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WE HOW WE

''l:N' T :H" : .... 1..Y K',;> ' .. :

~

BY

p-EWEY JOHN DEWEY

l'IlOFESSOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN COLUMBIA UNIVERSIT* UNlVERSlfl PROFESSOR

D. C. HE'.tti!ls;fQ. Ul^jj^^^^, PUBLISHERS BOSTON NEW NEW YORK CHICAGO

COPYRIGHT, COPYRIGHT, I9IO, 1910,

BY D. B. C. HEATH & By & CO. Co.

2,.9

PriDted ;;, lY. s. A..

1IIIFFrs

No 29 29 No

'z,o

6~60~?

PREFACE
a multiplication OUR OUR schools are troubled with a multiplication of its studies, its own multiplication of studies, each in turn having having multiplication of materials and principles. Our teachers find their tasks find their tasks principles. made heavier in that they to deal with they have come to and pupils individually arid not merely in mass. Unless merely pupils individually these steps in advance are to end in distraction, steps distraction, some some principle that makes for clew of unity, for simplificaprinciple unity, simplifica This tion, must be found. book represents con tion, represents the conviction that the needed steadying centralizing factor viction factor steadying and centralizing is found in adopting that atti attiis adopting as the end of endeavor that mind, that habit of thought, thought, which we call call tude of mind, scientific. scientific. This scientific scientific attitude of mind might, might, con conceivably, be quite quite irrelevant to to teaching teaching children children and ceivably, But this youth. this book also represents represents the conviction conviction youth. that such is is not the case case; that the native and unspoiled unspoiled attitude attitude of childhood, childhood, marked by by ardent curiosity, curiosity, fertile fertile imagination, and love of experimental experimental inquiry, inquiry, is is near, near, imagination, attitude to the of the very near, to scientific If scientific mind. If near, very pages assist assist any any to appreciate appreciate this this kinship kinship and to to these pages seriously how its its recognition recognition in in educational educational consider seriously for would make individual practice happiness the practice happiness and the reduction of of social social waste, waste, the book will will amply amply have served its its purpose. purpose. It It is is hardly hardly necessary necessary to enumerate the authors authors t tM I am indebted. My My fundamental indebtedness indebtedness whom I is is to to my my wife, wife, by by whom the ideas of of this this book book were
;

iii

IV iv

PREFACE

in connection with inspired, through whose work in inspired, and through in the Laboratory School, existing in Chicago between the School, existing Chicago Laboratory 1896 and 1903, the ideas attained such concreteness 1903, 1896 in as in practice. It It as comes from embodiment and testing testing practice. is a pleasure, pleasure, also, to acknowledge indebtedness to to is a the to also, acknowledge intelligence and sympathy cooperated as intelligence sympathy of those who cooperated the in conduct of that school, teachers and supervisors school, teachers supervisors in and especially to Mrs. Ella Flagg a colcol Young, then a Flagg Young, especially to league in University, and now Superintendent in the University, of Superintendent of league Chicago. the Schools of Chicago.

NEW YORK

CITY, December, December, 1909-_ CITY, 1909.

,

CONTENTS
PART I I
THE PROBLEM OF TRAINING THOUGHT

THE PROBLEM OF TRAINING THOUGHT

PAGE PAGE

CHAFTKK CHA1"l'ER
I. I.

is THOUGHT? THOUGHT? WHAT IS

WHAT

II. II.

THE NEED NEED FOR FOR TRAINING THOUGHT THE THOUGHT

...
...
.

I i 14 14 29 29

III. IV. V.

NATURAL REsoURCES RESOURCES IN THE THE TRAINING OF THOUGHT NATURAL

SCHOOL CONDITIONS AND AND THE TRAINING OF THOUGHT SCHOOL

45 45
56

THE MEANS MEANS AND END END OF MENTAL THE MENTAL TRAINING:
PSYCHOLOGICAL AND THE LOGICAL PSYCHOLOGICAL AND THE

THE

PART II II
LOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS
VI.
VII.
VIII.

THE THE ANALYSIS OF A COMPLETE ACT OF THOUGHT THOUGHT.

SYSTEMATIC INFERENCE: INDUCTION AND DEDUC DEDUCTION TION THE INTERPRETATION OF FACTS . . JUDGMENT: THE MEANING: OR CONCEPTIONS AND UNDERSTANDING UNDERSTANDING. . CONCRETE CONCRETE AND AND ABSTRACT ABsTRACT THINKING . . EMPIRICAL AND AND SCIENTIFIC ScIENTIFIC THINKING THINKING

68 68

.........
...
.

79 79
101 101

IX.

n6 116

X. XL XI.

135 135
145 145

ITI PART HI

THE THE TRAINING TRAINING OF OF THOUGHT THOUGHT

XII. XII.
XIII. XIII.

ACTIVITY ACTIVITY AND AND THE THE TRAINING TRAINING OF OF THOUGHT THOUGHT LANGUAGE LANGUAGE AND AND THE THE TRAINING TRAINING OF OF THOUGHT THOUGHT
v v

1>7 157

170 .170

vi vi
CHAPTER CHAPTER

CONTENTS CONTENTS
PAGE

XIV.

OBSERVATION AND INFORMATION IN THE TRAINING

OF MIND IS8 iS8 THE TRAINING OF THOUGHT THE RECITATION AND THE THOUGHT 201 XV. THE . . XVI. SOME 214 SOME GENERAL CONCLUSIONS ,214
.

HOW WE THINK
PART ONE: ONE: THE PROBLEM PROBLEM OF OF PART

TRAINING THOUGHT
CHAPTER ONE

WHAT

IS THOUGHT? IS

i. I. Varied Varied Senses Senses of of the the Term words are are oftener oftener on on our our lips lips than than thinking thinking- and Four _ _ No words our use of is thought. profuse varied, indeed, is of :o:~t, and So varied, indeed, profuse thought. we what define these words words that that it it is is not not easy to define just ~ to tho to these just easy find a limited is to find mean by them. The aim of this chapter is this of them. mean chapter by single meaning. Assistance may consistent meaning. by may be had by single consistent considering some typical ways in which the terms are in considering typical ways is used broadly, employed. first place the first In the broadly, thought is place thought employed. In not loosely. ~Everything that comes to mind, mind, to say not to say loosely. JEverything a called that through our heads," is a thought. To is called our that "goes heads," thought. "goes through wa it in any think is just to be conscious of it wa~ to is a thing of a think of any thing just whatsoever. is restricted restricted by the term is whatsoever. Second, excluding by excluding Second, the think of) think whatever presented; we think (or think we is directly whatever is of) (or presented; directly only such things as we do not drrectly see, hear, smell, not do smell, as we hear, see, such directly things only to Emited to further limited is further or the meaning taste. Then, or taste. third, the meaning is Then, third, or testitesti evidence or of evidence beliefs kind of some kind rest upon that rest beliefs that upon some two dede mony. kinds two kinds-or, rather, two this third third type, or, rather, Of this type, two mony. Of a belief some cases, In some grees-must discriminated. In cases, a belief be discriminated. must be grees state to state no is with slight or almost no attempt to almost or with attempt is accepted slight accepted the other cases, the In In other it. cases, the ground that support ground the grounds support it. grounds that its and its or is deliberately a belief belief is for a sought and or basis basis for deliberately sought
I

WE THINK HOW WE

Chance and

idle thinking thinking idle

Reflective Reflective is thought is thought consecutive, consecutive, DOt merely merely not a sequence sequence

adequacy to support the belief belief examined. This process process support the adequacy to thought; it it alone alone is is truly truly educative educative in is called reflective reflective thought; is called in forms, accordingly, accordingly, the principal principal subject of value, it forms, of value, and it subject shall now briefly this volume. We shall briefly describe each of of this volume. four senses. the four senses. the 1. In its loosest sense, sense, thinking thinking signifies signifies everything everything I. In its loosest or that that, as we say, is "in our heads" or that "goes through as is our that, "goes through say, "a for our minds." He who offers" a penny for your thoughts" offers our minds/' penny your thoughts" does expect to to drive bargain. In In calling calling does not expect drive any great bargain. any great the objects of of his his demand thoughts, does not not intend intend the objects thoughts, he does ascribe to to to them dignity, consecutiveness, or or truth. to ascribe truth. dignity, consecutiveness, trivial or Any idle fancy, trivial recollection, or flitting impression Idle recollection, flitting impression fancy, Any his demand. Daydreaming, Daydreaming, building building of will will satisfy of satisfy his air, that that loose flux of of casual and discon disconcastles castles in in the air, loose flux nected material that that floats floats through through our minds in in relaxed relaxed nected material this sense, thinking. of moments are, in in this random More of sense, thinking. are, our waking life than should care to admit, even to we life than to to admit, waking is likely in this to be whiled away this inconseourselves, likely to inconse ourselves, is away in idle fancy unsubstantial hope. hope. quential trifling with with idle quential trifling fancy and unsubstantial In this silly folk folk and dullards think. The story this sense, dullards think. sense, silly story is of a man in in slight slight repute repute for intelligence, who, is told told of for intelligence, who, to be chosen his New England England desiring in his chosen selectman in desiring to "I town, addressed a a knot knot of in this this wise wise: "I of neighbors town, addressed neighbors in I know enough I hear you you don't believe I to hold hold office. office. I don't believe enough to to understand that I thinking about somewish you to understand that I am some about thinking you thing or other other most of the time." time." Now reflective reflective of the thing or thought is like this coursing of things through is like this random thought coursing of things through in that the mind in that it it consists of things things consists of of a succession succession of thought of; but it it is in that the mere chance chance is unlike, that the of; but unlike, in thought other" in occurrence of any in occurrence of or other" any chance "something "something or an irregular irregular sequence sequence does not not suffice. Reflection suffice. Reflection not simply of ideas, but a involves not involves cona con.ideas, but sequence of simply a sequence a sequence-a consecutive ordering in such a way that a consecutive in that sequence ordering way
'

WHAT IS IS THOUGHT? WHAT THOUGHT ?

3 3

the next next as determines the as its each determines its proper each while proper outcome, outcome, while in turn turn leans leans back back on on its each in its predecessors. The suceach The suc predecessors. of the reflective reflective thought grow out of cessive portions out of portions of thought grow another; they do not come one another and support.9ne not j>ne support another; they a medley;--Each and go a step is a from somesome go in a medley r~" Each phase phase is step from thing to something technically speaking, it is a it is a term term thing something technically speaking, of thought. leaves of Each term leaves a deposit which is is utilized utilized thought. deposit term. The stream or flow in the the next term. in flow becomes a a train, train, chain, chain, or thread. II. Even when thinking is used in in a broad sense, II. restrillit is Tterestrieis The thinking is sense, it f restricted to to matters not directly usually perceived: to ~;i:~!..u to to usually restricted directly perceived: to what we do not see, or touch. wiiat goes touch. We ask ask the the what see, smell, smell, hear, hear, or goes if he saw a certain certain incident man telling incident happen, telling a story story if happen, ~:dobser. " his reply I and his may be, "No, I only thought of it." of it" A A vation No, reply may be, only thought note of invention, as distinct from faithful record of distinct faithful record of invention, is present. observation, is present. Most important important in this class class in this observation, successions are of are successions of imaginative incidents and episodes imaginative incidents episodes having a a certain certain coherence, coherence, hanging hanging together together on on which, having which, a a continuous continuous thread, thread, lie lie between kaleidoscopic kaleidoscopic flights flights of of fancy and considerations considerations deliberately deliberately employed employed to to estab estabfancy lish imaginative stories stories poured poured forth forth lish a a conclusion. conclusion. The imaginative children all of by children possess all degrees of internal congruity; internal possess by degrees congruity; some are disjointed, disjointed, some are are articulated. articulated. When con conthey simulate simulate reflective reflective thought; thought; indeed, indeed, they they nected, they nected, usually occur in in minds of of logical logical capacity. capacity. These usually often imaginative enterprises often precede thinking of of the the imaginative enterprises precede thinking close-knit and close-knit type type prepare the the way way for for it. it. But But they they Reflective Reflective prepare do not not aim at at knowledge, knowledge, at at belief belief about facts or in truths; ~OUghht about or in truths; facts , BlDlS, :O'W'and and thereby thereby they they are are marked mar~ed off off from from reflective reflective thought thought erer/at ever, at even even when when they they most most resemble resemble it. it. Those Those who who express express beaef such such thoughts thoughts do do not not expect expect credence, credence, but but rather rather credit credit for or a a well-arranged well-arranged climax. climax. for a a well-constructed well-constructed plot plot or They produce produce good good stories, stories, not not - unless unless by by chance chanceThey

44

HOW HOW WE WE THINK THINK

Thought Thought induces induces beliefin in belief two ways twowaye

Such thoughts knowledge. are an an efflorescence knowledge. Such efflorescence of thoughts are of the enhancement enhancement of feeling; of a a mood mood or or sentiment feeling; the sentiment is is their aim; aim congruity of emotion, tie. their their binding tie. emotion,their congruity of binding III. In In its its next next sense, III. denotes belief belief resting sense, thought thought denotes restingu P on some some basis, basis that that is, ls real upon real or or supposed supposed knowledge knowledge what is going is directly going beyond It is is marked beyond what marked present. It directly present. or by acceptance orrtzjection of somethz'ng as reasonably prob. as by acceptance rejection of something reasonably prob able or or improbable. This phase of thought, however, able This improbable. phase of thought, however, includes two two such such distinct distinct types includes of belief belief that, even types of that, even their difference is is strictly though not one of though their difference of degree, strictly one degree, not of kind, it becomes practically important to of kind, it consider practically important to consider them separately. them beliefs are are accepted separately. Some beliefs when accepted when their grounds their themselves been been considered, grounds have not themselves considered, others are accepted others because their their grounds have been accepted because been grounds have examined. examined. /-used to think the the world world was was fiat," / When we say, to think say, "Men used flat," "I thought you you went by by the the house," house," we we express express bebeor, " I thought or, I lief lief : something something is is accepted, accepted, held held to, to, acquiesced acquiesced in, in, or or affirmed. But such thoughts "'affirmed. thoughts may may mean a a supposition supposition accepted without without reference reference to to its its real real grounds. grounds. These These accepted be may be adequate, adequate, they they may may not; not; but but their their value value with with may reference the support support they they afford afford the the belief belief has has not not reference to to the been been considered. considered. Such Such thoughts thoughts grow grow up up unconsciously unconsciously and and without without reference the attainment attainment of of correct correct belief. belief. They They are are reference to to the picked up up - we we know know not not how. how. From From obscure obscure sources sources picked and and by by unnoticed unnoticed channels channels they they insinuate insinuate themselves themselves into into acceptance acceptance and and become become unconsciously unconsciously a a part part of of our our mental mental furniture. furniture. Tradition, Tradition, instruction, instruction, imitation imitation - all all of of which which depend depend upon upon authority authority in in some some form, form, or to our own or appeal appeal to our own advantage, advantage, or or fall fall in in with with a a strong passion passion - are are responsible responsible for for them. them. Such Such strong thoughts are are prejudices, prejudices, that that is, is, prejudgments, prejudgments, not not thoughts
;

T_

>

WHAT IS IS THOUGHT? WHAT THOUGHT?

5 5

rest upon a survey judgments of evievi proper that rest upon a judgments proper survey of dence.I1 dence. result in in belief belief have an importance IV. Thoughts Thoughts that result importance Thinking Thinking in its best ^^^st leads to to reflective attached to them which leads reflective thought, thought, & sense is that senseistfcat to conscious inquiry into the nature, to and which wMch conconnature, conditions, inquiry into conditions, and siders the the belief. of whales bearings To think of whales and camels f^f"and camels basis bearings of the belief. basis and the clouds clouds is to entertain is to in the entertain ourselves in ourselves with with fancies, consefancies, consequences at our our pleasure, which do not terminable at not lead lead to to any pleasure, * any of 5?^* of beliefs beliefs in particular. belief in of the belief But to think of the world as as flat flat is is particular. to ascribe a quality real thing as its to its real real property. quality to a real thing as property. connection among This conclusion denotes a connection and among things things and is not, like imaginative hence is plastic to our to not, like our imaginative thought, thought, plastic Belief in the world's world's flatness mood. Belief flatness commits commits him who it to thinking in certain certain specific of other holds it other thinking in specific ways ways of objects, such as the heavenly bodies, antipodes, the possithe objects, heavenly bodies, antipodes, possi It prescribes prescribes to to him actions actions in bility of navigation. navigation. It in acac bility with his cordance with of these his conception these objects. conception of objects. The consequences consequences of of a a belief belief upon upon other other beliefs beliefs and and upon behavior behavior may may be so so important, important, then, then, that that men are are upon forced forced to to consider consider the the grounds grounds or or reasons reasons of of their their belief belief and its its logical logical consequences. consequences. This This means reflective reflective thought- thought thought in in its its eulogistic eulogistic and emphatic emphatic sense. sense. thought Men thought thought the world was flat flat until until Columbus Columbus thought thought it it to to be round. round. The earlier earlier thought thought was a a belief belief held held because men had not the the energy energy or or the the courage courage to to ques question those about them them accepted accepted and taught, taught, tion what those as it was suggested and seemingly seemingly confirmed confirmed especially as it especially suggested by obvious obvious sensible sensible facts. facts. The The thought thought of of Columbus Columbus by was reasoned conclusion. conclusion. It It marked marked the the close close of of study study was a a reasoned into into facts, facts, of of scrutiny scrutiny and and revision revision of of evidence, evidence, of of work working out out the the implications implications of of various various hypotheses, hypotheses, and and of of ing
' ,

...

-J

1 This mode of 1 This mode ofthinking thinking in in its its contrast contrast with with thoughtful thonghtful inquiry inquiry receives receives in the the next next chapter. chapter. !ipecial notice in special notice

HOW WE

THINK

Refiective Reftective &ought defined defined

comparing these theoretical theoretical results results with with one another another and and comparing these facts. Because Columbus did not not accept with known facts. accept the current current traditional traditional theory, theory, because because he unhesitatingly he unhesitatingly the his arrived at he arrived at his thought. Skepdoubted and inquired, thought. inquired, Skep tical of what, what, from long long habit, habit, seemed most certain, certain, and and tical of impossible, he went on thinking thinking credulous of of what seemed impossible, credulous until he he could could produce produce evidence for both both his his confidence until evidence for confidence and his his disbelief. his conclusion conclusion had finally finally disbelief. Even if if his been turned out wrong, it would have a different sort different sort of out wrong, it of it was reached belief it antagonized, belief from those those it because it reached antagonized, because by a different different method. method. Active, Active,persistent, concareful conby a persistent and carif211 sideration of sideration any beNe! supposedform form of of knowledge knowledge in in of any belief or supposed thefurther the lght the grounds grounds that support it, it, and the further conthat sttpport con f the ^g^t of clusions to it tends, reflective thought. thought. clusions to which it constitutes reflective tends, constitutes Anyone of the first three kinds of thought may elicit the one of first three of thought may elicit Any this type; this but once begun, it is a conscious and voluntary but it is once conscious begun, type voluntary effort to to establish establish belief belief upon upon a firm firm basis basis of of reasons. reasons. effort
\

2. 2.

The Central Factor in Central Factor in Thinking Thinking

There are, are, however, however, no sharp of demarcation demarcation lines of There is is a sharp lines c;ommon elebetween tiie various the various operations just outlined. outlined. The operations just mentin all types of problem of attaining correct habits of reflection of correct habits of reflection would types problem of attaining thought: be much easier easier than than it it is, not the different modes of of did not the different is, did thinking blend insensibly one another. another. So far, into one far, we thinking blend insensibly into have considered rather extreme instances instances of considered rather of each each kind kind in order to in to get get the the field field clearly clearly before before us. us. Let Let us us now this operation; operation; let a rudimentary rudimentary reverse this reverse let us us consider consider a of case case of thinking, lying between careful examination of careful examination of thinking, lying fancies. A evidence and a mere irresponsible of fancies. stream of A irresponsible stream man is is walking walking on a warm day. The sky sky was clear the clear the day. last time he observed it; last it; but but presently presently he he notes, notes, while while that the air is occupied primarily with with other things, that the air is occupied primarily things, cooler. It occurs cooler. It occurs to to him that that it it is is probably probably going to to going

WHAT
rain; rain ; the sun, sun, the

IS IS

THOUGHT?

looking up, up, he sees sees a dark cloud cloud between between him him and and looking and he then quickens quickens his his steps. steps. What, What, if if any anysituation can be called called thought thought? Neither thing, in in such a situation ? Neither thing, the act act of of walking walking nor nor the the noting noting of of the the cold cold is is a thought thought. the of is one direction and noting Walking is direction of activity; looking and Walking activity; looking noting of activity. activity. The likelihood likelihood that that it it will will modes of is, however, something suggested. pedestrian The is, however, something suggested. pedestrian feels the the cold; cold; he thinks thinks of of clouds clouds and a coming coming feels shower. shower. moo. Buggea. far there there is is the the same sort sort of of situation situation as as when one one *** So far tion ofsom.. at a cloud is looking at is reminded of of a human figure figure and thing looking not face. Thinking in both of of these these cases cases (the (the cases cases of of bebe- observed face. Thinking in of fancy) involves a a noted noted or or perceived perceived fact, fact, lief and of lief fancy) involves by something something else else which is is not not observed observed but but followed by followed which is is brought brought to to mind, mind, suggested suggested by by the the thing thing seen. seen. which One reminds reminds us, say, of of the the other. Side by side, as we say, other. Side by us, as side, with this factor of agreement in the cases however, this factor of in the two cases however, agreement of suggestion suggestion is is a factor disagreement. We factor of of marked disagreement. of in the face suggested the cloud; do not not believe the face by the believe in do cloud; we do suggested by not consider all the the probability probability of its being being a fact fact. at all of its not consider at There is rain, on of rain, is no reflective danger of refiectwe thought. thought The danger as a genuine the contrary, presents itself to us possibilus as itself to the genuine possibil contrary, presents as ity-as a possible fact of the same nature as the obfact of the the ob as possible ity Put differently, we do not regard the served coolness. served coolness. regard differently, cloud as But refteeor indicating a face, as meaning cloud as face, but merely meaning or indicating a merely as tiou involvet suggesting it, while we do consider that the coolness may that coolness consider while the may also the suggesting it, relation of of In the just relation mean rain. the first first case, rain. case, seeing object, we just seeing an object, &ign.ij'ying _. in happen, as we say, to think of something else; in the happen, as say, to think of something else con the consecond, possibility and nature of consider the the possibility of the second, we consider the o1?ject nection seen and the the object between the nection between object suggested. suggested. object seen the ground in some way as in The seen is regarded seen thing ground or way the regarded as thing is it possesses basis belief in the suggested thing; it the in basis of the possesses thing suggested of belief quality of eviiknce. of evidence. quality rain rain other are other are

iii
;

8 8
Various Various
expressions

HOW WE THINK

synonymous cates synonymous cates another, another, expressions for the the for function of of function signifying signifying

This function function by by which one thing thing signifies signifies or or indi indio This thereby leads leads us us to to consider consider how far far and thereby regarded as as warrant for for belief belief in in the the other, other, one may may be regarded one

is, then, then, the the central central factor factor in in all all reflective reflective or or distinctively distinctively is, intellectual thinking. thinking. By By calling calling up up various various situations situations to to intellectual sz'gnijies and indicates z'ndcates apply, apply, the the stu stuwhich such such terms terms as as signifies which
dent will will best best realize realize for for himself himself the the actual actual facts facts denoted denoted dent by the the words words reflective re.flectve thought. thought. by are: points points terms are terms Synonyms for for these these Synonyms to, tells tells of, of, betokens, betokens, prognosticates, prognosticates, : to, 1 We also also say say one thing thing represents, stands stands for, for, implies. implies. 1 represents, or a of another; is ominous of another, or a symptom portends ominous is another another, ; symptom portends

We

Reflection Reflection
and belief belief and on evidence evidence on

the connection connection is is quite quite ob obof it, or or a a key key to to it, it, or or (if of it, (if the or intimation. scure) that it gives a hint, clue, or intimation. a it that hint, clue, gives scure) Reflection thus thus implies implies that that something something is is believed believed in in Reflection direct its own (or disbelieved in), not on its direct account, but not but account, (or disbelieved in), as- witness, stands as evi through something witness, evielse which stands through something else as ground be* that is, ground of dence, proof, voucher, voucher, warrant; is, as dence, proof, warrant; that of befelt or directly ex lief. At one one time, time, rain rain is directly exis actually lief. actually felt it has rained at another time, time, we infer infer that that it rained perienced j at perienced; that from the looks of the grass trees, or that it is going or it is the looks of the and trees, going grass air or the rain because of of the the air the state to the condition to rain condition of of the state of of man the we see a (or suppose the barometer. see barometer. At one time, time, (or suppose we do) fact at at another time, without any time, do) without intermediary fact; any intermediary we are see, and hunt for for accomare not accom not quite sure what we see, quite sure will serve as signs, that will tokens panying facts that serve as indications, tokens signs, indications, panying facts of be believed. is to to be of what is believed. Thinking, for the the purposes of this this inquiry, is defined defined Thinking, for purposes of inquiry, is as that that operatz'on z'n which present facts sugaccordingly as in operation present facts accordingly sug other to facts (or truths) in such a way as to induce begest other in induce befacts (or truths) way gest
;

1 Implies is a principle 1 often used or general used when a truth bringJ Implies is more often general truth bring? principle or in some other belief in other truth; truth ; the about belief the other are more frequently other phrases phrases are frequently used to to denote the cases in used the cases in which one fact fact or event leads to believe or event leads us us to believe in in something else. something else.

WHAT

IS IS

THOUGHT?

latter upon lief in the upon the the ground ground or warrant of the the latter of the Uef in not beliefs that We rest simply do not put beliefs that rest simply former. on put former. surest level of assurance. assurance. inference on the the surest level of say To say inference " " I think I do not so implies "I think so" implies that that I not as yet so. The yet know so. later be inferential belief may later confirmed to and confirmed come to inferential belief may in itself but it stand but in itself it always has a certain elehas a as sure, certain ele stand as sure, always supposition. of supposition. ment of

3. 3.

in Reflective Elements in Reflective Thinking Elements Thinking

for the the more external So much for the description of the external and description of

of the fact called called thi1zking. obvious aspects the fact Further Further obvious aspects of thinking. at once reveals certain subprocesses consideration at reveals certain consideration subprocesses which in every reflective are : are involved involved in reflective operation. These are = are operation. every

doubt and (b) (a) a state perplexity, hesitation, hesitation, doubt; of perplexity, state of (8) an (a) a or directed toward act of search or investigation directed bringing search of act investigation bringing serve to corroborate or facts which serve to corroborate or to to to light light further further facts to nullify the the suggested belief. suggested belief. nullify (a) the shock of coolness generated generated of coolness our illustration, illustration, the (a) In our at least least momentarily. belief, at confusion and suspended confusion suspended belief, momentarily. J or an interrupBecause it unexpected, it it was a shock or it was unexpected, Because interrup be accounted accounted for, or placed. placed. tion needing needing to to be tion for, identified, identified, or of the occurrence of tem To say say that that the abrupt occurrence of the change of temabrupt change a forced and perature constitutes problem may sound forced constitutes problem may perature artificial; but willing to extend the the meaning meaning to extend if we are are willing artificial but if of the the vrmdifroblem word }roblem to to whatever whatever - no matter matter how slight of slight character - perplexes chal commonplace in in character and commonplace perplexes and chalall lenges the mind so that it belief at all uncertain, belief at makes so that it uncertain, lenges the in this there is genuine problem problem or or question question involved involved in this is a genuine there experience change. of sudden change. experience of (b) turning of the head, head, the the lif lifting of the eyes, the eyes, of the ting of () The turning activities adapted the scanning scanning of of the heavens, are adapted to to the the heavens, are activities the bring to recognition facts that will the question will answer to facts that recognition question bring facts as as titey presented by by the The facts they coolness. the sudden coolness. presented
;
'
.
;

Tie Thelmporimportanc tance

t uncertaintf uncertainty

of

and of of

~ JJ*!^ to teat totest

10 10

HOW WE THINK HOW WE

;

FincJing

one's way an illustration of 011 refiection

first first presented perplexing they presented themselves were perplexing; they sugsug of looking clouds. The act of gested, act however, clouds. looking was an act gested, however, to if this this suggested discover if to discover It explanation held good. good. It suggested explanation this to of may again seem forced to speak of this looking, almost forced almost speak looking, may again or inquiry. acfr of of research or But once automatic, as an aclf once automatic, as inquiry. if we are willing to generalize our conceptions more, to are if more, generalize willing conceptions to include the trivial of trivial and of our mental operations and operations to technical ordinary as well as the technical and recondite, well as there recondite, there ordinary as for refusing to give is is no good a title reason for title to to refusing to give such a good reason of this this act act of the The purport of inquiry the act act of of looking. looking. purport of inquiry or to refute the suggested New is is to to confirm confirm or to refute belief. suggested belief. to perception, either corrobofacts are are brought facts corrobo brought to perception, which either rate idea that of weather is is imminent, rate the that a change the idea or imminent, or change of it. negate it. negate Another instance, not quite so also, yet instance, commonplace commonplace also, quite so yet not m trivial, may enforce this lesson. A traveling in an enforce this man lesson. in an trivial, ^Y traveling branching of of the the roads. roads. unfamiliar region region comes to to a branching unfamiliar no sure Having sure knowledge to fall upon, is fall to back Having knowledge upon, he is to a standstill brought to standstill of hesitation and suspense. suspense. of hesitation brought Which road road is is right? right? And how shall shall perplexity perplexity be be resolved? resolved? There are are but but two alternatives: alternatives: he he must must either either blindly blindly and arbitrarily arbitrarily take take his his course, course, trusting trusting to to luck luck for for the the outcome, outcome, or or he he must discover discover grounds grounds for for the the conclusion conclusion that that a a given given road road is is right. right. Any Any attempt attempt to to decide decide the the matter matter by by thinking thinking will will involve involve inquiry inquiry into other facts, facts, whether brought brought out out by by memory memory or or by by into other further further observation, observation, or or by by both. both. The perplexed perplexed way wayfarer farer must carefully carefully scrutinize scrutinize what is is before before him him and and he must cudgel cudgel his his memory. memory. He looks looks for for evidence evidence that that will will support support belief belief in in favor favor of of either either of of the the roads roads that will will weight weight down one one suggestion. suggestion. - for for evidence evidence that He may may climb a tree tree; he may may go go first first in in this this direction, direction, thea then in in that, that, looking, looking, in in either either case, case, for for signs, signs, clues, clues,
;

WHAT IS IS THOUGHT? WHAT

I I II

in the indications. He wants something the nature indications. nature of of a a something in a map, is aimed at signboard at the the map, and his reflection reflection is signboard or a this purpose. discovery offacts discovery of facts that will serve this purpose. illustration may The above illustration be generalized. ThinkThink- Possible, generalized. may possible, m~ y incomin ing begins in what may fairly enough be called afiorkedyet be called a ing begins may fairly enough forked- patible, *^^ a situation situation which is is ambiguous, road situation, which suggestions situation, a suggestions ambiguous, which a presents a dilemma, which proposes alternatives. dilemma, proposes alternatives. As presents as our activity long one glides smoothly long as activity glides smoothly along along from one to another, thing our imaginaanother, or as long thing to long as we permit permit our imagina to entertain fancies at pleasure, tion to tion there is is no call call for for pleasure, there reflection. obstruction in reflection. Difficulty in the the way of Difficulty or obstruction way of belief brings reaching In to a pause. In us, however, however, to reaching a belief brings us, pause. the suspense climb a a suspense of uncertainty, uncertainty, we metaphorically metaphorically climb find tree tree; we try to find some standpoint from which which we try standpoint facts and, may com and, getting may survey survey additional facts getting a more comview the manding of the situation, may decide how the facts decide the facts situation, may manding stand stand related related to to one another. another. the solution Demandfor is the for the solution of of a perplexity perplexity is the steadying steadying Regulation Regulatien f and guiding guiding factor factor in in the the entire mtire process process of of reflection. reflection. ? ~f ~ ^" Where there there is is no question question of of a problem problem to to be be solved solved p~ or or a a difficulty difficulty to to be surmounted, surmounted, the the course course of of suggestions suggestions flows at random random; we have the the first first type type of of thought thought flows on at described. If the described. If the stream stream of of suggestions suggestions is is controlled controlled by their their emotional emotional congruity, congruity, their their fitting fitting agree agreesimply by simply a into or we or story, the second ably into single picture have the second ably single picture story, question to to be answered, answered, an ambiguity ambiguity to to type. But a question type. be resolved, resolved, sets sets up up an end and holds holds the the current current of of ideas ideas to to a definite definite channel. channel. Every Every suggested suggested conclusion conclusion is tested by by its its reference reference to to this this regulating regulating end, end, by by its its is tested pertinence to to the the problem problem in in hand. hand. This This need of of pertinence straightening out out a perplexity perplexity also also controls controls the the kind kind of of straightening undertaken. traveler whose end is the most inquiry undertaken. traveler is A the most inquiry beautiful beautiful path path will will look look for for other other considerations considerations and
;
l

12 12

HOW WE WE THINK HOW

will test to him on another prin. test suggestions will suggestions occurring occurring to prin if he wishes to to discover discover the the way ciple to a a given ciple than if way to given the end of city. The problem problem .fixes the end end of thought city. fixes the thought and the the process controls the thinking. controls process of of thinking.

4. 4. Summary Summary
Origin and

estioDi SUu Suggestion!

andpaat .speri.nGe

that the origin We may of recapitulate by origin of may recapitulate saying that by saying thinking is some perplexity, or doubt. doubt. ThinkThink confusion, or thinking is perplexity, confusion, is not a case ing of spontaneous case of it does does combustion; it spontaneous combustion; ing is is some not occur just just on "general There is some "general principles." principles/' it thing General occasions and evokes it. General thing specific specific which occasions to a child child (or to to to a grown.up) to think, irrespec. appeals think, appeals to (or irrespec grown-up) the existence tive of the his own experience of some in his tive of existence in experience of his equilibrium, difficulty that troubles troubles him and disturbs disturbs his difficulty that equilibrium, as futile are as advice to his boot.straps. futile as to lift himself by as advice lift himself by his boot-straps. is suggestion suggestion of of Given a difficulty, the next step step is difficulty, the out the formation of out-the formation of some tentative plan some way tentative plan way or project, the entertaining entertaining of of some theory theory which which will will or project, for the the peculiarities peculiarities in the considera account for in question, considera question, the of some solution tion problem. The data data at tion of solution for for the the problem. at hand cannot cannot supply supply the the solution solution; they they can only only suggest suggest it it. What, then, then, are are the the sources of the the suggestion? suggestion? sources of What, and past experience prior knowledge. If the Clearly If the prior knowledge. Clearly past experience had person has acquaintance with similar situations, has some with similar situations, person acquaintance if he has dealt if dealt with with material material of of the the same sort sort before, before, more or and or less apt helpful are likely to arise. suggestions are less to arise. suggestions apt helpful likely But unless unless there there has has been experience experience in in some degree degree analogous, which may may now be represented represented in in imagination, imagination, analogous, confusion is nothing nothing confusion remains remains mere confusion. confusion. There is upon which to to draw in in order order to to clarify clarify it it. Even when upon a child child (or (or a a grown-up) grown.up) has has a a problem, problem, to to urge urge him to to think think when he has has no prior prior experiences experiences involving involving some of of the the same conditions, conditions, is is wholly wholly futile. futile.
;

WHAT

IS IS

THOUGHT?

13 13
ExploratiCl'll Exploration
and

If the the suggestion suggestion that that occurs occurs is is at at once once accepted, accepted, we If have uncritical thinking, the of reflection. To the minimum reflection. To of have uncritical thinking, in means to to hunt "tum the thing over in mind, to reflect, means to over turn the thing mind, reflect, for additional additional evidence, evidence, for for new data, data, that that will will de defor and will as we bear the suggestion, suggestion, will either, either, as say, bear it it velop the say, velop out or or else else make obvious obvious its its absurdity absurdity and irrelevance. irrelevance. out genuine difficulty difficulty and a reasonable reasonable amount of of Given a a genuine Given to draw upon, upon, the the difference, difference, par par analogous experience experience to analogous e%cellence, between good good and bad thinking thinking is is found at at excellence, this point. point. The easiest easiest way way is is to to accept accept any any suggestion suggestion this that seems seems plausible plausible and thereby thereby bring bring to to an end the the that condition of of mental mental uneasiness. uneasiness. Reflective Reflective thinking thinking is is condition always or less troublesome because it involves because it troublesome involves or less more always the inertia inertia that that inclines inclines one to to accept accept sug sugovercoming the overcoming at their face value; it involves willingness to gestions involves to it their face at value; willingness gestions endure a a condition of mental mental unrest unrest and disturbance. disturbance. condition of endure short, means judgment judgment suspended Reflective thinking, in short, Reflective suspended thinking, in during further inquiry; suspense is likely likely to to be and further suspense is inquiry; during im most somewhat painful. As shall see later, the imshall see we later, painful. portant factor in the training of good mental habits habits in the of factor training good portant of suspended conclu consists attitude of the attitude in acquiring consists in suspended concluacquiring the sion, and in mastering the various methods of searching of various the in sion, searching mastering refute the first first to refute for to corroborate materials to corroborate or to for new materials state of suggestions that occur. To maintain the state of doubt that occur. suggestions and to to carry protracted inquiryinquiry systematic and protracted carry on systematic these of thinking. are the the essentials these are essentials of thinking.

* and tcstijl testin,

CHAPTER CHAPTER TWO TWO

THE NEED FOR TRAINING TRAINING THOUGHT
Man the the ]\(an
thinks tninks
animal that animal

To expatiate of thought would expatiate upon upon the importance importance of thought would " traditional definition be absurd. The traditional definition of of man as as "the the " animal thinking animal" fixes thought as the essential difference fixes as the essential difference thinking thought between man and the brutes, mat brutes, - surely important matsurely an important ter. ter. More relevant is the question relevant to to our purpose is the purpose question how is important, thought for an answer to to this this question thought is important, for question will throw light upon the kind of training of re light upon training thought thought reif it quires it is is to to subserve its its end. quires if

The Thepossipossi
of IIilityof bility
deliberate deliberate

I.

