sobek as her son (as far back as the Pyramid Texts), but no male deity is consistently identified with her as a consort. Later triad associations made with her have little or no religious or mythological supporting references, appearing to have been made by political or regional associations only. This seems to support the contention Neith is an androgynous being, capable of giving birth without a partner and/or creation without sexual imagery, as seen in the myths of Atum and other creator gods. 14. Ramadan el-Sayed, in La Dese Neith de Sas, I, notes the association of Neith as a creatress with Mehetweret, the Celestial Cow called "The Great Flood," is mentioned within both the Pyramid and Coffin Texts (p. 52). 15. Erik Hornung notes in the Eleventh Hour, Neiths name appears written with a phallus. Das Amduat, Teil I: Text (g. Abh., Band 7, Wiesbaden) 1963, 188, No. 800. See also Ramadan el-Sayed, La Dese Neith de Sas, I, pp. 16 and 58-60 for both hieroglyphic rendering and discussion of the bisexual nature of Neith as creator/creatress deity, and Lexikon der gyptologie (L II) under "Gtter, androgyne," (Wolfhart Westendorf, Harassowitz, Wiesbaden, 1977), p. 634-635. Troy in Patterns of Queenship (cited below) notes this masculine aspect of the goddess is shown symbolically and textually from the earliest of times. 16. Hollis, op cit., makes an interesting point that the self-generating qualities of the click beetle is the rationale for its association with Neith. She further indicates Neiths eclipse in prominence during the Dynasties 2, 3 and 4 is directly proportionate to the rise of the supremacy of Re (and by extension, the emphasis in royal titulary on the "Son of Re" name), and the substitution of Hathor as Mother and Daughter of Re (usurping Neiths titles in this area), as well as becoming the wife of Re. As a parallel development, the scarab beetle (scarabaeus sacra), also a "self-regenerating" insect as the click beetle, rises to prominence during this same period and assumes the click beetles symbolism with "parthenogenic" self-generation. 17. In reference to Neiths function as creator with both male and female characteristics, Peter Kaplony has said in the Lexikon der gyptologie: "Die Deutung von Neith als Njt "Verneinung" ist sekundr. Neith ist die weibliche Entrsprechung zu Nw(w), dem Gott der Urflut (>Nun and Naunet). (Citing Sethe, Amun, 139)." L II, (Harassowitz, Wiesbaden, 1977), p. 1118. 18. Lana Troy, Patterns of Queenship: in ancient Egyptian myth and history, Acta Univ. Ups., Boreas: Uppsala Studies in Ancient Mediterranean and Near Eastern Civilization 14 (Uppsala, 1986), p. 18. 19. See the Coffin Texts, V, 312e-f (cf. CT V 316f-g) for direct attribution of this quality of Nun. 20. That Neith creates without the active participation of Nun, only utilizing the deitys inert matter, is attested to by the epithet of Neith as "the mother, of whom no one is master." (St. Clair, Creation Records, p. 179). 21. From the Cenotaph of Seti I at Abydos (Dynasty 19, ca. 1280 BCE) comes this description of the realm outside the cosmos: How the upper side of this sky exists is in uniform darkness, the southern, northern, western and eastern limits of which are unknown, these having been fixed in the Waters, in inertness. There is no light of the Ram there: he does not appear there (a place) whose south, north, west and east is unknown by the gods or akhs There is no brightness there. And as for every place void of sky and void of land, that is the entire Duat. (James Allen translation) Duat (dwAt) has been interpreted as either a negative void or the active form of creation, for both Nun and Neith exist in the Duat, according to this author. Duat exists "inside" the sky (Nut), and the sun goes into the Duat at sunset. Allen admits in Genesis in Egypt that the powers of creation exist in Duat and appear to be independent of the goddess Nut, citing the Pyramid Texts 1527a: The sky has conceived him, The Duat has given him birth.* (Allen Translation)

