Creep Rupture Strength Stress required to cause fracture in a creep test within a specified time.

Alternate term is Stress Rupture Strength. creep-rupture strength The stress that will cause fracture in a creep test at a given time in a specified constant environment. Also called stress-rupture strength. Creep StrengthMaximum Stress required to cause a specified amount of creep in a specified time. Also used to describe maximum Stress that can be generated in a material at constant temperature under which creep rate decreases with time. An alternate term is creep limit. The concept of fatigue is very simple, when a motion is repeated, the object that is doing the work becomes weak. For example, when you run, your leg and other muscles of your body become weak, not always to the point where you can't move them anymore, but there is a noticeable decrease in quality output. This same principle is seen in materials. Fatigue occurs when a material is subject to alternating stresses, over a long period of time. Examples of where Fatigue may occur are: springs, turbine blades, airplane wings, bridges and bones. The Mean stress has the effect that as the mean stress is increased, fatigue life decreases. This occurs because the stress applied is greater. I mentioned previously that scratches and other imperfections on the surface will cause a decrease in the life of a material. Therefore making an effort to reduce these imperfections by reducing sharp corners, eliminating unnecessary drilling and stamping, shot peening, and most of all careful fabrication and handling of the material. Another Surface treatment is called case hardening, which increases surface hardness and fatigue life. This is achieved by exposing the component to a carbon-rich atmosphere at high temperatures. Carbon diffuses into the material filling interstisties and other vacancies in the material, up to 1 mm in depth. Exposing a material to high temperatures is another cause of fatigue in materials. Thermal expansion and contraction will weaken bonds in a material as well as bonds between two different materials. For example, in space shuttle heat shield tiles, the outer covering of silicon tetra boride (SiB4) has a different coefficient of thermal expansion than the Carbon-Carbon Composite. Upon re-entry into the earth's atmosphere, this thermal mismatch will cause the protective covering to weaken, and eventually fail with repeated cycles. Another environmental affect on a material is chemical attack, or corrosion. Small pits may form on the surface of the material, similar to the effect etching has when trying to find dislocations.

This chemical attack on a material can be seen in unprotected surface of an automobile, whether it be by road salt in the winter time or exhaust fumes. This problem can be solved by adding protective coatings to the material to resist chemical attack. Factors that affect fatigue-life

Cyclic stress state: Depending on the complexity of the geometry and the loading, one or more properties of the stress state need to be considered, such as stress amplitude, mean stress, biaxiality, in-phase or out-of-phase shear stress, and load sequence,

Geometry: Notches and variation in cross section throughout a part lead to stress concentrations where fatigue cracks initiate. Surface quality. Surface roughness cause microscopic stress concentrations that lower the fatigue strength. Compressive residual stresses can be introduced in the surface by e.g. shot peening to increase fatigue life. Such techniques for producing surface stress are often referred to as peening, whatever the mechanism used to produce the stress. Low Plasticity Burnishing, Laser peening, and ultrasonic impact treatment can also produce this surface compressive stress and can increase the fatigue life of the component. This improvement is normally observed only for highcycle fatigue.

Material Type: Fatigue life, as well as the behavior during cyclic loading, varies widely for different materials, e.g. composites and polymers differ markedly from metals.

Residual stresses: Welding, cutting, casting, and other manufacturing processes involving heat or deformation can produce high levels of tensile residual stress, which decreases the fatigue strength. Size and distribution of internal defects: Casting defects such as gas porosity, non-metallic inclusions and shrinkage voids can significantly reduce fatigue strength.

Direction of loading: For non-isotropic materials, fatigue strength depends on the direction of the principal stress.

Grain size: For most metals, smaller grains yield longer fatigue lives, however, the presence of surface defects or scratches will have a greater influence than in a coarse grained alloy.

Environment: Environmental conditions can cause erosion, corrosion, or gas-phase embrittlement, which all affect fatigue life. Corrosion fatigue is a problem encountered in many aggressive environments.