The Values of of Thought Thottght

and and in intentional tentional

activity activity

I. 1. Thought Thought affords affords the the sole sole method of of escape escape from from purely impulsive or purely routine action. being or routine action. A purely impulsive purely being without capacity capacity for for thought thought is is moved only only by by instincts instincts and appetites, appetites, as as these these are are called called forth forth by by outward outward con conditions ditions and by by the the inner inner state state of of the the organism. organism. A being being thus thus moved is, is, as as it it were, were, pushed pushed from from behind. behind. This This is is what what we we mean by by the the blind blind nature nature of of brute brute actions. actions. The agent agent does does not not see see or or foresee foresee the the end end for for which which he he is is acting, acting, nor nor the the results results produced produced by by his his behaving behaving in in one one " know what way rather rather than than in in another. another. He He does does not not" know what way he he is is about." about." Where Where there there is is thougKt, thougnt, things things present present act act as as signs signs or or tokens tokens of of things things not not yet yet experienced. experienced. A thinking being being can, can, accordingly, accordingly, act act on on the the basis basis of of the the thinking absent absent and and the the future. future. Instead Instead of of being being pushed pushed into into a a mode mode of of action action by by the the sheer sheer urgency urgency of of forces, forces, whether whether

:l4

THE NEED FOR TRAINING THOUGHT

IS 15

or habits, of which he is instincts habits, of reflective is not not aware, instincts or aware, a reflective is drawn (to agent extent at to action by at least) to action (to some extent agent is least) by object of of which he is aware. some remoter object is indirectly aware. indirectly without thought thought may may go its hole hole when into its An animal without go into rain threatens, threatens, because of of some immediate stimulus to to rain will its organism. A thinking agent will perceive that certhat cer its organism. thinking agent perceive facts are of a future tain given are probable probable signs rain, and future rain, tain signs of given facts in of the this will take take steps in the light of this anticipated future. will steps light anticipated future. To plant plant seeds, to cultivate the soil, to harvest grain, to cultivate the to harvest seeds, soil, grain, are intentional possible only only to a being being who has has to a intentional acts, are acts, possible to subordinate the felt elements of learned the immediately of learned to immediately felt to those an experience experience to those values values which these these hint hint at Natural at and Natural an in events come prophesy. Philosophers of the phrases made the have much of Philosophers phrases prophesy. to be a ^Jbfa language "book of nature," "language nature. " Well, Well, it it is is in in language of nature," of nature." "language of of thought virtue of the capacity capacity of thought that given things things are that given are virtue of the significant things, and that nature speaks speaks a that nature of absent things, significant of language may interpreted. To a being which be being who interpreted. language may thinks, things are records of their past, as fossils tell tell are their fossils records of as thinks, things past, of the of the the prior history of the earth, earth, and are prophetic prophetic of of of prior history of heavenly their future, future, as as from the the present present positions positions of heavenly their bodies remote remote eclipses eclipses are are foretold. Shakespeare's foretold. bodies Shakespeare's ex in the "tongues in trees, trees, books books in the running running brooks," brooks," ex"tongues in exist to presses literally enough the power superadded to existthe power superadded presses literally enough ences when they they appeal appeal to to a thinking thinking being. being. Upon Upon ences all in all the function depend all foresight, all inthe function of of signification foresight, signification depend telligent planning, deliberation, calculation. calculation. and telligent planning, deliberation, II. develops and arranges arranges artiarti- T&epssiThe pe88iII. By also develops By thought thought man also ficial fidal signs to remind him in in advance of consequences, consequences, ^j^t^f ~=;!r signs to securing and avoiding gvoiding them. As the the trait trait foresight foreeiglrt and of of ways of securing ways of just mentioned makes the the difference difference between savage savage man just brute, so trait makes the the difference difference between this trait and brute, so this who has been A civilized man and savage. savage civilized savage savage. shipwrecked in a river may note certain things certain a note in river things which shipwrecked may

16

HOW WE THINK

The poaaipossi bility of bility of objects rich objects rid!. in If1Illlity ill quality

serve him as as signs signs of of danger danger in in the the future. future. But civilized civilized serve deliberately makes such such signs; signs; he sets sets up up in in ad ad~ man deliberately vance of of wreckage wreckage warning warning buoys, buoys, and builds builds light lightvance sees signs signs that that such events events may may occur. occur. houses where he sees houses great expertness; expertness; savage reads reads weather signs signs with with great A savage institutes a weather service service by by which signs signs civilized man institutes civilized are artificially artificially secured secured and information information is is distributed distributed in in are of that advance of the appearance of any signs that could be could of the advance be any signs appearance detected without without special special methods. methods. A savage savage finds finds his his detected way skillfully skillfully through through a a wilderness wilderness by by reading reading certain certain way obscure indications; civilized civilized man builds builds a highway highway obscure indications; the road road to to all all The savage savage learns learns to to which shows the which detect the signs signs of of fire fire and thereby thereby to to invent invent methods methods detect the permanent of producing producing flame; flame; civilized civilized man invents invents permanent of conditions for for producing producing light light and heat heat whenever they they conditions of civilized civilized culture are needed. The very very essence of culture is is are needed. and that we deliberately erect memorials, monuments erect that memorials, deliberately lest we forget forget; and deliberately deliberately institute, in advance of of lest institute, in the the happening of various various contingencies emergencies contingencies and emergencies happening of of detecting their their approach regisdevices for of life, for detecting life, devices approach and regis off what is is unfavorable, tering nature, for unfavorable, for warding their nature, warding off tering their its full full impact or protecting ourselves impact least for at least for protecting ourselves from its or at and for more secure and extensive what is favor~ extensive is favor for making secure making are able. All forms of are intentionally of artificial able. artificial apparatus apparatus intentionally in order designed of natural natural things order that that modifications of things in designed modifications they may serve better than in their natural estate to in in natural estate to in better their serve they may the absent, and the remote. dicate the remote. the hidden, the dicate the hidden, absent, III. confers upon events III. Finally, upon physical thought confers physical events Finally, thought and objects different status status and value value from that that very different objects a very to a being that does not reflect. reflect which they possess to being that they possess These words are curious variations of are mere scratches, variations of scratches, curious light are not linguistic to one to to whom they shade, to light and shade, linguistic they for whom they signs. are signs of other other things, signs. To him for signs of things, they are
;

THE NEED FOR TRAINING THOUGHT

I7 17

definite individuality of its its own, each to each has a definite own, according according to individuality of it is is used to that it to convey. the same the the meaning meaning that Exactly the convey. Exactly A chair chair is is a different different object A holds holds of objects, of natural oliects. object to it it consciously suggests to to whom to a being being consciously suggests an opporoppor for sitting or sociable sociable converse, tunity down, repose, converse, from sitting down, repose, or tunity for to one to to whom it it presents it is is to what it itself merely itself as a a presents merely as to or thing to be smelled, or gnawed, or jumped over; a or smelled, gnawed, thing jumped over; to one who knows something is different different to stone stone is of its its something of its future future use from what it past to one it is is to history and its past history feels it it directly his senses. senses. It is is only It who only through his only feels directly through only that we can say that an unthinking by unthinking indeed, that courtesy, indeed, say that by courtesy, all at allso largely is anyso animal experiences experiences an object object at largely is any that itself to as thing that presents itself to us as an object up made thing presents object up the it as by the qualities it possesses as a sign of other things. of other possesses qualities sign things. by An English The nature English logician (Mr. Venn) Venn) has remarked that that it it Thenature logician (Mr. a be whether sees may questioned dog sees a rainbow any ~~:i:~ dog questioned may any more than he apprehends the political political constitution constitution of of p&rcein8 apprehends the the lives. the country country in in which he lives. The same principle principle ap apin which he sleeps the kennel in sleeps and the meat that that plies to to the plies he eats. eats. to the the kennel When he is is sleepy, kennel; goes to sleepy, he goes when he is is hungry, hungry, he is is excited excited by by the the smell smell and color color of of meat; beyond beyond this, this, in in what sense sense does does he he see an object? object? see an meat; does not not see see a a house - i.e. i.e. a thing thing with with all all Certainly he does Certainly the the properties properties and relations relations of of a a permanent permanent residence, residence. unless is present present a a uniform uniform unJess he is is capable capable of of making making what is of what is absent ~ign of is absent unless is capable of thought. unless he is of sign capable thought* Nor does does he see see what he eats eats as as meat unless unless it it suggests suggests the absent absent properties properties by by virtue virtue of of which it it is is a a certain certain joint of of some animal, animal, and is is known to to afford afford nourish nourishjoint ment Just what is is left left of of an object object stripped stripped of of all all ment. Just such qualities but qualities of of meaning, meaning, we cannot cannot well well say; say; but we can be sure sure that that the the object object is is then then a very very different different sort sort of of thing thing from the the objects objects that that we perceive. perceive. There There
;

18
is

HOW WE THINK

Mill on the the Mill on of business of business life life and the occupation occupation of of mind

is moreover no particular particular limit limit to to the the possibilities possibilities of of as it it is is to growth fusion of to sense sense and as it of a thing in the the fusion as it thing as growth in of other is to thought, or as a sign sign of other things. things. The child toor as child to is to thought, day regards as as constituent constituent parts parts of of objects objects qualities qualities day soon regards it required that required the the intelligence intelligence of a Copernicus that once it or Copernicus or a Newton to to apprehend. apprehend. of the power values of power of of thought thought may may be be These various various values summed up up in in the the following following quotation quotation from John Stuart Stuart John Mill. "To draw inferences," inferences," he says, Mill. said says, "has been said life. of life. to be the great has to great business business of Every one has daily, Every daily, momentary need of of ascertaining facts which hourly, ascertaining facts hourly, and momentary he has not not directly observed: not from any any general purgeneral pur directly observed of adding adding to to his his stock stock of knowledge, but because because pose knowledge, but pose of the themselves are are of to his his interests interests of importance facts themselves the facts importance to of the or to to his his occupations. the magistrate, magistrate, occupations. The business of of the military of military commander, commander, of of the the navigator, navigator, of of the the is physician, of the agriculturist, is merely to judge to of the merely agriculturist, judge of of physician, C'llidence to act act accordingly. . .. they evidence and to ... As this accordingly. they do this well ill the or ill, ill, so they discharge discharge well well or or ill the duties of well or so they duties of several callings. is the the only their cC\.llings. // It is occupatz"on in which their several in only occupation * the never ceases to be be engaged" engaged." 1 the mind never ceases to
:

2. 2.
Thinking Thinking goes astray goes astray

Importance of Di'rection in in order order Importance of Direction Values Values

to

to Realise Realize these these

What a person person has has not not only daily and hourly, hourly, but but only daily momentary need need of of performing, performing, is not a a technical technical and is not momentary abstruse matter abstruse matter; nor, nor, on the the other other hand, hand, is it trivial trivial and is it a function negligible. Such function be congenial to the the must be negligible. congenial to mind, be performed, performed, in in an unspoiled unspoiled mind, mind, mind, and must be
;

occasion. upon every every fitting fitting occasion. Just because, because, however, however, it it upon Just is an operation of drawing is operation of inferences, of basing concluof conclu drawing inferences, basing reaching belief belief indirectly, indirectly, it is sions upon upon evidence, evidence, of of reaching it is
1 1 Mill, System System of Loric, Introducbon, Mill, Introduction, of Loffic,

55.

THE NEED FOR TRAINING THOUGHT

19 19

an operation operation that that may may go go wrong wrong as as well well as as right, right, and an hence is is one that that needs needs safeguarding safeguarding and training. training. The hence greater greater
is ill-exercised.

its importance importance the the greater greater are are the the evils evils when it it its is ill-exercised. Ideas m are earlier writer writer than Mill, Mill, John John Locke (1632-1704), (1632-174), ideas An earlier our rulers-the of for and brings out the importance of thought for life the life the out importance thought brings f^-^^^ for better or for won. need of of training training so so that that its its best best and not not its its worst worst orforwors* need be in realized, in the following words: possibilities will will the words realized, following possibilities " " No man ever ever sets sets himself himself about about anything anything but but upon upon some view or or other, other, which serves serves him for for a a reason reason for for he does; whatsoever faculties faculties he employs, employs, the the does and whatsoever what he ill in understanding with with such light light as as it it has, has, well well or or ill inunderstanding by that that light, light, true true or or false, false, formed, constantly constantly leads; leads; and by formed, all his his operative operative powers powers are are directed. directed. . .. Temples Temples all have their their sacred images, and we see see what influence influence they they sacred images, have over a in have always pver a great part of But in had of mankind. have great part always in men's minds are truth the ideas and images images in are the the the ideas truth invisible powers that to that constantly invisible powers them, and to govern them, constantly govern It these they all, universally, pay a ready submission. It submission. these ready they all, universally, pay is therefore of the highest that great care that concernment care of the therefore is highest great it should understanding, to of the the understanding, to conduct it should be taken of aright the search of knowledge knowledge and in in the judgments it it the judgments in the search of aright in * makes." 1 If activities If upon all deliberate deliberate activities makes/' upon thought hang all thought hang and the the uses our other other powers, all our uses we make of of all powers, Locke's that care assertion that care it is of the the highest that it is of assertion highest concernment that should a moderate statement. statement. of its its conduct is is a should be taken of While the sub us from servile servile subfrees us of thought the power thought frees power of it also jection to instinct, appetite, and routine, it also brings to routine, instinct, appetite, brings jection mistake. error and mistake. with of error it the occasion and possibility with it the occasion possibility of In elevating to us the posit opens the brute, us above above the brute, it pos opens to elevating us to inin the to which the animal, limited to sibility of failures limited of to failures animal, sibility cannot sink. stinct, stinct, cannot sink.
:

1 Locke, 1 Locke,

0/ tie Understanding, ike Condw;' Conduct 0/ first paragraph. Understanding) first paragraph. Oftie ofiht

20

WE THINK HOW WE
Tendencies Needing Constant Regulation Constant Regulation Tendencies Needing

3. 3.
Phyaical and P&yaicaland social sanc .ocia1sanc:tions of corcor tions of rect thinking rectthinking

serious The serious limitations limitation. of such such of unctions sanctions

conditions of Up to to a certain certain point, point, the the ordinary ordinary conditions of life, life, Up the conditions natural provide the conditions requisite natural and social, for social, provide requisite for The inference. of the operations of inference. necessities regulating the necessities operations regulating of a fundamental and persistent persistent discipline life enforce of life enforce a discipline the most cunningly devised artifices for which devised artifices would be for the be cunningly burnt child child dreads dreads the the fire; ineffective substitutes. The burnt ineffective substitutes. fire of correct the painful painful consequence consequence emphasizes the need of the correct emphasizes the inference much more than than would learned discourse on inference discourse on also put the properties of heat. Social conditions also put a preof heat. the properties Social conditions pre in matters correct inferring matters where action action based mium on correct based inferring in on valid valid thought thought is socially important. important. These sanctions sanctions is socially at least least a a of proper thinking thinking may may affect affect life life itself, or at of proper itself, or from perpetual discomfort. The life reasonably free free discomfort. life reasonably perpetual signs enemies, of of food, food, of of the the main social social of shelter, of enemies, shelter, of signs of have to conditions, to be be correctly conditions, apprehended. correctly apprehended. as it But this it is is within this disciplinary training, efficacious efficacious as within disciplinary training, certain does not not carry carry us us beyond beyond a a restricted restricted certain limits, limits, does boundary. Logical attainment in in one direction is no direction is no Logical attainment boundary. conclusions in bar to to extravagant in another. savage bar another. A savage extravagant conclusions in judging of the movements and location judging signs location expert expert in signs of that he hunts, of hunts, will gravely narrate will accept and of animals that accept gravely narrate the most preposterous preposterous yarns concerning the origin of the yarns concerning origin of their habits habits and structures. their structures. When there is no directly directly there is appreciable reaction reaction of inference upon upon the the security security of the the inference appreciable and prosperity prosperity of there are no natural checks to of life, there are natural checks to life, the the acceptance of wrong wrong beliefs. beliefs. Conclusions Conclusions may may be acceptance of generated by a a modicum of because the the sugof fact fact merely generated by sug merely because gestions are vivid vivid and interesting interesting; a a large accumulation gestions are large accumulation of data may fail to to suggest suggest a proper proper conclusion because of conclusion because may fail existing are averse it. IndeInde averse to to entertaining it. existing customs are entertaining of is a "primitive credulity" penden.t of training, there there a is training, "primitive credulity" pendent
;
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THE NEED FOR TRAINING THOUGHT

21 21

to make no distinction which tends to between what a a distinction between which that which it it calls reatrained mind calls calls fancy fancy and that calls a a rea trained

face in in the the clouds clouds is is believed believed sonable sonable conclusion. The face sort of in as some sort of fact, fact, merely merely because because it it is forcibly is forcibly in as Natural is intelligence is no barrier to the the suggested. barrier to intelligence suggested. of nor propagation of error, nor large but untrained experience but untrained error, large experience propagation of fixed the accumulation of false beliefs. beliefs. Errors may to the fixed false to Errors may support one another mutually and weave an ever larger ever larger mutually support of misconception. and firmer firmer fabric misconception. Dreams, Dreams, the posifabric of the posi of the the lines lines of the hand, hand, may be regarded regarded as as tions of of stars, tions stars, the may be the fall fall of valuable signs, signs, and the of cards cards as inevitable as an inevitable valuable of the events of the most crucial crucial signifi signifiomen, while natural natural events omen, Beliefs in cance go disregarded. Beliefs in portents of various of various go disregarded. portents cranny superstitions, kinds, now mere nook and cranny kinds, superstitions, were in in exact once universal. universal. A long long discipline exact science science was discipline required for their conquest. their for conquest required In the the mere function suggestion, there there is is no differIn function of of suggestion, SUpetltitiOll differ- Superstition 11 &8 natural of mercury the power power of of a column of to porpor- JJ^UjJJJ* ence between the mercury to a result science tend rain, rain, and that that of of the entrails of animal or or the the as &8 aGieDce the entrails tend of an animal of war. war. For all all flight of birds to foretell foretell the the fcrtunes fcrtunes of birds to flight of in advance, anybody can tell the spilling of salt is as salt is as tell in advance, the spilling of anybody a likely to import bad luck as the bite of a mosquito to of luck as the bite to bad import mosquito to likely of import malaria. Only systematic regulation of the conmalaria. the con import Only systematic regulation under which observations ditions under ditions are made and severe severe observations are of habits the habits of entertaining suggestions discipline of the of entertaining suggestions can discipline is vicious vicious and secure a decision that one one type type of belief is of belief secure decision that the other sound. The substitution of scientific for of scientific for sound. the other substitution superstitious habits habits of has not brought not been brought of inference inference has superstitious of the about by by any improvement in the acuteness the acuteness of in the about any improvement function" of of the senses or natural workings workings of the function" senses or in in the the natural suggestion. It result of regulation of contliof regulation It is is the the result of the condi suggestion. inference take lions observation and inference take tions under which observation place. place.

22 22
General General causes of

WE THINK HOW HOW WE THINK

SdthiiLkbad thinking: ing: Bacon's

ldos "idols"

Locke Loeke on on the the

influence of of

inilueuce

to note some of It It is is instructive instructive to of the the attempts note some that attempts that have have been been made to to classify the main sources sources of of error error in in classify the for example, beliefs. Francis Bacon, at the reaching at the Bacon, for reaching beliefs. example, modern scientific scientific inquiry, beginnings of modem enumerated beginnings of inquiry, enumerated four such classes, under the somewhat fantastic title four fantastic title of of classes, "idols" erOwAa, images), spectral forms that allure "idols" (Gr. that allure (Gr. eitScoXa, images), spectral false paths. the mind into into false called the the idols, or paths. These he called idols, or of the the phantoms, the market-place, tribe, (b) phantoms, of the (a) (a) tribe, market-place, (c) () the (c) the or den, cave or the theater; less metaphorically, den, and (d) theater; or, or, less (d) the metaphorically, at least (a) least temptations standing erroneous methods (or (a) standing (or at temptations to error) their roots in human nature roots in to nature genererror) that have their gener ally; intercourse and language; (b) those that come from intercourse ally; (b) language; that are are due to (c) to causes causes peculiar a specific to a (c) those that peculiar to specific individual and finally, (d) those that have their sources individual; that those their sources finally, (d) in the fashion or general current of a period. Classifycurrent of general period. Classify ing of fallacious fallacious belief differently, belief somewhat differently, ing these causes of we may may say that two are are intrinsic intrinsic and two two are extrinsic. are extrinsic. say that Of the the intrinsic, intrinsic, one is is common to to all all men alike alike (such (such as the universal universal tendency tendency to to notice notice instances instances that that cor corroborate than those those that that roborate a favorite favorite belief belief more readily readily than contradict contradict it), it), while while the the other other resides resides in in the the specific specific temperament and habits habits of of the the given given individual. individual. Of Of temperament the the extrinsic, extrinsic, one, one. proceeds proceeds from generic generic social social condi conditions the tendency tendency to to suppose suppose that that there there is is a a tions - like like the fact there is is a a word, word, and no fact fact where where there there fact wherever there is is no linguistic linguistic term term - while while the the other other proceeds proceeds from from local temporary social social currents. currents. local and temporary Locke's Locke's method method of of dealing dealing with with typical typical forms forms of of e ii e f j s j ess f wrong b belief is less formal and may be more enlightormai anc j ma more be wrong y enlight can hardly hardly do do better better than than quote quote his his forcible forcible ening. We can ening. and and quaint quaint language, language, when, when, enumerating enumerating different different classes classes of he shows shows different different ways ways in in which which thought thought goes goes of men, men, he : wrong: wrong
;

THE NEED FOR TRAINING THOUGHT

I. 1.

23 23
depeDd depend ence on

(a) first is "The first is of of those those who seldom reason at at all, O) all,

bblt do do and think according according to to the the example of others, but others, ^her!? example of othere.., or who else else they ministers, or they whether parents, parents, neighbors, neighbors, ministers,

of to are pleased pleased to to make choice choice of to have an an implicit implicit faith faith are of in, for the saving of themselves the pains and troubles for themselves troubles in, saving pains thinking and examining themselves." of thinking for themselves." of examining for " selfThis kind is of those 2. "This is of those who put passion in the (b) self2. in the put passion interest, mterest> resolved place of reason, and being resolved that shall govern of that shall govern reason, being place their actions arguments, neither neither use use their their own, own, nor nor actions and arguments, their hearken to to other people's people's reason, reason, any farther than than it it hearken any farther 1 suits their their humor, party." 1 or party." suits humor, interest, interest, or " The third sort is 3. third sort is of those those who readily sin- ( circun* c) circum 3. "The 0) readily and sinscribed scribed but for want for of having that cerely follow reason, follow of that which cerely reason, having J experience experience one may may call sound, roundabout roundabout sense, have not not call large, sense, have large, sound, all that that relates full view of all relates to to the the question. a full question. . . They They sort of converse but with one sort men, they they read read but but one of men, in the hearing sort books, they will not ~ot come in but of of sort of books, hearing but they will sort of a notions. . .. They They have a pretty pretty traffic traffic one sort of notions. with in some little with known correspondents correspondents in little creek creek .. but will will not venture out into the the great ocean of of knowl knowlnot venture out into but great ocean edge." Men of equal natural natural parts parts may may of originally edge." originally equal arrive at and finally arrive at very different stores of knowledge different stores of knowledge very finally " truth, "when the when all all the odds between them has been the truth, understand that to their different scope that has given to their understanddifferent has been scope given ings to to range in, for the gathering up of information of information for the ings gathering up range in, and furnishing their heads with ideas and notions with and their heads ideas notions furnishing 2 observations, to employ their mind." 2 their to whereon mind." observations, employ

" Men's prejudices and inclinations 1 In another place he inclinations impose 1 impose says "Men's place he says: prejudices dis slides into into disoften upon themselves. themselves. . .. Inclination Inclination suggests often upon suggests and slides at last course favorable terms, which which introduce introduce favorable favorable ideas; till at last by by course favorable terms, ideas; till this means that that is clear and evident, evident, thus thus dressed dressed up, up. which, which, this is concluded concluded clear taken in in its native state. making use use of of none but but precise precise determined taken its native state, by by making at all." ideas, would find admittance at all." find no admittance ideas, 3 Tlu 1I of the The Conduct of the Understanding, 3, Understanding, 3.
;

24

HOW HOW WE WE THINK THINK

Effect of of Effect dogmatic: dogmatic ptiJu:iplea, principle*,

of closed

l1 Locke states In another another portion of his his writings, In states the portion of the writings, Locke same ideas ideas in in slightly same different form. form. slightly different I. "That "That which is inconsistent which is inconsistent with I. with our our principles is principles is far from so far from passing for probable so with us that it will with us that it passing for will probable not be be allowed possible. not The reverence reverence borne borne to to these these possible. The is so their and their authority so paramount principles is so great, so principles great, authority paramount to all all other, that the to the testimony, not only of other other men, other, that testimony, not only of men, of our own senses but the evidence of often senses are are often rejected, rejected, when they to vouch anything offer to to these these eses they offer anything contrary contrary to rules. . .. tablished rules. There is is nothing nothing more ordinary ordinary children's receiving than children's into their their minds minds propositions receiving into propositions their parents, . . . from their or those those about about them; nurses, or parents, nurses, them; insinuated in in their which being as well their unwary as well as as unun being insinu:>ted unwary and fastened by degrees, are at biased understandings, fastened are at understandings, by degrees, last (and this whether last this true or false) riveted there by true or riveted there (and false) by long education, beyond all possibility possibility of of long custom and education, beyond all out For men, they are grown being pulled out again. when being pulled men, again. they are grown finding those those of of up, reflecting reflecting upon upon their their opinions opinions and finding up, this sort to as ancient ancient in in their their minds minds as as their their very very this sort to be as memories, not having having observed observed their their early early insinuation, insinuation, memories, nor they got got them, them, they they are are apt apt to to rever revernor by by what means they ence them as as sacred sacred things, things, and not not to to suffer suffer them them to to be be They take take them them as as profaned, touched, touched, or or questioned." questioned." They profaned, standards "to be be the the great great and and unerring unerring deciders deciders of of standards "to truth truth and falsehood, falsehood, and and the the judges judges to to which which they they are are to to appeal appeal in in all all manner manner of of controversies." controversies." " 2. next 2. "Secondly, next to these are men men whose whose under underto these are Secondly, are cast a into a mold, mold, and and fashioned fashioned just just to to standings are cast into standings the the size size of of a a received received hypothesis." hypothesis." Such Such men, men, Locke Locke not denying denying the the existence existence of of facts facts goes on on to to say, say, while while not goes and and evidence, evidence, cannot cannot be be convinced convinced by by the the evidence evidence that that
.

1 lEssay Cont:l!rm"t{ Human Human Understanding, Untkrstandi"t{, bk. hk. IV, IV, ch. ch. XX, xx, "Of "Of Essay Concerning Wrong Assent or or Error." Error." Wrong Assent

THE NEED FOR TRAINING THOUGHT

2S 25

so closed would decide decide them if if their their minds were not so closed would to fixed fixed belief. by adherence to belief. adherence by " Predominant Passions. 3. "Predominant Passions. Thirdly, probabilities 3. Thirdly, probabilities which cross and prevailing passions cross men's appetites which appetites prevailing passions fate. Let ever run the the same fate. ever so so much probability probability hang hang run on one one side reasoning, and money money of a covetous man's reasoning, side of on it is is easy on the the other, easy to to foresee foresee which will will outweigh. other, it outweigh. like mud Earthly minds, like walls, resist the resist the strongest walls, strongest Earthly minds, batteries. batteries. " fourth and last 4. "Authority. last wrong wrong measure measure 4. Authority. The fourth shall take take notice notice of, keeps in of probability probability I I shall in of of, and which keeps error more than all ignorance or error people all the others the others people ignorance together, is up our our assent to to the the common is the giving giving up together, either either of our friends or party, neighreceived opinions, of our friends or received opinions, party, neigh borhood or or country." borhood country." it evident Both Bacon and Locke make it evident that that over over and sources of above the sources of misbelief misbelief that that reside the natural natural reside in in the above individual (like tendencies of of the individual (like those toward hasty hasty tendencies social conditions too far-reaching conditions tend tend and too far-reaching conclusions), conclusions), social to instigate instigate and confirm wrong habits habits of of thinking by confirm wrong to thinking by authority, by conscious instruction, by the even and conscious the even instruction, by authority, by insidious half-conscious half-conscious influences of language, language, influences of more insidious suggestion. Education has imitation, sympathy, and Education has imitation, sympathy, suggestion. individual accordingly not only to safeguard an individual against not to against safeguard only accordingly the besetting besetting erroneous tendencies of his own mind mindthe of his erroneous tendencies its rashness, presumption, presumption, and preference preference of of what chimes chimes its rashness, but also to objective evidence evidence also to with self-interest self-interest to with to objective destroy the the accumulated and self-perundermine and destroy self-per social life petuating prejudices of long long ages. ages. When social life prejudices of petuating in has become more reasonable, reasonable, more imbued in general general has with rational rational conviction, less moved by by stiff stiff authority with conviction, and less authority and blind blind passion, passion, educational agencies may may be more educational agencies constructive than than at at present, for they they will will positive and constructive present, for positive

of strong of strong

passion, 8810 ** P*

of dependof dependence upon authority ^thoilty of of others othera

of Cauaes Cauaesof bad mental

habits are

aocial as well as inbom

26

HOW WE THINK

work in harmony with with the the educative influence influence exercised exercised in harmony other social by other social surroundings upon an individ individwilly-nilly by surroundings upon willy-nilly ual's habits habits of thought and belief. belief. At present, present, the the of thought ual's work of of teaching only transform natural natural tenten teaching must not only of thought, thought, but must also dencies into trained trained habits habits of dencies into also irrational mind the against irrational tendencies current in fortify the current in against fortify the and help displace erroneous social environment, the social erroneous environment, help displace habits already produced. produced. habits already
A leap is leap is
involved in all thinking

4. 4. Regulation Regulation Transforms Inference into t"nto Proof Proof Transforms Inference Thinking is important because, as we have seen, is is important it is because, as seen, it Thinking i*1 which given that function or ascertained ascertained facts facts stand f unc ti n in *kat stand given or or indicate ascertained. for indicate others for or others which are not directly directly ascertained. process of reaching the the absent absent from the the present present of reaching But the the process to it liable is is peculiarly exposed to error; it is liable to influ to be influ is peculiarly error; exposed by almost almost any any number of unconsidenced by of unseen and unconsidered past experience, received dogmas, the ered causes, causes, - past experience, received dogmas, the stirring of self-interest, the arousing of passion, sheer of sheer self-interest, passion, stirring arousing in biased mental laziness, social environment steeped biased laziness, a social steeped in or animated animated by by false traditions false expectations, traditions or so expectations, and so The exercise exercise of of thought thought is, the literal literal sense sense of on. in the on. of is, in carries us that word, inference; by it thing carries us over it one thing over to that to ; by word, inference the idea of, and belief belief in, in, another It involves a It involves the another thing. idea of, a thing. a is going beyond what is surely to jump, a leap, known to going leap, beyond jump, surely warrant. Unless Unless one one something else accepted its warrant something else accepted on its an idiot, simply cannot help help having having all all things things is an is idiot, one simply and events events suggest suggest other other things not actually actually present, present, things not nor can one one help help a tendency tendency to believe in in the the latter latter to believe of the the basis basis of the former. The very very inevitableness on the former. inevitableness jump, the the leap, unknown, only only of of the the jump, to something something unknown, leap, to to of attention the necessity necessity of attention to the the conditions conditions emphasizes emphasizes the under which it occurs so the danger a false it occurs so that that the of a false step danger of step may be lessened and the the probability probability of of a right right landing landing may increased. increased.

THE NEED NEED FOR FOR TRAINING TRAINING THOUGHT THOUGHT THE

27 27

Such attention attention consists consists in in regulation regulation (i) (I) of of the the concon- Hence, Hence. the the Such 1 *** ditions under which the function of suggestion takes needofregu. ditions under which the function of suggestion takes J^ton* lation which. when when place, and (2) of of the the conditions conditions under under which which credence credence is is which, place, and (2) adequate, that Inference conoccur. the suggestions that occur. Inference conyielded to the to suggestions makes proof ^k^^of yielded these two two ways ways (the (the study study of of which in in detail detail trolled in in these trolled the chief chief objects objects of of this this book) book) forms forms constitutes one one of of the constitutes to means proof prove thing primarily to try, to a To thing primarily try, to prove proof. the feast excused test it. guest bidden to the wedding feast excused to bidden The test it wedding guest to prove prove his his oxen. oxen. Exceptions Exceptions himself because because he had to himself instances are said said to to prove prove a a rule rule; i.e. i.e. they they furnish furnish instances so so are that they they try try in in the the severest severest fashion fashion its its applica applicaextreme that extreme if the the rule rule will will stand stand such such a test, test, there there is is no good good bility; if bility further doubting doubting it. it. Not until until a thing thing has reason for for further reason been tried tried - "tried "tried out/' out," in in colloquial colloquial language language - do been its true true worth. worth. Till Till then then it it may may be pretense, pretense, we know its in victorious has out the thing that has out victorious in a bluff. But the come that a bluff. thing with .a test or trial of strength carries its credentials it; credentials its carries trial of or a test it; strength is Its value is it is approved, has been proved. it has because it it is proved. Its approved, because it is with clearly evinced, shown, i.e. demonstrated. So it is demonstrated. clearly evinced, shown, i.e. in general is The mere fact inferences. inference in that inference fact that inferences. general is it an does not guarantee, function does invaluable function an invaluable guarantee, nor does it even of any the correctness correctness of out the even help particular inference. any particular help out Any inference may go astray; and as we have seen, seen, inference may go astray; Any its assist to there influences ever ready to assist its influences are standing there are ready standing is that going wrong. What is important, is that every inference is every inference important, going wrong. is not this is often this shall or (since a tested tested inference; be a shall be (since often inference ; or possible) that we shall discriminate between beliefs discriminate shall thai beliefs that possible) tJiat rest upon tested evidence and those that do not, those evidence not, and shall rest upon tested the to be accordingly on our guard as to the kind and degree be accordingly on our guard of degree of assent assent yielded. yielded. The ofIice office of of to prove While education to of education is not not the the business business of it is While it prove The to teach every more than than to every statement made, every ::~=g made, any any more every statement culti- aki11ed to cultiits business business possible item of information, it to is its it is of item information, possible
; ;

28
powers of powers of
tbinkin thiJlkiDg

HOW WE THINK

effective habits habits of vate deep-seated and effective of discriminatvate deep-seated discrimlnating tested beliefs beliefs from from mere assertions, assertions, guesses, guesses, and and ing tested opinions; to develop lively, sincere, sincere, and open-minded open-minded develop a lively, opinions to preference for for conclusions that are properly properly grounded, grounded, conclusions that preference individual's the into and to into the individual's working habits to ingrain working habits ingrain and methods of of inquiry reasoning appropriate to the to the reasoning appropriate inquiry that present present themselves. themselves. No matter matter various problems that various problems as a how much an an individual individual knows as a matter matter of hearsay of hearsay and if not if he has not attitudes habits of and information, he attitudes habits of information, is educated. not He lacks the this sort, he is not intellectually educated. this sort, lacks the intellectually And since since these these habits habits rudiments of of mental mental discipline. discipline. of nature are gift of nature (no matter how strong strong the the apare not not a gift (no matter ap titude for acquiring them) them); since, moreover, the the casual titude for acquiring casual since, moreover, social environment circumstances of the the natural natural and social circumstances of environment are not not enough to compel their acquisition, acquisition, the the main main are enough to compel their office to supply supply conditions conditions that that make for education is is to of education office of for their cultivation. formation of of these these habits habits is is the their cultivation. The formation the Training Mind. of Mind. Training of
;
;

CHAPTER THREE
NATURAL RESOURCES IN THE TRAINING TRAINlNG OF THOUGHT

IN the the last last chapter chapter we considered considered the the need of of trans transIN the natural through training, the natural capacities of informing, of in capacities forming, through training, ference into into habits habits of of critical critical examination examination and inquiry. inquiry. ference very importance importance of of thought thought for for life life makes necessary necessary The very its control control by by education education because because of of its its natural natural tendency tendency its influences exist and to go go astray, social influences exist that tend tend because social that to astray, to form form habits of thought thought leading leading to inadequate and to inadequate habits of to erroneous Training must, must, however, however, be itself itself beliefs. erroneous beliefs. Training based upon the natural tendencies,-that is, it find that it find natural must the based tendencies, is, upon who could its point point of departure in in them. them. A being could not not of departure its being think without without training training could could never never be trained trained to to think think; think think. one may have to to learn to think think well, to think. learn to one may well^ but not to Training, in short, must fall back upon the prior fall in short, upon prior and Training, it is concon independent existence of natural powers; it is of natural existence powers independent cerned proper direction, their proper cerned with their direction, not with creating creating them. them. Teaching correlative or correspondcorrespond Teaching and learning learning are correlative ing processes, as much so as selling so as as selling and buying. buying. One ing processes, might as sold when no one has bought, as well well say has sold bought, might say he has as that he has taught when no one has learned. as to to say that taught say initiative lies And in lies in the the educational educational transaction, transaction, the initiative it lies lies with in commerce it with the learner with the learner even more than in in to think only the learn to the buyer. If an individual individual can learn only in buyer. If the to employ more economically and to the sense sense of of learning employ economically learning
;

Only natI:Tto

powers can
be trailI.od.

Hence, Hence, the one taught

must take theiniti&1:i'n

39

30

HOW WE THINK

effectively powers powers he already already possesses, possesses, even more truly truly effectively one can can teach teach others others to to think think only only in in the sense sense of of ap apone active in pealing to fostering powers already active in them. and to them. already fostering powers pealing Effective appeal appeal of of this this kind is is impossible impossible unless unless the the Effective teacher has has an insight insight into into existing existing habits habits and tenden tendenteacher the natural natural resources resources with which he has to to ally ally cies, the cies, himself. himself.
Three Three important 11 natural naturaf resources resources

Any inventory inventory of of the the items items of of this this natural natural capital capital is is Any arbitrary because it it must pass pass over many many of of somewhat arbitrary the complex complex details. details. But a a statement of of the the factors factors the essential to thought thought will will put put before before us in in outline outline the the essential to elements. Thinking Thinking involves involves (as (as we have seen) seen) main elements. the suggestion suggestion of of a a conclusion conclusion for for acceptance, acceptance, and also the also search or or inquiry inquiry to to test test the the value of of the the suggestion suggestion be besearch accepting it it. This implies implies (a) (a) a certain certain fund fund fore finally finally accepting fore or of experiences experiences and facts facts from which sugges. sugges_ or store store of and proceed; (b) promptness, flexibility, fertility tions proceed; tions (6) promptness, flexibility, fertility of consecutiveness, of suggestions; orderliness, consecutiveness, suggestions; and (c) (c) orderliness, a person is suggested. appropriateness in what is Clearly, a person suggested. Clearly, appropriateness in in any of these may be hampered these three regards regards: His His hampered in any of may be thinking irrelevant, narrow, crude because because narrow, or crude thinking may may be irrelevant, he has material upon to base actual material has not not enough base upon which to enough actual because concrete conclusions; concrete facts facts and raw materia~ or because conclusions or material, fail to to evoke suggestions if extensive even if extensive and bulky, suggestions bulky, fail or easily richly; or finally, because, and these finally, because, even when these richly easily ideas the ideas suggested are intwo conditions conditions are are fulfilled, in fulfilled, suggested coherent rather than pertinent and can. rather con coherent and fantastic, fantastic, pertinent sistent. sistent,
: ; ;

!. I.
Desire Desire for for fullness of experience :

Curiosity Curiosity

The most vital vital and significant in supplying the factor in significant factor supplying the primary material whence suggestion may issue is, withwith issue material is, suggestion may primary out The wisest wisest of of the the Greeks used to to out doubt, doubt, curiosity. curiosity.

NATURAL RESOURCES IN TRAINING THOUGHT

3 1 31

is the mother of of all all science. that wonder is say An inert science. inert say that it were, for experiences mind waits, to be imperiously waits, as it were, for experiences to imperiously it. The pregnant forced of Wordsforced upon Words upon it. pregnant saying saying of worth worth:
:

" The eye - it it cannot choose but see; "The see eye still We cannot bid the ear be still; bodies feel, Our bodies where'er they feel, where'er be, they be, "our will Against or with our will" Against
;

in which one is is naturally posholds degree in holds good good in the degree naturally pos curiosity. The curious mind is sessed is constantly sessed by by curiosity. constantly for seeking material for thought, alert alert and exploring, a as a exploring, seeking thought, as is and healthy body is on the qui vive for vigorous the vive for healthy body vigorous qui for experience, nutriment. nutriment Eagerness for new and Eagerness for experience, for is found where wonder is varied contacts, is found. varied found. Such contacts, is is the only curiosity of the the acquisition guarantee of only sure guarantee curiosity is acquisition facts upon the primary primary facts upon which inference inference must base base of the of itself. itself. first manifestations, (a) its first curiosity is a vital overis a vital overmanifestations, curiosity (a) In its an of flow, an expression of abundant organic energy. flow, expression organic energy. A " leads uneasiness child be "into physiological uneasiness leads a child to be to into everyphysiological every to be -to reaching, poking, pounding, prying. thing," thing/' reaching, poking, pounding, prying. of animals author calls calls Observers of animals have noted noted what one author Observers " " their inveterate "their inveterate tendency tendency to to fool." fool." "Rats run about, about, Rats run or gnaw, gnaw, without without real real reference reference to to the the busi busismell, dig, dig, or smell, ness ness in in hand. In the the same way way Jack Jack [a dog] scrabbles scrabbles [a dog] and jumps, jumps, the the kitten kitten wanders and picks, picks, the the otter otter slips slips about ground lightning, lightning, the the elephant elephant about everywhere everywhere like like ground fumbles ceaselessly, ceaselessly, the the monkey monkey pulls pulls things things about." about." l 1 The most casual casual notice notice of of the the activities activities of of a a young young child child reveals of exploring exploring and testing testing ac acreveals a ceaseless ceaseless display display of and are sucked, fingered, thumped; tivity. Objects are sucked, fingered, Objects thumped; tivity. drawn and pushed, pushed, handled handled and thrown thrown; in in short, short, experiexperi;

(a) physical (a) physical

1 1

HGbhouse. Mind in in Evolution^ Evolution, p. p. 195. 195. Habhonse,

32

HOW HOW WE WE THINK THINK

(b) soc!al social

(c) intel

(c) intel-

lectual lect.ual

to yield till they men ted with, Such mented with, till qualities. Such they cease to yield new qualities. activities are are hardly activities without them intellectual, and yet them hardly intellectual, yet without feeble and intermittent intellectual activity intellectual intermittent activity would be feeble for stuff lack of its through lack of stuff for its operations. operations. through of curiosity A higher (b) the in. in higher stage stage of develops under the () A curiosity develops stimuli. fluence When the he fluence of of social the child child learns social stimuli. learns that that he to others to eke out out his his store can appeal others to store of of experiences, appeal to experiences, fail to if objects to respond so so that, to his his exex that, if respond interestingly objects fail interestingly to call upon to provide periments, interest periments, he may upon persons persons to provide interestmay call sets in. in. ing "What is is that?" that?" material, a new epoch ing material, epoch sets " " of a child's "Why?" child's presunfailing signs signs of Why ? become the unfailing pres ence. At first first this this questioning is hardly hardly more than ence. than a a questioning is into social of projection into social relations of the physical overflow relations the overflow projection physical child pushing kept the child pushing and pulling, which earlier earlier kept pulling, openopen ing and shutting. asks in succession holds He asks in succession what holds up ing shutting. up the the house, house, what holds holds up up the the soil that holds holds the. the. house, house, soil that what holds up up the the earth earth that that holds holds the the soil; but his his soil; but are not not evidence of genuine consciousness consciousness questions of any questions are any genuine of rational rational connections. connections. His why why is is not not a a demand for for scientific scientific explanation; explanation; the the motive motive behind behind it it is is simply simply the mysterious mysterious eagerness for for a larger larger acquaintance acquaintance with with the eagerness world in in which he he is is placed. placed. The search search is is not not for for a law or but only only for for a a bigger bigger fact. fact. Yet Yet or principle, principle, but there than a desire desire to to accumulate accumulate just just informa informa there is is more than tion heap up up disconnected disconnected items, items, although although sometimes sometimes tion or or heap the the interrogating interrogating habit habit threatens threatens to to degenerate degenerate into into a a disease of of language. language. In mere disease In the the feeling, feeling, however however dim, dim, that that the the facts facts which directly directly meet the the senses senses are are not not the the whole story, story, that that there there is is more behind behind them and and more to to come from them, them, lies lies the the germ germ of of intellectual intellectual curiosity. curiosity. (c) Curiosity Curiosity rises rises above above the the organic organic and the the social social (c) and planes becomes intellectual in the degree in which becomes in intellectual the in which planes degree

RESOURCES IN TRAINING THOUGHT NATURAL RESOURCES

3l 33

is transformed into interest in problems it it is problems provoked provoked by by the observation of things of mama things and the accumulation of is not discharged terial. When the question terial. question is discharged by by being being asked of another, to entertain another, when the child continues to entertain alert for it it in his own mind and to be alert for whatever will will help help a answer it, curiosity has become a positive intellectual it, curiosity positive intellectual force. To the open force. social experience mind, nature and social open mind, experience full of varied and are full subtle challenges to look further. further. challenges to If germinating If cultivated at at powers are not used and cultivated germinating powers to be transitory, the right to die out, to die right moment, they they tend to out, transitory, or to wane in intensity. This general is peculiarly intensity. general law is peculiarly is uncertain and questiontrue of sensitiveness to what is question a few people, able intellectual curiosity able; in a is so so insatiinsati people, intellectual curiosity is will able that nothing will discourage it, but in most its edge in its nothing discourage it, edge is easily is dulled and blunted. Bacon's saying that we that easily saying must become as little little children in in order to to enter enter the the kingdom of science is is at at once a reminder of the openopenof the kingdom minded and flexible wonder of childhood and of the ease ease of the with which this is lost. this endowment is lost. Some lose lose it it in in indifference or carelessness; carelessness; others in in a a frivolous frivolous flippancy; many many escape escape these evils evils only only to to become in inflippancy; cased in a hard dogmatism dogmatism which is is equally equally fatal fatal to to the the spirit of wonder. Some are so so taken up up with routine routine spirit as to be inaccessible to new facts facts and problems. problems. Others retain curiosity curiosity only only with reference to to what concerns their personal personal advantage advantage in in their their chosen career. career. With is many, curiosity is arrested plane of interest interest in in on the many, curiosity plane of local local gossip gossip and in in the fortunes of of their their neighbors neighbors; in indeed, so usual is is this this result result that that very very often often the the first first deed, association with the word curiosity curiosity is is a prying prying inquisitiveinquisitiveness into other other people's people's business. business. With respect respect then to to curiosity, the teacher has has usually usually more to to learn learn than to to curiosity, teach. teach. Rarely Rarely can he aspire aspire to to the office office of of kindling kindling or or
;

34

WE THINK HOW WE

is rather even increasing increasing it. it. His task is rather to to keep keep alive the alive the to fan the of wonder and to sacred the flame that that already already sacred spark spark of to protect is to problem is the spirit of inquiry, inquiry, glows. His problem protect the spirit of glows. it from becoming to keep it becoming blas6 blase from overexcitement, overexcitement, to keep fossilized through through dogmatic routine, fossilized wooden from routine, indogmatic inrandom exercise struction, or dissipated by exerci~e upon trivial or struction, dissipated by upon trivial things. things.