Allen concludes: "This ambiguity [there being a Duat above and below] is probably no more than a reflection of the fact that the Duat, though part of the world, is inaccessible to the living, outside the realm of normal human experienceTogether, sky, land and Duat comprise the world of the ancient Egyptians - kind of "bubble"** of air and light within the otherwise unbroken infinity of dark waters" (p. 7) ** What Allen calls a "bubble" corresponds to St. Clairs description of Neith as the vaulted sky above and below ( and ), with the earth in between. Allen refers to this phenomena as a box (op. cit., p. 66, N. 41), while this author believes St. Clairs description of the "ecliptic circle" of air and light is more likely, drawing upon Egyptian uterine parallels in mythology (such as Nunet forming the boundaries of Nun; see Troy, op. cit., Fig. 1, p. 17), as well as other ANE mythological parallels (such as Tiamat in Babylonian mythology) [right]. Ramadan el-Sayed, in La Dese Neith de Sas I notes that the post-pharaonic Egyptian author, Horapollo, states in his Hieroglyhica Neith is the "superior sky, the most pure, and Mut is the inferior sky." ("passage faisant penser la philosophie obscure pour nous d'Horapollon selon lequel Neith tait considre comme le ciel suprieur, le plus pur, et Mout le ciel infrieur." p. 70). 22. In The God Ptah, Maj. Sandman-Holmberg, notes in Memphis there existed the epithet for a deity called xnt-Tnn.t, "he who is at the head of The elevated place," referring to the Memphite primeval mound (Tnn.t). Sandman-Holmberg notes the epithet exists both independently in the First Intermediate Period, and as an epithet for Neith as the "mistress of The elevated place." Once again, this may refer to the goddess as the feminine deity of Memphis, as other deities are worshipped in the location in Memphis referred to as Tnn.t. Later the epithet comes to refer to Ptah, in his mode as the "head of the Kingdom of Death" in the New Kingdom. (The God Ptah, M. Sandman-Holmberg, Lund., 1946), p. 218. 23. See Papyrus Bremner-Rhind (pBM 10188), particularly pBremner-Rhind 26, 10-11, where the first creation of Neith, Atum (tm, or the "Finished/Finisher"), speaks of his own creation: Recitation of the Lord of the Limit, which he spoke after he developed: For my part, the fact is that I developed as Developer. When I developed, development developed. All development developed after I developed, developments becoming many in emerging from my mouth*, without the sky having developed, without the earth having developed, without the ground or snakes having been created in that place It was out of the Waters, out of inertness, that I became tied together in them, Without having found a place in which I could stand. I became effective in my heart, I surveyed with my face.** (Allen Translation) *Allen argues all creation begins from Atum as the primordial Monad, the first created being. Yet, by the reading of this text, its review of Atums first actions, it seems a "creator" has spoken the development of Atum himself, for Atum speaks that he/she has not yet become "effective" (selfrealized, or akh, using Allens argument) at this point of his/her development. This author argues that the act of development, by conscious thought, "developmentemerging from [the] mouth", is the sign of Neith as creator rather than from the self-described passive Atum prior to his action ("having found a place in which I could stand") and self-realization as he "became effective" (as denoted by **). See also the Cenotaph of Seti I, where the act of creation of the sun is referred to as "becoming effective again," and the "place of becoming effective" for this existent deity is that portion of the sky (the Akhet) where Neith recreates the Sun daily (Genesis in Egypt, p. 6,and Note 19, supra.) From this, and from the later epithets and self-attributes assigned to Neith as a creator ("I am that which is, which shall be, and which has been. None ever uplifted my garment.*** The fruit which I brought forth was the sun." Proclus, In Timaeum, I, 30), one can see that Neiths mysterious and

indefinite quality as a creator is similar to that of the Deity in Genesis 1: 6-7, and in the attributes of the Logos of John. *** Alternately translated as "None ever uplifted my veil." This matches Plutarchs account of Neiths attributes (De Iside and Osiride, 10), and is the source of the association with Athena, with whom Neith was identified by the Greeks, also a "veiled" goddess. 24. Lana Troy has argued from the representation of the Hmswt in the scene from the Holy Wedding at Deir el-Bahri the kA and Hmswt represent the androgynous nature of the creative force, noting in this scene the usual colors for male and female are reversed, and the uterine imagery (of enclosing upraised arms) is associated with the (male-represented) kA and the phallic imagery (of crossed arrows) is associated with the Hmswt. (Patterns of Queenship, p. 19). 