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RC Educational Consulting Services, Inc. 16781 Van Buren Blvd, Suite B, Riverside, CA 92504-5798 (800) 441-LUNG / (877) 367-NURS www.RCECS.com
AUTHORED BY KEVIN T. MARTIN, BVE, RRT, RCP REVISED BY KEVIN T. MARTIN, BVE, RRT, RCP 1987, 1991, 1993, 1996 REVISED BY SUSAN JETT LAWSON, RCP, RRT-NPS 2001 REVISED BY MICHAEL R. CARR, BA, RRT, RCP 2004 REVISED BY SUSAN JETT LAWSON, RCP, RRT-NPS 2008
This course is for reference and education only. Every effort is made to ensure that the clinical principles, procedures and practices are based on current knowledge and state of the art information from acknowledged authorities, texts and journals. This information is not intended as a substitution for a diagnosis or treatment given in consultation with a qualified health care professional.
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This material is copyrighted by RC Educational Consulting Services, Inc. Unauthorized duplication is prohibited by law.
This material is copyrighted by RC Educational Consulting Services, Inc. Unauthorized duplication is prohibited by law.
he decision to extubate is not to be undertaken lightly. From the moment an artificial airway is placed, every effort should be made to have it removed as soon as possible. This does not mean that one should extubate prematurely. Reintubation is more difficult and traumatic than the initial intubation. Therefore, one should be secure in the knowledge the patient wont need the artificial airway in the immediate future. There are specific criteria for extubation. These not only include respiratory parameters but also neurological, circulatory, and metabolic parameters. Following an assessment of these parameters, the practitioner is reasonably secure the patient will tolerate extubation. This paper explains the parameters to be evaluated and provides a general procedure for extubation. The procedure is designed to minimize the potential complications resulting from removal of the tube. INDICATIONS FOR INTUBATION ome of the reasons for intubation are: relief of airway obstruction, protection of the airway, suctioning of secretions, and to provide mechanical ventilation. The indication for extubation is simple: when the reason for intubation is no longer present. The first step in assessing a patient for extubation is to determine why the patient was intubated in the first place. This tells the practitioner what parameters need to be evaluated to predict a successful extubation. In some patients it is easy to determine if the cause for intubation has been resolved. In others, the opposite is true. For example, if the patient was intubated for respiratory failure from oversedation, its very easy to tell when the problem is resolved. If the reason for intubation was for upper airway obstruction, it is very difficult to evaluate if the problem has resolved. If there was edema or inflammation obstructing the upper airway, the tube masks its resolution while it remains in place. One clinical way to assess whether tracheal edema is significant enough to cause post-extubation complications is to deflate the cuff and auscultate for a leak. If air passes around the endotracheal tube, chances are the edema that may exist is not significant enough to cause a problem. If your patient has signs of significant upper airway obstruction, another idea is to suggest an Ear-Nose and Throat (ENT) consult from the primary physician. Sometimes, unfortunately, removing the tube is the only sure way to tell that the problem has been solved. Needless to say, if the edema is still present, the patient could be in serious trouble. Upper airway obstruction is an indication for intubation that presents particular problems when extubating. It is not unusual for the airway to become edematous upon removal of the tube. This occurs in most patients from simple mechanical irritation of the airway caused by the artificial airway. For this reason, patients with upper airway obstruction should be carefully monitored upon extubation. Glottic edema may take 2 hours to become apparent, but also can increase for up to 24 hours post-extubation. The patient should be observed closely for respiratory distress during this period. Most patients are not significantly affected by edema. However, those who were intubated for upper airway obstruction are very high risk for post extubation problems.
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This material is copyrighted by RC Educational Consulting Services, Inc. Unauthorized duplication is prohibited by law.
This material is copyrighted by RC Educational Consulting Services, Inc. Unauthorized duplication is prohibited by law.