2. Suggestion Suggeston

aimenThe dimensions of suggestion:

(a) ease (a) ease

Out of of the the subject-matter, rich or or scanty, imsubject-matter, whether rich scanty, im of issue portant or trivial, of present experience issue suggesor trivial, present experience sugges portant to what is is not not yet yet given. given. The tions, ideas, beliefs as to tions, ideas, beliefs is not one that that can be produced function of suggestion suggestion is produced function of while be modified for by teaching; while it may modified for better or or it better may by teaching; be by conditions, it cannot destroyed. Many a worse by it conditions, destroyed. Many a " his best best to could not not "stop child has tried to see see if if he could child has tried his stop thinking," but but the the flow in spite of suggestions flow of suggestions goes goes on in spite thinking/' " our bodies as "our as surely surely as bodies feel, where'er of our will, will, quite quite as of our feel, where'er will." they be, against with our will." Primarily, naturally, naturally, or with against or they be, Primarily, it is not not we who think, think, in responsible sense; sense; in any it is any actively actively responsible thinking is rather something something that happens in in us. us. Only is rather that happens thinking Only of the has acquired the method in in so far as as one has control of so far acquired control has which the function of ac the function occurs acof suggestion occurs and suggestion its consequences, cepted responsibility for for its truthcepted responsibility consequences, can one truth and "I think so so." fully say, so." "/think so fully say, function of of suggestion suggestion has has a variety aspects (or The function of aspects (or variety of in different dimensions as as we may may term them), them), varying varying in different both in in themselves themselves and in in their their mode of of com COIIl" persons, persons, both bination. These dimensions dimensions are ease or or promptness, promptness, are ease bination. extent or or variety, extent or persistence, persistence. (a) (a) The variety, and depth depth or common classification persons into the dull dull and the the of persons into the classification of is made the bright is primarily on the basis of the readiness or the of readiness basis bright primarily facility with suggestions follow upon the presenta follow the which upon presentafacility suggestions

NATURAL RESOURCES NATURAL

IN IN TRAINING TRAINING THOUGHT

35 35

the As the and dull some minds im metaphor of dull bright implies, some are imof are bright implies, metaphor or else else they they absorb passively. passively. Everything Everything pre prepervious, or pervious, sented is is lost lost in in a drab monotony monotony that that gives gives nothing nothing sented back. But others others reflect, refiect, or or give give back in in varied varied lights, lights, back. that strikes strikes upon upon them. them. The dull dull make no response response; all that all the bright bright flash fiash back the the fact fact with with a a changed changed quality. quality. the An inert inert or or stupid stupid mind requires requires a a heavy heavy jolt jolt or or an in intense shock shock to to move it it to to suggestion suggestion; the the bright bright mind tense is quick, quick, is is alert alert to to react react with interpretation interpretation and sugges suggesis consequences to to follow. follow. tion of of consequences tion the teacher teacher is is not not entitled entitled to to assume stupidity stupidity or or Yet the even dullness dullness merely merely because of of irresponsiveness irresponsiveness to to even a as school subjects or to lesson as presented by text-book lesson or to text-book school presented by subjects or teacher. teacher. The pupil pupil labeled labeled hopeless hopeless may may react react in in or seems quick and lively fashion the thing-in-hand fashion when the thing-in-hand lively quick to him worth while, as some out-of-school out-of-school sport or social social to while, as sport or move Indeed, the school subject might him, affair. affair. him, Indeed, the school subject might treated by were it context and treated different context in a a different set in it set were by a in geometry dull in different A boy dull may prove prove A boy different method. geometry may in connec quick connecthe subject takes up up the subject in enough when he takes quick enough inacces tion the girl who seems inacceswith manual training; tion with girl training it is is a sible facts may historical facts to historical sible to respond promptly promptly when it may respond question of judging the character and deeds of people of people of judging question her or of fiction. Barring physical fiction. or of her acquaintance Barring physical defect acquaintance in all directions directions are or disease, slowness and dullness in dullness slowness or disease, comparatively rare. comparatively rare. as to to the in persons (b) the difference difference in of the persons as Irrespective of (b) Irrespective to ease with which ideas respond ease and promptness respond to promptness with facts, in the number or range a difference difference in is a there is range of the facts, there suggestions that occur. occur. We speak cases, truly, in some cases, speak truly, suggestions that a is but a in of in others, there is of suggestions; the fiood flood of of the others, suggestions; slender Occasionally, slowness of outward trickle. slender trickle. Occasionally,
;
;

tion of of obj objects and upon upon the the happening happening of of events. events. ects and tion

(b) (5) range

36

HOW HOW WE THINK

WE

response is is due to a great variety of suggestions suggestions which which response great variety check one another and lead to to hesitation hesitation and suspense suspense; ; while a a lively lively and prompt prompt suggestion may take such such suggestion may possession of the mind as to to preclude preclude the development possession development a dry of others. others. Too few suggestions suggestions indicate a dry and when meager mental habit; this is joined to great learn. this is to habit; joined meager great learn a or there results ing, results a -J?ed_~l).t a Gradgrind. Such a a Gradgrind. ing, a^gedant to person's mind rings hard; he is is likely likely to bore others others ; rings hard person's with mere bulk of information. He contrasts with the the person whom we call call ripe, ripe, juicy, juicy, and mellow. person A conclusion reached after consideration of of a a few alternatives may may be formally formally correct, it will will not not alternatives correct, but it the richness possess fullness and of meaning of ar. of one ar possess meaning rived at comparison of a greater variety of alternaafter comparison rived at after alterna greater variety tive suggestions. On the other hand, may tive hand, suggestions suggestions. suggestions may interests of be too numerous and too varied for the best interests of habit. So many suggestions rise that that tha mental habit. the suggestions may rise is at a person is a loss loss to to select among them. He finds finds it it person difficult to reach any difficult any definite conclusion and wanders less helplessly helplessly among among them. So much suggests suggests more or less itself fro pro and con con, thing leads on to so natitself to another so nat y one thing difficult he finds it urally, that finds it difficult to decide in practical affairs to in affairs practical urally, to conclude in matters of of theory. or to is such a There is a theory.

thing as too much thinking, thinking, as as when action is is thing views by multiplicity of suggested by the a suggested by a multiplicity by Or again, very of suggestions may the of number again, suggestions may very

paralyzed paralyzed

situation. situation. be hostile hostile to tracing tracing logical logical sequences it may may to for it them, for sequences among among them, tempt the mind away away from the necessary necessary but trying trying task task tempt of search for real real connections, into the more congenial connections, into congenial occupation upon the given given facts facts a a embroidering upon occupation of embroidering tissue tissue of agreeable agreeable fancies. The best best mental, mental habit habit a balance between paucity involves a paucity and redundancy redundancy of of suggestions. suggestions.

NATURAL RESOURCES IN TRAINING THOUGHT

(c)

37 37

(c) Depth. Depth. We distinguish distinguish between people people not not only only

W (c)

P* ~ro

upon the the basis basis of of their their quickness quickness and fertility fertility of of intelintelupon lectual response, response, but also also with respect respect to to the the plane plane upon upon lectual it occurs occurs - the the intrinsic intrinsic quality quality of of the the response* response. which it thought is is profound profound while while another's another's is is su suOne man's thought the perficial; goes to the roots of the matter, another to the roots of one and another matter, goes perficial touches lightly lightly its its most external external aspects. aspects. This This phase phase touches is the of thinking is perhaps the untaught of all, the most and the of of thinking all, perhaps untaught least amenable to external influence whether for improveto external influence for improve least or harm. Nevertheless, Nevertheless, the the conditions conditions of of the the ment or pupil's contact contact with subject-matter subject-matter may may be such that that he pupil's is compelled compelled to to come to to quarters quarters with its its more signifi signifiis cant features, or such that that he is is encouraged encouraged to to deal deal cant features, or with it it upon upon the the basis basis of of what is is triviaL trivial The common with is assumptions that, that, if the pupil pupil only only thinks, thinks, one thought thought is if the assumptions his as just as good for his discipline as another, and for mental as another, discipline good just that the the end of the amassing amassing of information, is the of information, of study that study is both tend to foster superficial, at the expense of signifi signifiat tend to foster both expense of superficial, cant, thought. thought. Pupils in matters matters of of ordinary practicant, Pupils who in ordinary practi cal experience have a ready ready and acute perception perception of of the the cal experience difference the significant difference between the meaningless, significant and the meaningless, all things often in school reach in school subjects often reach things point where all subjects a point or seem equally important or equally unimportant; where unimportant equally equally important and be one thing thing is just as to true as another, to is just as likely another, likely in discriminat not in discriminatis expended effort is where intellectual intellectual effort expended con to make verbal coning trying to in trying things, but in ing between things, nections among words. nections among intiSometimes slowness slowness and depth response are intidepth of response to mately connected. Time is required in order to digest is required in digest mately connected. ideas, into substantial substantial ideas. impressions, translate them into impressions, and translate " " Brightness" The " slow in the pan. " a flash flash in but a pan. The" Brightness may may be but " is one in whom but or child, but sure" sure person, child, is person, whether man or is done impressions sink and accumulate, so that thinking is sink accumulate, thinking impressions
;
;

fundity

BaUac* BalaDce

of mDul

* mind

38

WE THINK HOW WE

at a deeper level with a a slighter slighter load load. level of value than with at a deeper for "slowness," for slowness," for not "anMany a child is is rebuked for" not a child "an Many his forces forces are are taking taking time time to to swering promptly," when his swering promptly," to gather themselves together to deal effectively with the with themselves the together effectively gather failure to at hand. hand. In such cases, to afford afford time time problem at cases, failure problem but and leisure leisure conduce conduce to to habits habits of speedy, snapshot speedy, snapshot a sense and superficial, judgment. The depth depth to to which a sense superficial, judgment. the problem, of the difficulty, sinks, determines the of the of determines of the problem, the difficulty, sinks, and follows that quality thinking that follows; any habit of of the the thinking of any habit quality of teaching which encourages encourages the pupil pupil for for the sake sake of of a a teaching or of of a display display of of memorized insuccessful recitation or in successful recitation to glide the thin thin ice ice of genuine problems formation formation to genuine problems glide over the of mind training. true method of reverses the the true reverses training. It profitable to to study lives of of men and women It is is profitable study the lives g ne things adult in their their respective respective achieve itf e fine d u it life jn a hi eve in who ac things in in dull called thenbut called dull in their school days. callings, who were but callings, days. early wrong wrong judgment judgment was due mainly mainly Sometimes the early child showed to the the fact that the the direction direction in in which the the child fact that to old not one recognized recognized by by the the good his ability ability was not his good old interest in use, as as in the case of Darwin's Darwin's interest standards in in the standards in use, case of in it was due to frogs. Sometimes it to beetles, snakes, beetles, snakes, and frogs. the that the the child child dwelling habitually on a deeper deeper the fact fact that dwelling habitually than than or plane of reflection than other pupils or his reflection his plane pupils did not not show to to advantage advantage when prompt prompt teachers - did teachers the usual usual sort sort were expected. expected. Sometimes it answers of of the it was due to the fact that the pupil's natural natural mode of to the fact that of the pupil's approach clashed habitually habitually with that of the the text text or or that of approach clashed and the as teacher, the method of the latter latter was assumed as of the teacher, an absolute absolute basis basis of of estimate. estimate. In is desirable In any any event, it is desirable that that the the teacher teacher should event, it rid himself himself of the notion notion that is a a single" of the that "thinking" single, "thinking" is unalterable faculty faculty; that that he should recognize that that it unalterable it is should recognize is a term denoting denoting the the various various ways ill which things acquire in which things acquire ways
;

individual Individual

differences differences

Any subject Any subject maybe inteUectual

NATURAL RESOURCES

IN TRAINING THOUGHT

39 39

significance. It is is desirable to expel also the kindred nono expel also significance. It " intellectual," and tion that some subjects tion subjects are inherently" inherently intellectual/' possessed of an almost magical power to to train train the hence possessed magical power
is specific, faculty of thought. thought. Thinking Thinking is specific, not a machinefaculty to turned indifferently like, ready-made apparatus be like, ready-made apparatus indifferently all a will upon all subjects, as a lantern may throw its at will and at its upon subjects, may it light as it happens upon horses, streets, gardens, trees, happens upon horses, streets, gardens, trees, light or river. river. Thinking is specific, in that different things different things specific, hi Thinking is suggest their own appropriate appropriate meanings, meanings, tell tell their their own suggest their this in very unique stories, stories, and in that that they very differ differunique they do this ent ways ways with different different persons. persons. As the growth growth of ent is through so the the body food, so through the assimilation of food, body is is growth of mind is through logical organization the through logical organization growth of subject-matter. Thinking is not like like a sausage sausage Thinking is subject-matter. materials indifferently to one all materials machine which reduces all indifferently to a power commodity, but is is a power of following following up up marketable commodity, and linking together specific suggestions that the specific suggestions linking together specific things arouse. Accordingly, Accordingly, any any subject, subject, from things arouse. specific to cooking, mathematics, is is Greek to cooking, and from drawing drawing to mathematics, its fixed intellectual, intellectual at at all, in its if intellectual fixed inner intellectual, if all, not in start and structure, but in its in its its power power to to start its function structure, direct inquiry and reflection. What geometry reflection. direct significant significant inquiry geometry does for one, manipulation of laboratory laboratory apparatus, apparatus, one, the manipulation a musical composition, the mastery of composition, or the conduct of mastery of a a affair, may may do for for another. a business affair,

3. 3. Orderliness: Its Its Nature

Facts, whether narrow or extensive, conclusions extensive, and conclusions Facts, suggested by by them, them, whether many few, do not con consuggested many or few, stitute, even when combined, reflective thought. thought. The combined, reflective stitute, suggestions must be organized organized/they arranged ; they must be arranged suggestions to one another and with reference to with reference to facts on which they they depend depend for proof. proof. When the the facts

4o

HOW WE WE THINK THINK HOW

Contin~ ContinMHy

and and of of depth depth are are properly properly we get as as the the outcome outcome conti contiwe get the mind nor slow neither desire nuity of thought. desire neither the slow mind nor We of thought. nuity diffuseness random neither wish yet the hasty. wish neither random diffuseness We the hasty. yet nor fixed fixed rigidity. rigidity. Consecutiveness Consecutiveness means means flexibility flexibility nor with and variety of materials, conjoined with singleness of and variety materials, conjoined singleness and is It definiteness of direction. I t is opposed both to to a a me me definiteness of direction. opposed both a to and chanical routine routine uniformity uniformity to grasshopper.like chanical grasshopper-like movement. Of bright bright children, children, it it is is not not infrequently infrequently movement. that " "they might do anything, anything, if if only only they they settled settled said that said they might apt are are they they in in any any particular particular re redown," so so quick quick and apt down," settle. sponse. But, alas, they rarely settle. alas, But, they rarely sponse. the other other hand, hand, it it is is not not enough enough not not to to be diverted. diverted. On the deadly and and fanatic fanatic consistency consistency is is not not our our goal. goal. Con ConA deadly not mean fixity, fixity, nor a cramped cramped arrest arrest or or centration does not centration does It means paralysis of the flow of suggestion. It variety of flow the of variety suggestion. paralysis into a single and change of ideas single steady steady trend ideas combined into change of are conconclusion. con moving Thoughts Thoughts are unified conclusion. moving toward a unified still and quiescent, being kept centrated not by centrated not kept still quiescent, but by being by general object, as a general moving toward an object, being kept kept moving by being attack or defense. defense. for attack concentrates Holding his troops concentrates his Holding troops for its course; like holding to its is like the to a subject the mind to course; holding a ship ship to subject is of it constant change of place combined with unity it implies constant place change unity implies is thinking is precisely of of direction. direction. Consistent Consistent and orderly orderly thinking precisely is no such Consistency a change of subject-matter. such a change of subject-matter. Consistency is of contradiction contradiction than concentraconcentra more the absence of the mere absence tion of diversion diversion - which exists in exists in absence of is the the mere absence tion is a person" dull fast asleep." All kinds of in a kinds of dull routine routine or or in asleep." All person "fast varied varied and incompatible suggestions may sprout and be incompatible suggestions may sprout followed followed in in their their growth, consistent thinking be consistent growth, and yet yet thinking one of each the and orderly, is and provided each one of the suggestions is provided suggestions orderly, viewed in relation to the the main topic. viewed in relation to topic. In the the primary In the main, most persons, resource for most main, for persons, the primary resource

factors of of facility, facility, of of fertility, fertility, factors balanced or or proportioned, proportioned, balanced

NATURAL RESOURCES IN TRAINING THOUGHT

4I 41
Practical Practical

in the development of orderly orderly habits habits of of thought thought is is ininin the development of not direct. Intellectual organization originates originates direct, not direct. Intellectual organization direct, for a time grows of the grows as as an accompaniment accompaniment of the orand for orrealize of acts to not as of the acts required to realize an end, not as ganization the end, required ganization direct appeal the the result result of of a direct appeal to to thinking thinking power. power. The of thinking to accomplish accomplish something beyond think thinkneed of thinking to something beyond ing is more potent than thinking for its own sake. All than for its is sake. All thinking ing potent and at the the people at outset, the majority majority of people probably probably the outset, of people people all their their lives, ordering of thought through orderattain ordering of thought all lives, attain through order action. Adults ing of of action. Adults normally normally carry carry on some occupation, occupation, ing pursuit; and this this furnishes furnishes the the continuous profession, pursuit continuous profession, axis about about which their their knowledge, their beliefs, and their their axis beliefs, and knowledge, their habits of reaching and testing testing conclusions conclusions are organized. of reaching are organized. habits efficient perform that have to to do with with the the efficient performObservations Observations that ance of are extended and rendered precise. are their calling rendered of their calling precise. to it not merely Information related related to it is is not amassed and Information merely in left it is classified then left in a heap; it is classified and subdivided so as subdivided so as then heap are made to be available it is needed. Inferences Inferences are by to available as is needed. as it by purely speculative speculative motives, but be bemost men not from purely motives, but cause they involved in in the the efficient performance efficient performance cause are involved they are several callings." of involved in in their their several of "the duties duties involved callings." Thus their inferences are constantly tested tested by by results results their inferences are constantly dis achieved; tend to be disfutile and scattering methods to be achieved futile scattering a counted; orderly arrangements have a premium put have counted; orderly arrangements premium put a as constant upon them. The event, the issue, stands as constant the stands issue, event, upon check on the thinking that has led led up up to to it it; and this this the thinking check that has in discipline by efficiency in action is the chief sanction, in is action the chief sanction, in discipline by efficiency of practically all not scientific orderall who are are not scientific specialists, specialists, of order practically liness of thought. liness of thought Such a resource-the prop of thinkthe main prop a resource of disciplined disciplined think in training ing in adult adult life is not not to to be be despised training the the life - is despised in ing in young in right intellectual habits. There are, however, in habits. intellectual are, however, right young profound differences between the the immature immature and the the differences between profound
;

demands enforce some degree degree of cootilWitJ

^*

42

WE THINK HOW WE

**r

**

adult of organized activity - differences differences in the matter of adult in organized activity in any which must be taken seriously seriously into into account in any The activities (i) educational use of of activities: external achieveeducational use achieve (/) is a more urgent urgent necessity necessity ment resulting resulting from activity activity is is with him a more effective with the adult, adult, and hence is effective means of discipline of mind than with the child child; (//) (ii) The of discipline more than ends of adult activity are specialized those of of adult those of specialized activity child acthity. child activity. selection and arrangement (i) appropriate arrangement of appropriate (/) The selection difficult problem lines action Is is a much more difficult problem as as rereof action lines of it is in the adults. is in With the spects youth than it the case of adults. the spects youth settled by latter, the main lines lines are are more or less less settled by circum circumlatter, the stances. social status status of the adult, the fact fact that that he stances. The social adult, the is a citizen, householder, a parent, one occupied in a is a householder, citizen, parent, occupied in some regular regular industrial industrial or or professional professional calling, prescribes calling, prescribes the chief acts to be performed, performed, and features of the acts chief features the as it secures, somewhat automatically, as it were, were, appropriate secures, automatically, appropriate with related modes of the and related of thinking. thinking. But the child there there is fixity of status status and pursuit pursuit; there there is is almost is no such fixity nothing that such and such a consecutive line dictate that a consecutive to dictate line nothing to of followed, while while rather than another, of action, action, rather another, should be followed, the will will of of others, his own caprice, the circumstances others, his caprice, and circumstances about him tend to to produce produce an isolated momentary act isolated momentary The absence of motivation cooperates cooperates with with the of continued motivation the inner plasticity plasticity of the immature to increase the the importance to increase importance of educational educational training training and the the difficulties the way way of of in the difficulties in finding consecutive of activities may do for consecutive modes of activities which for finding may child vocations and functions child and youth serious vocations functions do youth what serious adult. for the case case of the choice so for the adult In the of children, is so choice is children, the peculiarly exposed to arbitrary factors. to to mere school school exposed to peculiarly arbitrary factors, traditions, of pedagogical pedagogical fad fad and fancy, fancy, to to traditions, to waves of social cross :8uctuating social cross currents. that sometimes, in sheer that in currents, sometimes, fluctuating disgust results, a reaction occura a reaction of results, disgust at the inadequacy inadequacy of
:
;

NATURAL RESOURCES

IN TRAINING THOUGHT

43 43

as an educational total neglect educational to the the total of overt activity activity as to neglect of recourse to to purely purely theoretical theoretical subjects factor, and a recourse factor, subjects and
fact PecuKar difficulty, however, points to the the fact Peculiar. points to difficulty, however, that the the opportunity opportunity for for selecting se!ectifzg tndy educative actz'vi:~l1mty educative activi that truly in child life than ties is is indefinitely child life than in in adult. adult. chi1d.reJl ties greater in indefinitely greater
is so The factor factor of external pressure pressure is with most so strong of external strong with adults that the the educative value value of of the the pursuit its reflex reflex adults that pursuit - its character intelligence and characterinfluence upon however influence upon intelligence genuine, is is incidental, accidental. incidental, and frequently frequently almost accidental. genuine, is The problem problem and the the opportunity young is opportunity with the young and continuous modes of orderly selection of continuous of occupaselection occupa orderly lead up up to to and prepare prepare for for the the tion, which, which, while while they tion, they lead their activities of adult have own indispensable activities of adult life, their life, indispensable in their sufficient justification jltstijication in present rdla t"njluenu their present reflex influence sufficient the formation of habits of thought. upon habits the of thought. formation of upon Educational practice practice shows a continual tendency to Educational tendency to oscillate with respect respect to to overt overt oscillate between two extremes with is to exertive activities. activities. One extreme is to neglect neglect them and exertive almost entirely, on the the ground ground that that they are chaotic chaotic and almost entirely, they are fluctuating, mere diversions diversions appealing appealing to to the transitory the transitory fluctuating, of immature minds; if taste and caprice caprice of or if unformed taste minds; or this of the they avoid this evil, are objectionable copies of the are evil, objectionable copies they highly specialized, or less commercial, activ activless commercial, specialized, and more or highly adult life. If activities are ities of are admitted at at all all into into If activities ities of adult life. to is concession the school, the admission is a grudging concession the the school, grudging the necessity of having occasional relief the strain relief of from the strain the necessity having occasional of constant constant intellectual work, or to the the clamor clamor of of outside outside intellectual work, or to of upon the the school school The other other extreme utilitarian demands upon utilitarian edu is belief in in the the almost magical is an enthusiastic enthusiastic belief magical eduit is kind cative of any of activity, granted it is cative efficacy of granted any activity, efficacy an activity activity and not not a passive passive absorption absorption of of academk academic theoretic material. play, of of of play, and theoretic material The Tbe conceptions conceptions of

methods. methods. (ii) very (if) This very

Action and

44

HOW WE THINK THINK

Locating Locating the proNemof education

of natural natural growth, self-expression, are appealed to alal self-expression, of growth, are appealed to as if if they that opportunity most as for any kind of of they meant that opportunity for any kind secures the spontaneous the due training spontaneous activity activity inevitably inevitably secures training brain physiology of mental power; is power or a mythological mythological brain physiology is to as as proof that any exercise of the muscles appealed exercise of the muscles appealed to proof that any trains power of thought. trains power of thought. vibrate from one of of these While we vibrate these extremes extremes to to the the ^ er the most serious serious of of all all problems other, is ignored: is problems ignored of discovering the problem, the problem, namely, namely, of discovering and arranging arranging the of activity forms of are most congenial, best congenial, best activity (a) (a) which are to the immature stage adapted, b) which of development; which adapted, to stage of development; ( (b) as preparation have the most ulterior ulterior promise as for the the promise preparation for social responsibilities social and (c) of adult adult life; life at the the responsibilities of which, at (c) which, same tinte, sante the maximum of of influence influence in in forming time, have the forming of acute observation of consecutive habits of observation and of consecutive inferinfer ence. is related related to acquisition of of ma maence. As curiosity to the the acquisition curiosity is terial of thought, as suggestion is related related to to flexibility flexibility terial of thought, as suggestion is of thought, and force of thought, so so the of activities, activities, not not the ordering ordering of themselves primarily is related primarily intellectual, intellectual, is related to to the the formform. ing of of intellectual intellectual powers powers of of consecutiveness. consecutiveness. ing
;

CHAPTER FOUR
CONDITIONS AND THE TRAnTDSTG TRAINING OF THOUGHT SCHOOL CX3NBITIONS

1. i.

Introductory: Methods lJ:fethods Introductory:

and Conditions Condtions

THE so-called so-called faculty-psychology faculty-psychology went hand in in hand Formal with the vogue of the fonnal-discipline idea in education. diuipliDe in the idea education. of with the vogue formal-discipline of a mental If thought is distinct piece of machinery, distinct is If thought piece machinery, separate from observation, observation, memory, memory, imagination, imagination, and separate common-sense judgments judgments of of persons persons and things, things, then thought should be trained by special exercises designed exercises trained designed by special thought for the purpose, purpose, as as one might might devise special special exercises exercises for the for developing developing the biceps biceps muscles. muscles. Certain subjects are for subjects are then to to be regarded regarded as as intellectual intellectual or or logical logical subjects subjects then par excellence, excellence, possessed possessed of predestined fitness to exer exerfitness to of a predestined par cise the thought-faculty, just as certain machines are certain cise the thought-faculty, just With arm better than others ann power. others for for developing better power. developing these three the fourth, consists notions goes these three notions fourth, that method consists goes the of of a set by the machinery of thought set of of operations the which of thought machinery operations by is upon any at work upon set going is set subject-matter. any subject-matter. kept at going and kept in the previous clear in We have tried tried to to make it it clear previous chapchap- 'f)KSfU ters and uniform power of ~ that there is is no single ters that power single j^^. in thought. but a multitude of different ways in which different of multitude ways thought, heard of, specific of, remembered, beard observed, remembered, things - things things observed, specific things read about - evoke suggestions or ideas that are perideas read or per suggestions Train in the sequel. tinent Trainto the occasion and fruitful fruitful in tinent to sequel. ing is such development of curiosity, suggestion, and ing is development of curiosity, suggestion, habits their scope as increases increases their habits of of exploring scope testing, as exploring and testing,
45

46

HOW WE WE THINK THINK HOW

and efficiency. efficiency. and

A subject subject - any any subject subject - is is intellec* intellec. tual in in the the degree degree in in which which with with any any given given person person it it tual succeeds in in effecting effecting this this growth. growth. On On this this view view the the succeeds fourth factor, factor, method, method, is is concerned concerned with with providing providing conConfourth ditions so so adapted adapted to to individual individual needs needs and and powers powers as as ditions of to make for the permanent improvement of observation, observation, to make for the permanent improvement suggestion, and and investigation. investigation. suggestion, teacher's problem problem is is thus thus twofold. twofold. The teacher's
side,

On the the one one

be be a a

he needs needs (as (as we saw side, he

in in the the last last chapter) chapter) to to

on the student of of individual individual traits traits and habits habits; the other other side, side, ; student he needs needs to to be be a a student student of of the the conditions conditions that that modify modify he

Trneand Tro* and

:false meaning ()f faisynean-

method method

which individual individual He needs to themselves. needs to rec recpowers habitually express themselves. powers habitually express what he not that covers only he intentionally ognize covers method that intentionally only ognize and employs employs for for the the purpose purpose of of mental mental training, training, devises and devises reference but also what he does without any conscious reference does he but also any to - anything and conduct of of in the atmosphere t o it, atmosphere and it, anything in the in any the reacts in way upon upon the curiosity, the school school which reacts curiosity, any way of chilchilthe the responsiveness, activity of orderly activity responsiveness, and the orderly is an intelligent dren. teacher who is dren. The teacher intelligent student both of of school iDdividual mental operations i D(jividual mental operations and of the effects of trusted those operations, can largely be trusted conditions those conditions upon largely operations, upon nar of to for himself methods of instruction in their narhimself for to develop develop those best adapted sense rower technical sense-those rower and more technical adapted to achieve in particular results in achieve results reading, subjects, such as reading, particular subjects, is not hands of one who is or algebra. In the hands geography, or algebra. geography, the in and individual intelligently aware of individual capacities and of the incapacities intelligently aware of the entire them exerted upon fluence fluence unconsciously by the entire upon them by unconsciously exerted are methods are technical methods of technical best of environment, the best even the environment, even of at the the expense result only likely an immediate immediate result to get expense of only at get an likely to the We habits. and persistent habits. We may group the deep-seated and group may persistent deep-seated under environment under the school school environment of the conditioning influences of conditioning influences and habits of the the three the mental attitudes and habits of mental attitudes the heads (1) three heads: (i)
:

better or or worse worse the the directions directions in in for better for

SCHOOL CONDITIONS CONDITIONS AND .AND TRAINING TRAINING THOUGHT THOUGHT SCHOOL

47 47

jects

persons with with whom whom the the child child is is in in contact contact; (2) the the sub sub; (2) persons and ideals, aims educational current educational aims and ideals. jects studied studied; (3) current ; (3)

2. 2. Influence Influence of of the the Habits Habits of of Others Others

Bare reference reference to to the the imitativeness imitativeness of of human human nature nature Bare mental habits the is enough to suggest how profoundly the mental habits how is enough to suggest profoundly trained of others affect the attitude of the one being trained. one of others affect the attitude of the being potent than than precept precept; and a a teacher's teacher's Example is is more more potent Example than counteracted counteracted by by best conscious conscious efforts efforts may may be be more than best the influence influence of of personal personal traits traits which he is is unaware of of the or regards regards as as unimportant. unimportant, Methods of of instruction instruction and or discipline that are technically faulty may be rendered discipline that are technically faulty may practically innocuous innocuous by by the the inspiration inspiration of of the the personal personal practically that lies back of them. method of them. lies back that method To confine, confine, however, however, the the conditioning conditioning influence influence of of the the to is to imitation educator, whether parent or teacher, to imitation is to or teacher, educator, whether parent influence intellectual get a very superficial view of the intellectual influence of the get a very superficial case of of Imitation prinof a deeper is but but one case Imitation is others. of others, deeper prin ike that of stimulus and resp<>nse. Everytkingtlte ciple stimulus of that Everything response. ciple he does does ~'t, teaclur in which Iu the manner in well as as the as well it, teacher does, does, as incites n senne way or other, and some in to respond the eMU child to other, incites the way respond in someway each child" $ attitude n set the the chz'U'sattitude tends to to set each response someway response tends to the adult child to or Even the of the child inattention of the inattention otJier* or otlur. un result of unis the result is of resp<>nse a mode of is often often a response which is 1 conscious training,l The teacher is rarely (and even is teacher conscious training. rarely (and of access by then a transparent never entirely) then never by transparent medium of entirely) a in another mind to a subject. With the young, the a another mind to young, the insubject f used is intimately fluence teacher's personality of the the teacher's fluence of intimately fused personality is not does with child does not separate the child the subject; of the that of with that separate subject; the
;

Release

*A boose to the t&e hoase called to 1 fead been been repeatedly of four &MT or or five fire who wfao had A child. cMd ol repeatedly called fee asked if be was own on las by ms mother with DO apparent response on his 011I'Tl part. was asked if BO w&l* Ms motlier part, apparent response by doesst bt she sfee doem't did ... Oil, He reptied mot hear her. He Qfc, yes, <Kd BOt &ear her, yes, 001: jadkialy, quite jud.icially replied quite call mad yet.... call vecy very mad yet,"

48

HOW THINK HOW WE WE THINK

Influence of of Infiuence teacher's own habits awn

Judging
others others by oarselves emaelves

And as nor even two. And even distinguish the two. as the nor the child's child's reo re distinguish the is toward toward or or away sponse he from anything away from sponse is anything presented, presented, he a running of of which he himself is keeps himself is up a keeps up running commentary, commentary, like of of hardly distinctly aware, of like and dislike, of sympathy aware, dislike, hardly distinctly sympathy to the acts acts of of the the teacher, and aversion, aversion, not merely but teacher, but merely to also teacher is also to the subject is occupied. to the subject with which the teacher occupied. The extent extent and power of this this influence influence upon morals power of upon morals and manners, upon character, upon habits of habits of speech manners, upon character, upon speech social bearing, are almost universally and social bearing, are universally recognized. recognized. the tendency to conceive of of thought But the as an isolated isolated thought as tendency to often blinded blinded teachers teachers to to the faculty the fact fact that that faculty has often this influence influence is is just as real real and pervasive this just as in intellec intellec pervasive in tual concerns. tual Teachers, concerns. well as as well as children, stick Teachers, as children, stick less to have more or less' more or or less to the the main points, or lesspoints, of response, wooden and rigid rigid methods of and display more response, display more or or less less intellectual intellectual curiosity matters that that come up. up. curiosity about matters trait of And every every trait this kind kind is is an inevitable part of the of this inevitable part of the teacher's accept with with teacher's method of of teaching. teaching. Merely Merely to to accept out notice notice slipshod slipshod habits habits of of speech, slovenly inferences, inferences, speech, slovenly literal response, response, is is to to indorse indorse these these unimaginative and literal unimaginative to ratify ratify them into into habits habits - and and so so it it tendencies, and to tendencies, goes throughout throughout the the whole range range of of contact contact between between goes teacher teacher and student. student. In In this this complex complex and intricate intricate or three three points points may may well well be singled singled out out for for field, two or field, notice, (a) persons are quite unaware of special notice. Most are unaware of special (a) persons quite the the distinguishing distinguishing peculiarities peculiarities of of their their own own mental mental habit. They take take their their own mental mental operations operations for for habit. They and and unconsciously make them the standard for granted, the standard for granted, unconsciously 1 judging the the mental mental processes processes of of others. others.l Hence there there Hence judging
1 People People who who have have number-forms numlm,jorms - i.e. i.e. project project number number series series into into space and and see see them them arranged arranged in in certain certain shapes shapes - when when asked asked why why they they space have not mentioned mentioned the the fact fact before, before, often often reply reply that that it it never never occurred occurred to f:Q have not
1

them; they they supposed supposed. that that everybody everybody had had the the same same power. power. tbcm;

SCHOOL CONDITIONS AND TRAINING THOUGHT

49 49

is a tendency in the is the pupil encourage everything tendency to encourage everything in pupil this to and to neglect which agrees with this attitude, fail or fail attitude, agrees neglect or is incongruous to with it. The to understand whatever is with it. incongruous of the prevalent the value, for mind-train-mind-trainvalue, for prevalent overestimation of theoretic as theoretic subjects as compared with practical ing, of with ing, subjects compared practical is doubtless due pursuits, partly the to the the fact fact that that the pursuits, is doubtless partly to select those teacher's to select teacher's calling those in in whom the the calling tends to interest is is specially theoretic interest theoretic to repel those strong and to specially strong repel those in whom executive abilities are marked. in abilities are Teachers Teachers this basis basis judge sifted out on this judge pupils sifted a pupils and subjects subjects by by a like standard, an intellectual one-sidedness like intellectual one-sidedness standard, encouraging encouraging to whom it it is is naturally in those in those to naturally congenial, repelling congenial, and repelling in whom those in practical instincts are more from study instincts are practical study urgent. urgent. this holds especially Teachers and this (b) especially of of the the stronger Exaggera() Teachers-and stronger Exaggera.of direct and better better teachers - tend tend to to rely rely upon upon their their personal personal tion peI801la1 to hold child to strong points points to hold a child to his his work, thereby influence in1luence work, and thereby strong their personal to for that personal influence influence for that of of subjectsubjectto substitute substitute their matter for study. teacher finds study. The teacher finds by by matter as a motive for that his experience that his own personality is often effective is often effective experience personality where the the power power of of the the subject subject to to command attention attention is is almost almost nil; nil; then then he utilizes utilizes the the fonner and former more and until relation the to the more, until the pupil's relation to the teacher almost teacher almost more, pupil's takes takes the the place place of of his his relation relation to to the the subject. subject. In In this this the teacher's teacher's personality personality may may become a a source source of of way the way personal dependence dependence and weakness, weakness, an influence influence that that personal renders renders the the pupil pupil indifferent indifferent to to the the value value of of the the subject subject for for its its own sake. sake. (c) The operatipn operation of of the the teacher's teacher's own mental mental habit habit IlIdepeudellt (c) unless watched and tends, unless carefully guided, to :;~ to make tends, guided, carefully Ui the the child child a student student of of the the teacher's teacher's peculiarities peculiarities rather rather "getting "gettillgthe rer than of of the the subjects subjects that that he is is supposed supposed to to study. study. His ans answel''' than chief chief concern concern is is to to accommodate himself himself to to what the the
4

^^^

'*

50 50

WE THINK HOW WE

rather than to teacher of him, him, rather to devote devote himself himself teacher expects expects of " of Is the problems of subject-matter. " Is this energetically to the this to subject-matter. problems energetically this this answer or right?" to "Will this or this promean ?" comes to pro right " " instead of the teacher? teacher? " - instead of meaning, meaning, " Does cess cess satisfy satisfy the " ? of the conditions of it inherent conditions the problem problem?" It It it satisfy the inherent satisfy the the value would be be folly to deny the legitimacy or the value of the of legitimacy folly to deny that children children carry the study of human nature nature that carry on in in the study of school; but it it is is obviously obviously undesirable undesirable that that their their chief chief school but that of of producing producing an intellectual problem should should be that intellectual problem their the standard by the teacher, and their standard of of answer approved teacher, approved by to the requirements requirements of of success be successful adaptation to successful adaptation success be another. another.
;

3. Influence of of the the Nature of Studies 3. Influence of Studies

Types
of fIIf studies studies

Studies conventionally and conveniently conveniently grouped are conventionally Studies are grouped under these heads: (i) (I) Those especially the these heads under involving the especially involving in the school acquisition of skill in performance the school arts, skill of arts, performance acquisition such as reading, reading, writing, writing, figuring, music. (2) (2) Those Those such as figuring, and music.
:

"informainly concerned with with acquiring "infor knowledge acquiring knowledgemainly and as mational" studies, such as geography history. (3) mational" studies, geography history. (3) skill in bulk of Those in in which skill in doing and bulk of information information doing are less important, important, and appeal to abstract abstract are relatively appeal to relatively less to "reasoning," " disciplinthinking, is most marked "reasoning/* is thinking, to "disciplin 1 ary" as arithmetic arithmetic and formal grammar. studies, such as grammar. 1 ary" studies, Each of groups of its own special special these groups of these of subjects subjects has its pitfalls. pitfalls. (a) In the the case case of the so-called disciplinary or of the so-called disciplinary or pre(a) In preeminently logical studies, there is danger of the isolathere is of the isola danger eminently logical studies, tion of of intellectual the ordinary ordinary affairs tion intellectual activity activity from the affairs
1 Of course. anyone all three lOf subject has has all three aspects aspects : e& e..r. in in arithmeti<:. arithmetic, course, any one subject and reading COImting. writing, aDd reading numbers, Dumbers, rapid adding, etc., etc., are are cases cases of of cTOting writing, rapid adding, la Going; ^IS in the tables tables of weights and measures measures are are a matter matter of of infar of weights infor doing ; the
:

Tfcftaiwtcaei Theah8tract uth.e iINiated

am

~ctc. oaatkm, etc.