25. Particularly PT 606 and 1373-1375. The latter reads: I have gone up in Pe to the gods of Pe. I am girded as Horus, I am adorned as the Two Enneads,* I appear as King, I am on high as Wepwawet, I have assumed the White Crown and the Green Crown, ** My mace is in my hand, my sceptre is in my fist. My mother is Isis, my nurse is Nephthys, She who suckled me is the Sx.At-hr cow, Neith is behind me, and Selket is before me. *This may refer to the Great and Lesser Enneads, or the two Enneads of Egypt. For more information on the Enneads as dualities, and as personifications, see: Lana Troy, "The Ennead: The Collective as Goddess," The Religion of the Egyptians: Cognitive Structures and Popular Expressions, Boreas 20, Acta Univ., Uppsala, 1989, pp. 59-69. Isis/Aset It should be noted that while Isis/Aset is associated always with her counterpart of Osiris, little is known of her origin or attributes alone. Her name, Aset, gives us no clue, and her symbol of a chair or throne may only associate her with political reigning functions as the "seat of Osiris", the first primordial king. However, she is best defined in the Egyptian religion as the most faithful wife and mother, and it is by these attributes she is most honored by the ancients. However, her significance as one who possessed the Words of Power, either derived from Ra by deception, or as in other texts, received the Words of Power that restored Osiris back to life from Thoth, the scribe of the gods, gives us an indication of her greater power and influence in Egyptian society as the creator of vocal language. It was said that what was said by the goddess was delivered in a certain tone, rate and deliverance such that none could resist her command, and that she gave the written words of Thoth their efficacy through the vocalization. That she is also identified with Shesheta, the historian/scribess of the gods, indicates that creation, recording and vocalization of words were identified as originally feminine functions. Such similar myths occur in Sumerian and Babylonian mythology, and may reflect a time when recording food, supplies and other inventories of the village were undertaken by women. To the Egyptian mind, however, it was this transferral of words by script to vocalization and vice versa that determined the creation of civilized society, and for that reason, along with Osiris' teaching of farming and cultivation, established a stable Egyptian culture. The importance of Isis was rarely diminished under the myriad of dynasties of warrior and imperial rule, and that this likely was due to her major contribution of the creation of language as a "living tool" of men. Egyptian Gods Theme Amen"The Hidden One," a primordial creation-deity Amen (Amon, Amun, Ammon, Amoun)

Amen's name means "The Hidden One." Amen was the patron deity of the city of Thebes from earliest times, and was viewed (along with his consort Amenet) as a primordial creation-deity by the priests of Hermopolis. His sacred animals were the goose and the ram. Up to the Middle Kingdom Amen was merely a local god in Thebes; but when the Thebans had established their sovereignty in Egypt, Amen became a prominent deity, and by Dynasty XVIII was termed the King of the Gods. His famous temple, Karnak, is the largest religious structure ever built by man. According to Budge, Amen by Dynasty XIX-XX was thought of as "an invisible creative power which was the source of all life in heaven, and on the earth, and in the great deep, and in the Underworld, and which made itself manifest under the form of Ra." Additionally, Amen appears to have been the protector of any pious devotee in need. Amen was self-created, according to later traditions; according to the older Theban traditions, Amen was created by Thoth as one of the eight primordial deities of creation (Amen, Amenet, Heq, Heqet, Nun, Naunet, Kau, Kauket). During the New Kingdom, Amen's consort was Mut, "Mother," who seems to have been the Egyptian equivalent of the "Great Mother" archetype. The two thus formed a pair reminiscent of the God and Goddess of other traditions such as Wicca. Their child was the moon god Khons. Anubis Egyptian god of the dead Anubis (Anpu) Egyptian god of the dead, represented as a black jackal or dog, or as a man with the head of a dog or jackal. His parents were usually given as Re in combination with either Nephthys or Isis. After the early period of the Old Kingdom, he was superseded by Osiris as god of the dead, being relegated to a supporting role as a god of the funeral cult and of the care of the dead. The black colour represented the colour of human corpses after they had undergone the embalming process. In the Book of the Dead, he was depicted as presiding over the weighing of the heart of the deceased in the Hall of the Two Truths. In his role as psychopomp he was referred to as the "conductor of souls". The Greeks later identified him with their god Hermes, resulting in the