Temperature: Extreme high or low temperatures can decrease fatigue strength. [edit] Fatigue mechanism There has always been an aura of mystery regarding why metals, and materials in general, fail in fatigue. The impression seems to have developed that a part may function satisfactorily for many, many loadings, but when metal fatigue occurs, the failure is sudden and catastrophic. As early as 1839, Poncelet (Ref 10.1) in France described this phenomenon as fatigue, presumably analogous to human fatigue that results when a motion is repeated successively. Fatigue comes on gradually in human endurance, and what frequently is overlooked is that fatigue of a metallic part also develops gradually. Failure is not really sudden but is the end result of progressive deterioration that eventually produces the failure event. What the process consists of has been the subject of many studies over some 150 years, and we now understand reasonably well the nature of the fatigue mechanism. As with the fatigue process itself, our understanding did not develop suddenly or smoothly, and not without much controversy along the way. Slip (ceramics), an aqueous suspension of minerals, and frequently deflocculant. A slip is a suspension in water of clay and/or other materials used in the production of ceramic ware.[1] Deflocculant, such as sodium silicate, can be added to the slip to disperse the raw material particles. This allows a higher solids content to be used, or allows a fluid slip to be produced with the a minimum of water so that drying shrinkage is minimised, which is important during slipcasting[2]. Usually the mixing of slip is undertaken in a blunger[3] although it can be done using other types of mixers or even by hand. Use

A slip may be made for various purposes in the production and decoration of ceramics. Slip can be used:

As a means of mixing the constituents of a clay body. To shape ware by slip casting. To join of sections of unfired ware, such as handles and spouts. To adhere figures or other motiffs to unfired ware to form a bas-relief. This technique is known as sprigging, an example is Jasperware[4]. Decoratively when placed onto a wet or leather-hard clay body surface by dipping, painting or splashing. Such type of ware is often described as slipware. Slipware

may be carved or burnished to change the surface appearance of the ware. Specialized slip recipes may be applied to biscuit ware and then refired. Decorative slips may be a different color than the underlying clay body or offer other decorative qualities. Colored slips are can be used to create pieces of ceramic art by techniques similar to paint in other media.[citation needed] creep is the tendency of a solid material to slowly move or deform permanently under the influence of stresses. It occurs as a result of long term exposure to high levels of stress that are below the yield strength of the material. Creep is more severe in materials that are subjected to heat for long periods, and near melting point. Creep always increases with temperature.In crystallography, crystal twinning refers to intergrown crystal forms that display a twin boundary Crystal twinning occurs when two separate crystals share some of the same crystal lattice points in a symmetrical manner. The result is an intergrowth of two separate crystals in a variety of specific configurations. A twin boundary or composition surface separates the two crystals. Crystallographers classify twinned crystals by a number of twin laws. These twin laws are specific to the crystal system. The type of twinning can be a diagnostic tool in mineral identification. Advantages and Disadvantages of Powder Metallurgy Advantages: 1. Elimination or reduction of machining 2. High Production Rates 3. Complex Shapes to be Produced 4. Wide Variations in Compositions are Possible 5. Wide Variation in Properties are Available 6. Scrap is Eliminated or Reduced Disadvantages:

1. Inferior Strength Properties 2. Relatively High Die Cost 3. High Material Cost 4. Design Limitations 5. Density Variations Produce Property Variations 6. Health and Safety Hazards Powder Metallurgy the name given to the process by which fine powdered materials are blended, pressed into a desired shape (compacted), and then heated (sintered) in a controlled atmosphere to bond the contacting surfaces of the particles and establish the desired properties. it is commonly designated as P/M it readily lends itself to the mass production of small, intricate parts of high precision, often eliminating the need for additional machining or finishing. has a little material waste; unusual materials or mixtures can be utilized; and controlled degrees of porosity or permeability can be produce. Major areas of application tend to be those for which the P/M process has strong economical advantage or where the desired properties and characteristics would be difficult to obtain by any other method. Other Areas where Powder Metallurgy Products are used extensively: Household appliances Recreational equipment Hand tools Hardware items Business machines Industrial motors Hydraulics

Areas of Rapid Growth : Aerospace applications Advanced composites

Electronic components Magnetic materials Metalworking tools A variety of biomedical and dental applications

High-volume Materials : Stainless steel High-strength and high-alloy steels Aluminum Aluminum alloys Iron Copper

4 Basic Steps of Powder Metallurgy : 1. Powder Manufacture 2. Mixing or Blending 3. Compacting 4. Sintering Optional Secondary processing often follows to obtain special properties or enhanced precision. Important Properties and Characteristics of the metal or material powders that are used: Chemistry Purity Particle size Size distribution Particle shape

Surface texture of the particles Process features of the powder particles that size and shape can varied and depend on :