CONDITIONS AND SCHOOL CONDITIONS AND TRAINING SCHOOL TRAINING THOUGHT THOUGHT

5 I 51

life. Teacher and and student student alike of life. Teacher alike tend tend to to set set up a up a between logical as as something abstract chasm between abstract logical thought thought something and remote, concrete demands of remote, and the specific of specific and concrete The abstract everyday events. The abstract tends to become so to so everyday far away so far from application, aloof, as to to be cut cut loose aloof, so loose away from application, as and moral bearing. The gullibility of from practical practical bearing. gullibility of scholars when of out their own lines, specialized out of their their exex specialized scholars lines, their habits of of inference and speech, travagant their ineptness travagant habits speech, their ineptness in reaching in their egoreaching conclusions in practical practical matters, matters, their ego tistical engrossment their own subjects, tistical are extreme extreme engrossment in their subjects, are of severing effects of examples studies comcom examples of the bad effects severing studies pletely connections in life. connections in life. pletely from their ordinary ordinary studies where the (b) the main emern- Overdoing danger in those studies (ft) The danger Overdoing themechlmo * is of skill is is upon acquisition of skill is just the reverse. phasis the reverse, upon acquisition phasis just icaI 8.l1d ^^f is to take# the shortest automatic The tendency possible to to antllmAtic cuts possible tendency is take^the shortest cuts the end. gain the required This makes the the subjects megain required end. t ^This subjects me chanical, thus restrictive restrictive of of intellectual power. In In intellectual power. chanical, and thus the the mastery mastery of of reading, reading, writing, writing, drawing, drawing, laboratory laboratory tech techof economy economy of time and material, material, nique, etc., etc., the need of of time nique, of of neatness neatness and accuracy, accuracy, of of promptness promptness and uniformity, uniformity, is is so so great great that that these these things things tend tend to to become ends ends in in themselves, irrespective irresp~tive of of their their influence influence upon upon general general themselves, mental attitude. attitude. |Sheer ISheer imitation, imitation, dictation dictation of of steps steps to to be taken, taken, mechanical drill, drill, may may give give results results most most quickly and yet yet strengthen strengthen traits traits likely likely to to be be fatal fatal quickly to to reflective reflective power. power. The pupil pupil is is enjoined enjoined to to do tins this and that that specific specific thing, thing, with with no knowledge knowledge of of any any rea reason that by by so so doing doing he he gets gets his his result result most most son except except that speedily; his his mistakes mistakes are are pointed pointed out out and and corrected corrected speedily; for for him; him; he he is is kept kept at at pure pure repetition repetition of of certain certain acts acts till till they they become become automatic. automatic. Later, Later, teachers teachers wonder wonder why the the pupil pupil reads reads with with so so little little expression, expression, and and fig figwhy ures ures with with so so little little intelligent intelligent consideration consideration of of the the terms terms
1
1

52

HOW WE WE THINK

"Drill"

Wisdom
versits f!ersus

information

of of his his problem. dogmas and pracproblem. In some educational dogmas prac the very of to tices, idea of training mind seems to be hopeidea tices, the training very hope drill which hardly that of of a drill lessly touches lessly confused with that hardly touches it for all for the worse - since mind at or at allor touches it since it it is is skill in taken up with training skill in external execution. wholly execution. training up wholly of human beings This method reduces the "traini~g" "training" of beings to (Practical skill, Practical level of of animal training. to the the level modes skill, modes training. { of technique, can be intelligently, of effective effective technique, non-mechaniintelligently, non-mechaniwhen intelligence cally in used, only intelligence has played only w~en played a part part in cally used, ~ their their acquis#ion. acquisition. is to of thing to be said said regard(c) sort of thing is (c) Much the same sort regardjn g where ing studies emphasis traditionally studies falls upon emphasis traditionally upon ~ J falls * of information. bulk and accuracy of information. The distinction distinction accuracy is old, requires between information information and wisdom is old, and yet yet requires to is be redrawn. Information is knowledge constantly to constantly knowledge which is is merely acquired and stored up; wisdom is is knowl knowlstored up; merely acquired edge in the the direction powers to to the the better better direction of of powers edge operating operating in living of life. life. Information, merely as as information, imInformation, merely living of information, im of intellectual training of intellectual capacity; plies no special plies special training capacity wisdom is the finest fruit is the finest fruit of of that that training. training. In In school, school, amassing amassing information the ideal ideal of of information always always tends tends to to escape escape from the wisdom or or good good judgment. judgment. The aim often often seems to to be be in such a a subject subject as as geography geography - to to make - especially especially in the the pupil pupil what has has been been called a " "cyclopedia of useless called a of useless cyclopedia information." the ground" is the primary information." "Covering the is the "Covering ground" primary necessity; the the nurture nurture of of mind a a bad second. second. Thinking Thinking necessity; in a a vacuum vacuum; suggestions suggestions and cannot, of of course, course, go go on in cannot, inferences inferences can can occur occur only only upon upon a a basis basis of of information information as as to to matters matters of of fact fact. But there there is is all all the the difference difference in in the the world world whether whether the the acquisition acquisition of of information information is is treated treated as as an an end end in in itself, or or is is made an integral integral portion portion of of the the training training of of itself, assumption that that information information which which has has thought. The assumption thought
.

SCHOOL CONDITIONS AND TRAINING THOUGHT

solution of of a solution

53 53

been accumulated apart apart from use in in the the recognition recognition and been problem may may later later on be freely freely employed employed problem at will will by by thought thought is is quite quite false, false. The skill skill at at the the ready ready at of intelligence intelligence is is the the skill skill acquired acquired with with command of the aid aid of of intelligence; intelligence; the the only only information information which, which, the otherwise than than by by accident, accident, can can be be put put to to logical logical use use is is otherwise that acquired acquired in in the the course course of of thinking. thinking. Because Because their their that knowledge has been achieved achieved in in connection connection with with the the knowledge needs of of specific specific situations, situations, men of of little little book-learning book-learning are are needs often able able to to put put to to effective effective use use every every ounce of of knowl knowloften edge they they possess possess; while while men of of vast vast erudition erudition are are often often edge swamped by by the the mere bulk of of their their learning, learning, because because swamped rather than than thinking, thinking, has has been operative operative in in memory, rather memory,
;

obtaining obtaining

it.

it.

4, 4- The Influence Injluence of of Current Aims and Ideals Ideals

is, of course, to separate this somewhat is, of course, impossible separate this impossible to dealt with; intangible condition the points points just just dealt with; condition from the intangible for automatic automatic skill quantity of of information information are are edu eduskill and quantity for cational ideals pervade the the whole school. We school. ideals which pervade cational may distinguish, however, certain tendencies, such as as certain tendencies, however, distinguish, may of external external that to judge education education from the standpoint to judge that standpoint of of perresults, of the development that of of from that instead of results, instead development of per of the product, ideal of habits. The ideal product, as sonal attitudes and habits. sonal attitudes against process by product the mental process of the that of by which the product against that is shows itself in both instruction and moral in instruction itself is attained, attained, discipline. discipline. itself External (a) external standard manifests itself the external In instruction, instruction, the (a) In " in the importance to the" No:reaWts No fJerSJIS correct answer." the correct attached to in the importance attached focus- proce888I one so fatally one other other thing, against focusfatally against thing, probably, probably, works so of mind sing teachers upon of teachers the attention attention of training of upon the training sing the as the idea that the chief their minds by as the the domination of their domination of by thing is to get pupils to recite their lessons correctly. their lessons to recite to is correctly. get pupils thing

It It

54 S4

HOW WE THINK HOW WE THINK

As long as this this end end is is uppermost As long as uppermost (whether (whether consciously consciously or unconsciously), of mind mind remains or remains an an incidental training of incidental unconsciously), training and secondary and consideration. There is no There is no great secondary consideration. great difficulty difficulty in understanding has this ideal in this ideal has such vogue. such The understanding why why vogue. The to large number of pupils to be dealt with, and the tendof be dealt the tend with, large pupils of parents ency school authorities authorities to to demand demand parents and school ency of and speedy and tangible evidence of progress, conspire of to tangible speedy progress, conspire to it it currency. Knowledge of subject-matter give of not give Knowledge currency. subject-matter - not is alone exacted of children - is of teachers of children teachers by this aim; aim by this and, of subject-matter and, moreover, moreover, knowledge in knowledge of subject-matter only only in laid out, portions and hence hence portions definitely out, and prescribed and laid definitely prescribed Education that mastered with comparative ease. that takes takes comparative ease. its standard the improvement as its of the the intellectual intellectual attiatti improvement of of students students demands more serious tude and method of serious prepre paratory and intellifor it it exacts exacts sympathetic intelli paratory training, training, for sympathetic and gent into the the workings workings of of individual minds, and individual minds, and insight into gent insight a very very wide and flexible flexible command of of subject-matter subject-matter-so so as as to to be able able to to select select and apply apply just just what is is needed needed when it it is is needed. needed. Finally, Finally, the the securing securing of of external external results is an aim that that lends lends itself itself naturally naturally to to the the results is mechanics of of school school administration administration - to to examinations, examinations, so on. on. marks, gradings, gradings, promotions, promotions, and so marks, Reliance (b) With reference reference to to behavior behavior also, also, the the external external Reliance () upon upon others athers j^^ ideal jjas has a great great influence. influence. Conformity Conformity of of acts acts to to pre precepts and and rules rules is is the the easiest, easiest, because because most most mechanical, mechanical, cepts standard standard to to employ. employ. It It is is no no part part of of our our present present task task to to tell tell just just how how far far dogmatic dogmatic instruction, instruction, or or strict strict adher adherence ence to to custom, custom, convention, convention, and and the the commands commands of of a a social in moral moral training training; but but social superior, superior, should should extend extend in since since problems problems of of conduct conduct are are the the deepest deepest and and most most common of all all the the problems problems of of life, life, the the ways ways in in which which common of they are are met met have have an an influence influence that that radiates radiates into into every every they other other mental mental attitude, attitude, even even those those far far remote remote from from any any
; ;

AND TRAINING THOUGHT SCHOOL CONDITIONS AND

55 55

direct Indeed, direct or conscious moral consideration. consideration. the Indeed, the deepest plane 0/ the mental attitude 0/ everyone is fixed one is of every deepest plane of fixed by treated. If If *way*in which problems problems of of behavior are treated. by the way.in the function of thought, of serious inquiry and reflection, thought, reflection, inquiry a minimum in dealing to a is reduced to is it is is not them, it dealing with them, reasonable to expect to exercise exercise great expect habits of thought thought to great influence in less important Oh the other hand, important matters. On hand, habits of active inquiry in the deliberation in the inquiry and careful deliberation significant and vital problems of conduct afford the best best problems significant guarantee will be general structure of mind will guarantee that the general reasonable.

CHAPTER FIVE
OF MENTAL MENTAL TRAINING: THE TIm Ain> END END OF THE MEANS AND PSYCHOLOGICAL .AND AND THE LOGICAL

I. I. Introductory: of Logical Meaning of Logical Introductory: The Mea1Zi1tg

special Special
of topic ~ of this chapter

thi8 chapter

Three senses of

term laical

The TIle practi pnctical is the c:al.1a Hoe

iutpurta:ut
meaDiIag of meaniagof

,.,....

IN the preceding what chapters we have considered (i) preceding chapters (z) what its thinking is; (ii) the importance of its special training; is importance special training thinking () (iii) that lend lend themselves natural tendencies the natural tendencies that themselves to to its its (iit) the training; and (iv) some of the special obstacles in the way of obstacles in the (iv) special training; way of training under school school conditions. conditions. We come now of its its training to logic to to the purpose purpose of of mental mental training. training. to the of logic the relation relation of In In its broadest sense, any thinking thinking that that ends ends in in a a its broadest sense, any conclusion is is logical logical- whether the the conclusion conclusion reached reached conclusion be justified justified or or fallacious fallacious; that that is, is, the the term logical logical covers covers both the logically logically good good and the the illogical illogical or or the the logically logically bad. bad. In its its narrowest narrowest sense, sense, the the term logical logical refers refers only to to what is is demonstrated demonstrated to to follow follow necessarily necessarily only from premises premises that that are are definite definite in in meaning meaning and and that that are are either either self self-evidently true, or or that that have have been been previously previously -evidently true, proved to to be true. true. Stringency Stringency of of proof proof is is here here the the proved equivalent of the the logical. logical. In this this sense sense mathematics mathematics equivalent of and formal logic logic (perhaps (perhaps as as a a branch branch of of mathematics) mathematics) alone alone are are strictly strictly logical. logical. Logical, Logical, however, however, is is used used in in a a third third sense, sense, which which is is at at once once more more vital vital and and more more practical; to to denote, denote, namely, namely, the the systematic systematic care, care, nega negapractical; tive tive and and positive, positive, taken taken to to safeguard safeguard reflection reflection so so that that it it may yield yield the the best best results results under under the the given given conditions. conditions. may If If only only the the word word artificial artificial were were associated associated with with the the idea idea
;

56 56

MEANS AND END OF MENTAL TRAINING

57 57

skill gained of art, art, or expert expert skill gained through through voluntary voluntary apprenappren of suggesting ticeship factitious and unreal), the factitious ticeship (instead (instead of suggesting the unreal), that logical we might refers to to artificial artificial thought. might say say that logical refers thought this sense, In this is synonymous with Care, sense, the word logzeal Cae, logical is synonymous with wide-awake, and careful reflection thought careful reflection wide-awake, thorough, thorough, thought thorougudh^f ness,a in its its best sense (ante, in Reflection is Reflection is turning a exactness (ante, p. p. 5). 5). turning a in topic over in various aspects and in various lights so various topic aspects lights so :-~~O:c;aI that that nothing significant about it shall be overlookedit shall overlooked nothing significant as one might almost as stone over over to to see see what its its might turn a stone is like side is like or or what is is covered by hidden side it Thoughtfulby it. Thoughtfulmeans, practically, ness means, as careful careful attenatten practically, the same thing thing as tion to give to a subject tion; to heed to it, is to to give heed to give our mind to it, subject is give it. In speaking of reflection, we to take pains of pains with it. reflection, speaking naturally ponder, delz"beratedeliberate naturally use the words weigh, weigh, ponder, terms implying certain a certain delicate and scrupulous delicate balanc implying scrupulous balancof one ing of things against another. Closely related another. related names ing things against Closely are scrutiny scrutiny, examinaton, consideration, inspectionexamination, consideration, inspection terms which imply close and careful careful vision. vision. Again, to to imply close Again, " put is to think think is to relate relate things to one another definitely, definitely, to to" things to put " two and two together" as we say. say. Analogy Analogy with with the the together as accuracy and definiteness definiteness of of mathematical mathematical combinations combinations accuracy gives us us such expressions expressions as as calculate, calculate, reckon, reckon, account account gives and even ratio. reason itself for; reason itself ratio. Caution, carefulcareful Caution, for; ness, thoroughness, thoroughness, definiteness, definiteness, exactness, orderliness, ness, exactness, orderliness, methodic arrangement, arrangement, are, are, then, then, the the traits traits by by which we mark off off the the logical logical from what is is random and casual casual on one side, side, and from what is is academic academic and formal formal on the the other. other. No argument argument is is needed to to point point out out that that the the eduedu- Whole object of cator is concerned concerned with with the the logical logical in in its its practical practical and {^en^c cator is intellectual education ia vital sense. sense. Argument Argument is is perhaps perhaps needed needed to to show that that education vital the the intellectual intellectual'(as (as distinct distinct from from the the moral} moral) end of of educaeduca- formation of logical disposition tion is is entirely entire(y and only only the the logical logical in in this this sense sense; namely. tion \ ; namely
;
',

58 58

THINK HOW WE THINK

the formation formation of careful, careful, alert, alert, and and thorough thorough habits haMts of oj the of the in thinking. chief difficulty in the way of recognition The chief recognition way difficulty thinking.
False oppooppoFalse
logical and

of

sition of the psycho-

this principle principle of this of

is

is a a false false conception conception of of the the relation relation bebe-

logical logical

tween the psychological psychological tendencies tendencies of of an individual individual and 11 tne twee his logical logical achievements. achievements. If If it it be assumed - as as it it is is so so his to do that these have, intrinsically, nothing to frequently these that have, intrinsically, nothing frequently each other, other, then logical logical training training is is inevitably inevitably re rewith each with and garded as as something something foreign foreign extraneous, something something extraneous, garded to be be ingrafted ingrafted upon upon the the individual individual from without, without, so so to that it it is is absurd absurd to to identify identify the the object object of of education with that the development development of of logical logical power. power. the conception that that the the psychology psychology of of individuals individuals The conception rehas no intrinsic intrinsic connections connections with with logical logical methods and re has sults is is held, held, curiously curiously sults by two opposing opposing schools schools enough, enough, by

to thTio""cai gI little

i!~:::'!t

Opposing Opposing "

of educational educational theory. theory. To one school, school, the the natural^ natural! is is of to make is and its * fundamental primary anc and fundamental;; its tendency tendency is to Primary

Neglect of Neglect of the innate logical kjdcai***

resources resources

Its mottoes are little of of distinctly distinctly intellectual intellectual nurture. Its nurture. freedom, individuality, spontaneity, freedom, self-expression, spontaneity, play, play, self-expression, individuality, its emphasis so on. on. unfolding, and so In its interest, natural unfolding, interest, natural emphasis store sets slight it sets activity, it slight store upon attitude and activity, individual attitude upon individual material of upon organized subject-matter, or the material of study, or study, upon organized subject-matter, for of various various devices for and conceives to consist consist of conceives method to of and evoking, in their natural order of growth, stimulating natural in their growth, stimulating evoking, the native potentialities of individuals. individuals. the native potentialities of of the The other other school school estimates estimates highly highly the value of individof individlogical, the natural natural tendency conceives the logical, but conceives tendency of to logical at least least indifferent, uals or at uals to to be averse, indifferent, to averse, or logical It upon achievement. It relies relies upon achievement. upon subject-matter upon subject-matter matter defined and classified. Method, then, has classified. matter already defined Method, then, already characteristics to which these characteristics the devices these devices by with the to do with by rea mind naturally reluctant and remay into a imported into naturally reluctant may be imported
1 Denoting whatever the natural natural constitntion 1 to do with constitution and fimc. has to with the func Denoting whatever has

tions of an an individual. individual tions of

MEANS AND END OF MENTAL TRAINING

bellious. bellious.

59 59

its mottoes mottoes are are discipline, discipline, instruction, instruction, Hence its

or conscious conscious effort, effort, the the necessity necessity of of restraint, voluntary voluntary or restraint, so on. on. From this this point point of of view view studies, studies, identtficatasks, and so Identificatasks,
tion of rather rather than attitudes attitudes and habits, habits, embody embody the the logical logical Jj logical with factor factor in in education. education. The mind becomes logical logical only only by by subjectsubject-

^.^

leat;ning to to conform to to an external external subject-matter. subject-matter. To matter, learning excltlsively produce this this conformity, conformity, the the study study should should first first be ana anaproduce (by text-book text-book or or teacher) teacher) into into its its logical logical elements; elements; lyzed (by lyzed then each of these elements should defined; finally, of elements should be defined then these ; finally,
all

all of of the the elements elements should should be arranged arranged in in series series or or

classes according according to to logical logical formulae formulce or or general general prin princlasses the pupil pupil learns learns the the definitions definitions one by by ciples. Then the ciples. one; and progressively progressively adding adding one one to to another another builds builds up up one the logical logical system, thereby is himself gradually and is himself the thereby gradually system, imbued, from from without, without, with with logical logical quality. quality. imbued, This description will gain meaning through through an illusillus- illustration lllustratioll This gain meaning description will
;

tration. tration.

is geography. Suppose first fr~:raPhY. subject is geography. The first Suppose the subject thing is to give its definition, marking it off every it off from its is to definition, marking give every g thing terms other subject. Then the various abstract upon various abstract the other subject. upon of the science science which depends the scientific development of scientific development which depends the are pole, equator, defined one by stated and defined are stated equator, by one - pole, com ecliptic, units to to the the more comthe simpler zone, - from the simpler units ecliptic, zone, con plex which are formed out of them; then the more conout of them are which plex in similar series: continent, crete similar series: are taken in elements are crete elements continent, island, isthmus, peninsula, peninsula, coast, promontory, island, coast, cape, isthmus, promontory, cape, on. and so on. In acquiring ocean, lake, coast, gulf, bay, acquiring ocean, lake, coast, gulf, bay, im to gain this material, is supposed the mind is this gain immaterial, the supposed not only only to itself to portant information, but, by accommodating itself to portant information, but, by accommodating and clas ready-made logical clasdefinitions, generalizations, generalizations, logical definitions, ready-made habits. sifications, to acquire logical habits. sifications, gradually acquire logical gradually to to every This has been applied of method has This type applied to every sub- from type of drawing ject taught in the schools reading, writing, music, schools in the music, reading, writing, ject taught physics, Drawing, arithmetic. example, Drawing, for example, grammar, arithmetic. physics, grammar,
;

60 60

HOW WE HOW WE THINK THINK

Formal Formal method

has been been taught on the has the theory that since since all all pictorial taught on theory that pictorial a matter is a matter of straight representation of combining and representation is combining straight and curved lines, the simplest curved procedure is to have the pupil is to have the lines, the simplest procedure pupil the ability first to to draw draw straight acquire lines in various various acquire the ability first straight lines.in positions at various various positions (horizontal, (horizontal, perpendicular, perpendicular, diagonals diagonals at then typical curves; and finally, to combine angles), and angles), typical curves; finally, to combine straight curved lines in various lines in various permutations con to constraight and curved permutations to struct actual struct actual pictures. to give the ideal ideal pictures. This seemed to give the " logical" method, with analysis into ele ele "logical" method, beginning beginning with analysis into ments, in regular order to to more ments, and then proceeding proceeding in regular order and more complex each element element being de complex syntheses, syntheses, each being defined when used, clearly understood. understood. used, and thereby thereby clearly this method in Even when this in its its extreme form is is not extreme form not folfol the middle or upper lowed, schools (especially of of the middle or lowed, few schools (especially upper are free elementary from an exaggerated free from atten elementary grades) grades) are exaggerated attenby the pupil tion to to forms supposedly employed the if he he supposedly employed by pupil if his result gets his result logically. It is thought that there are It is gets logically. thought that there are certain steps steps arranged arranged in in a certain order, order, which which express express a certain an understanding of of the the subject, subject, and and the the preeminently preeminently understanding pupil is is made to to "analyze" "analyze" his his procedure procedure into into these these pupil steps, i.e. i.e. to to learn learn a certain certain routine routine formula formula of of statement. statement. steps, While this this method is is usually usually at at its its height height in in grammar grammar and arithmetic, arithmetic, it it invades invades also also history history and and even even literature, literature, which are then then reduced, reduced, under under plea plea of of intellectual intellectual train trainwhich are "outlines," diagrams, diagrams, and schemes schemes of of division division ing, to to "outlines," ing, and and subdivision. subdivision. In In memorizing memorizing this this simulated simulated cut cut and and dried dried copy copy of of the the logic logic of of an an adult, adult, the the child child generally generally is is induced induced to to stultify stultify his his own own subtle subtle and and vital vital logical logical movement The movement The adoption adoption by by teachers teachers of of this this miscon misconception of of logical logical method method has has probably probably done done more more than than ception anything else else to to bring bring pedagogy pedagogy into into disrepute disrepute; for for to to anything many persons persons "pedagogy*' "pedagogy" means means precisely precisely a a set set of of many mechanical, self-conscious self-conscious devices devices for for replacing replacing by by some some mechanical,
;

MEANS AND END OF MENTAL TRAINING

cast-iron cast-iron

61 6 1

external scheme the external the personal personal mental mental move moveof the the individual. individual. ment of A reaction reaction inevitably occurs from the the poor poor results results Reaction Reaction inevitably occurs toward that that accrue from these professedly" logical" methods. these professedly methods, ?** "logical" f lackof lack of fonn f in study, interest in habits Lack of habits of inattention of interest of inattention and and method study,
. .

,,,.,.?

procrastination, positive positive aversion aversion to to intellectual intellectual applicaprocrastination, applica tion, dependence dependence upon upon sheer sheer memorizing memorizing and mechan mechantion, ical routine with only a of understanding by routine a modicum of understanding by ical only of what he is the pupil pupil of is about, about, show that the theory the that the of theory of logical definition, does definition, division, division, gradation, gradation, and system logical system does it is is theoretically not out practically not work out practically as as it theoretically supposed to supposed to consequent disposition in every reacwork. The consequent work. as in reac disposition - as every the opposite tion - is to go to the opposite extreme. extreme. The" logical" is to The " logical" tion go to thought to to be be wholly wholly artificial artificial and extraneous; teacher is thought extraneous teacher is turn their and pupil pupil alike alike are are to to turn their backs backs upon it, and to to upon it, and the expression expression of of existing aptitudes and work toward the existing aptitudes tastes. Emphasis upon natural natural tendencies tendencies and powers powers tastes. Emphasis upon of development the only possible starting-point as the is as starting-point of development is only possible is false, indeed wholesome. But the the reaction reaction is false, and hence hence indeed misleading, in in what it it ignores ignores and denies: presence denies the the presence misleading, in existing of genuinely genuinely intellectual factors in powers and intellectual factors of existing powers interests. interests. What is is conventionally logical (namely, the conventionally termed logical (namely, the the logical from the standpoint of subject-matter) represents of logical standpoint subject-matter) represents in truth truth the logic of trained adult mind. Ability to the logic of the the trained adult mind. in Ability to to to group divide subject, to define its elements, a and its divide elements, subject, to define group to general general principles repreinto classes classes according them into principles repre according to at its best point point reached reached after sents capacity at its best sents logical after logical capacity thorough training. training. The mind that that habitually exhibits thorough habitually exhibits systemskill in divisions, generalizations, and system skill in divisions, definitions, definitions, generalizations, in atic recapitulations recapitulations no no longer longer needs needs training in logical atic training logical that a it is is absurd to to suppose suppose that a mind which methods. But it methods. needs training because it cannot perform perform these operathese operait cannot needs training because
; :

Logic of of subsubLogic

^^^
is logic of

ject-matter

adult or adult or trained mind trained

HOW WE WE THINK THINK HOW

tions can can begin begin where where the the expert expert mind mind stops. stops. The The tions the from the standpoint of subject-matter represents the logical the represents subject-matter of standpoint logical from
I'heimmaimma The tare mind mind ture has its its has ,own logic own logic

not the the point point of of departure. departure. goal, the last term training, not goal^ the last term of training, In truth, truth, the the mind mind at at every every stage stage of of development development has has In

of

Hence,the Hence, the

psycTwlogpsycholog .. oal and the and the ical
logitJCtl logical

represent represent the ends two ends the two of the same same of the movement movement

The error error of of the the notion notion that that by by appeal appeal to to its own own logic. logic. The of materials and spontaneous tendencies by multiplication of materials tendencies by multiplication spontaneous we may may completely completely dismiss dismiss logical logical considerations, considerations, lies lies in in we a ex overlooking how large a part curiosity, inference, expart curiosity, inference, large overlooking perimenting, and testing already play in in the the pupil's pupil's life. life. perimenting, and testing already play factor it underestimates underestimates the the intellectual intellectual factor in in the the Therefore it Therefore more spontaneous spontaneous play play and work of of individuals individuals - the the more that alone alone is is truly truly educative. educative. Any teacher teacher who factor that factor is alive alive to to the the modes of of thought thought naturally naturally operative operative in in is the experience experience of of the the normal child child will will have no difficulty difficulty the in avoiding the the identification identification of of the the logical logical with a a readyreadyin avoiding well as the no the nomade organization of subject-matter, as well as of made organization subject-matter, is this error to to tion that the only way to escape this error is to pay tion that the only way escape pay no a teacher Such will attention a teacher will considerations. to logical attention to logical considerations. real of inthat the real problem in have in seeing no difficulty have no problem of seeing that difficulty in of natural is the transformation of tellectual education is tellectual education tested powers: powers into expert, powers the transformation expert, tested powers into of casual curiosity less casual or less more or of more sporadic suggestion suggestion curiosity and sporadic into cautious, and thorough of alert, attitudes of into attitudes cautious, alert, thorough inquiry. inquiry. in He will and the logical, the psychological that the see that will see logical, inpsychological to other stead of being opposed to each other (or even independof stead (or independ being opposed the eadier earlier and the the ent are connected as the each other), of each ent of other), are later stages in one continuous process of normal growt/t. later stages in one continuous process of growth. The natural or psychological natural or activities, even when not psychological activities, consciously controlled by considerations, have logical considerations, by logical consciously controlled and integrity; their function and intellectual function own intellectual their own integrity conscious it is when it is achieved, in thinking, and skill in deliberate skill and deliberate achieved, thinking, when is already first is nature. The The first makes second nature. or second habitual or makes habitual log already login an ical the last, in presenting an ingrained disposithe in spirit; ical in last, presenting ingrained disposispirit;
its
: ;

MEANS AND END OF OF MENTAL MENTAL TRAINING TRAINING: MEANS

63 63

tion tion

and attitude, attitude, is is then then as as psychological psychological (as (as personal) personal) and as any any caprice caprice or or chance chance impulse impulse could could be. be. as

2. 2. Discipline Discz"plz"ne and Freedom

Discipline of of mind is is thus, thus, in in truth, truth, a a result result rather rather Discipline mind than a cause. Any is disciplined in a subject in is in cause. a a than disciplined Any subject in and control which independent intellectual initiative intellectual initiative and control which independent have been been achieved. achieved. Discipline Discipline represents* represents, original original na nahave through gradual gradual exercise, exercise, into into True and tive endowment turned, turned, through tive notions effective power. power. So far far as as a a mind is is disciplined, disciplined, concon- false effective of discipline in a a given given subject subject has has been attained attained trol of of method in trol so that that the the mind is is able able to to manage manage itself itself independently independently so without external external tutelage. tutelage. The aim of of education education is is without precisely to develop ictelligence of this independent of this to independent develop intelligence precisely a disciplined disciplz"ned mind. mitzd. Discipline Discipline is is and effective effective type type - a and and constructive. positive constructive. positive someDiscipline, however, however, is is frequently frequently regarded as some regarded as Discipline, thing negative negative - as a painfully painfully disagreeable of as a forcing of disagreeable forcing thing it into to it into channels mind away channels congenial mind congenial to away from channels at the of process grievous the time but but necesneces a process of constraint, constraint, a grievous at future. sary as preparation for a more or less remote future. for or less as preparation sary Discipline identified with drill; is then then generally drill; and Disciplinl generally identified Discipline is as drill of drivdriv drill the mechanical analogy after the conceived after is conceived drill is analogy of into a a foreign ing, by unremitting blows, a foreign substance into ing, by unremitting blows, of resistant material; or is imaged after the analogy is after or resistant material analogy of imaged recruits trained the mechanical routine by which raw recruits are trained the mechanical routine by are naturally to habits that that are a soldierly to a naturally bearing and habits soldierly bearing this of this Training wholly their possessors. to their Training of possessors. foreign to wholly foreign is not latter it be called called discipline whether it latter sort, not, is discipline or not, sort, whether habits of mental Its result are are not not habz"ts Its aim aim and result mental discipline. of discipline. action. thinking, but uniform external modes of action. By external but uniform of By thinking, failing he means by ask what he to ask many a discipline, many by discipline, failing to is developing teacher that he is that into supposing misled into is misled teacher is developing supposing
;

64

HOW WE THINK

mental force force and efficiency efficiency by by methods which in in fact fact mental restrict and and deaden deaden intellectual intellectual activity, activity, and which tend tend restrict or mental mental passivity passivity and to create create mechanical mechanical routine, routine, or to
As independAsindepend-

entpower

or freedom orfreelom

Freedom Freedom
and external spontaneity

obSome obstacle necesstacie necessary for

thought

servility. discipline is is conceived conceived in in intellectual intellectual terms (as (as When discipline the habitual habitual power power of of effective effective mental attack), attack), it it is is iden identhe true sense. sense. For freedom of of tified with with freedom freedom in in its its true tified of exmind means mental power capable of independent exmental mind independent power capable trom the the leading leading strings strings of of others, others, erCise, emancipated emancipated from ercise, not mere mere unhindered unhindered external external operation. operation. When spon sponnot taneity or or naturalness naturalness is is identified identified with more or or less less taneity the tendency tendency of of casual discharge discharge of of transitory transitory impulses, impulses, the casual the educator is to to supply supply a a multitude multitude of of stimuli stimuli in in order order educator is the that spontaneous activity may may be kept kept up. up. All sorts sorts of of s P ontaneous activity ^at modes of interesting materials, equipments, tools, of activity, activity, interesting materials, equipments, tools, are provided in in order order that that there there may flagging of of are provided may be no flagging This method overlooks some of free self-expression. This of free self-expression. of genuine the essential attainment of of the attainment conditions of essential conditions the genuine freedom. freedom. of an (a) Direct immediate immediate discharge or expression discharge or expression of (#) Direct impulsive Only to thinking. the fatal to is fatal thinking. Only when the impulsive tendency tendency is thrown and back impulse is to some extent checked extent to is impulse It is, upon reflection ensue. It ensue. itself does does reflection is, indeed, indeed, a stupid stupid upon itself must be imposed tasks error that arbitrary tasks that error to to suppose imposed arbitrary suppose from without to furnish perplexity the factor factor of of perplexity furnish the without in in order order to to and difficulty which is the necessary cue to thought. is the thought. necessary difficulty Every vital activity of any depth and range inevitably vital of Every range inevitably any depth activity to realize it* realize it meets obstacles in the the course of its its effort effort to obstacles in course of or for artificial artificial or self a fact fact that that renders the search search for renders the self - a external The difficulties difficulties external problems problems quite superfluous. quite superfluous. within the of an that themselves within the development of that present themselves development present edu the experience are, however, to be cherished by the educherished to be are, however, experience by cator, not minimized, for they are the natural stimuli not for are the stimuli natural minimized, cator, they
servility.

MEANS AND END OF MENTAL TRAINING

to reflective inquiry.

65 65

to reflective inquiry.

does not not consist consist in in keep keepFreedom does

ing up up uninterrupted uninterrupted and unimpeded unimpeded external external activity, activity, ing is something something achieved achieved through through conquering, conquering, by by per perbut is but of the the difficulties difficulties that that prevent prevent sonal reflection, reflection, a a way way out out of sonal an immediate immediate overflow overflow and a a spontaneous spontaneous success. success. an

(b) The method that that emphasizes emphasizes the the psychological psychological intellectual Intellectual () are and natural, natural, but but yet yet fails fails to to see see what what an an important important part part factors and natural
of the the natural natural tendencies tendencies of
is

at every every period period is constituted constituted at of growth growth by by curiosity, curiosity, inference, inference, and and the the desire desire to to test, test, of cannot secure secure a a natural natural development. development. In In natural natural growth growth cannot of activity activity prepares prepares unconsciously, unconsciously, each successive successive stage stage of each but thoroughly, thoroughly, the the conditions conditions for for the the manifestation manifestation of of but a as in the next next stage as in the cycle of a plant's growth. the of the plant's growth. stage cycle that" thinking" is is a a There is no ground ground for for assuming assuming that is no There "thinking" that will bloom inspecial, isolated natural tendency that will bloom in natural isolated tendency special, evitably in because various various sense sense and in due season season simply simply because evitably before or motor activities have been been freely manifested before; or activities have manifested motor freely and manual because observation, memory, imagination, because observation, memory, imagination, skill have have been been previously previously exercised exercised without thought thought. skill constantly employed employed in in using using the the Only is constantly thinking is Only when thinking of senses for the muscles for the guidance senses and muscles application of guidance and application for the way prepared for observations is the observations and movements, movements, is prepared way subsequent of thinking. thinking. higher types types of subsequent higher is Genesis that childhood is of Genesis of At present, notion is is current current that the notion present, the thought con of a of mere sensory, almost unreflective a period unreflective almost entirely sensory, temporaneperiod entirely ^em^L ous with sud- ous adolescence sudmotor, while adolescence and memory motor, and development, while memory development, genesis of reason. denly brings the manifestation of thought and reason. of thought any human denly brings the manifestation ^y^^aa for magic. a synonym Adolescence is not, Adolescence is however, a magic, mental not, however, synonym for ac V1^ activity of it an enlargement Doubtless with it should bring Doubtless youth enlargement of bring with youth should con to larger the a susceptibility of childhood, the horizon horizon of larger conchildhood, a susceptibility to cerns a more and issues, more generous cerns and general issues, a generous and a more general life. standpoint This developsocial life. nature and social toward nature develop standpoint toward a of comment for thinking of a more for ment affords affords an an opportunity thinking opportunity
;

66

WE THINK HOW WE

Fixation Fixation

of bad mental habits habits

Genuine fre&dom is freedom is :bJ.tellectual, JIGt external mot external

prehensive and abstract abstract type previously obtained. obtained. type than has previously prehensive and But thinking thinking itself remains just just what it it has been all all the the itself remains time: of following up and testing testing the the conclu conclua matter matter of time a following up life. by the the facts events of of life. Thinksions facts and events Think sions suggested suggested by who has lost as the the ing begins as soon as the baby lost the ball ball as soon baby ing begins to foresee that he is is playing playing with with begins begins to foresee the the possibility possibility that he its recovery; of not yet yet existing recovery; and bebe of something existing - its something not the realization toward of gins to forecast steps the realization of this forecast to this steps gins possibility, by experimentation, to guide his acts by acts by and, by guide his experimentation, to possibility, and, ideas. also test thereby also test the the ideas. Only by his ideas and thereby his ideas Only by of the making the most of the thought-factor, thought-factor, already already active active making the is there any of childhood, in the experiences promise in the childhood, is experiences of any promise or warrant for the emergence emergence of of superior superior reflective reflective for the or warrant at any later period. period. power at at adolescence, or at adolescence, or power any later habits In any case positive habits are being formed: if (c) are In case if not not positive (V) being formed: any then habits of habits into things, into then habits of of careful careful looking habits of looking things, the surface; if hasty, heedless, impatient glancing over the over surface if hasty, heedless, impatient glancing of consecutively not habits of following up the suggestions not habits the consecutively following up suggestions that occur, of haphazard, that occur, then then habits habits of haphazard, grasshopper-like grasshopper-like if not guessing; not habits habits of judgment till till in inof suspending guessing; if suspending judgment examination of ferences been tested tested by ferences have been the examination of evievi by the then habits habits of credulity alternating alternating with with flippant dence, of credulity dence, then flippant belief or either case, incredulity, belief or un belief being based, in unbelief in either based, case, incredulity, being upon or accidental accidental circumstances. circumstances. The whim, emotion, emotion, or upon whim, to achieve only achieve traits traits of carefulness, thoroughness, thoroughness, of carefulness, only way way to and continuity (traits that are, as have seen, the the that as we have are, seen, continuity (traits " elements of of the the "logical") is by exercising these traits is these traits logical ") by exercising from the it that that conditions conditions the beginning, beginning, and by to it seeing to by seeing call for call for their their exercise. exercise. Genuine freedom, in short, rests in in is intellectual; it rests freedom, in short, is intellectual; it the trained trained power power of thought, in in ability to "turn things to of thought, things ability to look at matters matters deliberately, to judge judge whether whether over," look at over," to deliberately, to the amount and kind kind of of evidence requisite for for decision decision evidence requisite
:
;

MEANS AND END OF MENTAL TRAINING

is

67 67

is at at hand, hand, and if if not, not, to to tell tell where and how to to seek seek such evidence. evidence. If If a a man's actions actions are are not guided guided by by such then incon thoughtful conclusions, they are guided by inconare conclusions, guided thoughtful they by siderate impulse, impulse, unbalanced appetite, appetite, caprice, caprice, or or the the siderate circumstances of of the the moment. To cultivate cultivate unhindered, unhindered, circumstances unreflective external external activity activity is is to to foster foster enslavement, enslavement, unreflective for it it leaves leaves the the person person at at the the mercy mercy of of appetite, appetite, sense, sense, for circumstance. and circumstance.

PART TWO: LOGICAL CONSIDERA CONSIDERATIONS

CHAPTER SIX
A COMPLETE ACT OF THOUGHT THE ANALYSIS OF .A
Object of Object of Part Two

a brief brief consideration consideration in in the first first chapter AFTER a of the the chapter of nature of of reflective reflective thinking, thinking, we turned, turned, in the second, second, in the nature for its to its training. training. Then we took took up up the the to the need for resources, difficulties, and the of its its training. training. the difficulties, the aim of resources, the of this The purpose purpose of this discussion discussion was to to set set before before the the student the general problem of the training of mind. of student the the of mind. general problem training The purport purport of the second second part, part, upon upon which we are of the are now entering, entering, is is giving a fuller statement of the nature fuller statement of the nature giving of thinking, and normal growth preparatory to to concon growth of thinking, preparatory in the sidering in the concluding part the special problems the sidering concluding part special problems that in connection that arise connection with its its education. education. arise in In this this chapter the shall make an analysis of the chapter we shall analysis of of process of thinking into its steps or elementary constituinto its or constitu process thinking steps elementary ents, basing the the analysis upon descriptions a num numof a ents, basing analysis upon descriptions of ber extremely simple, but genuine, cases of reflective of extremely ber of but cases of reflective genuine, simple, 1 1 experience. experience. i. 1. "The other on 16th other day I was down town on i6th day when I Street clock caught caught my my eye. I saw that the Street a clock I that the hands eye. 12.20. pointed to 12.20. This suggested that I I had an engageThis pointed to suggested that engage 1 24th Street, at 124th at ment at at one o'clock. I reasoned that I reasoned o'clock. that Street,
1 1

A Asimplo simple case case of of practical practical deliberation deliberation

These are are taken, taken, almost almost verbatim, verbatim, from papers of of students. students. the class from the class papers 68 68

ANALYSIS OF A COMPLETE ACT OF THOUGHT

69 69

as it had taken me an hour hour to to come down on a a surface as it surface if I late if I re recar, I I should probably probably be be twenty twenty minutes minutes late car, the same way. way. I I might might save save twenty minutes by by turned the turned twenty minutes But ? a subway express. there a station near? If was there station a near If express. subway lose more I might than not, I lose than twenty minutes in looking minutes in not, might looking twenty I thought for one. one. Then I of the the elevated, and I I saw for elevated, and thought of But where there was such a a line line within within two two blocks. there blocks. If it station ? it were several was the the station? If several blocks blocks above above or or I street I should below the street I was on, I should lose time instead of lose time instead of below on, it. gaining it. to the the subway express My mind went back to gaining subway express as quicker the elevated elevated; furthermore, rememI remem as furthermore, I quicker than the it went nearer that it nearer than the the elevated to the the part part bered that elevated to bered of I wished wished to to reach, reach, so that time time would 1 24th Street Street I so that of 124th at the the end of the journey. journey. I I concluded in in be saved saved at of the be and the subway, reached favor of reached my destination by one of the favor destination subway, my by o'clock." o'clock." 2. "Projecting nearly horizontally horizontally from the the upper upper A simple 2. "Projecting nearly simple ca e of case of I deck of on which I daily cross the river, reflection the ferryboat ? of the on deck the river. ferryboat daily J J cross reflection is a white pole, pole, bearing bearing a a gilded ball at at its its tip. tip. It It upon a long is upon an long white gilded ball a observation ob8ervati first saw it; suggested a flagpole I first its color, it; its color, flagpole when I suggested shape, and gilded ball agreed with this idea, and these these this idea, gilded ball agreed with shape, reasons seemed to justify me in belief. But soon to justify in this this belief. reasons The pole pole was nearly nearly difficulties presented difficulties themselves. presented themselves. horizontal, an unusual position for a flagpole; in the unusual for in the horizontal, position flagpole; next place, place, there no pulley, pulley, ring, ring, or or cord by which which there was no cord by next a flag; there were elsewhere two two verti vertito attach attach a to flag finally, finally, there staffs from cal staffs flown. cal which flags It It flags were occasionally occasionally flown. probable that that the pole was not not there there for flagseemed probable the pole for flagflying. flying. " I " I then tried tried to to imagine imagine all all possible possible purposes purposes of such of such of these it was best best a pole, pole, and to consider for for which of to consider these it was suited it suited: (a) Possibly it an ornament. But as all the ail as the (a) Possibly ferryboats and even the tugboats carried like poles, the carried like tugboats poles, ferryboats
;
.