composite deity Hermanubis. His principal sanctuary was at the necropolis in Memphis and in other cities. Anubis was also known as Khenty- Imentiu - "chief of the westerners" - a reference to the Egyptian belief that the realm of the dead lay to the west in association with the setting sun, and to their custom of building cemeteries on the west bank of the Nile. Bast Egyptian cat goddess Bast (Bastet, Ubasti) Egyptian cat goddess. A goddess of the home and of the domestic cat, although she sometimes took on the war-like aspect of a lioness. Daughter of the sun god Re, although sometimes regarded as the daughter of Amun. Wife of Ptah and mother of the lion-god Mihos. Her cult was centered on her sanctuary at Bubastis in the delta region, where a necropolis has been found containing mummified cats. Bast was also associated with the 'eye of Re', acting as the instrument of the sun god's vengeance. She was depicted as a cat or in human form with the head of a cat, often holding the sacred rattle known as the sistrum. Bes Egyptian dwarf god believed to guard against evil spirits and misfortune Bes(Bisu) Egyptian dwarf god believed to guard against evil spirits and misfortune. In contrast to the other Egyptian deities, who were usually depicted in profile, Bes was depicted full face. He was shown to be ugly and grotesque in appearance, with a large head, protruding tongue, bow legs and a bushy tail. He bore a plumed crown and wore the skin of a lion or panther. Despite his appearance, he was a beneficent deity and his appearance was meant to scare off evil spirits. He bore swords and knives to ward off evil spirits, as well as musical instruments which he used to create a din which would frighten them off. Bes aided the hippopotamus goddess Taweret in childbirth. He was originally the protective deity of the royal house of Egypt, but came to be a popular household deity throughout Egypt.

Chons Egyptian moon god Chons (Khons) The third member (with his parents Amen and Mut) of the great triad of Thebes. Khons was the god of the moon. The best-known story about him tells of him playing the ancient game senet ("passage") against Thoth, and wagering a portion of his light. Thoth won, and because of losing some of his light, Khons cannot show his whole glory for the entire month, but must wax and wane. The main temple in the enclosure at Karnak is dedicated to him. Dua Protector of the stomach of the deceased Dua (Duamutef, Tuamutef; Golden Dawn, Thmoomathph) One of the Four Sons of Horus, Duamutef was represented as a mummified man with the head of a jackal. He was the protector of the stomach of the deceased, and was protected by the goddess Neith. Geb God of the Earth Geb (Keb, Seb) Egyptian earth god. Son of Shu and Tefnut. Brother and consort of the sky god Nut. Father of Osiris, Seth, Isis, and Nephthys. Geb was generally depicted lying on his back, often wearing the crown of Lower Egypt, with the naked body of Nut arched above him. In this context, he was often shown with an erect penis pointing upward toward Nut. Sometimes, however, the air god Shu was shown standing on the body of Geb, supporting Nut and perhaps separating her from Geb. His skin was often green, indicative of his role as a god of fertility and vegetation. The goose was his sacred animal and his symbol in Egyptian hieroglyphics. Geb was also said to imprison the souls of the dead, preventing them from passing on to the afterlife. The laughter of Geb was said to cause earthquakes. Hathor Egyptian cow goddess Hathor (Athyr) Egyptian cow goddess. Daughter of Nut and Re. In early Egyptian mythology she was the mother of the sky god Horus, but was later replaced in this capacity by Isis. Hathor then became a protectress of Horus. She was depicted either as a cow or in human form wearing a crown consisting of a sun disk held between the horns of a cow. Her name appears to mean "house of Horus", referring to her role as a sky goddess, the "house" denoting the heavens depicted as a great cow. Hathor was often regarded as the mother of the Egyptian pharaoh, who styled himself the "son of Hathor". Since the pharaoh was also considered to be Horus as the son of Isis, it might be surmised that this had its origin when Horus was considered to be the son of Hathor. Hathor took on an uncharacteristically destructive aspect in the legend of the Eye of Re. According to this legend, Re sent the Eye of Re in the form of Hathor to destroy humanity, believing that they were plotting aganist him. However, Re changed his mind and flooded the fields with beer, dyed red to look like blood. Hathor stopped to drink the beer, and, having