Velocity and media of the atomizing jets or the speed of electrode rotation Starting temperature of the liquid (which affects the time that surface tension can act on the individual droplets prior to solidification) Environmental provided for cooling When cooling is slow (such as in gas atomization) and surface tension is high, spherical shapes can form before solidification. Irregular shapes are produced due to more rapid cooling, such as water atomization. Other methods of Powder Manufacture : Chemical reduction of particulate compounds (generally crushed oxides or ores) Electrolytic deposition from solutions of fused salts Pulverization or grinding of brittle materials (comminution) Thermal decomposition of hydrides or carbonyls Precipitation from solution Condensation of metal vapors

Almost any metal, metal alloy, or nonmetal like ceramic, polymer or wax or graphite lubricant can be converted into powder form by any of the methods. Some methods can produce only elemental powder, often of high purity. While others can produce pre-alloyed particles. Compacting one of the most critical steps in the P/M process. Green compact loose powder is compressed and densified into shape, usually at room temperature. With the feed bottom punch in its fully raised position, a feed shoe moves up into position over the die. The feed shoe is an inverted container filled with powder, connected to the powder supply by a flexible tube. With the feed shoe in position, the bottom punch descends to a preset fill depth, and the shoe retracts, leveling the powder. The upper punch retracts and the bottom punch rises to eject the green compact. As the die shoe advances for the next cycle, its forward edge clears the compact from the press, and the cycle repeats. During compacting, the powder particles move primarily in the direction of the applied force. The opposing force is probably a combination of: 1. Resistance by the bottom punch

2. Friction between the particles and the die surfaces P/M Injection Molding -small, complex-shaped components have been fabricated from plastic for many years by means of injection molding. -recently developed alternative to conventional powder metallurgy compaction. -while the powdered material does not flow like a fluid: complex shapes can be produced by mixing ultrafine (usually less than 10 um) metal, ceramic, or carbide powder with a thermoplastic/wax material (up to 50% by volume). *A water-soluble methylcellulose binder is one attractive alternative to the thermoplastics. Sintering The word sinter comes from the Middle High German Sinter, a cognate of English cinder. In the sintering operation, the pressed- powder compacts are heated in a controlled atmosphere environment to a temperature below the melting point but high enough to permit the solidstate diffusion and held for sufficient time to permit bonding of the particles. Most sintering operations involve three stage and many sintering furnaces employ three corresponding zones. The first operation, the burn-off or purge, is designed to combust any air, volatize and remove lubricants or binders that would interfere with good bonding and slowly raise the temperature of the compacts in a controlled manner. The second or the high- temperature stage is where the desired solid state diffusion and bonding between the powder particles take place. Finally, a cooling period is required to lower the temperature of the products while maintaining them in a controlled atmosphere. These three stages must be conducted in a protective atmosphere. This is critical since the compacted shapes have residual porosity and internal voids that are connected to exposed surfaces. Reducing atmospheres, commonly based on hydrogen, dissociated ammonia, or cracked hydrocarbons, are preferred since they can reduce any oxide already present on Secondary operations are be performed to improve: 1. Density 2. Strength 3. Shape 4. Corrosion Resistance Tolerances Properties of P/M Products

Mechanical properties show a strong dependence on product density, with the fracture-limited properties of toughness, ductility and fatigue life being more sensitive than strength and hardness. The voids in the P/M part act as stress concentrators and assist in starting and propagating fractures. The yield strength of P/M products made from weaker metals is often equivalent to the same material in wrought form. If higher strength materials are used or the fracture-related tensile strength is specified, the P/M properties tend to fall below those of wrought equivalents by varying but usually substantial amounts. When larger presses or processes such as P/M forging or HIP are employed to produce higher density, the strength of the P/M products approaches that of the wrought material. With full density and fine grain size. With full density and fine grain size. P/M parts often have properties that exceed their wrought or cast equivalents. Since mechanical properties of powder metallurgy products are so dependent upon density, it is important that P/M products be designed and materials selected so that the final properties will be achieved with the anticipated amount of final porosity. Physical Properties can also be affected by porosity Corrosion resistance tends to be reduced due to the presence of entrapment pockets and fissures. Electrical, thermal, and magnetic properties all vary with density. Porosity actually promotes good sound and vibration damping, and many P/M parts are designed to take advantage of this feature.