70

WE THINK HOW WE

A simple simple
of ease of case

re:tl.ection reflection involving involving experiment experiment

this rejected. (b) Possibly it it was the the this hypothesis () Possibly hypothesis was rejected. the same considterminal wireless telegraph. telegraph. But the consid a wireless terminal of of a improbab~e. Besides, the more nat naterations this improbable. erations made this Besides, the ural place place for a terminal terminal would be the the highest highest for such such a ural of the part of the the boat, boat, on top top of the pilot pilot house, house. (c) Its pur pur(c) Its part of in direction which might be to point out the direction in the pose be to the pose might point is moving. boat is boat moving. " In I discovered that " In support this conclusion, that the the of this conclusion, I support of so that the than the than the pilot house, so that the steerspole was lower steers pilot house, pole the tip man could easily see Moreov:er, the tip was enough it. see it. could easily Moreover, enough so that, the pilot's higher than the the base, base, so that, from the pilot's position, position, higher than far out of the it to project project far out in in front front of the boat. boat it must appear appear to front of Moreover, the pilot being being near the the front of the the boat, boat, he he the pilot Moreover, as its direction. such guide as to its direction. Tugboats would need to would need some such Tugboats guide for such a This hyalso need need poles poles for a purpose. purpose. This would also hy than the much than the others pothesis was so more probable so others probable pothesis conclusion that that I I accepted it. I I formed the the conclusion that the the that accepted it. the of the pole set up for the purpose of showing the pilot for set was showing purpose pilot pole up the boat pointed, the direction in which the pointed, to to enable him direction in the to to steer steer correctly." correctly." 3. washing tumblers tumblers in in hot placing hot soapsuds 3. "In washing soapsuds and placing plate, bubbles bubbles appeared appeared them mouth downward on a plate, on the the outside the mouth of tumblers and outside of of the of the the tumblers then then went inside. inside. Why? Why? The presence presence of of bubbles bubbles the suggests air, I note from inside which I note must come inside the suggests air, tumbler. I see tumbler. I that the the soapy water the plate presee that on the plate pre soapy vents vents escape escape of of the the air air save caught in in bubbles. bubbles. as it it may be save as may be caught ? But why leave the air leave the tumbler tumbler? 'rhere was no There why should air substance to force it out. out. It It must have have exforce it ex substance entering entering to It expands expands by increase of heat or or by by depanded. It of heat de panded. by increase by both. both. Could Could the the air air have have crease pressure, or or by crease of of pressure, become heated heated after the tumbler was taken taken from from the the hot hot after the suds? not the air that already entangled not suds ? Clearly the air that was Clearly already entangled

ANALYSIS OF A COMPLETE ACT OF THOUGHT

71 71

air was the If heated the the water. water. If heated air the cause, air cold air cause, cold must have entered in in transferring transferring the the tumblers tumblers from from

in in

I test if this see if this supposition the suds suds to to the the plate. plate. I test to to see the supposition several more true by taking several tumblers out. Some is true tumblers is out. by taking so as as to I shake so I to make sure sure of of entrapping cold air air in in entrapping cold them. Some I holding mouth downward in in I take out out holding them. cold air order to prevent air from entering. Bubbles aporder to Bubbles ap prevent cold entering. of outside one pear on the outside of everyone of the former and on the of and on every pear I must be right of the latter. in latter. I in my inference. none of inference. right my outside must have been expanded the outside AIr from the expanded by by the the Air the tumbler, of the heat of tumbler, which explains explains the the appearance of heat appearance of the bubbles bubbles on the the outside. outside. the " why do they they then then go go inside inside? Cold contracts. contracts. " But why The tumbler tumbler cooled cooled and also the air it. Tension air inside also the inside it. Tension was removed, hence bubbles bubbles appeared To removed, and hence inside. appeared inside. I test of this, be sure sure of this, I test by by placing placing a cup ice on the the be of ice cup of still forming tumbler while bubbles are forming outside. outside. while the bubbles tumbler are still They soon reverse." reverse." They These three purposely selected so as three cases cases have been purposely selected so as to form a series the more rudimentary to to series from the to more rudimentary illustrates the the complicated cases reflection. The first cases of first illustrates of reflection. complicated one kind of done by everyone during the day's kind of thinking the thinking during by every day's the data, ways of business, in in which neither neither the the ways of data, nor the business, limits dealing with them, take outside the limits of everywith of one outside them, dealing every day The last furnishes a case case in in which last furnishes experience. day experience. ,neither nor mode of of solution have been been neither problem solution would have problem nor scientific likely to to one with with some prior prior scientific to occur occur except except to likely natural transition case forms forms a natural transition; training. The second second case training. its materials materials lie within the the bounds of of everyday, everyday, its lie well well within unspecialized experience; but the problem, instead of but the instead of problem, unspecialized experience in the person's business, arises being directly involved the involved in arises being directly person's business, appeals indirectly out of his his activity, activity, and accordingly out of accordingly appeals indirectly to a a somewhat theoretic interest. interest to theoretic and impartial We impartial
?
;
;

three The three

cases form a series

72

HOW WE WE THINK

shall deal, shall deal, in in a later the evolution evolution of of later chapter, with the chapter, with abstract thinking out of of that abstract that which is is relatively relatively practical practical thinking out and direct direct; here here we are only with with the the com comare concerned only all the the types. types. elements found in in all mon elements instance reveals, Upon examination, each instance reveals, more or or less less ttve distinct Five distinct Upon examination, in steps steps in distinct a five steps: (i) a felt difficulty; clearly, five logically distinct felt steps logically clearly, (z) difficulty refiection reflection (z"i) its definition; (iii) of pos posits location location and definition suggestion of (zY) (iii) suggestion (iv) development by by reasoning reasoning of of the sible sible solution; solution the (iv) development bearings the suggestion suggestion; (v) observation and further observation of the bearings of (v) further its acceptance that experiment leading to to its or rejection; rejection; that acceptance or experiment leading or disbelief. disbelief. is, the conclusion conclusion of of belief belief or is, the i. first and second steps 1. The first frequently fuse into into i. The occur :1:. occursteps frequently rence rence of of a with definiteone. may be felt with sufficient definitefelt be sufficient one. The difficulty difficulty may difficulty difficulty the mind at once speculating upon its ness as as to its ness to set set the at once speculating upon uneasiness or an undefined uneasiness and shock probable solution, or probable solution, definite attempt to may first, leading to definite attempt to later to leading only may come first, only later find out what is is the the matter. matter. Whether the the two steps find out steps factor emphasized are distinct or blended, there there is the factor or blended, is the are distinct emphasized viz. the reflection-viz. the perplexity perplexity in our our original original account account of in of reflection cases first three oW problem. In the first of the three cases cited, the the In the of the cited, QJ- problem. (a) the at in the conditions difficulty resides in the conflict between conditions at resides in the conflict between (a) in difficulty lack of of end an hand and a desired and intended result, between between intended desired result, adaptation adaptation of means of and the the means for for reaching reaching it. purpose of of keepit. The purpose keep to to end and the ing engagement at time, the existing existing at a certain certain time, ing an engagement con hour taken in in connection connection with the location, are not not conwith the hour location, are conof thinking thinking is introduce congruous. The object is to to introduce gruous. object of the two. The given conditions cannot gruity between the two. conditions between given gruity will not be altered altered; time not go go backward nor themselves be time will themselves will the between 16th Street will the distance distance between i6th Street Street and 124th I24th Street inter shorten itself. The problem problem is is the the discovery discovery of of intershorten itself. between the remoter vening terms which inserted between tlte remoter which when inserted terms vening end and the given means will will harmonize them with with each each the given other. other.
;

ANALYSIS OF A COMPLETE ACT OF THOUGHT

73 73
(b) () in identi

In In the the second case, case, the is the the the difficulty experienced is difficulty experienced aca of and (temporarily) acincompatibility of a suggested suggested (temporarily) incompatibility cepted belief that the pole is is a flagpole, with certain certain the pole belief that cepted flagpole, with other facts. Suppose the qualities that other facts. qualities that Suppose we symbolize symbolize the that suggest flagpole by the letters a, b, c; those that opthe letters a, b, c\ suggest flagpole by op r. of the letters by the letters p, q, r. There is, pose this suggestion this is, of /, q, pose suggestion by course, nothing inconsistent in the qualities themselves; themselves in the inconsistent course, nothing qualities but in in pulling pulling the the mind to to different incongruous but different and incongruous problem. Here conclusions they they conflicthence the problem. conflict conclusions the the object object is the discovery discovery of of some object of which is the object (0), ((7), of all be appropriate a, b, b, c, c, andp, q, r, traits-just a, r, may just appropriate traits and/, q, may all a course of action as, in our it is is to to discover discover a course of action first case, our first case, it as, in which will will combine existing existing conditions conditions and a a remoter remoter re result in in a single whole. of solution is also sult of solution is whole. method also The single the the same: of intermediate (the posi posisame discovery intermediate qualities qualities (the discovery of the pilot pilot house, house, of of the the pole, pole, the the need of of an index index tion of of the tion to the boat's boat's direction) direction) symbolized by d, g, l, 0, which to the d, g, symbolized by bind together together otherwise incompatible traits. traits. bind otherwise incompatible of In the the third trained to to the the idea idea of third case, observer trained case, an observer finds something exnatural laws or uniformities uniformities finds or exnatural laws or something odd or the behavior behavior of of the the bubbles. bubbles. The problem problem ceptional in in the ceptional is to the apparent anomalies to to instances instances of wellis to reduce reduce the of wellapparent anomalies established the method of of solution solution is is also also established laws. laws. Here the will to seek seek for terms will connect, by which to for intermediary terms connect, by intermediary regular linkage, the seemingly extraordinary movements the regular linkage, seemingly extraordinary of the bubbles with the follow from of the the conditions conditions known to to follow bubbles with processes supposed to be operative. to be processes supposed operative. 2. As already the first first two steps, the feeling feeling noted, the steps, the already noted, acts of observaof a discrepancy, discrepancy, or or difficulty, of observaof the acts difficulty, and the tion that that serve the character of the the difficulty define the character of serve to to define tion difficulty in a given telescope together. together. In In cases cases may, in instance, telescope given instance, may, the difficulty, difficulty, of striking striking novelty novelty or unusual perplexity, perplexity, the of or unusual however, is is likely likely to present itself a shock, as a as at first first as to present itself at shock, as however,
;

tying the

character of
an object object

/,

<?,

(c) in in exexfc) plaining an

unexpected event event

2. DefiDitioa 2. Definition

of the
difficulty

74 74

HOW WE WE THINK HOW

emotional disturbance, disturbance, as a more or less less vague vague feeling feeling of of the unexpected, unexpected, of of something something queer, queer, strange, strange, funny, funny, disconcerting. In such instances, instances, there there are neces necesor disconcerting. sary deliberately calculated to bring to to observations calculated bring to sary deliberately the make light just is trouble, to clear spewhat is the or to clear trouble, spe light just cific character of of the problem. problem. In large large measure, measure, the cific existence or or non-existence non-existence of of this this step step makes the differ differexistence ence between reflection reflection proper, proper, or safeguarded safeguarded critical critical

inference and uncontrolled thinking. thinking. Where sufficient sufficient inference pains to to locate locate the difficulty difficulty are not taken, taken, suggestions suggestions for pains a its resolution resolution must be more or or less less random. Imagine Imagine a its doctor called called in in to to prescribe prescribe for a a patient. patient. The patient patient doctor tells him some things things that that are wrong wrong; his experienced experienced his tells ; dis certain eye, at a glance, takes in other signs of certain disa of in other at takes signs glance, eye, ease. But if permits the suggestion suggestion of of this this special special if he permits ease. disease to to take possession possession prematurely his mind, mind, to prematurely of his become an accepted his scientific thinking is is scientific thinking conclusion, his accepted conclusion, A by that that much cut cut short. A large part of his his technique, technique, short. large part by as skilled practitioner, practitioner, is is to to prevent acceptance of a skilled as a prevent the acceptance the first that arise arise; even, indeed, to to postpone postpone first suggestions the even, indeed, suggestions that the very definite till the definite suggestion the occurrence of any suggestion till any very thor trouble - the nature of been thorhas of the problem trouble problem this a oughly explored. In the case of a physician this propro physician oughly explored. a ceeding is known as diagnosis, but a similar inspection is as inspection diagnosis, ceeding is is required complicated situation to required in every every novel and complicated criti a prevent rushing to a conclusion. The essence of critito prevent rushing cal thinking is suspended judgment; and the essence is cal thinking suspended judgment; of is inquiry to determine the nature of this suspense of this suspense is inquiry to its solusolu the to attempts the problem attempts at its proceeding to problem before proceeding tion. This, tion. This, more than any thing, transforms mere any other thing, inference into into tested tested inference, inference, suggested suggested conclusions into into proof. proof. in 3. is suggestion. situation in third factor factor is 3. The third suggestion. The situation
;

ANALYSIS OF A COMPLETE ACT OF THOUGHT

75 75

3. OccurOccurwhich the the perplexity perplexity occurs occurs calls calls up up something something not not 3* rence of a

present to to the the senses senses: the present present location, location, the the thought thought sug : the suggested present g ested explanation subway or or elevated elevated train; train; the the stick stick before before the the eyes, eyes, explanation subway r POSSlble or possible r r the idea idea of of a flagpole, flagpole, an ornament, ornament, an apparatus apparatus tor for the a solution solution wireless telegraphy; the soap soap bubbles, bubbles, the the law of of expan expanwireless telegraphy the ;
of of

sion of of bodies bodies through through heat heat and of of their their contraction contraction sion through cold. (a) Suggestion is the very heart of in inheart the of cold, is through very (a) Suggestion it involves involves going going from what is is present present to to some something absent absent. Hence, Hence, it it is is more or or less less speculative, speculative, thing is ac acadventurous. Since Since inference inference goes goes beyond beyond what is adventurous. it involves involves a leap, leap, a jump, jump, the the propriety propriety tually present, present, it tually in advance, advance, no of which cannot be be absolutely absolutely warranted in of matter what precautions precautions be taken. taken. Its Its control control is is in inmatter the one one hand, hand, involving involving the the formation of of habits habits direct, on on the direct, of mind which which are are at at once once enterprising enterprising and cautious cautious; of and and on on the the other other hand, hand, involving the selection the selection involving of arrangement of the particular facts upon perception facts of the upon perception of particular arrangement conclusion (b) issues. which suggestion suggested conclusion suggestion issues. () The suggested enter so far as is not not accepted accepted but but only tentatively enteras it it is so far only tentatively for this this are tained constitutes idea. Synonyms are supsupconstitutes an idea. tained Synonyms for elaborate position, conjecture, hypothesis, and (in elaborate conjecture^ guess, hypothesis, (in position> guess, or the postponecases) Since Since suspended belief, or postpone suspended belief, theory. cases) theory. ment of pending further further evidence, of a a final final conclusion conclusion pending evidence, rival the presence of rival conjectures depends partly upon of the presence conjectures depends partly upon as explanathe probable best course or the as to to the the best course to to pursue probable explana pursue or tion to favor, cultivatt"on of a variety of alternative alternative tion to cultivation favor, variety of of suggestions is in good factor in is an important thinking. important factor good thinking. suggestions as 4of developing or, as 4. The process bearings - or, developing the bearings process of of they are more technically termed, the implications implications - of technically termed, they are any is termed reasonreasonto any idea with with respect respect to problem, is any problem, any idea 1 so reasoning As an idea ing.1 idea is is inferred inferred from given facts, so reasoning given facts, ing.
it
;

ference;; ference

4. 4 The
.

ratienal

elaboratioa of an idea of

1 Thls entire reflective 1 reflective proto denote the entire term is is sometimes sometimes extended extended to This term pro test is is best best reserved cess-just reserved for for in the sense sense of test as in/ffmce cess (which in just as inference (which

?6

WJE THINK HOW WE

HOW

Idea. sets out from an idea. The idea of elevated road is Is dede veloped of locating station, length of veloped into the idea of difficulty station, locating length difficulty of time occupied of station at occupied on the journey, journey, distance of the other end from place to be reached. In the second to place a case, of a flagpole is seen to be a vertiis verti case, the implication implication flagpole a a cal position; of a wireless apparatus, location on a high location position high apparatus, part of the ship and, moreover, absence from every part ship and, moreover, every casual tugboat; to direction in tugboat while the idea of index to which the boat moves, developed, is found to is to cover when moves, developed, all the details of the case. all a suggested Reasoning effect upon Reasoning has the same effect suggested upon a solution as more intimate and extensive observation has upon problem. Acceptance Acceptance of the suggesupon the original original problem. sugges its first first form is tion in its prevented by is prevented it more into it looking into by looking thoroughly. Conjectures plausible at first first thoroughly. Conjectures that seem plausible sight unfit or even absurd when their their sight are often found unfit full consequences reasonout. Even when reason consequences are traced out. re ing bearings of a supposition lead to reto does not lead ing out the bearings supposition it the jection, it develops into a form in it is idea it is a which in jection, develops more apposite apposite to to the problem. problem. Only when, for example, for example, Only when, the conjecture pole was an index-pole index-pole had been conjecture that a pole thought out into into its its bearings bearings could its its particular particular appli applithought to the case in cability in judged. Suggestions hand be cability judged. Suggestions at first first seemingly frequently so seemingly remote and wild are frequently transformed by by being being elaborated into into what follows from them as to become apt apt and fruitful. fruitful. The development development of an idea through through reasoning reasoning helps helps at at least least to to supply supply the intervening intervening or intermediate terms that that link link together together into a a consistent whole apparently apparently discrepant discrepant extremes (ante, p. p. 72). 72). (ante,
;

the the third third step) step) is is sometimes used in in the same broad sense. sense. But reasoning r~asoning (or ratiocination) ratiocination) seems to to be peculiarly peculiarly adapted adapted to to express express what the the (or older older writers called the ** notional" cr ** "dialectic" process of of developing developing notional ** or dialectic " process the meaning meaning of a given given idea. idea.

ANALYSIS OF A COMPLETE ACT OF THOUGHT

5.

77 77

5 The co:r;tcluding conclusive step is some kind kind 5. 5. CorrobCorrobconcluding and conclusive step is a oration of or verification, verification, of of the the ^ or d an idea and idea. of formation of conjectural idea. Reasoning shows that that if be formation the idea idea be conjectural Reasoning if the a concluding adopted, follow. So far far the the concon- belief adopted, certain consequences consequences follow. elusion is hypothetical clusion is hypothetical or or conditional. conditional. If and If we look look and present all all the conditions by the the theory, theory, find present conditions demanded by and if if we find the the characteristic characteristic traits traits called called for for by by rival alternatives to rival alternatives to be lacking, lacking, the the tendency believe, to believe, tendency to to to accept, accept, is is almost almost irresistible. irresistible. Sometimes direct direct observation furnishes corroboration, in the the case case of observation furnishes corroboration, as as in of the the pole pole on the the boat. boat. In other of the the other cases, as in in that that of cases, as bubbles, experiment is required required; that that is, is, condi#ons conditions are are bubbles, experiment is delz"berately arranged in accord with the requz"rements of in with accord the deliberately arranged requirements of an idea Mea or hypothesis hypothesis to see if the results theoretically to see the results theoretically if the idea actually If it is found that that indicated by the actually occur. indicated by occur. If it is found the experimental experimental results results agree with the theoretical, with the the theoretical, agree if there is is reason or rationally rationally deduced, results, and if reason to to or deduced, results, that in would conditions in question yield believe that only the conditions believe only the question yield to induce confirmation is is so so strong as to induce a such results, the confirmation such results, strong as at least conclusion until contrary contrary facts facts shall shall indicate indicate least until conclusion - at its revision. the advisability advisability of of its revision. the Thinking at the at the the beginning beginning and again the Thinking Observation exists exists at Observation again at comes I end of the process: at at the the beginning, beginning, to to determine more between the process end of observations the nature nature of of the difficulty to be observations definitely and precisely precisely the difficulty to definitely at the beat the of some hypodealt with with; at the end, end, to to test test the the value value of hypo- ginning dealt ginning and at the the end at two Between those entertained conclusion. those thetically entertained conclusion. thetically termini of the more distinctively distinctively of observation, find the termini observation, we find mental the entire thought-cycle: () inference, of the entire thought-cycle mental aspects (f) inference, aspects of or solution; the suggestion suggestion of of an explanation explanation or the solution; and (ii) reasoning, the the development bearings and im imthe bearings of the development of (if) reasoning, plications of the suggestion. Reasoning requires some of the Reasoning requires suggestion. plications experimental to confirm confirm it, it, while while experiobservation to experi experimental observation conducted fruitfully conducted only and ment can be economically only fruitfully economically
of of e.:cpel'z"mental experimental corroboratz"on, corroboration,

^^

78

HOW WK WE THINK

The trained mind one judges that judges the extent of of each step step advisable in a given given a situation situation

on the basis of of an idea that has been tentatively tentatively develdevel oped by reasoning. reasoning. oped by The disciplined, or logically logically trained, trained, mind - the aim of disciplined, or is the mind able to the educative process process - is to judge judge how far each of of these steps steps needs to to be carried in in any any par particular situation. laid down. situation. No cast-iron rules can be laid it arises, Each case has to to be dealt with as it arises, on the basis of its its importance importance and of in which it it occurs. occurs. of the context in foolish as To take too much pains pains in in one case is is as foolish-as At illogical as to too little in another. one little as take to illogical extreme, prompt extreme, almost any any conclusion that insures prompt and unified action may may be better than any long delayed delayed any long conclusion conclusion; at the other, decision may have to to while at other, decision a life postponed for for a a long period - perhaps perhaps for a lifebe postponed long period time. time. The trained trained mind is is the one that best grasps grasps the degree of observation, forming of ideas, reasoning, of of ideas, reasoning, and observation, forming degree experimental testing required required in in any case, and that experimental testing special case, any special profits the most, most, in in future future thinking, thinking, by by mistakes made in profits the past. past. What is is that the mind should is important important is to problems problems and skilled in methods of of attack skilled in be sensitive sensitive to and solution. solution.
;

CHAPTER SEVEN SEVEN CHAPTER

SYSTEMATIC INFERENCE: INFERENCE: INDUCTION INDUCTION AND AND DE DESYSTEMATIC DUCTION DUCTION

i. I. The The Double Double Movement Movement of of Reflection Reflection THE characteristic characteristic outcome outcome of of thinking thinking we we saw saw to to be be Back and THE bethe organization organization of of facts facts and and conditions conditions which, which, just just as as forth the tween the and facts and they stand, are isolated, fragmentary, and discrepant, discrepant, the they stand, are isolated, fragmentary, meanings of introduction organization being effected through the the introduction of organization being effected through The facts connecting links, or middle terms. facts as as they they terms. middle or links, connecting reflection stand are are the the data, data, the the raw raw material material of of reflection; their their stand lack of perplexes and stimulates to to reflection. reflection. coherence perplexes of coherence lack There of some meaning which, if if the suggestion follows the There follows suggestion of vari which variin which a whole in it will give substantiated, will give a can be be substantiated, it can find data find ous and seemingly incompatible data ous fragmentary fragmentary and seemingly incompatible a their place. The meaning suggested supplies a their proper proper place. The meaning suggested supplies from of view, from mental an intellectual point of view, mental platform, platform, an intellectual point to more carefully, which data more the data carefully, to define the and define note and to note which to to and to institute, seek institute, experiexperi observations, and additional observations, for additional seek for mentally, changed conditions. conditions. mentally, changed a Inductive reflection a all reflection: in all There movement in double movement a double thus a is thus There is and to data confused and movement the given from the partial and confused data to deductive given partial movement from entire situation; aasuggested comprehensive (or inclusive) entire situation; suggested comprehensive (or inclusive) as sugwhich as whole-which sug and this suggested from this back from and back suggested whole facts, the particular to the gested is aameanng, an idea to facts, idea an particular is meaning, gested addi with addiandwith anotherand so one another with one these with connect these to connect asto so as atten directed has tional thesuggestion whichthe towhich factsto suggestion has directed attentionalfacts movements these movements of these tion. Roughly speaking, the first of tion. Roughly speaking, the first
; :

'19 79

80 8o
is
;

HOW WE THINK

Htuiy versus
caution

Continuity Continuity of of relationrelation the ship ship the mark of of the the latter latter

is inductive inductive; the the second second deductive. deductive. A complete complete act act of of fruitful a it that it involves, that is, a fruitful thought involves both involves both involves, is, thought interaction (or recollected) recollected) particular particular con coninteraction of of observed observed (or of inclusive inclusive and far-reaching far-reaching (general) (general) siderations and of siderations meanings. meanings. This double double movement to to and from from a a meaning meaning may may This a or in cautious occur, however, however, in in a a casual, casual, uncritical uncritical way, way, or in a cautious occur, regulated manner. manner. To think think means, means, in in any any case, case, to to and regulated gap in in experience, experience, to to bind bind together together facts facts or or bridge a a gap bridge deeds otherwise otherwise isolated. isolated. But we may may make only only a deeds allow consideration to hurried jump jump from one one consideration to another, another, allowhurried the to override ing our aversion to mental disquietude to override the to mental our aversion disquietude ing traveled road gaps; or, may insist upon noting the road traveled we the insist upon noting gaps or, may in making connections. connections. We may, may, in in short, short, accept accept in making we or any suggestion that seems plausible; or may readily that plausible may readily any suggestion whether to new see additional factors, difficulties, to see hunt out out additional difficulties, factors, the suggested conclusion really ends the the matter. matter. The the suggested conclusion really definite formulation latter involves definite of the the con conformulation of latter method involves in logical links the the statement of of a principle, principle, or, logical necting or, in necting links; If we thus phrase, the the use use of of a universaL If thus formulate formulate the the a universal. phrase, into whole situation, transformed into the original data are are transformed situation, the original data or is a logical belief is premises of of reasoning; final belief the final logical or reasoning; the premises rational not a mere de facto termination. rational conclusion, not termination. conclusion, facto items The importance importance of isolated itemJ of connections connections binding binding isolated in all the is embodied in all the phrases into whole into a coherent coherent single is phrases single to of premises conclusions to that that denote the the relation relation of premises and conclusions each other. (I) The premises are called grounds, each other, (i) premises are called grounds, foundations, are said said to to underlie, underlie, uphold, foundations, bases, bases, and are uphold, support ) We "descend" from the the conclusion. conclusion. (2 support the (2) " " mount " or "mount" premises and " ascend" ascend or to the the conclusion, conclusion, and" premises to river may in direction - as as a river in the the opposite continuously opposite direction may be continuously con vice versa. versa. the contraced So the source to to sea sea or or vice traced from source is its or is drawn from its premises. clusion flows, or clusion springs, premises. springs, flows,
;

SYSTEMATIC INFERENCE SYSTEMATIC

81 8l

as the word itself itself implies (3) (3) The conclusion -as closes, implies - closes, shuts in, various factors factors stated stated in, locks up up together together the various " " contain" in the premises. that in that the premises" contain premises. We say premises say " " the conclusion, conclusion contains" contains the the conclusion, and that the conclusion" premises, thereby marking our sense of the inclusive of the inclusive premises, thereby marking in which the and comprehensive the elements elements of of comprehensive unity unity in 1 are bound reasoning tightly Systematic in reasoning are tightly together,! together. Systematic inin short, ference, the recogm'tion ference, in short, means the of definite recognition of definite considerations pre prerelations of of interdependence interdependence between considerations viously this recognition disconnected, this viously unorganized unorganized and disconnected, recognition the discovery being insertion of by the being brought brought about by discovery and insertion of new facts facts and properties properties, This more systematic like the the is, however, however, like systematic thinking thinking is, in its its double movement, cruder forms in the movement the movement, toward the suggestion hypothesis and the the movement suggestion or hypothesis back to facts. difference is is in in the greater to facts. The difference greater conscious conscious care of the care with which each phase phase of the process is performed. performed. process is The conditions under which sitggestions suggestions are are allowed to to spring up up and develop develop are are regulated. regulated. Hasty Hasty acceptance acceptance spring of of any any idea idea that that is is plausible, plausible, that that seems to to solve solve the the is a difficulty, is changed into conditional acceptance into conditional difficulty, changed acceptance pending further further inquiry. inquiry. The idea idea is is accepted accepted as as a pending as working hypothesis, as something to guide investigation to working hypothesis^ something guide investigation and bring bring to to light light new facts, facts, not not as as a final final conclusion. conclusion, When pains pains are are taken to to make each aspect aspect of of the the move movement as as accurate accurate as as possible, possible, the the movement movement toward toward building up up the the idea idea is is known as as inductive inductive discovery discovery building short); the the movement toward developing, developing, (induction, for for short) (induction, testing, as as deductive deductive proof proof (deduction, (deduction, for for applying, and testing, applying, short). short). While induction induction moves from fragmentary fragmentary details details (or (or 1 See 1 See Vailati, Vailati,Journal 0/ Philosophy, Philosophy, Psychology, Psychology, and and Scientific Scientific Methods, Metkods, Journal of
. ;

Scientific Scientific induction uction and deduction deduction

Vol. Vol. V, V.

No. No. 12. 12.

82
Particular PartiClllar

HOW WE THINK

and

universal

Illustration mllstration

from everyfrom every ex dayexday

perience perience

of induction, indllction,

a situation a connected view of particulars) to a of a situation (universal), (universal\ particulars) to deduction begins begins with with the the latter latter and works back again again deduction to and them to particulars, connecting binding tothem to particulars, binding connecting of is toward discovery gether. Tp.e inductive movement is toward inductive The discovery of gether. its tes#ngthe deductive deductive toward its binding principle; principle; the a binding testing it on the of its ca confirming, refuting, modifying modifying it the basis basis of its caconfirming, refuting, unified interpret isolated details into a unified expepacity to isolated details into expe pacity to interpret in of these as we conduct conduct each of these processes processes in rience. So far far as rience. the light of the other, valid discovery discovery or verified or verified the light of the other, we get get valid critical thinking. critical thinking. A commonplace illustration may the points points enforce the commonplace illustration may enforce left his this formula. of formula. A man who has left his rooms in in order of this finds upon his his return return in in a a state confusion, arti artifinds them upon of confusion, state of no at random. Automatically, the nocles being scattered scattered at cles being the Automatically, tion comes to to his his mind that that burglary account for tion would account for burglary the disorder. disorder. He has has not not seen seen the burglars; their their presthe the burglars; pres fact of of observation, ence is is not not a fact observation, but but is thought, an is a thought, idea. in idea. Moreover, Moreover, the the man has no special special burglars burglars in mind it it is mind; is the the relation^ relation, the the meaning meaning of of burglary burglary- somesome that thing that comes to to mind. mind. The state state of his of his thing generalgeneral is perceived perceived and is is particular, definite, exactly room is particular, definite, exactly is as are inferred, it is; burglars are have a a general general staas it sta inferred, and have burglars tus. state of of the is a the room is fact, certain speaktus. The state certain and &fact, speak ing for itself; itself; the the presence presence of of burglars burglars is a possible possible is a ing for meaning may explain explain the the facts. facts. meaning which may far there there is is an inductive inductive tendency, by So far suggested by tendency, suggested particular and present present facts. In the the same inductive facts. In inductive particular it occurs occurs to to him that that his his children are mischievous, mischievous, way, children are way, it and that that they may have have thrown the the things things about. about. This This they may rival hypothesis rival principle of of explanation) conditional principle hypothesis (or (or conditional explanation) the first prevents dogmatically accepting accepting the first sugprevents him from dogmatically sug is held in Judgment is held in suspense a positive gestion. and a gestion. Judgment suspense positive conclusion postponed. conclusion postponed.
;

SYSTEMATIC INFERENCE

83

Then deductive begins. Further of deduction deduction deductive movement begins. Further observaobserva- of recollections, reasonings reasonings are conducted on the the recollections, basis of a development ideas suggested: basis of of the the ideas if bur burdevelopment of suggested if and glars were responsible, such such things would have glars responsible, things articles of happened; articles of value value would be missing. the happened missing. Here the man is a is going from general principle or relation to speor relation to going general principle spe cial that accompany accompany it, it, to to particulars, particulars,-not back, cial features features that not back, the original original particulars particulars (which however, merely merely to to the however, (which would be fruitless in a circle), take him in circle), but but to details, fruitless or or take to new details, the or nondiscovery the actual actual discovery nondiscovery of will test test of which will discovery or the of valuables; the principle. principle. The man turns turns to to a box of valuables are still are gone; gone; some, some, however, however, are there. some things still there. things are Perhaps he has himself the missing articles, has removed himself articles, Perhaps missing but has has forgotten it. His experiment not a a decisive but is not decisive forgotten it. experiment is in the silver in the test. He thinks test. the silver thinks of of the the sideboard sideboard - the children not have taken taken that that nor would he absentabsentchildren would not changed its place. He looks looks; all all the the mindedly have changed its place. mindedly solid ware is of burglars solid is gone. is con conconception of burglars is gone. The conception doors shows that that firmed; examination of of windows and doors firmed they have been tampered tampered with. with. Belief Belief culminates; the culminates the they original facts have have been been woven into into a coherent coherent isolated facts original isolated fabric. fabric. The idea idea first suggested (inductively) first suggested (inductively) has been employed to reason out hypothetically addiout certain addi to reason employed hypothetically certain yet experienced, that ought to tional particulars particulars not that tional not yet to be experienced, ought new there, if the suggestion is correct. acts of is Then if the correct. acts of there, suggestion that the the particulars particulars theoretically theoretically observation observation have shown that present, and by by this this process process the the hypoth hypothcalled are present, called for for are moving back esis is is strengthened, esis corroborated. This moving strengthened, corroborated. and forth forth between the observed facts facts and the conditional the observed the conditional idea a coherent of an object is idea is is kept till a coherent experience object is experience of up till kept up experience of of conflicting conflicting details details - or substituted for for the the experience or substituted as a bad job. else the whole matter matter is is given given up up as job. else the operations. Sciences exemplify similar similar attitudes attitudes and operations, Sciences exemplify

tions, tions,

84
Science is is Science the same the operations operations carefully carefully performed performed

HOW WE THINK

of caution, caution, exactness exactness and thoroughness. thoroughness. ments of

but with with a a higher higher degree degree of of elaboration elaboration of of the the instru instrubut This

greater elaboration elaboration brings brings about about specialization, specialization, an ac acgreater curate marking marking off off of of various various types types of of problems problems from curate a corresponding corresponding segregation segregation and one another, another, and a one each type type of of problem. problem. each
classi classi-

the materials materials of of experience experience associated associated with with fication of of the fication shall devote devote the the remainder remainder We shall by which by the and the discovery, discovery, the the development, development, the testing testing of of mean meanthe are scientifically scientifically carried carried on. on. ings are ings

Guidance Guidance
is indirect is

the devices devices of this this chapter chapter to to a a consideration consideration of of the of

2. 2.

Guidance of of the the Inductive Inductive Movement Guidance

indirect

Control of the the formation formation of of suggestion is necessarily necessarily Control of suggestion is indirect, not direct; imperfect, not perfect. Just be benot not indirect, direct; imperfect, Just perfect. thought cause all discovery, discovery, all all apprehension apprehension involving involving thought cause all of the new, new, goes the known, known, the present, to to the the the present, of the goes from the that will mles can stated that will stated no be unknown and absent, rules absent, is suggested guarantee correct correct inference. Just suggested inference. Just what is guarantee upon his his native native to a a person person in in a given to situation depends given situation depends upon constitution originality, his genius), temperament, temperament, constitution (his his genius), (his originality, the prevalent direction his early environthe prevalent direction of of his his interests, interests, his early environ his the general tenor of experiences, his ment, of his his past ment, the general tenor experiences, past the things that have recently occupied special training, that special training, things recently occupied extent him continuously vividly, and so to some extent or vividly, so on; on; to continuously or circum an accidental conjunction of present circumeven upon accidental of upon present conjunction stances. in the past These matters, stances. far as lie in as they so far matters, so past they lie or in in external or clearly escape regulation. A external conditions, A conditions, clearly escape regulation. or that that suggestion does or or does this or not occur; occur this does not suggestion simply simply does suggestion just happens, If, how If, howoccurs, springs suggestion just happens, occurs, up. springs up. ever, ever, prior prior experience experience and training developed an training have developed attitude of attitude of patience a capacin a condition condition of of doubt, doubt, a patience in capac for and a liking for inquiry, ity for suspended judgment, for suspended ity liking judgment, inquiry, indirect control indirect control of of the is possible. the course course of of suggestions possible. suggestions is
;

SYSTEMATIC INFERENCE SYSTEMATIC

8S 8$

individual may may return return upon, upon, revise, revise, restate, restate, enlarge, enlarge, The individual and analyze analyze the the facts facts out out of of which whch suggestion sugges#on springs. springs. and Inductive methods, methods, in in the the technical technical sense, sense, all all have have to to Inductive do with with regulating regulating the the conditions conditions under which observa observado tion, memory, memory, and the the acceptance acceptance of of the the testimony testimony of of tion,

B C D are if the the facts facts A ABC are carefully carefully looked looked ically. But if n R S, thereby resolved resolved into into the the facts facts A A' B B" S, a and thereby present itself itself different different suggestion will will automatically automatically present suggestion that called called up up by by the the facts facts in in their their first first form. To from that from inventory the facts, to describe exactly minutely describe to the facts, exactly and minutely inventory their respective respective traits, traits, to to magnify magnify artificially artificially those those that that their are obscure obscure and and feeble, feeble, to to reduce reduce artificially artificially those those that that are are so glaring as to be distracting,to as and are so conspicuous distracting, glaring conspicuous facts that exercise sug these are ways of of modifying the facts sugthese are ways modifying the forma and thereby indirectly guiding the formagestive force, gestive force, thereby indirectly guiding tion of inferences. tion of suggested suggested inferences. his Consider, for example, Consider, for example, how a physician physician makes his is scienIf he is sciendiagnosis If his inductive inductive interpretation. interpretation. diagnosis - his tifically trained, he suspends reaching a postpones -reaching suspends - postpones tifically trained, led not be led by conclusion in that he may conclusion in order order that superficial by superficial may judgment. Certain conspicuous occurrences a snap occurrences into into a Certain conspicuous snap judgment. phenomena suggest typhoid, typhoid, but he avoids forcibly suggest phenomena may may forcibly this or or even any strong preference a a conclusion, or even conclusion, any strong preference for this that conclusion until he has greatly (i) enlarged that conclusion until greatly (f) enlarged the minute* scope of his data, and (it) rendered them more minute. (if) rendered scope of his data, his to his feelings He not as to the patient not only feelings and patient as questions the only questions as to the the disease, as to to his his acts acts prior disease, but by manipu by various manipuprior to lations with instruments instruments made for with his his hands hands (and lations with (and with the a large the purpose) to light large number of facts of light a brings to purpose) brings ternstate of temwhich is quite unaware. The state is which the the patient quite patient
ically.

others (the (the operations opera#ons supplying supplying the the raw data) data) proceed. proceed. others the facts facts ABC on one side side and certain certain inin- Method Given the C D on Given of indirect automatthe other, suggestion occurs automatdividual habits on occurs the dividual habits other, suggestion regulatioo regulation

AB

into into

illustration nIustration from diagnosis

86

HOW HOW WE WE THINK

f definition of scientific scientific induction

Stl1DD13rY =

Elimination Elimination 11* of irrelevant

meaning. laeai^gs*

is accurately heart-action is perature, perature, respiration, respiration, and heart-action accurately to time are are exex noted, fluctuations from time to their fluctuations noted, and their actly recorded. U nti! this examination has worked out Until this recorded. actly scru in toward a minuter scrua wider collection toward a collection and in is of deferred. tiny of details, inference is deferred. inference details, tiny all the the processes processes Scientific in short, induction means, Scientific induction short, all means, in w k ^ ie by which the observing and amassing of data are reguc fo amassing of ^y regu* observing the formation lated facilitating the jorma#on of explanwith a view to to facilitating lated witlz of explan atory These devices devices are and theories. theories. are all all atory conceptions conceptions a1zd facts to to which directed the precise directed toward selecting selecting the precise facts in forming weight shall attach attach in sugges forming suggesweight and significance significance shall this selective tions or Specifically, tions or ideas. ideas. selective determination determination Specifically, this involves of what involves devices devices of of (I) elimination by (i) elimination by analysis analysis of is likely emphasis is likely to misleading and irrelevant, to be misleading irrelevant, (2) (2) emphasis the important by collection of the of collection and comparison of cases, cases, important by comparison of deliberate of construction data data by experimental (3) deliberate construction of (3) by experimental variation. variation. It is (I) is a a common saying saying that that one must learn to dislearn to dis(i) It cr iminate between observed criminate observed facts facts and judgments judgments based based literally, such advice be upon them. them. Taken literally, advice cannot cannot be upon carried carried out; out; in in every every observed observed thing thing there there is is-if the if the thing have any any meaning meaning at at all-some consolidation of of all some consolidation thing with what is and is sensibly physically present, meaning with meaning sensibly physically present, such that, if this that, if this were entirely entirely excluded, excluded, what is is left left would have no sense. "I my brother." sense. A says: saw brother." says: my The term brother, brother, however, however, involves involves a a relation relation that that can cannot not be sensibly sensibly or or physically physically observed observed; it it is is inferential inferential in in status. status. If If A contents contents himself himself with with saying, saying, " "I a I saw a the factor factor of of classification, classification, of of intellectual intellectual refer referman," the man," but still still exists. exists. If, as a a last last re reence, is is less less complex, complex, but ence, If, as sort, A were to to say, say, " " Anyway, Anyway, I I saw a a colored colored object," object," sort, some some: relationship, relationship, though though more rudimentary rudimentary and unde undeit is is possible possible that that no no fined, still still subsists. subsists. Theoretically, Theoretically, it fined,
;

SYSTEMATIC SYSTEMA TIC INFERENCE

87 87

object of nerve stimustimu there, only object was there, only an unusual mode of lation. lation. None the less, to discriminate discriminate what less, the advice to is observed from what is is inferred is inferred is is sound practical practical Its working is that one should eliminate advice. Its eliminate working import import is as to or exclude those inferences as to which experience experience has is greatest shown that there is This, to error. error. of greatest liability This, of liability to is a a relative relative matter. course, Under ordinary circum course, is ordinary circumstances no reasonable doubt would attach attach to to the the obserobser see my brother"; it would be pedantic vation, vation, "I see brother"; it pedantic and to resolve this this recognition silly into a more eleele silly to recognition back into form. Under other circumstances it mentary it might mentary might be a perfectly to whether A A saw even perfectly genuine genuine question question as to a colored thing, or the color was due to a whether color a stimto stim thing, " ulation ulation of the sensory optical apparatus (like "seeing sensory optical apparatus (like seeing " stars stars" upon blow) or or to to a disordered disordered circulation. circulation. In In upon a blow) scientific man is one general, the scientific is who knows that is that he is general, be to to a likely to hurried to conclusion, and that part of that of likely conclusion, part this this precipitancy precipitancy is is due to to certain certain habits habits which tend tend to to make him "read" certain certain meanings meanings into into the the situation situation that confronts him, him, so so that that he must be on the the lookout lookout against errors errors arising arising from his his interests, interests, habits, habits, and against current preconceptions. preconceptions. The technique technique of of scientific scientific inquiry inquiry thus thus consists consists in in The techtechof " readvarious processes processes that that tend to to exclude exclude over-hasty over-hasty" read- ruque conclusioa " ing in in" of of meanings meanings; devices devices that that aim to to give give a a purely purely ing " objective" unbiased rendering rendering of of the the data data to to be in in"objective" terpreted. Flushed cheeks usually usually mean heightened heightened terpreted. temperature; paleness paleness means lowered temperature. temperature. temperature; The clinical clinical thermometer records records automatically automatically the the ac actual tual temperature temperature and hence checks up up the the habitual habitual associations associations that that might might lead lead to to error error in in a a given given case. case. All All the instrumentalities instrumentalities of of observation observation -the the various various -meters -meters and and -graphs -graphs and -scopes -scopes-fill part fill a part
;