become intoxicated, never carried out her deadly mission. Hathor was often symbolized by the papyrus reed, the snake, and the Egyptian rattle known as the sistrum. Her image could also be used to form the capitals of columns in Egyptian architecture. Her principal sanctuary was at Dandarah, where her cult had its early focus, and where it may have had its origin. At Dandarah, she was particularly worshipped in her role as a goddess of fertility, of women, and of childbirth. At Thebes she was regarded as a goddess of the dead under the title of the "Lady of the West", associated with the sun god Re on his descent below the western horizon. The Greeks identified Hathor with Aphrodite. Isis Egyptian mother goddess Isis (Aset, Eset)

"Throne". Egyptian mother goddess. Daughter of Geb and Nut according to the Heliopolitan genealogy. Sister and wife of Osiris. Mother of Horus. She was depicted in human form, crowned either by a throne or by cow horns enclosing a sun disk. A vulture was also sometimes incorporated in her crown. She is sometimes depicted as a kite above the mummified body of Osiris. As the personification of the throne, she was an important source of the pharaoh's power. Her cult was popular throughout Egypt, but the most important sanctuaries were at Giza and at Behbeit El-Hagar in the Nile delta. Isis later had an importan cult in the Greco-Roman world, with sanctuaries at Delos and Pompeii. Her Latin epithet was Stella Maris, or "star of the sea". It was Isis who retrieved and reassembled the body of Osiris after his murder and dismemberment by Seth. In this connection she took on the role of a goddess of the dead and of funeral rites. Isis impregnated herself from the corpse and subsequently gave birth to Horus. She gave birth in secrecy at Khemmis in the Nile delta and hid the child from Seth in the papyrus swamps. Horus later defeated Seth and became the first ruler of a united Egypt. Isis, as mother of Horus, was by extension regarded as the mother and protectress of the pharaohs. The relationship between Isis and Horus may also have influenced the Christian conception of the relationship between Mary and the infant Jesus Christ. The depiction of the seated holding or suckling the child Horus is certainly reminiscent of the iconography of Mary and Jesus. Ka Egyptian name for the vital force of life Ka Egyptian name for the vital force of life. Maat Egyptian goddess of truth and justice Maat "Straight": i.e. law and order. Egyptian goddess of truth and justice. She was associated with Thoth, Ptah and Khnemu in the Egyptian Creation. She was a goddess of the underworld, sitting in judgment over the souls of the dead in the Judgment Hall of Osiris. Min Egyptian fertility god Min (Minu, Egyptian Menu) Egyptian fertility god. Sometimes given as either the son or consort of Isis. He was depicted in human form with an erect penis. He generally held a flail in his raised right hand and wore a crown surmounted by two tall plumes. Min was preeminently a god of male sexuality, and in the New Kingdom (1567-1085 BC) he was honoured in the coronation rites of the pharaohs to ensure their sexual vigour and the production of a male heir. The "White Bull" appears to have been sacred to him, as was a type of lettuce which bore a resemblance to an erect penis and had a white sap that resembled semen. His most important sanctuaries were at Koptos (Qift) and Akhmim (Panoplis). Min was also worshipped as a god of desert roads and of travellers. In addition to his role in coronation rites, Min was honoured in harvest festivals during which offerings of lettuce and sheaves of wheat. Mut Wife of Amen, mother of Khons Mut (Golden Dawn, Auramooth) The wife of Amen in Theban tradition; the word mut in Egyptian means "mother", and she was the mother of Khons, the moon god. Nephthys Egyptian goddess of the dead Nephthys (Greek form; Egyptian Neb-hut, Nebthet) "Mistress of the House". Egyptian goddess of the dead. Daughter of Geb and Nut. Sister of Isis, Osiris and Seth. According to one tradition, she was also the mother of Anubis by Osiris. Her principal sanctuary was at Heliopolis. Along with Isis, she was one of the guardians of the corpse of Osiris. Depicted in human form wearing a crown in the form of the hieroglyph for house. Sometimes depicted as a kite guarding funeral bier of Osiris. Nut Egyptian goddess of the sky and of the heavens Nut (Neuth, Nuit)