Both endotracheal tubes and tracheostomy tubes with cuffs, although made to be high volume, low pressure, increase the patients risk for specific cuff-related complications: Granuloma Tracheomalacia Tracheal stenosis Tracheal web formation Tracheaoesophageal fistula Arterial fistula
Oropharyngeal secretions or stomach contents may be aspirated upon removal of the tube resulting in pulmonary aspiration syndrome. The former is caused by accumulation of secretions above the cuff. If these are not removed via suctioning, they enter the lungs when the cuff is deflated. (Intubated patients continuously aspirate minute amounts of oral secretions.) Aspiration of stomach contents is a result of pulling the tube out triggering a reflexive emesis. If adequate laryngeal and tracheal reflexes are present, aspiration is prevented. In addition, careful attention should be paid to removing all secretions above the cuff before extubation. In the majority of patients, it is wise to discontinue all feedings for 4-6 hours prior to extubation. This minimizes the risk of aspiration of stomach contents. Infants and children should have residuals aspirated prior to extubation. Extubation should be performed at peak-inspiration because this is when the cough is most effective. As mentioned, the most common complication is hoarseness or sore throat. Persistent sore throat indicates a more serious complication, such as, vocal cord trauma. A sore throat is usually relieved by administration of a cool aerosol via mask. The cool aerosol also causes vasoconstriction and may further reduce edema. Extubation may also result in pulmonary edema and/or impaired gas exchange such as hypoxemia and/or hypercapnia.
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he negative inspiratory force (NIF) and maximum inspiratory pressure (MIP) are the same measurement. They are indicators of inspiratory muscle strength. They are useful to predict the effectiveness of the cough. The patient must be able to inhale an adequate inspiratory volume to build up intrathoracic pressure. Large volumes are necessary to expel secretions. The patient must generate a significant negative pressure to inhale a large volume. A normal NIF is more than -100 cm H2O. A NIF of -30 cm H2O is considered adequate for extubation in most patients. A NIF of -30 cm H2O may not be adequate in patients receiving muscle relaxants or others having nonfunctional airway protection muscles. A NIF of -30 cm H2O is associated with adequate minute ventilation but not with adequate airway protection muscles. Airway protection is assured at NIFs of -33 to -43 cm H2O, so one should use this range on some patients. A significant advantage to the NIF over other tests of pulmonary function is that no patient cooperation is necessary. Valid results can be obtained on uncooperative or disoriented patients. The forced vital capacity (FVC) may even be more valuable than the NIF as a predictor of cough effectiveness. Not only are high volumes necessary for a strong cough, high flows are just as necessary. The FVC gives both flow and volume information. An FVC of 10 cc/kg (ideal body weight) is needed to expel secretions from the trachea. The FVC requires an alert, cooperative patient to be valid. This is a disadvantage to the test. If the patient has chronic lung disease, a slow vital capacity (SVC) may yield better results than an FVC. Forced expiratory maneuvers cause early airway collapse in these patients. An SVC gives the practitioner an indicator of inspiratory volume but no information on flow capabilities. The peak expiratory flow rate (PEFR) has been proposed as a more accurate predictor of expiratory force for coughing. Increasing PEFR is associated with increasing cough effectiveness. In the absence of a peak flow, the forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1) may be used. The PEFR or the FEV1 should be maximized before extubation. In adults, a minute volume of less than 10 lpm and a respiratory rate (RR) of less than 35 per minute are considered appropriate for extubation. Numbers greater than these generally indicate some degree of acute distress. (However, restrictive disease patients may have a normal RR
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The extubation criteria above are presented as guidelines only. Many patients have bad values in one category but meet other criteria. The practitioner must then use their experience and knowledge of the individual patient to decide when to extubate. NOTE: Patients intubated for epiglottitis can be difficult to evaluate for extubation. Most of the above parameters are not helpful in their evaluation for extubation. Some physicians will use