88

HOW WE THINK

of their their scientific role in in helping helping to to eliminate eliminate meanings meanings scientific rdle of the supplied because of habit, prejudice, the strong momo of because habit, strong prejudice, supplied
of excitement and anticipation, mentary preoccupation of anticipation, mentary preoccupation of existing theories. and by by the vogue of existing theories. Photographs, the vogue Photographs, phonographs, kymographs, kymographs, actinographs, actinographs, seismographs, seismographs, phonographs, the like, records plethysmographs, and the moreover, give like, moreover, give records plethysmographs, be that are permanent, so that they can employed can so that that are permanent, employed by they by different persons, and by by the person in in different different the same person different persons, of varying influence of ex i.e. under states under the influence varying exof mind, states of mind, i.e. Thus purely beliefs. purely personal personal pectations pectations and dominant beliefs. after-effects of to desire, of prepossessions (due to habit, desire, to to after-effects habit, to prepossessions (due to eliminated. In ordi recent experience) may may be largely eliminated. ordirecent experience) largely nary language, the facts obJectively, rather rather than than facts are are objectively, language, the nary this tendencies to subJectively, determined. In this way tendencies to determined. subjectively, way in premature interpretation are held in check. held are check. premature interpretation of control control consists consists in (2) in important method of (2) Another important the of cases instances. If I doubt cases or or instances. ^^ multiplication If I multiplication of a certain handful gives fair sample, sample, or or repre reprewhether a certain handful gives a fair of judging sentative, for purposes purposes of judging value, value, of of a a whole whole carcar sentative, for load grain, I I take take a a number of of handfuls handfuls from various various of grain, load of parts of of the the car car and compare they agree them. If in If they parts compare them. agree in and if quality, well good; if they disagree, try to get well we to good get quality, they disagree, try enough samples so so that that when they they are are thoroughly enough samples thoroughly mixed result will a fair the will be a fair basis basis for for an evaluation. This the result evaluation. This illustration represents roughly the value of that aspect illustration represents the value of that roughly aspect of insists upon of scientific scientific control control in in induction induction which insists upon observations instead instead of the conclumultiplying observations of basing basing the conclu multiplying sion upon one or a few cases. sion upon or a cases. So prominent, prominent, indeed, indeed, is is this aspect of inductive this aspect of inductive method that it is that it is frequently treated as as the the whole whole of inof infrequently treated It is duction. that all all inductive duction. It is supposed inductive inference inference is is supposed that based and comparing a of like based upon upon collecting number of like collecting comparing cases. But in such comparison cases. in fact fact such is a collection is a comparison and collection
;

Collection Collection
o of instances instances

Tnis method This Dot the whole of induc:tioa

SYSTEMATIC INFERENCE

89

secondary within the the process process of of securing secondary development development within securing correct conclusion If a man ina correct in some single single case. conclusion in If a in case. fers the grade fers from a single sample of grain as to the of as to of single sample grain grade of wheat of of the the car car as a whole, whole, it it is and, under under is induction as a induction and, other cases certain circumstances, a sound induction; cases circumstances, a induction; other are resorted resorted to to simply for the sake of rendering that for the of sake rendering that simply induction induction more guarded, guarded, and more probably probably correct. correct. In like like fashion, the reasoning reasoning that that led led up to the burthe bur fashion, the up to in the the instance glary idea in instance already 83) was in incited (p. glary already cited (p. 83) ductive, though there but one one single case examined. there was but examined. ductive, though single case The particulars upon which the the general meaning (or (or particulars upon general meaning were the relation) of burglary grounded simply the sum of was grounded relation) burglary simply of the the unlike that made up total of unlike items items and qualities up the the total qualities that one case examined. Had this this case presented very very great great case presented one case obscurities and difficulties, recourse might might then then have obscurities difficulties, recourse to examination of of a a number of cases. of similar similar cases. been had to a inductive this comparison not make inductive process process But this comparison would not previously of that character; it would which was not not previously of that character; it only render induction induction more wary wary and adequate. adequate. The only render cases consideration a multitude bringing into multitude of object of into consideration of cases of bringing object is evidential or is to fadlitate the selection of the evidential or significant significant to facilitate the selection of the in some single to base base inference inference in single case. case. features upon upon which to features are Accordingly, points of unlikeness are as important as contrast of unlikeness contrast as as important as Accordingly, points important lz"keness among the cases examined. Comparipoints of cases of likeness the Compari- as likeneaa among points without contrast, contrast, does not not amount to to anything logson, without son, anything log In the degree in other cases observed or ically. in which cases the other degree ically. in we remem~ered merely duplicate the case in question, case remembered merely duplicate the question, tire no no better better off off for for purposes purposes of inference than if if we of inference are dictate a con permitted our conto dictate our single fact to had permitted single original original fact it In the of the the various various samples samples of of grain, clusion. the case case of In clusion. grain, it in the is the fact that the unlike, at at least least in the the samples are unlike, fact that is the samples are is are taken, part of of the the carload from which they that is carload from taken, that part they are liketheir Were it not for this unlikeness, t~eir likeimportant. not for it this unlikeness, important

90

HOW WE WE THINK

Importance importance
of exceptions and contrary cases

infer avail in ness in in quality be of in assisting of no avail assisting infer quality would be 1 If are endeavoring endeavoring to to get a child child to to regulate regulate ence. 1 ence. If we are get a his conclusions the germination of a a seed seed by by tak takhis conclusions about the germination of into number of little is ing into account a of instances, very little is instances, ing very if in all instances if the conditions in all these instances closely gained the conditions these gained closely approximate one another. another. But if one seed seed is is placed placed in if one in approximate one pure sand, another in loam, and another on blottinganother in another loam, blottingpure sand, if in in each paper, each case case there conditions, one there are are two conditions, paper, and if another without without moisture, the unlike unlike factors factors with with and another moisture, the that are tend to throw into into relief relief the to throw the factors factors that are significant significant in (or" essential") for reaching a a conclusion. conclusion. Unless, Unless, in for reaching (or "essential") differences in to have the short, the observer takes care to the differences in observer takes short, the the observed cases as extreme as the observed cases as as conditions conditions allow, allow, and unless he notes notes unlikenesses unlikenesses as as carefully as likenesses, as unless likenesses, carefully has no way way of of he has of determining the evidential evidential force force of determining the the data data that the that confront him. confront him. this importance way of of bringing bringing out this of unAnother way importance of is the emphasis put by the scientist upon likeness likeness is the scientist emphasis put by upon neganegalive cases which it would tive cases -upon instances it ought instances seem upon ought fall into to line but but which as as matter matter of to fall into line of fact fact do not. not. agree in reAnomalies, exceptions, things which in most re Anomalies, exceptions, things agree but in disagree in some crucial crucial point, point, are so impor imporspects are so spects disagree tant of the tant that that many the devices devices of of scientific technique are scientific technique are many of designed purely to to detect, detect, record, record, and impress impress upon designed purely upon memory contrasting cases. Darwin remarked that that so cases. so memory contrasting easy is is it it to to pass pass over over cases oppose a favorite that oppose cases that favorite easy that he had made it it a a habit habit not not merely merely generalization, generalization, that to hunt for for contrary to but also also to to write write down instances, but contrary instances, any noted or thought of of - as otherwise it or thought as otherwise it exception he noted any exception to be forgotten. was almost sure sure to forgotten.
1 In terms of 1 of the the phrases phrases used used in in logical treatises, the the so-called" method! so-called " methods logical treatises, " (contrast) must ** difference of agreement" (comparison) and '. difference" agreement" (comparison) (contrast) must accompany accompany other or each other or constitute "joint method" in to be be of logical use. constitute a "joint in order order to of logical use.

SYSTEMATIC INFERENCE
Variation of 3 Conditions 3. Experimental Experimental Variation of Conditio1ts

I 9 91

We have have already this factor factor of of inducindue- Experiment already trenched upon upon this Experiment method, the one that that is is the the most most important of all all the typical method, the important of methDd of |j^*^f it is is feasible. wherever it Theoretically, feasible. case introducing introducing Theoretically, one sample sample case the right will be as good basis for for an inference of inference ~:::t of the right kind will good a basis as a thousand cases; cases of of the the "right cases; but cases "right kind" rarely turn up to search search for for rarely up spontaneously. spontaneously. We have to them, and we may have to make them. If we take to If take them, may find them-whether them whether one case cases just just as we find case or or many many is that irrelevant cases -they contain much that is irrelevant to the probto the they prob that is lem in in hand, while much that is relevant is obscure, hidrelevant is hand, obscure, hid of is of experimentation is the construction, den. The object the experimentation object construction, the basis by plan thought basis of out by regular regular steps stefs taken on the of a flan thought out in advance of crucial in advance, a typical, crucial case, a case formed with case with case, of typical, to throwing express the difficulty in express reference to throwing light light on the difficulty in question. All All inductive inductive methods rest rest (as stated, question. (as already already stated, conditions of of observation the conditions observation p. 85) 85) upon upon regulation of the p. regulation of and memory memory; experiment experiment is is simply simply the most adequate adequate these conditions. regulation possible possible of of these conditions. We try to make regulation try to the the observation that every every factor entering into into observation such that factor entering together with the the mode and the the amount of of its its opera operait, together it, open to to recognition. recognition. Such making making of of ob obtion, may may be open tion, servations servations constitutes constitutes experiment. experiment. Three adadSuch observations observations have many many and obvious advantages Three obvious advantages of over observations observations - no matter matter how extensive with rere- vantages extensive - with experiment spect to to which we simply simply wait wait for for an event event to to happen happen spect or or an object object to to present present itself. itself. Experiment Experiment overcomes overcomes the the defects defects due to to (a} (a) the the rarity, rarity, (b) (b) the the subtlety subtlety and minuteness (or (or the the violence), violence), and (c) the rigid rigid fixity fixity of of (c) the facts facts as as we ordinarily ordinarily experience experience them. The following following Jevons's Elementary Elementary Lessons Lessons in in Logic Logic quotations from Jevons's quotations out these all bring out all these points: bring points (i) " "We might have to to wait wait years years or or centuries centuries to to meet We might (i)
five tive
',

92 92

HOW WE THINK
;

accidentally with facts facts which we can readily readily produce produce at at accidentally any moment in in a laboratory laboratory; and it it is is probable probable that most any ex of the chemical substances now known, and many manyexof dis have been cessively useful products diswould never useful products cessively at all all by by waiting waiting till till nature presented presented them covered at spontaneously to observation." to our observation." spontaneously quotation refers refers to to the infrequency infrequency or rarity rarity of This quotation certain facts facts of of nature, nature, even very very important important ones. The certain passage then goes goes on to to speak speak of of the minuteness of many passage phenomena which makes them escape escape ordinary ordinary experi experiphenomena ence:
" (z"i) "Electricity doubtless operates in every every particle particle operates in Electricity doubtless of matter, matter, perhaps perhaps at at every every moment of of time time; and even of
(if)
;

ancients could not but notice notice its its action action in in the load loadthe ancients a or in in the Aurora stone, in lightning, in Borealis, in piece Borealis, stone, piece lightning, of But in lightning of rubbed amber. lightning electricity electricity was too intense and dangerous dangerous; in the other cases cases it it was too intense feeble to to be properly properly understood. The science of elec elecfeeble advance tricity and magnetism by getting getting magnetism could only by only tricity regular supplies electric regular electricity from the common electric supplies of electricity battery and by powerful machine or the galvanic making powerful by making galvanic battery electromagnets. effects which elecelec if not all, all, the effects Most, if electromagnets. Most,
;

tricity produces nature, but altogether altogether too produces must go go on in nature, tricity obscurely for observation." for obscurely J evons then deals with the fact that, that, under ordinary Jevons ordinary conditions of experience, phenomena experience, phenomena which can be varying condiunderstood only condi seeing them under varying by seeing only by tions in a fixed and uniform way. tions are presented a fixed presented way. " Thus carbonic acid is (iii) in the form of is only of (iii) "Thus only met in a gas, a carbon but gas, proceeding proceeding from the combustion of carbon; when exposed is conit is con cold, it exposed to extreme pressure pressure and cold, densed into a a liquid, into a a liquid, and may may even be converted into snowlike solid Many otner gases nave in solid substance. in gases Many
;

SYSTEMATIC INFERENCE
like like

93 93

manner been liquefied liquefied or or solidified, solidified, and there there is is reason reason to to believe believe that that every every substance substance is is capable capable of of taking all all three three forms forms of of solid, solid, liquid, liquid, and gas, gas, if if only only taking the conditions conditions of of temperature temperature and pressure pressure can can be the

observation of of nature nature would Mere observation led us, us, on the the contrary, contrary, to to suppose suppose that that nearly nearly all all have led substances were fixed fixed in in one condition condition only, only, and could could substances not be converted converted from solid solid into into liquid liquid and from liquid liquid not into gas." gas." into Many volumes would be required required to to describe describe in in detail detail Many the methods that that investigators investigators have developed developed in in all the various subjects for analyzing analyzing and restating restating the the facts facts various subjects for of ordinary ordinary experience so that that we may may escape escape from of experience so capricious and routine suggestions, and may get the the routine suggestions, capricious may get facts in in such a a form and in in such a a light light (or (or context) context) iacts that exact far-reaching explanations may be sugthat exact and far-reaching sug explanations may gested in place of vague and limited ones. But these these ones. of limited in vague gested place in all have one goal various devices inductive inquiry inquiry all goal in devices of of inductive various the function of view: the indirect regulation of the function of suggesof the indirect view sugges regulation tion, or or formation ideas; and, will in the main, of ideas formation of main, they and, in tion, they will three be found to reduce to to some combination of the three to reduce types of just of selecting arranging subject-matter subject-matter just selecting and arranging types described. described.
all
:
;

sufficiently varied. varied. sufficiently

4Guidance 4. Guidance

of Deductive Movement the Deductive of the

Value of deduction for guiding induction induction

Before this topic, Before dealing topic, we must note dealing directly directly with this that systematic regulation of induction depends induction of that systematic regulation depends upon upon the possession of a body of general principles that the possession of a body of general principles that con may to the examination or conapplied deductively deductively to may be applied If the struction as they cases as of particular struction of up. If they come up. particular cases of the physiphysician the general not know the does not physi general laws of physician does tell little way the human body, he has little of tellology of the of way body, ology or ing what is either peculiarly significant or peculiarly is either peculiarly ing peculiarly significant

f^^

94

HOW WE WE THINK

" Reasoning "Reasoning 11 a a thing thing out out "

exceptional in any any particular particular case case that that he he is upon is called called upon exceptional in to treat. If he knows the circulation, digestion, digestion, to treat. If the laws laws of of circulation, and respiration, respiration, he can deduce the the conditions conditions that that con in a should normally normally be found in a given given case. case. These conthe deviations deviations siderations give a a base base line line from which the siderations give measured. and abnormalities abnormalities of of a a particular case may be measured. be case particular may is located In In this this way, way, the the tzature problem at located nature of the problem at hatzd hand is of the and defined. defined. Attention Attention is is not not wasted wasted upon upon features features though conspicuous conspicuous have have nothing nothing to to do do with with the the which though traits which it case; it is concentrated upon just those traits is concentrated upon just those case; A are out of of the way and hence require require explanation. are out the way explanation. i.e. a difficulty is half put is half answered; question well put answered; i.e. question well difficulty solu apprehended is its own soluclearly is likely to suggest clearly apprehended suggest its likely to vague and miscellaneous perception tion, while a vague miscellaneous perception tion, -while of the problem leads leads to groping and fumbling. fumbling. De De. of the problem to groping ductive systems are necessary in order to put the order are in to put the systems necessary question in a fruitful form. fruitful in form. question The control of hypothcontrol of of the the origin origin and development hypothdevelopment of eges ^y with by deduction deduction does not not cease, however, with locating eses cease, however, locating the the problem. problem. Ideas Ideas as they first present themselves themselves are as they are first present is their inchoate and incomplete. incomplete. Deduction Deduction is their elabora elaborainto fullness tion into completeness of meaning (see p. 76). tion fullness and completeness of meaning (see p. 76). The phenomena phenomena which the the physician physician isolates the isolates from the total of facts facts that that exist total mass of in front exist in front of of him suggest, suggest, we will will say, typhoid fever. fever. Now this this conception of conception of say, typhoid typhoid fever is that is capable of development. is one that is fever of typhoid capable development. If there is is typhoid, typhoid, wherever wherever there there is typhoid, there there are is typhoid, are If there certain results, certain results, certain certain characteristic By characteristic symptoms. By symptoms. going over mentally the full bearing of the concept of over the full the going bearing of mentally concept of the scientist scientist is to further further phe phetyphoid, the is instructed as to instructed as typhoid, nomena to to be found. found. Its Its development development gives gives him an of observation instrument of of inquiry, inquiry, of observation and experimentaexperimenta tion. can go go to to work deliberately deliberately to to see see whether whether tion. He can

SYSTEMATIC INFERENCE INFERENCE SYSTEMATIC

95 95

the supposition supposition the

if if is valid. The The deduced deduced results results form form a a with observed observed results. results. Except Except basis for for comparison comparison with basis where there there is is a a system system of of principles principles capable capable of of being being where elaborated by by theoretical theoretical reasoning, reasoning, the the process process of of elaborated and is testing (or proof) of a hypothesis is incomplete a of incomplete testing (or proof) hypothesis haphazard. haphazard. reason* Snchreasol1< These considerations considerations indicate indicate the the method by by which Such ing implies the deductive deductive movement is is guided. guided. Deduction requires requires ^ema-** the systematized may be translated translated into into *&** a system system of of allied allied ideas ideas which may a knowledge, knowledge* another by by regular regular or or graded graded steps. steps. The question question one another one is whether whether the the facts facts that that confront confront us us can be identified identified is as typhoid typhoid fever. fever. To all all appearances, appearances, there there is is a great great as if we gap between typhoid. if can, by But and them between can, by typhoid. gap series of a .some method of substitutions, go through series of of method some substitutions, go through after the intermediary terms (see p. 72), the gap may, after all, terms all, gap may, (see p. 72), intermediary be easily bridged. Typhoid may meanp in turn tum be mean/ which in Typhoid may easily bridged. is very means 0, very which means n which means m, m, which is o, which to the problem. similar the key as the selected as data selected the data to the similar to problem. key to or definition definition is to to provide One of chief objects objects of of science science is the chief of the provide for or and classia set of every typical branch of subject-matter a set of meanings of branch meanings subject-matter every typical fication that anyone and principles knit that interknit so closely implies any one implies closely inter principles so some definite conditions, to definite other according conditions, which some other according to under conditions implies certain other other conditions under certain another, and so implies another, of equivalents In various substitutions of on. substitutions In this this way, various on. equivalents way, trace are and reasoning can trace out, without having are possible, out, having reasoning possible, conse recourse to specific observations, very remote conseto recourse specific observations, very any suggested principle. Definition, general quences of quences of any suggested principle. Definition, general the formulre, devices by are the devices classification are formulae, and classification by which the its detailed detailed into its fixation a meaning of a elaboration of fixation and elaboration meaning into them not ends in hi themare not ramifications on. They carried on. are carried ramifications are They are in ele even are frequently regarded even in eleselves are as they selves - as regarded frequently they for mentary education but instrumentalitie& for facilitating but instrumentalities education facilitating mentary

the case case presents presents those those features features that that it it should should have have the
is valid.

96

WE THINK HOW WE

The :final final control of deduction

into the the development development of of a a conception the form where conception into 1 its applicability be tested. best facts its applicability to to given facts may best tested.1 given may The final final test test of deduction lies lies in in experimental obof deduction experimental obmake servation. by reasoning may a sugservation. Elaboration Elaboration by reasoning may sug it will plausible, but but it will not gested idea very very rich rich and very not gested idea very plausible, settle the validity validity of that idea. idea. Only Only if facts can can be be if facts settle the of that observed (by methods either collection or or of of experi experieither of of collection observed (by agree in in detail without exception exception mentation), that agree detail and without mentation), that in accepting with the results, are justified in accepting the deduced results, are we justified as giving the deduction deduction as valid conclusion. conclusion. Thinking, Thinking, giving a valid in short, in the as well in short, must end as well as as begin begin in the domain of of it is concrete observations, if it concrete observations, if is to to be complete complete thinking. thinking. the ultimate ultimate educative educative value value of all deductive And the of all deductive propro is measured by by the the degree degree to to which they they become cesses cesses is in the the creation of new working tools in creation and development working tools development of experiences. experiences.

5. Educational Bearings Bearings of Discussion the Discussion 5. Some Educational of the

Educational Educational

counterparts
of false logical logical theories

Some of of the the foregoing the points points of of the foregoing logical logical analysis analysis

ma e clinched clinched by may be by a consideration consideration of of their their educational educational y^

implications, especially with reference to certain pracreference to certain pracimplications, especially tices that grow grow out out of by which which each tices of a false false separation each separation by is to be independent complete is thought of the the other other and complete thought to independent of in itself, itself. (i) In some school at all events school subjects, all events Isolation or at isolation (z) In subjects, or of" facts" of "facts" jn some topics or in in or in lessons, the pupils are imsome the im are lessons, topics pupils mersed in in details details; their their minds are with discon disconare loaded loaded with nected items (whether gleaned by by observation observation and (whether gleaned or memory, or accepted on hearsay authority). In Inand accepted memory, hearsay authority). is treated treated as as beginning beginning and ending ending with with the the duction is of facts, amassing facts, of of particular particular isolated isolated pieces pieces of of in inamassing of these items only as formation. That these items are are educative educative only as of some larger suggesting larger situation the situation in in which the suggesting a view of
;

1 1

These processes processes are are further discussed in IX. further discussed in Chapter Chapter IX.

SYSTEMATIC INFERENCE

97

included, and thereby particulars accounted for, Is particulars are included for, is thereby accounted lessons in in elementary ignored. education and education ignored. In object object lessons elementary in laboratory instruction in in higher in the subsub education, the laboratory instruction higher education, is treated that ject is often so treated that the student fails to "see student fails to "see ject of the trees." trees." the forest on account of Things their Things and their retailed qualities are retailed and detailed, without reference to without reference to qualities detailed, character which they stand for and a more general general they stand for mean. Or, in the laboratory, the student student becomes Or, in laboratory, the in the processes engrossed engrossed in processes of manipulation, manipulation, - irrespecirrespec for their their performance, tive of the reason for without recogperformance, without recog for the solution of the solution they nizing a typical problem for of which they nizing typical problem afford the appropriate method. Only deduction brings deduction appropriate method. Only brings out and emphasizes consecutive relationships, emphasizes consecutive relationships, and only only when relationships in view are held in view does learning berelationships are learning be come more than a miscellaneous miscellaneous scrap-bag. scrap-bag. to (ii) Again, the mind is is allowed to to hurry to a a vague vague Failure Failure to (ii) Again, hurry on to notion notion of of which the the fragmentary facts are ;~~~ of the whole of fragmentary facts are reasoning by portions, without without any attempt to to become conscious conscious of of portions, any attempt how they are bound together of this they are together as as parts parts of this whole. whole. The " in feels that student feels that" in a general general way," way," as as we say, the say, the facts facts of of the the history history or or geography geography lesson lesson are are related related thus "in thus and so; so; but but" in a a general general way" way" here here stands stands only only for "in for" in a vague vague way," way," somehow or or other, with clear with no clear other, of just just how. recognition of recognition pupil is is encouraged to form, form, on the the basis basis of of the the The pupil encouraged to a particular facts, a general notion, a conception of a of how particular facts, general notion, conception they stand stand related related; but no pains pains are are taken taken to to make the the they student student follow follow up up the the notion, notion, to to elaborate elaborate it it and see see just just what its its bearings bearings are are upon upon the the case case in in hand and upon upon similar cases. cases. The inductive inductive inference, inference, the the guess, guess, is is similar formed by by the the student student; if if it it happens happens to to be correct, correct, it it is is at at once once accepted accepted by by the the teacher teacher; or or if if it it is is false, false, it it is is re rejected. If If any any amplification amplification of of the the idea idea occurs, occurs, it it is is jected.
;

8 98

HOW WE THINK

Isolation of Isolation of deduction deduction by com comby mencing mencing it with it with

carried through quite through by by the thereby the teacher, teacher, who thereby quite likely likely carried for its responsibility for its intellectual intellectual developassumes the responsibility develop re act of of thought thought reo ment. But a complete, ment integral, act complete, an integral, quires that the person making the suggestion (the that the suggestion (the quires person making its bearings for reasoning also for guess) responsible also reasoning out out its bearings guess) be responsible the upon the problem in hand; that he develop the suggesin hand that the develop sugges problem upon in which it at least enough to to indicate ways in it tion tion at the ways least enough indicate the of the case. applies to and accounts accounts for data of the case. for the the specific applies to specific data often when a recitation recitation does not not consist consist in in simply simply Too often of the to display ability of the student student to display some form of of testing the the ability testing facts and principles or to to repeat repeat facts principles accepted technical technical skill, skill, or accepted on the the authority authority of textbook or or lecturer, lecturer, the the teacher teacher of textbook to the opposite extreme; after calling out the goes to the and out extreme after calling goes opposite of spontaneous reflections of the pupils, their guesses or the reflections their guesses or spontaneous pupils, or the matter, matter, merely accepts or rejects them, ideas about the ideas merely accepts rejects them, the responsibility responsibility for their elaboration. assuming himself the for their elaboration. assuming himself this way, In this the function of suggestion of interpre interprethe of of function and suggestion way, tation is not directed and trained. but it it is not directed trained. In Intation is is excited, excited, but duction is stimulated is not not carried carried over into the the duction is stimulated but is over into reasoning phase phase necessary necessary to complete it. it. to complete reasoning In other subjects phase is is deductive phase subjects and topics, topics, the deductive is treated treated as it were complete in itself. isolated, and is as if if it in itself. isolated, complete false isolation isolation may This false may show itself in either either (and (and both) both) itself in at the beginning of two points points; namely, namely, at beginning or at the the end or at of the resort of to general general intellectual intellectual procedure. procedure. resort to with (iii) Beginning with definitions, rules, princidefinitions, rules, general (Y) Beginning general princi the like, is a common form ples, classifications, and the a is like, ples, classifications, the of first of the first error. error. This This method has has been been such such a unia uni of attack form object object of attack on the part of of all all educational educational re rethe part it is that it is not not necessary necessary to to dwell upon it it further formers that dwell upon further than to that the the mistake due to to the the to note that mistake is, is, logically, logically, due to introduce attempt deductive considerations without introduce deductive considerations without attempt to making acquaintance with the the particular particular facts that first first making facts that acquaintance with
; ; ;

SYSTEMATIC INFERENCE

99

create create a a need for for the the generalizing generalizing rational rational devices. devices. Unfortunately, the the reformer reformer sometimes sometimes carries carries his his objec objecUnfortunately, tion it in in the the wrong wrong place. place. He tion too too far, far, or or rather rather locates locates it

is led led into into a a tirade tirade against against all all definition, definition, all all systematizasystematizaall use tion, all use of general principles, instead of confining of instead of tion, confining general principles, their deadness deadness himself to to pointing pointing out out their their futility futility and their himself not properly properly motivated motivated by by familiarity familiarity with with con conwhen not crete experiences. experiences. crete (iv) The isolation isolation of of deduction deduction is is seen, seen, at at the the other other end, end, (w) there is is failure failure to to clinch clinch and test test the the results results wherever there wherever the general reasoning processes processes by by application application to to new of the of general reasoning -^r^iljja.j concrete cases. cases. T>I_ final point point of the the deductive deductive devices devices of The final concrete in their their use use in in assimilating assimilating and comprehending inlies in lies comprehending in dividual cases. cases. No Noone understands a general general principle principle one understands dividual fully - no no matter matter how adequately adequately he he can can demonstrate demonstrate fully it repeating it till can employ it, to say nothing of he it till to of it, employ it repeating say nothing are in the mastery of situations, which, if they are new, new if in the new, situations, which, they mastery of used in manifestation from the the cases cases used in reaching reaching the the differ in differ in manifestation generalization. Too often the textbook or teacher teacher is is often the textbook or generalization. ex perfunctory excontented with with a a series of somewhat perfunctory series of contented is not forced forced to to amples the student student is illustrations, and the amples and illustrations, into carry the principle that has formulated over into has he the that principle carry so far, further his own experience. experience. In so the of his cases of further cases far, the principle is inert and dead. dead. is inert principle to (v) upon this this same theme to is only variation upon It is only a variation (v) It that every complete act of reflective inquiry makes say reflective act of that inquiry every complete say provision for testing for experimentation testing suggested suggested experimentation - for provision for for the and accepted by employing employing them for principles by accepted principles in which new qualities active of new cases, construction of active construction cases, in qualities schools accommodate emerge. Only our schools emerge. slowly do our Only slowly themselves of scientific scientific method. the general to the themselves to general advance of that effective effective From the is demonstrated that it is scientific side, the scientific side, it and thinking is possible only where the experiis and integral experipossible only integral thinking
is
.c
i

isolation Isolation of of

deduction
from direction tion of of new
observations observations

of plIO< Lack of puovision for experimentation tation

100 100

HOW WE WE THINK HOW

form is is used. recogSome recog evinced in higher higher institutions high schools. But in elemen elemenhigh the tary education, it is still part, it still for most is education, assumed, part, tary pupil's natural range of observations, observations, supple supplethat the pupil's mented by by what he accepts accepts on hearsay, hearsay, is is adequate adequate for intellectual growth. growth. Of course it it is is not necessary necessary that intellectual laboratories shall be introduced under that name, much less that elaborate apparatus apparatus be secured; secured; but the en enless tire scientific scientific history history of humanity humanity demonstrates that tire complete mental activity activity will not be the conditions for complete till adequate adequate provision provision is is made for the carrying carrying obtained till actually modify modify physical physical conditions, conditions, on of activities that actually books, pictures, pictures, and even objects objects that are pas pasand that books, furnish not sively manipulated but not do the observed manipulated sively provision required. required. provision
mental method in some principle is is nition of this principle learning, colleges colleges and of learning-,

CHAPTER EIGHT
JUDGMENT: THE INTERPRETATION OF FACTS

i. 1.

The Three Factors Factors of Judging of Judging

Good judgment

A MAN of good good judgment judgment in in a given a set of of affairs affairs is is a given set man in so far far educated, educated, trained, trained, whatever may be his his may be if our schools turn literacy. And if turn out their pupils in their pupils in literacy.
attitude of that that attitude of

mind which is is conducive to judgto good good judg in any affairs in of affairs in which the the pupils pupils ment in department of any department are placed, placed, they they have done more than if out if they sent are they sent out of vast their pupils merely possessed possessed of vast stores of informastores of informa their pupils merely tion, or high degrees degrees of skill in in specialized branches. of skill or high tion, specialized branches. what is good To know what-is good judgment judgment we need first first to to know is. what judgment judgment is. is an intimate intimate connection between judgjudg- judgment That there there is Judgment and is obvious obvious enough. enough. The aim of of inin- inference inference is ment and inference ference is judgment terminate itself is to to terminate itself in in an adequate ference adequate judgment of a a situation, the course of inference inference goes through course of of situation, and the goes on through a series series of partial and tentative tentative judgments. judgments. What are are of partial a these units, these terms terms of inference when we examine of inference these units, these their own account? Their significant traits them on their significant traits of the may be readily gathered a consideration of the consideration from may readily gathered was operations to which the judgment originally the to word originally judgment operations applied: namely, the authoritative in . applied decision of matters in authoritative decision namely, the of the legal controversy-the procedure of theJztdge on the the judge procedure legal controversy bench. There are are three such features: controfeatures: (I) bench. three such (i) a contro the same versy, consisting of opposite claims regarding claims of regarding opposite versy, consisting elabo objective situation; (2) a process of defining and elaboa defining process objective situation; (2) rating these of sifting sifting the the facts facts adduced to to claims and of these claims rating
:

lOX joi

102 I02
;

HOW WE THINK

Uncertainty Uncertainty ante the the antecedent of of judgment judgment

Judgment Judgment defines defines

the the i&sue, issue,

final decision, support them; (3) or sentence, sentence, closing decision, or support them (3) a final closing the particular the particular matter matter in in dispute also serving as a a dispute and also serving as rule principle for for deciding cases. future cases. rule or or principle deciding future 1. Unless there there is I. is something doubtful, the the situation situation something doubtful, in on sight, it is at a glance; is read off glance; it is taken in sight, i.e. i.e. there is off at there is merely merely apprehension, apprehension, perception, perception) recognition, recognition, not is not is judgment. If the matter is wholly doubtful, if it is dark matter the if it If is dark wholly doubtful, judgment. is a and obscure throughout, there there is a blind blind mystery mystery and obscure throughout, if it occurs. again no judgment occurs. But if it suggests, again suggests, however judgment rival possible vaguely, different meanings, meanings, rival possible interpretavaguely, different interpreta point at issue, at stake. stake. tions, there is some point there is issue, some matter at tions, takes the the form of of dispute, controversy; different different Doubt takes dispute, controversy; in their favor. Cases sides a conclusion sides compete conclusion in their favor. for a Cases compete for illustrate brought to trial before a judge illustrate neatly unto trial and un before judge brought neatly ambiguously this strife of alternative interpretations; alternative this strife of interpretations ambiguously but to clear case of of trying clear up but any trying to doubtup intellectually any case intellectually a doubt ful situation traits. the same traits. moving ful situation exemplifies A exemplifies moving in the blur catches catches our eye distance we ask ourselves blur eye in the distance; ourselves: it? "What is is it? Is it a cloud whirling dust? a tree it a of whirling Is cloud of dust? a tree " ? a man signaling to waving its its branches branches? us?" SomeSome waving signaling to us the total total situation situation suggests each of of these these pos posthing in in the thing suggests each sible meanings. sible Only one of can possibly of them meanings. Only possibly be sound perhaps sound; perhaps none of of them is is appropriate appropriate; yet yet some the meaning the thing in question surely has. of in has. Which of meaning thing question surely alternative suggested the alternative suggested meanings has the rightful the has meanings rightful claim ? What does ? the perception really mean mean? How claim? does the perception really is to it is it to be interpreted, interpreted, estimated, placed? estimated, appraised, appraised, placed? Every judgment judgment proceeds proceeds from some such such situation. situation. Every of the 2. The hearing hearing of the controversy, the trial, trial, i.e. i.e. the the controversy, the weighing of of alternative alternative claims, divides into into two two branches, branches, claims, divides weighing either of of which, in a may be be more conspicu conspicueither which, in a given case, may given case, ous than the the other. other. In the the consideration of a a legal consideration of dis legal disthese two pute, these branches are sifting the evidence and branches are the evidence pute, sifting
;
;

JUDGMENT: INTERPRETATION OF FACTS

;

103 103

" the selecting rules that that are are applicable; they are are "the applicable they selecting the rules " and "the facts" and" the law" of the case. case. In In judgment judgment they they of the facts of the determination of that are are (a) the determination the data that are impor imporare (a) the case (compare inductive move tant in in the the given given case (compare the the inductive movetant of the the elaboration ment); and (b) the elaboration of the conceptions or conceptions or (b) ment); the meanings suggested by the crude data (compare the crude the meanings suggested by (compare or aspects deductive movement), movement). (a) portions or aspects of of deductive (a) What portions in the situation in controlling the formation situation are are significant formation the significant controlling of the is the full meaning the interpretation? Just what is the full meaning of interpretation ? (b) (b) Just the conception is used as and bearing bearing of of the that is as a a method conception that are strictly of interpretation? correla of questions are interpretation ? These questions strictly correlative; the answer to to each each depends depends upon upon the answer to to tive the other. however, for convenience, consider We may, for consider other. the convenience, however, may, them separately. separately. (a) by actual occurrence, are many (a) many dede- 60 there are *>y occurrence, there every actual (a) In every selecting are part but part of of the the total total occurrence, but tails which are which tails occurrence, what facts facts ^t are evidence nevertheless are in relation relation to to the point are are not not significant the point nevertheless significant in of an experience at issue. All All parts parts of experience are equally pres presare equally at issue. are very as but they far from being being of of equal value as ent, ent, but equal value they are very far signs N or is there any tag or or label Nor is there label on or as as evidences. evidences. signs or any tag is important," any trait trait saying: important," or or "This is is saying: "This is any or vividness vividness or or conspicuousconspicuoustrivial." Nor N or is intensity, or is intensity, trivial." ness, a measure of of indicative proving value. value. indicative and proving a safe safe measure ness, The glaring glaring thing thing may be totally insignificant in this in this be may totally insignificant to the and the key to the understanding particular situation, the understanding particular situation, key or hidden the whole whole matter may be be modest modest or hidden (compare of the matter may of (compare Features that not significant are distracting; P.74). Features that are are not distracting significant are p. 74). clues and they proffer their claims to be be regarded as clues claims to regarded as proffer their they are significant cues to interpretation, while traits traits that that are cues to significant do interpretation, while is all. not appear at all. Hence, judgment judgment is the surface surface at not Hence, appear on the required even z"tt 1'ife1'ence to the the situation or event event that that situation or even in reference to required is present present to the senses; rejection, selec selecor rejection, elimination or to the senses elimination is take must take place. tion, discovery, or bringing to light to or tion, discovery, place. light bringing
;

104 1O4
Till

HOW WE WE THINK THINK HOW

Till we we have have reached reached a a final final conclusion, conclusion, rejection rejection and and must be be tentative tentative or or conditional. conditional. We We select select must that we we hope hope or or trust trust are are cues cues to to meaning. meaning. the things things that the But if if they they do do not not suggest suggest a a situation situation that that accepts accepts and and But p. 81), 81), we reconstitute reconstitute our our data, data, the the includes them them (see (see p. includes mean, intellectually, intellectually, by by the the facts of of the the case; case; for for we mean, facts facts of of the the case case those those traits traits that that are are used used as as evidence evidence facts in reaching reaching a a conclusion conclusion or orforming form ing a decision. decz"sion. in Expertness this for No hard and fast rules for this operation of selecting selecting rules fast hard Expertness operation of in selecting selecting in can be the and rejecting, rejecting, or or fixing fixing upon upon the facts, facts, can given. It It and given. evidence evidence all comes comes back, back, as as we say, say, to to the the good good judgment, judgment, the the all of the the one one judging. judging. To be be a a good good judge judge is is good sense, sense, of good to have have a a sense sense of of the the relative relative indicative indicative or or signifying signifying to values of of the the various various features features of of the the perplexing perplexing situa situavalues go as as of of no account account; what to to tion; to to know what what to to let let go tion as conducive to retain as to retain eliminate to as irrelevant; irrelevant what to eliminate as 1 clue to as a outcome; to emphasize emphasize as a clue to the the difficulty.l outcome what to difficulty. clev call knack, matters we call This power in in ordinary This power knack, tact, tact, clevordinary matters discernment. erness,. in more important affairs, insight, discernment. erness ; in important affairs, insight, also represents it also inborn but it In or inborn; instinctive or it is is instinctive In part represents part it like operathe of long funded outcome outcome of the funded opera long familiarity familiarity with like to seize seize this ability of this tions Possession Possession of the past. in the tions in ability to past. rest go to let is let the rest what or significant is evidential evidential or what is go is significant and to the the expert, judge, in the the connoisseur, the iq of the the mark of connoisseur, judge, expert, any matter. any matter. Intuitive as is worth noting Mill cites the the following Intuitive Mill cites case, which is noting as following case, judgmonte judgments an instance and accuracy to of the extreme delicacy instance of the extreme accuracy to delicacy of which may be developed this power of sizing which may be developed this power sizing up up the " manufac A Scotch a situation. "A significant Scotch manufacof a situation. factors of significant factors a high rate of of wages, at a turer from England, turer procured wages, high rate England, at procured from fine colors, a a working famous for for producing colors, producing very working dyer, very fine dyer, famous same workmen the same to his his other other workmen with view of of teaching with the the view teaching to selection selection
;
;