Egyptian goddess of the sky and of the heavens. Daughter of the air god Shu and Tefnut, the goddess of moisture, in the Heliopolitan genealogy. She was typically depicted as a woman with her elongated and naked body arching above Shu and the earth god Geb to form the heavens. Sometimes she appeared in the form of a cow whose body froms the sky and heavens. Nut was the barrier separating the forces of chaos from the ordered cosmos in this world. Her fingers and toes were believed to touch the four cardinal points or directions. The sun god Re was said to enter her mouth after setting in the evening and travel through her body during the night to be reborn from her vagina each morning. Nut was also a goddess of the dead, and the pharaoh was said to enter her body after death, from which he would later be resurrected. Her principal sanctuary was at Heliopolis. Osiris Egyptian god of the underworld and of vegetation Osiris (Usire) Egyptian god of the underworld and of vegetation. Son of Nut and Geb. His birthplace was said to be Rosetau in the necropolis west of Memphis. Brother of Nephthys and Seth, and the brother and husband of Isis. Isis gave birth to Horus after his death, having impregnated herself with semen from his corpse. Osiris was depicted in human form wrapped up as a mummy, holding the crook and flail. He was often depicted with green skin, alluding to his role as a god of vegetation. He wore a crown known as the 'atef', composed of the tall conical white crown of Upper Egypt with red plumes on each side. Osiris had many cult centers, but the most important were at Abydos (Ibdju) in Upper Egypt, where the god's legend was reenacted in an annual festival, and at Busiris (Djedu) in the Nile delta. One of the so-called "dying gods", he was the focus of a famous legend in which he was killed by the rival god Seth. At a banquet of the gods, Seth fooled Osiris into stepping into a coffin, which he promptly slammed shut and cast into the Nile. The coffin was born by the Nile to the delta town of Byblos, where it became enclosed in a tamarisk tree. Isis, the wife of Osiris, discovered the coffin and brought it back. (The story to this point is attested only by the Greek writer Plutarch, although Seth was identified as his murderer as early as the Pyramid era of the Old Kingdom.) Seth took advantage of Isis's temporary absence on one occasion, cut the body to pieces, and cast them into the Nile. (In the Egyptian texts this incident alone accounts for the murder of Osiris.) Isis searched the land for the body parts of Osiris, and was eventually able to piece together his body, whole save for the penis, which had been swallowed by a crocodile (according to Plutarch) or a fish (according to Egyptian texts). In some Egyptian texts, the penis is buried at Memphis. Isis replaced the penis with a reasonable facsimile, and she was often portrayed in the form of a kite being impregnated by the ithyphallic corpse of Osiris. In some Egyptian texts, the scattering of the body parts is likened to the scattering of grain in the fields, a reference to Osiris's role as a vegetation god. 'Osiris gardens' wood-framed barley seedbeds in the shape of the god, were sometimes placed in tombs - and the plants which sprouted from these beds symbolized the resurrection of life after death. It was this legend that accounted for Osiris's role as a god of the dead and ruler of the Egyptian underworld. He was associated with funerary rituals, at first only with those of the Egyptian monarch, later with those of the populace in general. The pharaoh was believed to become Osiris after his death. Although he was regarded as a guarantor of continued existence in the afterlife, Osiris also had a darker, demonic aspect associated with the physiological processes of death and decay, and reflecting the fear Egyptians had of death in spite of their belief in an afterlife. Osiris was also a judge of the dead, referred to as the 'lord of Maat' (i.e. of divine law). Legendary ruler of predynastic Egypt and god of the underworld. Osiris symbolized the creative forces of nature and the imperishability of life. Called the great benefactor of humanity, he brought to the people knowledge of agriculture and civilization. The worship of Osiris, one of the great cults of ancient Egypt, gradually spread throughout the Mediterranean world and, with that of Isis and Horus, was especially vital during the Roman Empire. Qetesh Goddess of love and beauty Qetesh