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he patient may be accidently extubated before a planned extubation, so this will be briefly discussed. There are approximately 15 million intubations per year in the United States. Approximately 10% of extubations in the ICU are accidental. They are the result of accidental removal during another procedure or removed by the patient. Risk factors for selfextubation are delirium, agitation, and restlessness. Many patients self-extubate simply because they feel intubation is uncomfortable and / or painful. Many experience intense feelings of gagging and breathlessness with a tube in place. Self-extubation is a simple survival tactic. Patients must be properly sedated and restrained to prevent self-extubation. They must be constantly oriented to time, place, and the importance of the tube. Obviously, the staff must properly secure the tube and ensure it will not be pulled out during patient movement or other procedures. Surprisingly, 35-40% of accidental extubations do not require reintubation. The patient is high-risk for reintubation if they have four or more of the following: 40% FIO2 7 lpm mechanical minute volume pH > 7.45 just before accidental extubation PaO2/FIO2 < 250 mm just before accidental extubation peak heart rate > 120 in 24 hours before accidental extubation coexisting disease (at least three of the following) COPD history heart failure history renal dysfunction
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LEAK TEST PROCEDURE Patients with possible airway burns, traumatic intubations and victims of allergic reactions may have edema of the trachea. Extubation of these patients without first verifying that swelling no longer exist is critical for save extubation of these patient. The cuff-leak test is intended to help predict the occurrence of glottic edema and/or stridor after extubation. The two methods that are frequently used are as follows: 1) Totally deflate the cuff, and then completely occlude the endotracheal tube. The presence of a leak around the tube during spontaneous breathing indicates that tracheal tissue is not encroaching on the endotracheal tube (a positive test) and therefore swelling is nonexistent or reduced. 2) The second method is similar, but the leak is assessed during positive pressure ventilation. A negative test (no leak) indicates a high potential for postextubation obstruction
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he procedure for extubation varies from institution to institution. The following is presented as a general procedure for use in the absence of a specific procedure. It requires 2 people to perform. In the clinical situation it is more common for one person to perform extubation. This person (or another in the immediate area) should be proficient at intubation should reintubation be necessary. It is also recommended that the patient breathe unassisted through the tube for a brief period before extubation. Breathing unassisted through the tube gives an indication of pulmonary reserve. An adequate pulmonary reserve is necessary after extubation to overcome glottic edema, cough, expel secretions, and prevent atelectasis. The patient should be physiologically monitored, emergency equipment and personnel trained in airway management skills should be present. Personnel should follow the Center for Disease Control Standard Precautions and institute appropriate precautions for airborne, droplet and contact precautions. 1. Perform all indicated measurements and observations. After careful evaluation, if it is decided to extubate, the following equipment should be gathered and assembled: Oxygen source Suction set-up with sterile catheters and pharyngeal suction devices Oral and pharyngeal airways Resuscitation bag and mask Cool aerosol set-up with mask Scissors 10 cc syringe Hand-held nebulizer, MDI or IPPB set-up Racemic epinephrine and normal saline Reintubation supplies, (laryngoscope and blades, endotracheal tubes, batteries, stylettes) Equipment for establishing an emergency surgical airway (scalpel, lidocaine with epinephrine, appropriately sized endotracheal or tracheostomy tubes) Pulse oximeter Supplies for arterial puncture and blood gas analysis
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6.
7. Ask the patient to take a deep breath and hold it. Timing is critical at this point. 8. Remove the tube in an anatomical configuration at peak-inspiration. Removal at peak-inspiration maximizes cough effectiveness as the tube is removed. Be prepared to suction the patients oropharynx with a tonsil-tip device. 9. Have the patient cough forcefully to expel secretions. This results in maximal abduction of the vocal cords, which helps prevent them from being damaged.