1 Compare what 1 about analysis. was said said about analysis. Compare what was

JUDGMENT: INTERPRETATION OF FACTS

;

lOS 105

skill. came but his skill. The workman came; of propor proporhis method of tioning the ingredients, ingredients, in which lay of the secret of tioning lay the secret effects he produced, produced, was by by taking taking them up up in in handfuls, handfuls,

while the common method was to weigh them. The to weigh manufacturer sought to make him to turn his his handling handling sought system into an equivalent weighing system, that the the equivalent weighing system, that system of general principles of his peculiar mode of proceeding his of general principles peculiar proceeding might be ascertained. This, This, however, however, the man found might himself quite to do, do, and could therefore impart quite unable to impart skill to nobody. his his own skill nobody. He had, cases had, from individual cases of his his own experience, established a a connection in in his his experience, established

mind between fine effects effects of color and tactual tactual percep perceptions in handling his dyeing dyeing materials materials; and from these these tions ; handling his in perceptions he could, in any particular case,; infer the could, perceptions any particular case,] infer the to be employed means to employed and the effects effects which would be
produced." Long brooding brooding over conditions, conditions, intimate produced." absorpcontact associated with keen interest, interest, thorough thorough absorp allied experiences, tion tion in a multiplicity to bring bring experiences, tend to multiplicity of allied judgments which we then call call intuitive; intuitive but about those judgments they are true judgments judgments because they they are based on intelintel they ligent selection and estimation, estimation, with the solution of of a a ligent
;

problem as the controlling controlling standard. standard. Possession of of this this problem the between the artist capacity difference artist and makes the capacity intellectual bungler. bungler. intellectual is judging Such is judging ability, ability, in its its completest form, as to completes t form, decision to to be reached. But in any any case the data of the decision fol along for the way way to to be fola certain feeling there is is a feeling along a constant tentative picking lowed; picking out of of certain certain quallowed a qual ities emphasis upon upon them would lead to to; a a ities to to see what emphasis willingness to to hold final selection in suspense; final selection suspense and to willingness reject the factors or relegate to a different different factors entirely relegate them to reject entirely or if position in the evidential scheme if other features yield evidential yield position Alertness, flexibility, curioscuriosmore solvent suggestions. Alertness, flexibility, suggestions.
;
; ;

io6 106

THINK HOW WE THINK HOW WE

To dede(b) 0) To cide an iss ue, the appropriate priate prinprin ciples ciples must be also be also selected eeleoted

ity are the the essentials; essentials; dogmatism, rigidity, prejudice, prejudice, dogmatism, rigidity, ity are and flippancy caprice, from routine, are routine, passion, passion, and arising from flippancy are caprice, arising fatal fatal. of course, for the (b) data is, This selection of data the sake selection of sake course, for is, of (b} This the elaboration development and elaboratz"on of the sugof the of controlling the of development controlling sug to gested meani1zg i11 the light of which they are to be interthe be in inter they light of gested meaning evolution of of conceptions preted An evolution p. 76). conceptions preted (compare (compare p. 76). the thus on simultaneously with the determination of with determination of the thus goes the goes simultaneously facts; after another another is is held held before facts one possible before meaning after possible meaning data to the considered in in relation relation to to the the data to which it the mind, it mind, considered its more detailed is is applied, is developed into its detailed bearings developed into applied, is bearings or tentatively upon is dropped the data, and data, is upon the dropped or accepted and tentatively accepted used. We do not any problem with a wholly used. with a not approach approach any problem wholly or virgin mind we approach it with certain naIve naYve or certain acac virgin mind; approach it quired habitual modes of understanding, with a certain habitual of with a certain quired understanding, at least least of store of previously previously evolved evolved meanings, store of or at of exex meanings, or from which periences meanings may be educed. If the educed. If the periences meanings may circumstances are such such that that a a habitual habitual response response is is called called circumstances are is an immediate immediate grasp grasp of of mean meandirectly into play, play, there there is directly into If the ing. If the habit habit is is checked, checked, and inhibited inhibited from from easy easy ing. the facts facts in in question question application, a possible possible meaning meaning for for the application, fast rules rules decide decide whether whether presents itself. itself. No hard and fast presents a meaning meaning suggested suggested is is the the right right and proper proper meaning meaning to to follow individual's own good good (or (or bad) bad) judg judgfollow up. up. The individual's ment is is the the guide. guide. There is is no label label on on any any given given idea idea or or principle principle which says says automatically, automatically, "Use "Use me in in " this situation this situation" - as as the the magic magic cakes cakes of of Alice Alice in in Won Won" derland inscribed" Eat me." me." The thinker thinker has has to to derland were were inscribed Eat to choose choose; and and there there is is always always a a risk, risk, so so that that the the decide, to decide, prudent thinker thinker selects selects warily, warily, subject, subject, that that is, is, to to con conprudent firmation by later later events. events. If If one one is is not not firmation or or frustration frustration by able able to to estimate estimate wisely wisely what what is is relevant relevant to to the the interpre interpretation tation of of a a given given perplexing perplexing or or doubtful doubtful issue, issue, it it avails avails
;

JUDGMENT: INTERPRETATION OF FACTS

107 1 07

a large of little that arduous learning learning has built bupt up stock of little that large stock up a concepts. For learning is not not wisdom wisdom; information information does learning is concepts. not guarantee guarantee good judgment. Memory Memory may may provide provide an not good judgment. in which to store a of mean antiseptic refrigerator in to store a stock of meanantiseptic refrigerator selects and adopts use, but but judgment judgment selects the ings for future future use, adopts the ings for one used in given emergency without an emerin a given emer one used emergency - and without or great) there is is no call great) there for gency crisis, slight call for slight or (some crisis, gency (some conception, even if it is carefully judgment. even if it is No and conception, carefully judgment. firmly established in the the abstract, abstract, can at first safely established in at first safely be firmly of interpreter. candidate for office of than a candidate for the the office interpreter. Only Only more than that rivals its in greater success than that of its rivals in clarifying than of success clarifying dark greater hard spots, untying knots, reconciling discrepancies, knots, reconciling discrepancies, can spots, untying it a valid elect it or prove it a valid idea idea for for the the given it or situation. elect prove given situation. Judging decision ; it is a decz"sion; it closes 3. The judgment judgment when formed is closes Judging 3. terminates at issue. (or the question question at issue. This This determination determination inTS^um in a decisi<no concludes) the (or concludes) statement r statement settles that that particular it helps not only particular case, but it helps fix a or not fix a case, but only settles rule or for deciding similar matters in the future; future rule or method for matters in deciding similar as the the sentence of judge on the the bench both both termi termias of the the judge for future and nates also nates that that dispute also forms a precedent for future dispute precedent decisions. If the interpretation settled upon upon is not con conis not If the decisions. interpretation settled is a built troverted by subsequent events, presumption is built troverted presumption by subsequent events, favor of cases where up in in favor interpretation in other cases of similar similar interpretation in other up as to the features unlike as to make it it the features are are not not so unlike so obviously obviously are 'of inappropriate. In this way, principles of judging are In this judging inappropriate. way, principles of interpretation gradually up; a a certain certain manner of interpretation built up gradually built gets weight, weight, authority. authority. In In short, short, meanings meanings get standget stand gets ardized, they logical concepts below, p. p. 1 I 18). ardized, 18). concepts (see (see below, they become logical
;

Ideas 2. 2. The Origin Nature of of J deas Origin and Nature This brings us to the the question to ideas in in relation relation to of ideas This brings us to question of . d IS b .. situation sugin an obscure JU :gments. omethmg in 0 scure sltuatlOn sugjudgments^ Something

ideas Ideas are

are

also used used popularly popularly to to denote (a) The term term idea idea is is also fancy, (b) () (a) a mere fancy, it denotes a an accepted belief, judgment itself. itself. But logically also (c) an accepted and also belief, and logically it (^) judgment
1 1

m JU in judging

conjecturel employed employed*

^^

text. lac/or in judgment, as in the the text. certain factor as explained in judgment, certain explained in

108 108

HOW HOW WE WE THINK THINK

Or tools Or tools of interpretation

as its gests else as its meaning. If this this meaning is gests something meaning. If something else meaning is at once is no once accepted, there is no reflective at no reflective thinking, no accepted, there thinking, cut short is cut short uncritically; genuine genuine judging. Thought is judging. Thought uncritically all its with all its attending dogmatic takes place. belief, with risks, takes dogmatic belief, attending risks, place. But if if the the meaning is held in But suggested is held in suspense, meaning suggested suspense, pendpend ing examination and inquiry, there is is true true judgment. ing examination inquiry, there judgment We stop we de.Jer conclusion in in order order to to think, we stop and think, de-fer conclusion i1z-fer more thoroughly. In this process of being In this in-fer process of being only thoroughly. only conditionally for examination, accepted, accepted accepted only conditionally accepted, only for examination, ideas. That is is to meanz'lzgs Tkat to say, an idea idea is is a a meanings become ideas. say, alZ that is is tentatz"vely mea1zz'ng formed, alzd and entertained, formed, meaning tkat tentatively eJttcrtailzcd, with riference to z'ts its fitness used wz'th fit1zcsS to to decide decide a pcrreference to per used as a tool plezz'Jzg sz'tuatz"on, as tool of situation, - a mcanz'1zg plexing meaning of judgment. judgment. Let us recur, recur, to to our blur in motion our instance a blur of a instance of in motion at a appearing at a distance. We wonder what tke thilZg distance. what the appearing is, thing is, i.e. what the blur means. means. A man waving waving his his arms, arms, a i.e. a friend beckoning beckoning to to us, us, are as possibilities. possibilities. are suggested suggested as To accept accept at at once once either either alternative* alternative is is to to arrest arrest judg judgment. if we treat treat what is is suggested suggested as as only only a a sug sugment. But if gestion, a supposition, supposition, a a possibility, possibility, it it becomes becomes an an idea, idea, gestion, the following following traits traits: (a) (a) As merely merely a a suggestion, suggestion, having the having it it is is a a conjecture, conjecture, a a guess, guess, which in in cases cases of of greater greater dig digwe a call call hypothesis or a theory. That is to say, nity or a That is to nity hypothesis theory. say, it it is is a a possible possible but but as as yet yet doubtful doubtful mode mode of of interpretation, interpretation. (b) Even Even though though doubtful, doubtful, it it has has an an office office to to perform perform; (b) that of namely, that of directing inquiry and examination. If If namely, directing inquiry and examination. this blur means a this blur means a friend friend beckoning, beckoning, then then careful careful obser* obser. vation If it it is is a a man man vation should should show show certain certain other other traits. traits. If driving unruly unruly cattle, cattle, certain certain other other traits traits should should be be driving found. found. Let Let us us look look and and see see if if these these traits traits are are found. found. Taken Taken merely merely as as a a doubt, doubt, an an idea idea would would paralyze paralyze in inquiry. Taken Taken merely merely as as a a certainty, certainty. it it would would arrest arrest quiry.
; :

JUDGMENT: INTERPRETATION OF FACTS

inquiry. inquiry.

109 109

Taken as as a a doubtful possibility, it it affords affords a a doubtful possibility,

of inquiry. standpoint, a platform, platform, a a method of inquiry. standpoint, are not ideas unless Ideas are not then then genuine unless they they are tools Pseudo-ideas are tools Pseudo-ideM genuine ideas

in a reflective reflective examination which tends a to solve in a tends to solve a it is a the problem. Suppose it is a question of having of the Suppose having problem. question the idea of pupil grasp of the the sphericity sphericity of of the the earth. earth. grasp the pupil This is is different teaching him its different from teaching its sphericity as a This sphericity as He be reminded ball fact. may shown (or of) a ball or a a or (or may of) fact. told globe, be that the and be told that the earth is round like those like those earth is globe, things; he may then be made to to repeat repeat that that statement statement things may then till the the shape after day earth and the day of the the earth the shape shape of shape day after day till are welded together his mind. of the ball ball are together in in his mind. But he he has has of the idea of the not thereby thereby acquired idea of the earth's sphericity; earth's not acquired any any sphericity at most, he has has had a certain image a sphere a certain of a at most, sphere and image of the analogy has finally managed to to image the earth earth after after the has image the finally managed analogy grasp sphericity as an idea, the of his ball ball image. To as of his idea, the image. grasp sphericity or pupil first have realized certain perplexities must first have realized certain perplexities or pupil have had in facts and the observed confusing the features in observed facts confusing features as a possible idea of spherical possible to him as idea of suggested to spherical shape shape suggested in question. the phenomena phenomena in question. way of of accounting for the accounting for way as to so as Only use as a of interpreting data so to as a method of use interpreting Only by by become does give fuller meaning does sphericity a genthem fuller meaning gen sphericity give idea be a vivid vivid image image and no idea; uine idea. idea. There may uine may be and or there there may be a fleeting, obscure image yet obscure or be image yet an fleeting, may function of the idea, if that image performs the function of instigating if that idea, instigating image performs and directing the observation observation and relation facts. relation of of facts. and directing the Logical are like keys which are with are shaping ideas are like keys shaping with Logical ideas by a a reference to to opening a lock. lock. Pike, reference Pike, separated separated by opening a the fish fish upon upon which they glass partition partition from from the they ordinarily ordinarily glass said - butt so it is is said butt their their heads against the prey, willwill so it against the prey, that they glass until it literally beaten beaten into into them that cannot it is is literally they cannot glass until learn (when learn at get at Animals learn they learn at at their their food. food. (when they get " " cut and at random all) by a "cut and try" method; by doing at method a doing by try all) by
;
;

Ideas furnisll the onlyaltemativeto or "hit or miss" methods

HO liD

HOW WE THINK

They are are They methods f S of indirect S^ect attack attack

first one thing thing and another thing then preserving preserving first one thing and then the things things that happen to to succeed. Action directed directed that happen the by ideas by suggested meanings accepted consciously ideas meanings suggested accepted by by consciously is the of experimenting the sake of experimenting with them - is the for for the to bull-headed stupidity sale both to and alternative both sole alternative stupidity to learning learning bought bought from that that dear teacher teacher - chance to experience. experience. for intelligence It is significant that many It is intelligence significant that many words for evasive idea the idea of circuitous, evasive activity suggest of circuitous, often activity - often suggest the with a of intimation obliquity. The intimation of a sort sort of of even moral obliquity. with bluff, hearty man goes (and stupidly, it is im is imbluff, hearty straight (and goes straight stupidly, it at some work. work. The intelligent is cunning, plied) intelligent man is cunning, plied) at shrewd (crooked), wily, subtle, crafty, artful, artful, designing designing subtle, crafty, (crooked), wily, l is involved. involved. 1 An idea the idea of indirection idea is is a - the idea of indirection is evading, circumventing, or surmounting or method of of evading, circumventing, surmounting that otherwise through reflection obstacles have obstacles that otherwise would have through reflection force. brute force. But ideas may lose their to be attacked attacked by by brute ideas may lose their to as they are habitually they are habitually used. used. When intellectual intellectual quality quality as a child first learning learning to to recognize, recognize, in in some hesitat hesitatchild was first ing cats, dogs, houses, marbles, marbles, trees, trees, shoes, shoes, dogs, houses, ing suspense, suspense, cats, and other tentative mean meanother objects, ideas - conscious conscious and tentative objects, ideas ings - intervened of identification. Now, intervened as as methods of identification. Now, ings the thing thing and the meaning are are so so completely completely as the meaning as a rule, rule, the that there is no judgment there is judgment and no no idea idea proper, proper, but but fused fused that automatic the only automatic recognition. On the other hand, things other hand, things recognition. only that are, are, as as a a rule, rule, directly that familiar directly apprehended apprehended and familiar they present themof when become subjects of judgment subjects judgment they present them selves in unusual unusual contexts contexts: as distances, selves in as forms, forms, distances, sizes, sizes, when we positions attempt to them; triangles, triangles, positions attempt to draw them circles when they turn up, they turn up, not not in connecsquares, in connec squares, and circles tion with with familiar familiar toys, toys, implements, utensils, but but tion implements, and utensils, as problems in in geometry. geometry. as problems
:

1 See 1

Ward, Psychic Psychic Factors Factors of of Civili:ation, Ward, Civilization,

p. 153. 153.

p.

JUDGMENT: INTERPRETATION OF OF FACTS FACTS JUDGMENT: INTERPRETATION

I II in

3. 3. Analyss Analysis and Synthess Synthesis

Through are cleared cleared up, and Judging Through judging Judging judging confused data are up, and clears up seemingly incoherent and disconnected facts brought disconnected facts brought things: P seemingly thi^s? analysis a peculiar together. for us, together. Things Things may may have a peculiar feeling us, analysis feeling for a certain indescribable they indescribable impression they may make a impression upon upon us the thing us; feel round (that a quality thing may nay feel is, present (that is, present a quality as round), which we afterwards define as act may round), an act may seem rude (or as rude), (or what we afterwards classify classify as rude), and yet yet this quality this in the the total total lost, absorbed, absorbed, blended in quality may may be lost, situation. as; we need to value of the situation. Only to use that use just Only a~ just that situation as aspect of the original situation as a tool of grasping tool of aspect original grasping or obscure in something in another another situation, something perplexing perplexing or situation, do we abstract or detach the quality so that that it it becomes quality so because we to characterize individualized. Only because need to characterize Only the the shape or the the moral quality of shape of some new object object or quality of some new act, the element of of roundness or or rudeness rudeness act, does the in in the old experience itself, and stand out as a stand out as a experience detach itself, distinctive feature. feature. If the If the element thus clears distinctive thus selected selected clears up what is is otherwise otherwise obscure obscure in in the the new experience, experience, if if up it it settles settles what is is uncertain, uncertain, it it thereby thereby itself itself gains gains in in positiveness and definiteness definiteness of of meaning. meaning. This This point point positiveness will will meet us us again again in in the the following following chapter; chapter; here here we shall shall speak speak of of the the matter matter only only as as it it bears bears upon upon the the of and questions of analysis synthesis. questions analysis synthesis. Mental Even when it it is is definitely definitely stated stated that that intellectual intellectual and Mental analysill is physical analyses analyses are are different different sorts sorts of of operations, operations, inin- not physical like physical tellectual treated after after the the analogy analogy of of physical tellectual analysis analysis is is often often treated division physical; as as if if it it were the the breaking breaking up up of of a a whole into into physical all constituent parts parts in in the the mind instead instead of of in in space. space. all its its constituent As nobody nobody can can possibly possibly tell tell what breaking breaking a a whole into into its parts in in the the mind means, means, this this conception conception leads leads to to the the its parts further further notion notion that that logical logical analysis analysis is is a a mere enumera enumeration tion and listing listing of of all all conceivable conceivable qualities qualities and relations. relations.
;

112 1I2

HOW WE THINK

MisappreMisappre of hension of in analysis analysis in education

Effects Effects of of

premature premature
formulation formulation

this conception of this The influence influence upon has upon education of conception has 1 in the curriculum been very Every curriculum has has great.l subject in Every subject very great. in still remains in or still passed what may be through - or passed through may be of of anatomical or morphological method: called called the phase method morphological phase in which understanding is thought the the stage understanding the subject subject is stage in thought distinctions of to distinctions of quality, of multiplying to consist consist of form, multiplying quality, form, relation, so on, to each each on, and attaching relation, and so attaching some name to element. In normal growth, specific distinguished element. growth, specific distinguished so individualized properties are emphasized individualized only emphasized and so properties are only to clear clear up a present Only when they serve to up a present difficulty. they serve difficulty. Only in judging as they involved in as judging some specific are involved situation specific situation they are is there or use for there any i.e. for is for analyses, for emphasis analyses, i.e. any motive or emphasis relation as as peculiarly upon or relation upon some element or significant peculiarly significant. The same putting the cart cart before before the the horse, the prodhorse, the putting the prod in uct before before the the process, is is found in that overconscious uct that overconscious process, of procedure formulation of of methods of procedure so so current current in in eleele mentary instruction. (See p. 60.) method that instruction. The method that mentary (See p. 60.) is employed in reflective is in discovery, discovery, in reflective inquiry, cannot employed in inquiry, cannot the method that that emerges emerges possibly be identified identified with with the possibly after the the discovery discovery is is made. In In the the genuine genuine operation operation after of the mind is is in in the the attitude attitude of of search, search, of of of inference, inference, the httntz"ng, of of projection, projection, of of trying tryng this this and that that; the hunting, ; when the conclusion is is reached, reached, the the search search is is at at an an end. end. The conclusion Greeks used to to discuss discuss: " "How is learning learning (or (or inquiry) inquiry) How is For we possible? either already what are either know what we are possible? already and we then do not not learn or inquire; or do after, learn or or we do after, inquire; not not know, know, and then then we cannot cannot inquire, inquire, for for we do do not not know what to to look look for." for." The dilemma is is at at least least sug sugit points points to to the the true true alternative alternative: the the use use in in gestive, for for it gestive, inquiry of of doubt, doubt, of of tentative tentative suggestion, suggestion, of of experimenexperimeninquiry
: : :

all those those falsely falsely analytic analytic methods methods in in geography, geography, reading, reading, which we we have have already already considered considered in in which another another connection. connection. (See (See p. p. 59.) 59.)
1
all

1 Thus Thus arise arise

writing, drawing, drawing, botany, botany, arithmetic, arithmetic, writing,

JUDGMENT: INTERPRETATION INTERPRETATION OF OF FACTS FACTS JUDGMENT:

II3 113

tation. tation.

After we we have have reached reached the the conclusion, conclusion, a a recon reconAfter sideration of of the the steps steps of of the the process process to to see see what what is is sideration what is is harmful, harmful, what what is is merely merely useless, useless, will will helpful, what helpful, in dealing dealing more more promptly promptly and and efficaciously efficaciously with with assist in assist the future. future. In In this this way, way, more more or or analogous problems problems in in the analogous method is is gradually gradually built built up. up. (Compare (Compare method the earlier discussion on p. 62 of the psychological and 62 the on of discussion earlier the p. psychological and the logical.) the logical.) Method It is, is, however, however, a a common assumption assumption that that unless unless the the Method It comes pupil from from the the outset outset consciously consciously recognises recognizes and explicitly explicitly before its before it8 pupil formulatiOlt the method method logically logically implied implied in in the the result result he he is is to to formulation 'states the 'states he will will have have no no method, method, and his his mind will will work reach, he reach, his if he while accompanies his confusedly or anarchically; while if or accompanies anarchically confusedly of form some of performance with conscious statement of of statement conscious with performance and of list procedure (outline, topical analysis, list of headings headings procedure (outline, topical analysis, subheadings, uniform his mind is is safeguarded uniform formula) safeguarded subheadings, formula) his and matter of developof fact, a matter and strengthened. fact, the develop strengthened. As a ment of an unconscious logical attitude and habit must attitude unconscioiis logical ment of of the method come A forth of the A conscious conscious setting first. come first. setting forth is possible adapted for reaching an end is logically for only possible only reaching adapted logically uncon after first been been reached by has first the result result has after the by more unconis valuable only it is scious while it tentative methods, and tentative scious and methods, while only in a when a that achieved success in the method that of the a review review of case. similar will throw light upon a new, similar case. given case will case new, light upon given The ability fasten upon to fasten (abstract, single out (abstract, upon and single ability to analyze) those features of one experience of features those experience which are analyze) insistence upon logically hindered by is hindered best is upon premature insistence by premature logically best their explicit formulation. It is repeated It is repeated use that gives their explicit formulation. gives a this definiteness, definiteness and given method definiteness; definiteness, prea method pre given this natu follow natustatement should follow cipitation into formulated statement formulated into cipitation which that the the things find that But rally. teachers find because teachers But because things which rally. de off and and marked are marked they themselves best understand are off deunderstand best themselves they are our schoolrooms are pervaded fined our schoolrooms clear-cut ways, in clear-cut fined in pervaded ways,
;

less explicit explicit less

114

HOW WE WE THINK THINK HOW

with the the superstition superstition that that children children are are to to begin begin with with with method. of formulae already crystallized formulre of method. already crystallized
Judgment Judgment r ..veals the the reveals bearing or or bearing synthesis synthesis significance significance facts: of facts of :

Analysis and Analysis and synthesis synthesis are are corcor relative relative

As analysis analysis is is conceived conceived to to be be a a sort sort of of picking picking to to As a of sort be to is pieces, so synthesis is thought to be a sort of physical so physical thought synthesis pieces, piecing together; together; and so so imagined, imagined, it it also also becomes becomes a piecing wherever we takes In fact, synthesis takes place wherever mystery. In fact, synthesis place mystery. a or of on a facts the bearing of facts on a conclusion, or of a pringrasp of the conclusion, prin bearing grasp analysis is is emphasis, emphasis, so so synthesis synthesis is is ciple on on facts. facts. As analysis ciple or fact placing; the the one one causes causes the the emphasized emphasized fact or property property placing; to stand stand out out as as significant; significant; the the other other gives gives what is is se seto lected its its context, contc.zt, or or its its connection connection with with what is is signified. signified. lected Every judgment judgment is is analytic analytic in in so so far far as as it it involves involves dis disEvery cernment, discrimination, discrimination, marking marking off off the the trivial trivial from cernment, the important, important, the the irrelevant irrelevant from what points points to to a a con conthe the mind as it leaves far so in it is synthetic in so far as it leaves the clusion; and it and is clusion; synthetic the selected selected with an an inclusive within which the situation within inclusive situation with facts are placed. facts are placed. themselves on being that pride Educational methods that Educational methods being pride themselves or exclusively exclusively therefore synthetic are therefore exclusively synthetic analytic or exclusively analytic their boasts) (so out their as they far as incompatible with boasts) incompatible carry out they carry (so far normal of judgment. Discussions have taken of normal operations judgment operations of geograplace, for example, as to whether the teaching of as to for teaching geogra example, place, or phy should be analytic or synthetic. The synthetic should synthetic synthetic. analytic phy method is to begin is supposed partial, limited begin with the partial, supposed to familiar to the portion surface already of the the earth's earth's surface already familiar portion of pupil, and then gradually piece on adjacent then regions (the (the adjacent regions gradually piece pupil, till an so county, the country, the continent, and so on) the continent, on) till county, the country, the solar solar system or of of the idea is reached, the entire entire globe of the idea of reached, or system globe is is supposed that includes the the globe. that includes supposed globe. The analytic analytic method is solar system to the physical to begin whole, the solar system or physical whole, begin with the its constituent constituent globe, and to work down through its portions and work down to portions through globe, under* The underreached. The environment is is reached. till immediate environment the immediate till the and lying conceptions are of physical wholes and physical are of wholes physical physical lying conceptions

JUDGMENT: INTERPRETATION OF FACTS

115 115

As matter of fact, parts. that the the fact, we cannot assume that parts. portion familiar to the child is such to child is such portion of the earth already already a definite object, a at once begin with object, mentally, mentally, that he can at begin with it is it; his knowledge of it is misty and vague as well as it in knowledge vague as well as inmisty complete. will involve involve complete. Accordingly, progress will Accordingly, mental progress it analysis emphasis features that that are are signifiemphasis of the features analysis of it signifi will cant, so that they will stand out clearly. Moreover, his cant, Moreover, his they clearly. own locality is not sharply off, neatly locality is bounded, sharply marked off, neatly bounded, and measured. His experience of it it is is already ex experience of already an experience that involves sun, moon, and stars as parts stars as of sun, moon, perience parts of it the scene he surveys; it involves a changing horizon surveys changing horizon line as he moves about; line his more limited limited about; that is, is, even his local experience and local factors that involves far-reaching factors that experience involves far-reaching clear take his imagination clear beyond his own street and his street imagination beyond village. Connection, relationship with a larger whole, is Connection, relationship village. larger whole, is already involved. But his his recognition recognition of these relations relations of these already is is inadequate, vague, incorrect. He to utilize the incorrect. needs to utilize the inadequate, vague, features features of the local local environment which are are understood understood to to help help clarify clarify and enlarge enlarge his his conceptions conceptions of of the the larger larger geographical scene to to which they they belong. belong. At the the same geographical time, not till till he has grasped grasped the the larger larger scene will will many many time, of even the commonest features features of of his his environment become intelligible. intelligible. Analysis Analysis leads leads to to synthesis synthesis; while while synthesis perfects analysis. the pupil grows in comAs the in com perfects synthesis pupil grows analysis. of the prehension of the vast complicated earth in its setting in vast in earth its prehension complicated setting in he also sees more the space, also sees definitely meaning of of the the space, meaning definitely familiar familiar local local details. details. This intimate intimate interaction interaction between selective selective emphasis emphasis and interpretation interpretation of of what is is selected selected is is found wherever reflection reflection proceeds proceeds normally. normally. Hence the folly folly of of trying trying to to set set analysis analysis and synthesis synthesis over over against each other. other. against
;

CHAPTER NINE CHAPTER NINE

MEANING: OR OR CONCEPTIONS MEANING: CONCEPTIONS AND AND UNDERSTANDING UNDERSTANDING

Meaning Meaning is central centra] ill

I. I.

The Place Place The

of in Mental Mental Life of Memzings Meanings in Life

As in in our our discussion discussion of of judgment As we were were making judgment we making is involved more explicit involved in in inference, so in in the explicit what is the inference, so of meaning discussion of we are only recurring to the are to the meaning only recurring function of of all all reflection. central function For reflection. For one one thing to thing to point to, another mean, betoken, indicate, or or mean, signify, signify, betoken, indicate, we point to, another we outset to to be the saw at the outset the essential essential mark of of thinking thinking find out To find out what facts, just as (see p. 8). (see p. 8). facts, just as they stand, they stand, of all object of what mean, is is the object all discovery; to mean, find out out what discovery; to find facts will a given meanfacts will carry carry out, out, substantiate, substantiate, support support a given mean the object object of of all all testing. testing. When an an inference inference ing, is is the ing, reaches reaches a a satisfactory satisfactory conclusion, conclusion, we attain attain a a goal goal of of act of of judging judging involves involves both both the the growth growth meaning. The act meaning. and In short, short, in in this this chap chapand the the application application of of meanings. meanings. In ter ter we we are are not not introducing introducing a a new new topic topic; we we are are only only what hitherto hitherto has has been been coming to to closer closer quarters quarters with with what coming In the the first first section, section, we we shall shall con conconstantly assumed. assumed. In constantly sider the equivalence equivalence of of meaning meaning and and understanding, understanding, sider the and and the the two two types types of of understanding, understanding, direct direct and and indirect indirect.
;

To To under understand ctaIId is is

to to grasp grasp

meaning meaning

I. MEANING MEANING AND AND UNDERSTANDING UNDERSTANDING If If a a person person comes comes suddenly suddenly into into your your room room and and calls calls out out " "Paper," various alternatives alternatives are are possible. possible. If If you you Paper," various do do not not understand understand the the English English language, language, there there is is simply simply a or may mayor maynot not act act as as a a physical physical stimulus stimulus a noise noise which which may
I.

u6 116

MEANING MEANING

II7 117
;

ect it and irritant. irrita.nt. But But the the noise noise is is not not an an intellectual intellectual obj object; it and not have have intellectual intellectual value. value. (Compare (Compare above, above, p. p. 1IS.) does not does 5.) To say say that that you you do do not not understand understand it it and and that that it it has has no no To

are equivalents. equivalents. If If the the cry cry is is the the usual usual ac acmeaning are meaning the the the delivery of the morning paper, the companiment of of the of morning paper, delivery companiment sound will will have have meaning, meaning, intellectual intellectual content content; you you will will sound
;

it. Or Or if if you you are are eagerly eagerly awaiting awaiting the the re reassume ceipt of important document, you may some important document, you may ceipt of that the the cry cry means an an announcement of of its its arrival. arrival. If If that lan (in the third place) you understand the English lan(in the third place) you understand the English but no no context context suggests suggests itself itself from your your habits habits guage, but guage, and expectations, expectations, the the word has has meaning, meaning, but but not not the the and whole event. event. You are are then then perplexed perplexed and incited incited to to whole think out, out, to to hunt hunt for, for, some explanation explanation of of the the appar apparthink If you ently meaningless meaningless occurrence. occurrence. If you find find something something ently it that accounts for the performance, it gets you for the that accounts meaning you performance, gets meaning; we come to understand it. intelligent beings, preit. As to understand pre intelligent beings, is an its absence is sume of meaning, existence of the existence sume the meaning, and its the person turn out that the anomaly. it should should turn if it person Hence, if anomaly. Hence, merely meant to inform you that there was a scrap of there that inform meant to scrap you merely existed paper on the sidewalk, or that paper existed somewhere that or the on sidewalk, paper paper in think him crazy in the the universe, your crazy or youruniverse, you you would think to joke. To grasp a meaning, to self a poor victim of of a the victim self the meaning, grasp poor joke. in situation in which understand, to identify a thing in a situation in a to understand, thing identify terms they it thus equivalent are thus it is is important, express they express equivalent terms; important, are life. the nerves of our intellectual life. Without them the nerves of our intellectual intellec or there is (a) lack of intellectual content, or (b) intellecthere is (a) lack of intellectual content, (ff) intellectual else (c) or else tual and perplexity, tual confusion confusion and (c) intellectual perplexity, or perversion nonsense, insanity. insanity. perversion - nonsense, to grasp All thus aims to all science, All knowledge, science, thus grasp the knowledge, all ... this process meaning of objects and events, and this always and and of always events, process objects meaning iso their them out of their apparent brute isoconsists out of them in taking consists in apparent taking some of be lation and finding them to be parts of some to them and lation as as events, parts events, finding
it.
;

understand understand

Knowledge Knowledge
and meaning 8.11.d meaning

II8

HOW WE THINK

larger suggested by in turn, turn, accounts account.! them, which, which, in by them, larger whole suggested
i.e. renders them ; i.e. for, explains, interprets them; renders them signifi. signifi explains, interprets for, p. 75.) Suppose that a stone cant. (Compare above, p. stone cant. Suppose that 75.) (Compare above,

do these with peculiar markings markings has been found. found. What do with peculiar these far as as the forces the scratches mean? So far the object object forces the raising raising scratches mean is not not understood understood; while while so so far far as of this question, it is as of this question, it the color color and form that that we see mean to to us us a a stone, stone, the the the It is object understood. It peculiar combinations combinations is such peculiar is understood. object is nonunderstood the non understood that that provoke provoke of the understood understood and the of the of the the thought. If at the end of the inquiry, the markings the If at inquiry, markings thought. are decided to to mean glacial obscure and are decided scratches, obscure glacial scratches, translated into into meanings perplexing meanings traits have been translated perplexing traits already understood: namely, namely, the moving moving and grinding grinding already understood and the the friction thus power of large bodies of ice bodies of ice friction of thus large power another. induced of one rock rock upon upon another. Something of one al induced Something alsituation been ready understood in one situation has transferred in understood transferred ready and applied to what is is strange strange and perplexing perplexing in another, in another, and applied to and thereby thereby the latter has has become plain plain and familiar, the latter i.e. familiar, i.e. illustration understood. This summary illustration discloses that understood. This discloses that summary our power to think effectively effectively depends depends upon upon possession possession to think our power of meanings may be applied of fund of meanings which may a capital of a capital fund applied said about about deduction, deduction, when desired. (Compare what was said desired. (Compare
?
;

P94) P- 94-)
II. II.

DIRECT AND INDIRECT UNDERSTANDING

Direct and Direct and circuitous circuitous underunder

standing standing

In the above illustrations illustrations two types of grasping of In the above grasping of types of meaning are are exemplified. exemplified. When the English language the English meaning language is the person person grasps grasps at the meaning meaning of of is understood, understood, the at once the "paper." may not, not, however, however, see any meaning meaning or or see any "paper." He may in the the performance as a sense in performance as a whole. whole. Similarly, the the Similarly, person the object object on sight as a stone; there there a stone identifies the person identifies sight as is no secret, mystery, no perplexity perplexity about that. that. But is secret, no mystery, he does does not understand understand the markings on it. They have the markings it. They have
;

MEANING MEANING

119

some meaning, but what what is is it? it? In In one some one case, to meaning, but case, owing owing to familiar the thing and its familiar acquaintance, up to its meaning, to acquaintance, the thing and meaning, up a certain certain point, are one. one. In In the the other, a the thing and its point, are its other, the thing and at least, meaning are, temporarily and meaning meaning are, least, sundered, sundered, and temporarily at meaning has to to be be sought in order order to to understand has understand the the thing. In sought in thing. In one case case understanding is one is direct, prompt, immediate; in immediate in direct, prompt, understanding the other, it is is roundabout roundabout and delayed. the other, it delayed. Most languages have two sets Most sets of of words to to express languages have interaction express Interaction of of the the these two modes of these two of understanding; for the the direct direct two types understanding one for two types in or of taking other for for its its circuitaking in or grasp circui grasp of meaning, meaning, the other tous apprehension, thus ryvwva tous dUvai in in Greek; Greek apprehension, thus: yu&vai and eiOiva noscere and and scire scire in in Latin; Latin kennen and wissen 1zoscere wissen in in German; German connaitre and savoz"r savoir in in French; French while connaZtre while in in English to be be English to to know of acquainted or about have been sugbeen acquainted with and to of sug 1 gested life conintellectual life gested as equivalents. con equivalents. 1 Now our intellectual sists interaction between these types of of sists of of a peculiar peculiar interaction these two two types All understanding. All judgment, all reflective inference, all reflective inference, understanding. judgment, presupposes some lack lack of of understanding, understanding, a a partial partial presupposes absence absence of of meaning. meaning. We reflect reflect in in order order that that we may may get hold hold of of the the full full and adequate adequate significance significance of of what what get happens. Nevertheless, Nevertheless, something something must be be already already happens. the mind must must be be in in possession possession of of some understood, the understood, meaning which which it it has has mastered, mastered, or or else else thinking thinking is is im immeaning We in think order to think in order to grasp meaning, but possible. but possible. grasp meaning, none none the the less less every every extension extension of of knowledge knowledge makes makes us us aware aware of of blind blind and and opaque opaque spots, spots, where where with with less less knowl knowledge all all had had seemed seemed obvious obvious and and natural. natural. A scientist scientist edge a into new brought into a new district district will will find find many many things things that that brought he he does does not not understand, understand, where where the the native native savage savage or or
;
: , ,
.

1 1 James, James, Principles Principles of of Psychology Psycliology, vol. vol. I, I, p. p. 221. 221. To To know know and and to to know "I know that that are are perhaps per haps more more precise precise equivalents; equivalents; compare compare" I know know him" him" " The and I know and " "I know that that he he has has gone gone home. home." The former former expresses expresses a a fact fact for the evidence be demanded simply; for the latter, evidence might be demanded and and supplied. supplied. latter, simply; might
^

120 120

HOW THINK HOW WE WE THINK

intellectual Intellectual progress a rhythm

oblivious to to any will be rustic rustic will be wholly wholly oblivious any meanings meanings beyond beyond Some Indians brought those those directly to a a apparent. Some brought to directly apparent. stolid at at the large the sight of mechanical mechanical sight of large city city remained stolid and telephone, wonders of but were of bridge, were held held telephone, but trolley, and bridge, trolley, of the the sight of workmen climbing poles spellbound by to sight spellbound by climbing poles to repair wires. Increase of the store of meanings makes wires. of store Increase the of makes repair meanings us us conscious of new problems, while only conscious of trans problems, while only through through transinto what is already familiar lation of the the new perplexities into is lation of perplexities already familiar and plain or solve solve these these problems. plain do we understand or problems. is the the constant constant spiral This is of knowledge. spiral movement of knowledge, in genuine Our progress consists in in genuine knowledge knowledge always progress in always consists * n the discovery art in not understood pa1't understood in in what discovery oj of somethitlg $ something not had previously previously been taken for for granted panted as plai7z, obvious, as plain, obvioit,s matter-of-course, part in meamngs in part in the the ztse tise of that matter-of-course, and in of meanings that are directly grasped without question, as instruments as instntments directly grasped question, for getting getting hold of perplexing obscure, doubiful, for of obscure, doubtfitl, and perplexing No is object is so familiar, so obvious, meanings. so so so familiar, meanings. object obvious, so that that it may not unexpectedly present, in a commonplace it not a in commonplace may unexpectedly present, novel thus arouse arouse reflec reflecnovel situation, situation, some problem, problem, and thus tion tion in in order order to to understand understand it. it. No object object or or principle principle is is so so strange, strange, peculiar, peculiar, or or remote remote that that it it may may not not be be dwelt dwelt taken in in on on upon till till its its meaning meaning becomes familiar familiar - taken upon sight without without reflection. reflection. We may may come to to see, see, perceive, perceive, sight recognzze,grasp, seize, lay lay hold hold ^/principles, of principles, laws, laws, abstract abstract recognize, grasp, seize, truths i.e. to to understand understand their their meaning meaning in in very very im imtruths - i.e. mediate mediate fashion. fashion. Our Our intellectual intellectual progress progress consists, consists, as as has in a a rhythm rhythm of of direct direct understanding understandinghas been been said, said, in technically called called ^/prehension apprehension - with with indirect, indirect, mediated mediated technically comprehension. understanding technically called called understanding technically ^reprehension.

2. 2. The Process Process of of Acquiring Acquiring Meanings Meanings

lI'aJll.iliarity Familiarity
direct direct understanding understanding

The The first first problem problem that that comes comes up up in in connection connection with with is is how how a a store store of of directly directlyapprehen apprehen*

MEANING

121

is built built up. sible meanings How do we learn to 'sible to view view things meanings is up. Howdowelearn things of a a situation, on sight or as as sight as significant significant members of situation, or having, course, specific having, as a matter of course, specific meanings? meanings ? Our in answering this question chief difficulty lies in in the the difficulty in answering this question lies thoroughness lesson of of familiar familiar things thoroughness with which the lesson things learnt. has been learnt. Thought traverse an an Thought can more easily easily traverse it unexplored region than it can undo what has been so what has been so unexplored region to be ingrained in unconscious thoroughly done as to in unconscious thoroughly ingrained We apprehend habit. habit. chairs, tables, tables, books, books, trees, apprehend chairs, trees, so promptly horses, that clouds, stars, horses, clouds, stars, rain, rain, so promptly and directly directly that is hard to to realize that as as meanings realize that it meanings they it is once to to they had once the meanings be acquired,-the are now so parts of so much parts of acquired, meanings are the the things things themselves. In an often quoted passage, Mr. James said "The quoted passage, James has said: assailed baby, assailed by eyes, ears, nose, skin, and entrails at entrails at by eyes, ears, nose, skin, baby, feels it all as one once, feels it all as great blooming, buzzing concon once, great blooming, buzzing l Mr. James fusion." James is is speaking of a a baby's baby's world world fusion." 1 speaking of taken as a whole whole; the the description, description, however, is equally taken is however, equally the way way any any new thing thing strikes so applicable to to the strikes an adult, adult, so applicable is the new far as the thing is really and strange. To the trafar as the tra thing strange. really " cat cat in in a a strange strange garret," garret," everything everything is is blurred blurred ditional " ditional confused; the the wonted marks that that label label things things so so as as and confused are lacking. to separate separate them from one another another are lacking. Foreign Foreign to languages that that we do do not not understand understand always jabalways seem jablanguages it is a in which fix in it is impossible to fix a defiberings, babblings, to defi impossible berings, babblings, nite, clear-cut, clear-cut, individualized individualized group group of of sounds. sounds. The nite, countryman in the city street, the landlubber the the landlubber in crowded city street, countryman at sea, sea, the the ignoramus ignoramus in in sport sport at at a contest contest between ex exat are further Put a instances. perts in a complicated game, are further instances. in complicated game, perts an unexperienced unexperienced man in in a a factory, factory, and at at first first the the work seems to to him a a meaningless meaningless medley. medley. All All strangers strangers of of seems another race race proverbially proverbially look look alike alike to to the the visiting visiting another
: ;

Confusion Confusion is prior to familiaritf

1 1

Principles of Psychology, Psychology, vol. vol. Principles

of

I,

I, p. p. 488. 488.