Originally believed to be a Syrian deity, Qetesh was a goddess of love and beauty. Qetesh was depicted as a beautiful nude woman, standing or riding upon a lion, holding flowers, a mirror, or serpents. She is generally shown full-face (unusual in Egyptian artistic convention). She was considered to be one of the forms of Hathor. She was also considered the consort of the god Min, the god of virility. Re Egyptian sun god Re (Ra) Egyptian sun god and creator god. He was usually depicted in human form with a falcon head, crowned with the sun disc encircled by the uraeus (a stylized representation of the sacred cobra). The sun itself was taken to be either his body or his eye. He was said to traverse the sky each day in a solar barque and pass through the underworld each night on another solar barque to reappear in the east each morning. His principal cult centre was at Heliopolis ("sun city"), near modern Cairo. Re was also considered to be an underworld god, closely associated in this respect with Osiris. In this capacity he was depicted as a ram-headed figure. By the third millennium B.C. Re's prominence had already become such that the pharaohs took to styling themselves "sons of Re". After death, the Egyptian monarch was said to ascend into the sky to join the entourage of the sun god. According to the Heliopolitan cosmology, Re was said to have created himself, either out of a primordial lotus blossom, or on the mound that emerged from the primeval waters. He then created Shu (air) and Tefnut (moisture), who in turn engendered the earth god Geb and the sky goddess Nut. Re was said to have created humankind from his own tears and the gods Hu (authority) and Sia (mind) from blood drawn from his own penis. Re was often combined with other deities to enhance the prestige of the latter, as in Re-Atum, Amun-Re, or in the formula "Re in Osiris, Osiris in Re". Selket Scorpion goddess, helper of women in childbirth Selket (Serqet, Serket) A scorpion-goddess, shown as a beautiful woman with a scorpion poised on her head; her creature struck death to the wicked, but she was also petitioned to save the lives of innocent people stung by scorpions; she was also viewed as a helper of women in childbirth. She is depicted as binding up demons that would otherwise threaten Ra, and she sent seven of her scorpions to protect Isis from Set. She was the protectress of Qebehsenuf, the son of Horus who guarded the intestines of the deceased. She was made famous by her statue from Tutankhamen's tomb, which was part of the collection which toured America in the 1970's. Set Egyptian god of chaos Set (Seth, Setekh, Setesh, Seti, Sutekh, Setech, Sutech) Egyptian god of chaos who embodied the principle of hostility if not of outright evil. He was associated with foreign lands and was the adversary of the god Osiris. Seth was usually depicted in human form with a head of indeterminate origin, though said to resemble that of an aardvark. He had a curved snout, erect square- tipped ears and a long forked tail. Sometimes he was represented in entirely animal form with a body similar to that of a greyhound. He was said to be the son either of Nut and Geb or of Nut and Ra, and the brother of Isis, Osiris and Nephthys. Nephthys was sometimes given as his consort, although he is more commonly associated with the foreign, Semitic goddesses Astarte and Anat. Despite his reputation, he had an important sanctuary at Ombos in Upper Egypt, his reputed birthplace, and had his cult was also prominent in the north-eastern region of the Nile delta. For a time during the third millenium BC, Seth replaced Horus as the tutelary deity of the pharaohs. However, the story of Seth's murder of Osiris and subsequent war with Horus gained currency and Horus was restored to his original status. The war with Horus lasted eighty years, during which Seth tore out the left eye his adversary and Horus tore out Seth's foreleg and testicles. Horus eventually emerged victorious, or was deemed the victor by a council of the gods, and thus became the rightful ruler of the kingdoms of both Upper and Lower Egypt. Seth was forced to return the eye of

Horus and was himself either castrated or, in some versions, killed. In some versions Seth then went to live with the sun god Re, where he became the voice of the thunder. In the Book of the Dead Seth was referred to as the "lord of the northern sky" and held responsible for storms and cloudy weather. Seth protected Re during his night voyage through the underworld against the Apophis-snake. On the other hand, Seth was a peril for ordinary Egyptians in the underworld, where he was said seize the souls of the unwary. Among the animals sacred to Seth were the desert oryx, crocodile, boar, and the hippopotamus in its aspect as a destroyer of boats and of planted fields. The pig was a taboo in Seth's cult. The Greeks later equated Seth with their demon-god Typhon. Shu Egyptian god of the air Shu (Su; Greek Sos) Primordial Egyptian god of the air and supporter of the sky. In the Heliopolitan