10. If stridor is present or there is difficulty breathing, begin the nebulizer, MDI or IPPB treatment with racemic epinephrine. This reduces glottic edema and the swelling caused by the tube and its removal. Aerosolized steroids may be necessary to further reduce inflammation and swelling. It is recommended to use a high flow rate to create turbulence within the upper airway. This causes most of the medication to be deposited in the upper
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xtubation is the removal of an artificial airway from the patient. It should be done as soon as the need for the airway has been resolved. Some of the reasons for an artificial airway are: to relieve upper airway obstruction, to provide protection of the airway, for removal of excessive secretions, and to provide mechanical ventilation. Should the problem be resolved, extubation is indicated. Some of the complications of extubation include: laryngospasm, stridor, aspiration, glottic edema, vocal cord damage, hoarseness, and sore throat. These may be minimized by: removing all secretions above the cuff before deflation, deflating the cuff and removing the tube at peak-inspiration, initially selecting the proper size tube, providing post-extubation aerosolized racemic epinephrine and corticosteroids, and by placing the patient on a cool aerosol after extubation. Some parameters used to evaluate the patient for extubation are: NIF, FVC, RR, minute volume, and peak flow rates. An NIF of -30 cm H2O, FVC of 10 ml/kg, RR less than 35, minute volume less than 10 lpm are considered adequate. Peak flow rates should be maximized prior to extubation. PRACTICE EXERCISE DISCUSSION 1. NIF will give information on inspiratory muscle strength. FVC and PF indicate ability to cough effectively. RR and minute volume indicate his work of breathing. Based upon patient being weaned from ventilator and only receiving 24% O2, ABGs are probably not necessary at this time. A review of the neurological progress notes is warranted considering his aspiration problem. The patient must have adequate glottic reflexes to protect his airway. Lastly, an evaluation of sputum being suctioned is necessary. 2. The NIF, minute volume, and RR meet extubation criteria. FVC exceeds extubation criteria at approximately 14 cc/kg. Secretions do not preclude extubation. The reason for intubating this patient appears to be reversed. He was intubated because he was unable to protect his airway due to neurological trauma. The patient is now alert and appears to have the return of his normal reflexes. Breathing appears adequate and unlabored based upon RR, minute volume, and low FIO2. Recommend extubating this patient. 3. Explain to him that you will be removing the tube and that hoarseness, sore throat, and coughing are common. He may feel a little short of breath temporarily but he will be closely monitored. He should be reassured to relieve any anxiety he may feel.
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1. When should extubation be considered? a. b. c. d. When the patient requests it When you feel it is appropriate When the need for an airway is no longer present When the patient is ready to be weaned from mechanical ventilation
2. What is recommended to reduce the possibility of post-extubation glottic edema? a. b. c. d. Aerosolized epinephrine and NS Aerosolized arformoterol and NS Aerosolized corticosteroids, racemic epinephrine, and NS Aerosolized corticosteroids, Mucomyst, and NS
3. To prevent accidental extubation: a. b. c. d. e. secure the airway in place. control delirium and agitation. apply appropriate physical restraints. all the above. a & c.
4. Which of the following may be required post extubation? I. Application of CPAP II. Reintubation III. Increased FIO2 delivery IV. Noninvasive ventilation a. b. c. d. I I, II, IV II, III All of the above
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6. Which of the following is necessary prior to extubation? I. II. III. IV. Deflate cuff Aerosolize racemic epinephrine Suction trachea and oropharynx Cut trach ties or tape holding tube a. b. c. d. I, II, III I, III, IV II. III I, II, IV
7. Which of the following make a patient high-risk for reintubation following an accidental extubation? I. > 40% FIO2 II. > 7 lpm mechanical minute volume III. pH > 7.45 just before accidental extubation IV. PaO2/FIO2 < 250 mm Hg just before accidental extubation a. b. c. d. e. II, III I, II, III, IV II, III, IV I, IV II only
8. How can the possibility of aspiration be minimized when extubating? a. b. c. d. e. Remove all secretions above cuff Deflate cuff before suctioning the oropharynx Extubate at peak-inspiration for maximum cough effectiveness a&c a&b
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10. When should an oral endotracheal tube be withdrawn? a. b. c. d. At end-expiration At mid-expiration At peak-inspiration At the beginning of inspiration
11. Both endotracheal and tracheostomy tube cuffs may cause: I. II. III. IV. Tracheal stenosis Tracheomalacia Tracheoesophageal fistula Arterial fistula a. b. c. d. I, II, III II, III, IV I & II only All of the above
12. What value is the FVC in evaluating for extubation? a. b. c. d. It has little value Indicates ability to cough out secretions Indicates patient cooperation Indicates amount of wasted ventilation
13. If the objective parameters of weaning and extubation are met, the following are also of primary consideration in extubation: I. II. III. IV. Acceptable arterial blood gas results Patients ability to clear secretions Stable cardiopulmonary status Clear chest X-ray a. b. c. d. I, III, IV II, III, IV I, II, III All of the above
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15. Equipment for establishing an emergency surgical airway should be available during extubation. a. true
b. false
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