creation myth, Shu was, with his sister Tefnut, one of the first deities created by the sun god Atum, either from his semen or from the mucus of his nostrils. Tefnut then became his consort, giving birth to the sky goddess Nut and the earth god Geb. Shu separated Geb and Nut (heaven and earth) by interposing himself between them. Depicted in human form wearing an ostrich feather (the hieroglyph for his name), with his arms raised to support the goddess Nut above the supine form of Geb. Sobek Egyptian crocodile god Sobekn (Greek Suchos) Egyptian crocodile god. Sobek symbolized the might of the Egyptian pharaohs. Son of Neith. Depicted as a crocodile or in human form with the head of a crocodile, crowned either by a pair of plumes or sometimes by a combination of the solar disk and the uraeus (cobra). Sobek was worshipped to appease him and his animals. According to some evidence, Sobek was considered a fourfold deity who represented the four elemental gods (Ra of fire, Shu of air, Geb of earth, and Osiris of water). In the Book of the Dead, Sobek assists in the birth of Horus; he fetches Isis and Nephthys to protect the deceased; and he aids in the destruction of Set. His cult was widespread, although the Faiyum was particularly noted as a center of his worship, where one of the towns, Arsinoe, came to be called 'Crocodilopolis' by the Greeks. Kom Ombo (north of modern Aswan) and Thebes in Upper Egypt later became centers of his cult as well. Taweret Hippopotamus goddess and protective deity of childbirth Taweret (Taueret, Taurt, Apet, Opet; Greek Thoueris, Thoeris, Toeris) "The Great One". Egyptian hippopotamus goddess and protective deity of childbirth. She was depicted with the head of a hippopotamus, the legs and arms of a lion, the tail of a crocodile, human breasts, and a swollen belly. This appearance was meant to frighten off any spirits that might be harmful to the child. She was often depicted holding the Sa amulet symbolizing protection. As a protective deity of childbirth she was often depicted in the company of the dwarf god Bes, who had a similar function. Taweret was most popular among ordinary Egyptians as a protectress. Pregnant women commonly wore amulets bearing the goddess's image. Thoth Egyptian moon god Thoth (Thot, Thout; Egyptian Djhowtey, Djehuti, Tehuti, Zehuti) Egyptian moon god. Over time, he developed as a god of wisdom, and came to be associated with magic, music, medicine, astronomy, geometry, surveying, drawing and writing. Thoth was generally depicted in human form with the head of an ibis, wearing a crown consisting of a crescent moon topped by a moon disk. He could also be depicted wholly as an ibis or a baboon. Both the ibis and the baboon were sacred to him. His principal sanctuary was at Hermopolis (Khmunu) in the Nile delta region. Thoth served as an arbiter among the gods. In the Osirian legend, he protected Isis during her pregnancy and healed her son Horus when Seth tore out his left eye. Thoth was later identified with the Greek god Hermes in the form of Hermes Trismegistos ("Hermes the thrice great"), in which form he remained popular in medieval magic and alchemy. Thoth was also a god of the underworld, where

he served as a clerk who recorded the judgments on the souls of the dead. Alternatively, it was Thoth himself who weighed the hearts of the dead against the feather of Truth in the Hall of the Two Truths. Wepwawet God of war and of the funerary cult Wepwawet (Upuaut; Greek Ophois) "Opener of the Ways". Egyptian jackal god. Wepwawet had a dual role as a god of war and of the funerary cult, and could be said to "open the way" both for the armies of the pharaoh and for the spirits of the dead. He originated as a god of Upper Egypt, but his cult had spread throughout Egypt by the time of the Old Kingdom. Depicted as a jackal or in human form with the head of a jackal, often holding the 'shedshed', a standard which led the pharaoh to victory in war and on which the pharaoh was said to ascend into the sky after death. Despite his origin in Upper Egypt, one inscription said that he was born in the sanctuary of the goddess Wadjet at Buto in the Nile delta. Another inscription identified him with Horus and thus by extension with the pharaoh. Wepwawet also symbolized the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt. In his capacity as a funerary deity he used his adze to break open the mouth of the deceased in the "opening of the mouth' ceremony which ensured that the person would have the enjoyment of all his faculties in the afterlife. At Abydos the 'procession of Wepwawet' initiated the mysteries of Osiris as a god of the dead.