122 122

HOW HOW WE WE THINK THINK

Practical Practical responses responses clarify clarify confusion

of size foreigner. differences of size or or color color are are gross differences foreigner. Only Only gross a flock in a an outsider outsider in flock of of sheep, perceived each of of perceived by by an sheep, each individualized to which which is is perfectly to the the shepherd. A shepherd. A perfectly individualized diffusive and an an indiscriminately diffusive blur blur and suction indiscriminately shifting shifting suction we do what we do not understand. The characterize what characterize The problem problem of of meaning by things, of the of the acquisition or (stated in meaning by things, or acquisition (stated in another way) of forming habits of simple apprehension, of habits of forming simple apprehension, way) is thus of introducing is thus the the problem and problem of introducing (i) definiteness and (z) dcjinite1teSS distz'nctz'on consistency or stability distinction and (z'z') or of meaning stability of (zY) consistency meaning into what is is otherwise otherwise vague into vague and wavering. wavering. of definiteness The acquisition of (or definiteness and of of coherency acquisition coherency * ^ (or ....... ^ of meanings is derived derived primarily constancy) from practimeanings is constancy) of primarily from practica j activities. cal By activities. the child child makes makes its its rolling an object, object, the By rolling by bouncing it, he singles out roundness appreciable; he out it, appreciable; by bouncing singles its elasticity; weight its its its conspicit, he makes weight elasticity by by throwing throwing it, conspic distinctive factor. factor. the senses, but by by uous distinctive Not through the senses, but through of the the reaction, means of reaction, the the responsive responsive adjustment, is the is the adjustment, impression made distinctive, distinctive, and given given a a character character impression marked off off from other other qualities qualities that that call call out out unlike unlike re reactions. actions. Children, Children, for for example, example, are are usually usually quite quite slow slow in in apprehending apprehending differences differences of of color. color. Differences Differences from from the the standpoint standpoint of of the the adult adult so so glaring glaring that that it it is is impossible impossible not not to to note note them are are recognized recognized and and recalled recalled with with great great difficulty. Doubtless they do not all feel alike, but there Doubtless do not but there difficulty. they all/**/ alike, is what makes makes the the differ differis no no intellectual intellectual recognition recognition of of what ence. The redness redness or or greenness greenness or or blueness blueness of of the the object obj ect ence. The does tend to to call call out out a a reaction reaction that that is is sufficiently sufficiently does not not tend the color color peculiar to to give give prominence prominence or or distinction distinction to to the peculiar trait. trait. Gradually, Gradually, however, however, certain certain characteristic characteristic habitual habitual responses associate associate themselves themselves with with certain certain things things; the the responses white white becomes becomes the the sign, sign, say, say, of of milk milk and and sugar, sugar, to to which which the the child child reacts reacts favorably favorably; blue blue becomes becomes the the sign sign of of a a dress that the the child child likes likes to to wear, wear, and and so so on on. and and the the dress that
,.

..

MEANING

12 3 123

to single distinctive reactions tend to color qualities single out color qualities in which they from other things things in they had been submerged. submerged. Take another example. little difficulty in We identify example. We have little identify difficulty in by use or distinguishing and rakes, hoes, distinguishing from one another rakes, hoes, plows plows function harrows, Each has its own associhas its associ harrows, shovels and spades. spades. characteristic use and function. ated characteristic function. We may have, may have, great difficulty in recalling the difference behowever, in the difference be however, great difficulty recalling tween serrate and dentate, ovoid and obovoid, in the ovoid in the dentate, obovoid, of leaves, shapes or between acids ic and acids in in Z"C shapes and edges leaves, or edges of in ous. ous. is some difference; difference but just in There is what ? Or, Or, just what? difference is; is we know what the difference but but which is is which? which ? in form, Variations in of parts form, size, size, color, color, and arrangement arrangement of parts less to to do, the uses, have much less and funcfunc do, and the uses, purposes, purposes, of things tions of of their parts much more to do, tions and of their to things parts do, with distinctness distinctness of of character character and meaning than we than meaning should be likely to think. What to think. misleads us is the fact misleads us is the fact likely that of form, that the the qualities size, color, are so on, form, size, color, and so qualities of on, are so distinct that now so distinct that we fail fail to to see see that problem is is that the the problem precisely to to account for for the the way way in they origi origiin which they precisely nally obtained their their definiteness definiteness and conspicuousness. conspicuousness. nally So far they are are not not dis disfar as as we sit sit passive passive before before objects, objects, they out of of a a vague vague blur blur which swallows swallows them all. all. tinguished out tinguished Differences the pitch pitch and intensity intensity of of sounds sounds leave leave Differences in in the behind a different different feeling, feeling, but but until until we assume different different attitudes do something something special special in in refer referattitudes toward them, them, or or do ence to to them, them, their their vague vague difference difference cannot cannot be intel intelgripped and retained. retained. lectually gripped lectually Children's Children's further exemplification exemplification Children's Children's drawings drawings afford afford a a further drawings of of the the same principle. principle. Perspective Perspective does does not not exist, exist, for for j^J^fJ illustrate domination the the child's child's interest interest is is not not in in pictorial pcton'al representation, representaton, but but domination by v value in in the the things things represented represented; and and while while perspective perspective is is y essential the former, former, it it is is no part part of of the the characteristic characteristic essential to to the uses values of of the the things things themselves. themselves. The house house uses and values
; ; ;

I24 124

WE THINK THINK HOW WE

Asdosounds All do sounds

used as

language language aigns

the rooms, is is drawn with with transparent walls, because the rooms, transparent walls, are the the important chairs, in inside, are beds, people chairs, beds, important things people inside, things in the out of of the the house-meaning; the house-meaning; smoke always always comes out at all? all ? chimney At otherwise, why chimney at why have a chimney chimney - otherwise, Christmas be drawn almost as the stockings almost Christmas time, as time, the stockings may may so that large as the house or even so large that they have to be as the or to be large large they is the it is the scale scale of put in of it: it in any of values outside of values case, it put outside any case, for their in the picthe scale scale for their qualities, in use use that furnishes the that furnishes the qualities, pic tures diagrammatic reminders of these values, of these tures being not values, not being diagrammatic of physical impartial One records of impartial records qualities. sensory qualities. physical and sensory of the the chief chief difficulties difficulties felt felt by in learnof learn persons in by most persons art of that habitual the art of pictorial is that ing habitual uses uses ing the pictorial representation representation is and results read into results of so intimately of use use have become so read into intimately the the character things that impossible character of of things it is that it is practically to practically impossible to at will. will. shut them out at of meaning The acquiring meaning by by sounds, in virtue virtue of of which which sounds, in acquiring of become is they words, is perhaps the striking illustrathe most illustrawords, ^7 perhaps striking tion that can tion that can be found found of in which mere sensory of the the way way in sensory stimuli acquire stimuli acquire definiteness definiteness and constancy constancy of of meaning meaning and are are thereby thereby themselves themselves defined defined and interconnected interconnected for Language is is a a specially specially for purposes purposes of of recognition. recognition. Language good example example because because there there are are hundreds hundreds or or even even thou thougood sands of of words in in which which meaning meaning is is now so so thoroughly thoroughly consolidated be directly directly consolidated with with physical physical qualities qualities as as to to be while in the case of words it is easier apprehended, while in the case of it words is easier apprehended, to that this this connection connection has has been been gradually gradually and and to recognize recognize that laboriously acquired than in the case of physical objects than in the case of laboriously acquired physical objects such such as as chairs, chairs, tables, tables, buttons, buttons, trees, trees, stones, stones, hills, hills, flowers, flowers, and so so on, on, where it it seems seems as as if if the the union union of of intellectual intellectual character meaning with with the the physical physical fact fact were were abo abocharacter and meaning thrust upon upon us us passively passively rather rather than than acquired acquired riginal, and thrust riginal, through active active explorations. explorations. And in in the the case case of of the the through meaning of of words, words, we see see readily readily that that it it is is by by making making meaning
:

MEANING
to to the the

125 125

sounds and noting results which follow, by listening listening follow, by noting the results sounds of watching the the activities of others others and watching activities which accompany that a given finally them, that given sound finally accompany them,
stable bearer the stable bearer of a meaning. meaning. of a becomes the Familiar acquaintance with with meanings Summary acquaintance meanings thus signifies signifies Summary that in that we have acquired in the presence of objects definite the of definite acquired presence objects attitudes of of response lead us, attitudes response which lead without reflection, reflection, us, without
to to anticipate anticipate certain certain possible possible consequences. consequences. The defidefiniteness of defines the the meaning takes niteness of the expectation or takes expectation defines meaning or
it

of the vague it out out of vague and pulpy; pulpy; its recurrent its habitual, habitual, recurrent character gives the meaning character gives the meaning constancy, constancy, stability, con stability, conit out of the or takes takes it out of the fluctuating fluctuating and wavering. wavering. sistency, sistency, or

3. 3. Conceptions Meaning Conceptions and Meaning

The word meaning is a familiar familiar everyday the term the meaning is everyday term; are words conception, both technical no#on, are popular and technical conception, notion, popular terms. Strictly they involve, involve, however, however, nothnothterms. speaking, they Strictly speaking, ing new; any sufficiently individualized individualized to to be be ing new meaning sufficiently any meaning directly readily used, used, and thus fixed fixed by by a grasped and readily directly grasped or notion. word, is notion. Linguistically, Linguistically, every is a conception word, conception or every the carrier carrier of is the of a meaning, meaning, while proper proper common noun is this or with the the word this prethat pre nouns and common nouns with or that refer to the things in the meanings are exfixed, refer which the are to the in ex fixed, meanings things That thinking both employs and expands emplified. both expands emplified. thinking employs that in notions, conceptions, is then then simply in infer infernotions, conceptions, is simply saying saying that judgment we use use meanings, meanings, and that this use use ence and judgment that this also corrects and widens them. also corrects them. Various physically Various persons talk about an object persons talk object not physically present, and yet the same material material of belief. all get of belief. present, get the yet all The same person person in to the the in different different moments often often refers refers to same object kind of or kind of objects. The sense experience, or experience, object objects. the physical physical conditions, the psychological psychological conditions, the conditions, the conditions, vary, but the same meaning is conserved. If pounds is conserved. If pounds but the meaning vary,
1

concepA conccp~~:n~~ea J^J" meaning meaning

is which is

~:dard.

126 126

WE THINK HOW WE THINK

it we 13y 6y it the identify identify the unknown

and and supple supplement the mentthe

sensibly sensibly present present

foot rules rules their arbitrarily their weight, their weight, and foot changed their arbitrarily changed length, could while we were using them, obviously using them, obviously we could length, while not measure. This would be our intellectual intellectual nor measure. not weigh weigh nor position if meanings could not be maintained with a cercould cer if meanings position and constancy through a variety of physical tain tain stability constancy through variety physical stability and personal changes. personal changes. of concepTo insist the fundamental importance insist upon importance of concep upon the repeat what has been tions would, accordingly, only tions would, accordingly, only repeat that concepWe shall said. shall merely said. summarize, saying saying that merely summarize, concep instruments (z") tions, are instruments of idenor standard standard meanings, iden tions, or meanings, are (z) of of placing tification, of supplementation, tification, (ii) (iif) of supplementation, and (iii) placing (if) of of light a little little speck in in a system. hitherto speck of light hitherto Suppose a system. Suppose unseen is is detected in the the heavens. heavens. Unless there there is detected in is a a fall as tools store to fall back upon as tools of inquiry store of of meanings to of meanings upon inquiry and reasoning, that speck speck of will remain just just what of light light will reasoning, that it is of light it to the the senses a mere speck light. For For all all that senses - a is to that speck of it leads as well well be it leads to, to, it it might might as be a mere irritation irritation of of the the of meanings optic nerve. Given the the stock acquired in in stock of optic nerve. meanings acquired prior experience, experience, this this speck speck of of light light is is mentally mentally attacked attacked prior by means of of appropriate appropriate concepts. concepts. Does it it indicate indicate by asteroid, or or comet, comet, or or a a new-forming new-forming sun, sun, or or a a nebula nebula asteroid, resulting from some cosmic cosmic collision collision or or disintegration disintegration? ? resulting Each of of these these conceptions conceptions has has its its own specific specific and and dif dif then sought sought for for by by ferentiating characters, characters, which which are are then ferentiating minute and persistent persistent inquiry. inquiry. As a a result, result, then, then, the the speck is is identified, identified, we will will say, say, as as a a comet. comet. Through Through speck a standard standard meaning, meaning, it it gets gets identity identity and stability stability of of character. then takes takes place. place. All All character. Supplementation Supplementation then the the known qualities qualities of of comets comets are are read read into into this this par particular not been been as as yet yet ticular thing, thing, even though though they they have have not observed. observed. All All that that the the astronomers astronomers of of the the past past have have learned learned about the the paths paths and and structure structure of of comets comets be becomes comtes available available capital capital with with which which to to interpret interpret the the speck speck

MEANING
of light. light. of lated; lated;

12 7 127
and also also

Finally, this this comet-meaning comet-meaning is is itself itself not not isoisoFinally, it is is a a related related portion portion of of the the whole system system of of astronomic knowledge. knowledge. Suns, Suns, planets, planets, satellites, satellites, neb nebastronomic ulre, comets, comets, meteors, meteors, star star dust dust - all all these these conceptions conceptions ulae, interaction, nave a certain certain mutuality mutuality of of reference reference and interaction, have and when the the speck speck of of light light is is identified identified as as meaning meaning a a and at once adopted as a full in this vast comet, it is is at once as a it full member in this vast comet, adopted kingdom of of beliefs. beliefs. kingdom in an autobiographical autobiographical sketch, sketch, says says that that Darwin, in Darwin, when a a youth youth he told told the the geologist, geologist, Sidgwick, Sidgwick, of of findfinding a a tropical tropical shell shell in in a a certain certain gravel gravel pit. pit. Thereupon Thereupon ing Sidgwick said it it must have have been been thrown there there by by some Sidgwick said " person, adding: "But if it were really embedded there, it But if were there, really person, adding the greatest greatest misfortune misfortune to to geology, geology, because because it would would be be the it that we know about the the superficial superficial it would would overthrow overthrow all all that it the Midland Counties" since they deposits of the since Midland Counties" of deposits they were " And then Darwin adds: "I was then utterly glacial. I adds then utterly glacial. at so at Sidgwick not being being delighted wonastonished astonished at delighted at so won Sidgwick not the derful shell being a tropical a fact fact as as a derful a being found near the tropical shell surface the middle of England. England. Nothing Nothing before before had in the middle of surface in consists in in group science consz'sts grouprealize that that science made me thoroughly thoroughly realize be ing facts so that general laws or concluszons may be drawn or conclusions so that may general ing facts from them." This instance (which might, of course, be of them"' instance This course, (which might, from indicates duplicated from any branch of science) indicates how of branch duplicated science) any tend scientific the systematizing scientific notions notions make explicit explicit the systematizing tendency involved in all of concepts. of all use use in involved concepts. ency
it
: :

systematiJ:.. things

Importance importance of system to knowledge

4. 4. What Conceptions Conceptions are Not

is a meaning The idea a conception that a idea that supmeaning that supconception is identification plies a standard rule for the identification and placing the for rule a standard placing plies mis current misof contrasted with some current be contrasted of particulars may be particulars may apprehensions of its nature. its nature. of apprehensions of multitude of I. not derived derived from a multitude are not I. Conceptions Conceptions are

128 128
A concept concept
not a bare is nota i!.

HOW HOW WE WE THINK

residue

but but an active attitude attitude tive

different definite out the different the qualities definite objects in leaving out objects by qualities in by leaving ^ ey differ w^k they faff er and ancj retaining those in in which they which retaining those they agree. agree. is sometimes described The origin of concepts described to to be be as as concepts is origin of if a child began a lot of different if with a lot of different particular things, a child with particular things, began his own Fido, his neighbor's say Fido, his neighbor's Carlo, dogs his Carlo, particular dogs; say particular all these his Having all these different objects different his cousin's cousin's Tray. be Tray. Having objects beinto lot fore him, he of he. analyzes them into a lot of different qualifore different him, analyzes quali ties, of legs, color, (b) size, (c) ties, say shape, (d) (a) color, say (a) (<5) size, (d) number of (c) shape, legs, of hair, (e) quantity and quality hair, (f) quality of digestive organs, (/) digestive (<?) quantity organs, all the strikes out out all and so so on; the unlike unlike qualities on; and then strikes qualities (such traits such as color, such size, shape, color, size, shape, hair), retaining traits (such as hair), retaining all have in as as quadruped all have in domesticated, which they quadruped and domesticated, they general. general. of fact, the child child begins As a matter of with whatever whatever fact, the begins with s ig n ifi cance he has got of the out of the one dog he has seen, significance he has got seen, dog heard, handled. He has found that he can carry and handled. has that he can heard, carry of this over experience of this object to subsequent over from one experience object to subsequent of certain certain characteristic experience certain expectations characteristic experience certain expectations of of behavior modes of may these even before before expect these may expect tends to they themselves. He tends assume this this attitude attitude to assume they show themselves. of anticipation of anticipation whenever any clue or or stimulus stimulus presents presents any clue the object object gives gives him any any excuse excuse for itself; whenever the for itself; it. might call call cats cats little little dogs, dogs, or or horses horses it. Thus he might that other other expected expected traits traits and and big dogs. dogs. But finding finding that big modes of of behavior behavior are are not not fulfilled, fulfilled, he he is is forced forced to to throw out the dog-meaning, dog-meaning, while while out certain certain traits traits from the by contrast contrast (see (see p. p. 90) 90) certain certain other other traits traits are are selected selected by and emphasized. emphasized. As he he further further applies applies the the meaning meaning to to other the dog-meaning dog-meaning gets gets still still further further defined defined other dogs, dogs, the and refined. refined. He does does not not begin begin with with a a lot lot of of readyreadymade objects extracts a a common mean meanobjects from which he extracts he tries to to new ing; tries to apply to every experience whatever whatever ing apply experience every from his his old old experience experience will will help help him understand understand it, it,
; ;

MEANING MEANING

12 9 129

and as as this this process of constant constant assumption and and experiprocess of assumption and experi mentation is is fulfilled fulfilled and and refuted refuted by mentation his concepresults, his by results, concep and clearness. clearness. tions get get body body and 2. Similarly, conceptions are general because 2. of their their Similarly, conceptions general because of use and application, of their use their ingredients. application, not because of ingredients. of conception The view of the origin in an impossible origin of conception in impossible sort of analysis as its its counterpart sort the idea idea that that the the analysis has as counterpart the is conception is made up out of all the like elements of all the like elements that that conception up remain after after dissection dissection of of a a number of remain Not of individuals. individuals. Not so the moment a so; the a meaning is gained, it is is a a working meaning is gained, it working tool of of further apprehensions, tool instrument of of underunder apprehensions, an instrument standing Thereby the meaning is extended the is extended standing other things. things. Thereby meaning to cover them. resides in to Generality in application to the the Generality resides application to comprehension parts. in constituent constituent parts. comprehension of new cases, cases, not in A traits left left as as the the common residuum, A collection of traits the residuum, the of a million caput mortuum, of a million objects, be merely would be a caput mortuum, objects, merely a or an inventory or aggregate, not a general idea; collection, a collection, inventory aggregate, ; general idea a a striking striking trait trait emphasized emphasized in in any anyone experience which which one experience then then served served to to help help understand some one other other experi experiin virtue virtue of of that that service service of of applica applicaence, would become, become, in ence, far general. general. Synthesis Synthesis is is not not a a matter matter of of tion, in in so so far tion, mechanical addition, addition, but but of of application application of of something something discovered in bring other other cases cases into into line. line. in one case case to to bring
;

It it is is general general because of its applif 'tsT u. cation cation

5. 5. Definition Definition and Organization Organization

of Meanings Meanings of

Definiteness A being being that that cannot cannot understand understand at at all all is is at at least least propro- Definiteness 'Versus tected from tected mis-understandings. But But beings beings that that get get vagueness ^-understandings. knowledge by by means means of of inferring inferring and and interpreting, interpreting, by by knowledge

judging what what things things signify signify in in relation relation to to one one another, another, judging are are constantly constantly exposed exposed to to the the danger danger of of wz>-apprehension, mis-apprehension, mis-understanding, mis-taking mis-taking - taking taking a a thing thing amiss, amiss. ^"^-understanding, constant source source of of misunderstanding misunderstanding and and mistake mistake A constant

A
is

is indefiniteness indefiniteness of of meaning. meaning. Through Through vagueness vagueness of of

130

WE THINK HOW HOW WE THINK

in the In the abstract abstract is meaning is meaning intension intension

In In its its

application application it is
extension extension

we misunderstand misunderstand other meaning other people, and ourour meaning we people, things, things, and selves through its ambiguity selves; we distort distort and and pervert. through its ambiguity we pervert. Conscious distortion distortion of of meaning Conscious be enjoyed as meaning may may be enjoyed as nonsense erroneous erroneous meanings, if nonsense; if clear-cut, may be be clear-cut, may meanings, followed up and got rid of. followed But vague of. are up and got rid vague meanings meanings are too gelatinous to offer matter for analysis, and too to offer matter for and too gelatinous analysis, to afford afford support to other They pulpy other beliefs. beliefs. evade testtest pulpy to support to They evade ing Vagueness the unconuncon ing and responsibility. Vagueness disguises responsibility. disguises the scious of different scious mixing different meanings, and fafa mixing together together of meanings, and cilitates the the substitution cilitates substitution of of one meaning for another, and meaning for another, and failure to covers up to have any at all. all. up the failure precise meaning any precise meaning at It is is the aboriginal sin - the It the source source from which which aboriginal logical logical sin flow most bad intellectual intellectual consequences. to consequences. Totally Totally to eliminate indefiniteness indefiniteness is is impossible; eliminate to reduce it in exto reduce it in ex impossible in force requires tent and in requires sincerity vigor. To be be sincerity and vigor. clear or or perspicuous perspicuous a meaning meaning must be be detached, detached, single, single, it were, were, throughout. throughout. self-contained, homogeneous as as it self-contained, homogeneous The technical technical name for for any meaning which which is is thus thus indi indiany meaning vidualized i,ztmsiott. The process process of of arriving arriving at at such such vidualized is is intension. units units of of meaning meaning (and (and of of stating stating them when reached) reached) is is de.ftntion. The intension intension of of the the terms terms man, man, river, river, seed, seed, definition. is the the meaning meaning that that honesty, capital, captal, sitpreme supreme court, court, is honesty, and exclusively characteris!z"cally attaches to those terms. attaches to those terms. exclusively characteristically This This meaning meaning is is set set forth forth in in the the definitions definitions of of those those words. test of of the the distinctness distinctness of of a a meaning meaning is is words. The test that it shall that it shall successfully successfully mark mark off off a a group group of of things things that that exemplify exemplify the the meaning meaning from from other other groups, groups, especially especially of that convey convey nearly nearly allied allied meanings. meanings. of those those objects objects that The The river-meaning river-meaning (or (or character) character) must must serve serve to to designate designate the the Rhone, Rhone, the the Rhine, Rhine, the the Mississippi, Mississippi, the the Hudson, Hudson, the the Wabash, in in spite spite of of their their varieties varieties of of place, place, length, length, Wabash, water; and and must must be be such such as as not not to to suggest suggest quality of of water; quality ocean ocean currents, currents, ponds, ponds, or or brooks. brooks. This This use use of of a a meanmean;
;

MEANING

131 131

to mark off off and group ing of distinct distinct ing to group together together a variety variety of its eztenson. constitutes its existences constitutes extension. definition sets sets forth forth intension, As definition so division division (or the Definition Definition intension, so (or the and reverse process, expounds extension. Inextension. Inprocess, classification) classification) expounds division definition and division, tension and extension, are clearly extension, definition division, are clearly in language correlative; intension is is meanmean correlative; in used, ntenson language previously previously used, of ing as a principle of identifying particulars; extension is is extension ing principle identifying particulars of the group of particulars identified and distinguished. identified group particulars distinguished. as extension, in the Meaning, the air air or or unreal, extension, would be wholly Meaning, as unreal, wholly in it not point to some object did it or group of objects; while point to object or group of objects while isolated and independent objects intellec objects would be as isolated independent intellecto be spatially, tually as they tually they seem to spatially, were they they not bound into groups classes the basis of into or classes on the basis of characteristic characteristic groups they constantly suggest and exemplify. meanings which meanings they constantly suggest exemplify. us definition division in possesTaken together, definition and division put us in together, put posses sion of of individualized individualized or meanings and indicate indicate sion definite meanings or definite of objects refer. objects meanings meanings refer. They typify typify to what group to group of They the fixation fixation and the of meanings. the organization the meanings. In the organization of in which the meanings of experiences set of degree in meanings of of any experiences degree any set to serve serve as for grouping are so cleared up up as as to principles for grouping as principles those those experiences experiences in in relation relation to to one another, another, that that set set of of a becomes science i.e. definition and science; .e. definition classiparticulars a classi particulars fication are the as distinct the marks of of a a science, science, as distinct from both both fication are unrelated unrelated heaps heaps of of miscellaneous miscellaneous information from information and from the the habits habits that that introduce introduce coherence coherence into into our our experience experience without our being being aware of of their their operation. operation. Definitions are are of of three Definitions three types, types, denotative, denota#ve, expository, 8Z,POS#Ory, scientific. Of these, these, the the first first and third third are are logically logically scientific. the expository expository type type is is socially socially and important, while while the important, pedagogically important important as as an intervening intervening step. step. pedagogically I. I. Denotative. Denotative. A blind blind man can never never have an We define define color adequate understanding of the meaning of color red; !~rcking of the of and red; adequate understanding meaning a seeing seeing person person can acquire acquire the the knowledge knowledge only only by by havhav;

132

THINK HOW WE THINK

and also also by by combining combining what is is already already more definite, definite,

in such a way certain things as to ing to fix fix at. at designated in things designated ing certain way as their qualities. tention This method of tention upon of their of qualities. upon some of a certain out a certain attitude delimiting attitude calling out meaning by delimiting a meaning by calling called denotative denotative or or indicatz've. toward objects indicative. objects may may be called all It for all sense qualitiessounds, tastes, It is is required for sense sounds, qualities required tastes, and equally for all colors-and for all emotional and moral qualities. colors equally qualities. The meanings fear, must be of honesty, be hatred, fear, honesty, sympathy, meanings of sympathy hatred, grasped by having them presented in an individual's in individual's grasped by having presented first-hand experience. first-hand reaction of of educati6nal educational reforrefor experience. The reaction mers against bookish training has always against linguistic linguistic and bookish training has always of demanding recourse to taken the form of to personal ex demanding recourse personal exthe person is in in knowledge perience. person is perience. However advanced the knowledge in scientific and in scientific training, of a new subject, training, understanding understanding of subject, or a new aspect of old or of an old subject, must always be through through aspect subject, always be acts of of experiencing these acts the existence existence or or experiencing directly directly the in quality in question. quality question. 2. 2. Expository. certain store meanings Given a certain store of of meanings Expository. which have been directly directly or marked out, or denotatively denotatively out, language a resource resource by by which which imaginative imaginative language becomes a variations may may be be built built up. up. A color combinations and variations color not experienced experienced it it may be defined defined to to one one who has has not may as as lying lying between green green and blue blue; a a tiger tiger may may be be defined defined by selecting selecting some some (i.e. the idea idea of of it it made more definite) definite) by (i.e. the from known the cat tribe and comqualities of of members the cat tribe and com qualities them with bining with qualities of size and weight derived of and size derived bining qualities weight from other the nature nature of of other objects. objects. Illustrations Illustrations are are of of the expository definitions; so are the accounts of meanings definitions so the are accounts of meanings expository given in in a dictionary. dictionary. By By taking taking better-known better-known meanings meanings given and associating associating them, them, - the the attained attained store store of of meanings meanings of the community community in in which one one resides resides is is put put at at one's one's of the disposal. But But in in themselves themselves these these definitions definitions are are second seconddisposal. hand and conventional; conventional; there there is is danger danger that that instead instead of of after personal personal experiences experiences that that inciting one one to to effort effort after inciting
p

MEANING

133 133

will exemplify will be accepted will on them, they exemplify and verify verify them, they will accepted on substitutes. authority authority as substitutes. Scientific. 3 Even popular definitions serve serve as as rules disand by 3. Scientific. rules and by dispopular definitions covering for identifying but the purfor individuals, but the identifying and classifying classifying individuals, pur- method of ^Jod^f of such identifications identifications and classifications pose classifications is is mainly production pose of mainly production To conceive practical intellectual. conceive the the practical and social, social, not intellectual. fish does not interfere whale as a fish interfere with with the the success success it prevent of whalers, a whale of a whale whalers, nor does it prevent recognition recognition of > when seen, while to conceive conceive it it not not as as fish fish but as but as seen, while to mammal serves the practical also practical end equally well, and also equally well, furnishes a much more valuable valuable principle for scientific scientific principle for identification and classification. classification. Popular definitions seidentification definitions se Popular lect certain fairly obvious lect obvious traits as keys to classification. traits as to classification. fairly keys Scientific definitions definitions select select conditions proScientific conditions of causation, proof causaton, as and generation as their characteristic material. duction, their characteristic material. duction, generation The traits traits used by by the popular popular definition do not not help help definition do us has has its common meanus to to understand why why an object its mean object fact that that it it ings the fact state the ings and qualities; qualities; they they simply simply state does have them. Causal Causal and genetic genetic definitions definitions fix fix an object upon the the way wayan object is is constructed constructed as as the the key key to to upon its thereby explain explain its being being a certain certain kind kind of of object, object, and thereby why it it has its its class class or or common traits. traits. why Contrast of of If, for for example, example, a a layman layman of of considerable considerable practical practical Contrast If, causal and were asked experience asked or understood by what he meant or understood experience by ^cripSJe descriptive definitions metal, he would probably probably reply reply in in terms terms of of the the qualities qualities definitions metal, useful useful (i) (i) in in recognizing recognizing any any given given metal metal and (if) (ii) in in the the arts. arts. Smoothness, Smoothness, hardness, hardness, glossiness, glossiness, and brilliancy, brilliancy, heavy weight weight for for its its size, size, would probably probably be be included included heavy in in his his definition, definition, because because such such traits traits enable enable us us to to identify identify things when we see see and touch touch them them; the the ser serspecific things specific viceable and viceable properties properties of of capacity capacity for for being being hammered and pulled without without breaking, breaking, of of being being softened softened by by heat heat and and pulled hardened hardened by by cold, cold, of of retaining retaining the the shape shape and form
;

134 134

HOW WE THINK

is Science is Science the most the

perfect type type perfect of know1of knowl edge be beedge cause it cause it uses causal causal uses

definitions definitions

given, resistance to to pressure pressure and decay, decay, would prob probof resistance given, of not terms as or whether mal ably be included whether or not such terms as malincluded be ably scientific concep leable fusible were used. used. Now a a scientific concepleable or or fusible tion, instead instead of of using, using, even with with additions, traits of of this this additions, traits tion, basis. kind, determines meaning on on a dzfferent The determines meaning" kind, different basis. present is about about like like this this: Metal of metal is Metal definition of present definition means any chemical element that enters into combinathat enters into combina element chemical any a base, tion with with oxygen so as as to to form a base, i.e. i.e. a a compound compound tion oxygen so a salt. acid to that combines with with an an acid to form a salt. This scithat combines sci not on directly entific definition is is founded, perceived entific definition founded, not directly perceived qualities nor on on directly useful properties, properties, but but on on the the qualities nor directly useful are related to way i1z which certain things are causally related to other in 'which othef certain way caitsally things things; it denotes relation. As chemical concepts a relation. chemical concepts i.e. it denotes a things ; i.e. of of inter interbecome more and more those those of relationships relationships of so physical action in constituting other physical con conin constituting other substances, action substances, so cepts express express more and more relations relations of of operation operation: cepts mathematical, expressing functions functions of of dependence as expressing mathematical, as dependence of differand order grouping; biological, relations of of grouping; relations differ order of biological, of entiation descent, effected adjustment entiation of of descent, effected through through adjustment of various environments; and so the sphere various environments of so on on through sphere of through the sciences. In short, the short, our attain a a maxithe sciences. our conceptions maxi conceptions attain of definite definite individuality individuality and of generality (or (or appli mum of of generality appli cability) in the degree to which they things in how the to which show degree things cability) they depend upon one one another another or ininfluence one another, or influence another, in depend upon that objects objects possess possess stead of expressing the qualities qualities that stead of expressing the statically. The ideal of a system of scientific concepideal of of scientific statically. concep system tions is attain continuity, tions is to to attain continuity, freedom, and flexibility flexibility of of freedom, and transition in in passing passing from from any fact and meaning to any transition to fact and meaning any any is met met in in the which we other; this demand is other this the degree in which degree in hold things things together together lay of the the dynamic dynamic ties that hold ties that lay hold of in a continuously a principle in continuously changing changing process process - a principle that that states insight into into mode of production or or growth. states insight of production growth.
: : ;

CHAPTER TEN CHAPTER

THINKING CONCRETE AND ABSTRACT THINKING
to proceed enjoined upon upon teachers, teachers, " "to proceed from THE maxim enjoined
False False

the concrete concrete to to the the abstract," abstract," the

is perhaps perhaps familiar familiar rather rather than comprehended. comprehended. Few who read read and hear it it gain gain a than clear conception conception of of the the starting-point, starting-point, the the concrete concrete; of of clear exact of the and the nature of the goal, the abstract; of the nature of the goal, the abstract nature of the path path to to be traversed traversed in in going going from one to to of the nature misun is the other. At times the injunction is positively misuntimes the injunction the other. positively derstood, being taken to to mean that education should derstood, being if any advance thought - as if to thought from things advance from dealing any dealing things to with things in which thinking is not involved could is in with things thinking en possibly be educative. So understood, the maxim enunderstood, possibly be educative. courages mechanical routine or sensuous excitation or routine courages mechanical lower the lowerscale at educational scale-the the educational of the end of at one one end at and academic and unapplied learning at the upper academic and upper unapplied learning end. end. Actually, all dealing child's, things, even the child's, dealing with things, Actually, all is things are clothed by in inferences; is immersed in inferences; things by the chal suggestions they arouse, and are significant as chalare and significant suggestions they arouse, to substantiate lenges to interpretation or as evidences to substantiate evidences or as to lenges interpretation in than inunnatural than a Nothing more unnatural could be be more a belief. belief. Nothing could struction without thought; in sense-percepin in things without struction in sense-percep thought; things if the the And if tions them. And based upon tions without without judgments upon them. judgments based denotes abstract denotes thought are to to proceed we are which we to which abstract to thought proceed and is formal formal and apart the goal recommended is from things, goal recommended things, the apart from
is
;

notions of concrete
and and abstract abstract

135

136

HOW WE THINK

and un understanding derstanding again again indirect indirect

Direct Direct

What is is
familiar familiar

is is

mente.lly mentally
concrete concrete

Practical Practical
things Me things we fami1i8lr familiar

empty, thought always refers, more or less effective thought or less for effective always refers, empty, for directly, to things. things. directly, to Yet the the maxim has has a meaning meaning which, which, understood understood and Yet and line of the states of of logical supplemented, states the line of development development logical supplemented, is this this signification? Concrete denotes capacity. What is denotes signification ? capacity. a off from other other meanings meanings so a meaning so definitely marked off meaning definitely that readily apprehended apprehended by by itself. itself. When we hear it is is readily that it hear table, chair, chaz"r, stove, stove, coat, not have have to to the words, the coat, we do not words, table, reflect to grasp is meant. meant. The terms order to in order reflect in terms grasp what is that no effort effort at so directly at translating translating convey meaning so directly that convey meaning of some terms meanings of terms and things, things, is is needed. needed. The meanings to first however, are only by first calling to more mind are grasped however, calling by grasped only out connections familiar things and then then tracing tracing out befamiliar things connections be not understand. understand. Roughly Roughly tween and what we do not tween them and is concrete; of meanings the former kind kind of the speaking, concrete the meanings is speaking, the latter latter abstract. abstract. at home in To one who is thoroughly at in physics physics and is thoroughly and of atom and molecule are the notions notions of are fairly chemistry, chemistry, the fairly are constantly concrete. They constantly used used without without involving involving concrete. They are labor of in apprehending they mean. mean. any thought in of thought apprehending what they any labor But the the layman layman and the the beginner in science science have have first first to to beginner in of things things with they already already remind themselves themselves of with which they remind are well acquainted, acquainted, and and go go through through a a process process of of slow are well slow molecule losing, losing, more moretranslation; the the terms terms atom and molecule translation their hard-won over, hard-won meaning meaning only only too too easily easily if if familiar familiar over, their and things, the line line of to the of transition the transition from them to the things, strange, out of of mind. mind. The same difference difference is is strange, drop drop out illustrated terms coefficient illustrated by by any any technical technical terms: coejjicz'ent and exponent exponent in algebra, in triangle and square square in in their their geometric geometric as as algebra, triangle distinct from their and value distinct their popular popular meanings meanings; capz"tal and value capital as used in political as used in political economy, economy, and and so on. so on. The difference is purely purely relative relative to to the the difference as as noted noted is intellectual intellectual progress progress of of an what is abstract an individual; individual what is abstract
;

CONCRETE AND ABSTRACT THINKING

;

137 137

of growth at another; at growth is is concrete concrete at or even even at one period another or period of finds that as one finds the contrary, that things to be be the things supposed contrary, as supposed to familiar involve factors and unsolved thoroughly familiar involve strange unsolved strange factors thoroughly

There is, is, nevertheless, nevertheless, a line of of a general general line the what the things cleavage which, deciding upon whole which, deciding upon cleavage things fall within the limits limits of of familiar what familiar acquaintance fall within acquaintance and what the off without, marks off the concrete and the abstract in a concrete the abstract in without, limits way. These lmits are fixed mainly by more permanent permanent way. fixed mainly by the demands of practz"cal life. Things such as sticks as sticks the of practical life. Things stones, meat and potatoes, potatoes, houses and trees, trees, are and stones, are such constant of the the environment of features of constant features of which we such in order order to that their to take take account in to live, their imim have to live, that are portant meanings are soon learnt, and indissolubly learnt, portant meanings indissolubly associated objects. We are are acquainted with a with objects. associated with acquainted with it familiar when to we so much thing (or it is familiar to us) have so to is to thing (or us) its strange do with with it that its and unexpected corners are it that corners are do strange unexpected rubbed off. The necessities necessities of consocial intercourse intercourse con of social off. rubbed like such terms vey to to adults a like concreteness terms as as concreteness upon adults a upon vey the law, so on. tazes, wages, the law, and so on. Things Things the the taxes elections, elections, wages, I personally meaning of personally do not not take take in in directly, directly, of which I meaning for appliances of cook, carpenter, or weaver, for example, or of weaver, cook, example, carpenter, appliances are nevertheless nevertheless unhesitatingly unhesitatingly classed as concrete, concrete, classed as are our common they are directly connected with our since connected are so since they so^ directly social life. social life. or that By contrast, abstract is that Thetheois the the theoretical, the abstract The theocontrast, the theoretical, or By retical, or r concerns. not intimately a~sociated with practical concerns. The with not practical intimately associated ?*, strictly ^^' inis someas he abstract (the man of pure science is tellectual, science as of pure thinker (the abstract thinker teliectual, is abstract w atetract in times called) deliberately abstracts abstracts from application application in times called) deliberately of account. account. life; is, he leaves leaves practical practical uses uses out out of that is, life; that statement. What This, however, however, is is a a merely merely negative negative statement. This, remains when connections connections with with use and application application are remains with knowing what lias do excluded? Evidently only !zas to do knowing to excluded ? Evidently only considered end in itself. Many Many notions of science science as an end in itself. notions of considered as
>
&

problems. problems.

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WE THINK HOW WE

Contempt Contempt
for for theory theory

But But theory theory

is

is highly highly

practical practical

cannot be be understood are not only are abstract, understood abstract, not they cannot only because they in the the science a long science (which without without a is long apprenticeship apprenticeship in (which is matters the in technical equally true of technical matters in the arts), but also true of but also equally arts), of their their meaning content of because the whole content because the has been been meaning has sole purpose of of facilitating further knowlframed the sole framed for for the further knowl purpose facilitating edge, When thinking is used used speculation. edge, inquiry, inquiry, and speculation. thinking is or value good, or vallie beyond itself, as as a means to to some md, it is is end, good, "beyond itself it is it as it is employed simply as a means concrete; when means to to concrete; employed simply it is is abstract. a theorist more thinkilzg, To a abstract. theorist an an idea idea is is thinking, it it engages and adequate self-contained just because it just because adequate and self-contained engages and a medical medical practitioner, to a rewards rewards thought; practitioner, an engineer, thought to engineer, it is a merchant, a politician, is complete an artist, merchant, a artist, a politician, it complete only only in the when employed the furthering of some interest interest in in furthering of employed in life wealth, beauty, goodness, success, or what life - health, or what success, health, wealth, beauty, goodness, will. you you will. For the the great majority of of men under under ordinary ordinary circir great majority cumstances, the practical exigencies of life the are almost, cumstances, practical exigencies of life are almost, not quite, if quite, coercive. Their main business business is the if not Their main coercive. is the .of their their affairs. Whatever is is of of signifiproper conduct conduct ,of affairs. Whatever proper signifi cance cance only only as as affording affording scope for thinking thinking is is pallid pallid and and scope for remote - almost almost artificial. artificial. Hence the the contempt contempt felt felt by by remote the "mere the practical practical and successful successful executive executive for for the the "mere theorist"; hence hence his his conviction conviction that that certain certain things things may may theorist"; be do in in be all all very very well well in in theory, theory, but but that that they they will will not not do in the practice; in general, the depreciatory way in which he in which he practice; general, depreciatory way theoretcal, and and intellectual i1ztellectualuses the the terms terms abstract, abstract, theoretical, uses as distinct intellz'gent. as distinct from from intelligent. This This attitude attitude is is justified, justified, of of course, course, under under certain certain con conditions. of theory theory does does not not contain contain ditions. But But depreciation depreciation of the the whole truth, truth, as as common or or practical practical sense sense recog recognizes. nizes. There There is is such such a a thing, thing, even even from from the the commoncommonsense as being being "too "too practical/' practical," as as being being so so sense standpoint, standpoint, as intent intent upon upon the the immediately immediately practical practical as as not not to to see see
\
;

CONCRETE AND AND ABSTRACT ABSTRACT THINKING THINKING CONCRETE

139 139

beyond the the end end of of one's one's nose nose or or as as to to cut cut off off the the limb limb beyond is sitting. sitting. The The question question is is one one of of upon which which one one is upon limits, of of degrees degrees and and adjustments, adjustments, rather rather than than one one of of limits, absolute separation. separation. absolute Truly practical practical Truly
men men give give their their
;

minds free free play play about about a a subject subject without without asking asking too too minds to be at every point for the advantage to be gained; closely the for at gained advantage every point closely exclusive preoccupation preoccupation with with matters matters of of use use and and appli appliexclusive to de run cation so narrows the horizon as in the long to dein the as the horizon so narrows cation long feat itself. itself. feat requires requires
It does does not not It

pay to to tether tether one's one's thoughts thoughts to to pay

Power in in action action

the post post of of use use with with too too short short a a rope. rope. the

imaginativeness of of vision. vision. largeness and imaginativeness some largeness

must at at least least have have enough enough interest interest in in thinking thinking for for Men must the sake sake of of thinking thinking to to escape escape the the limits limits of of routine routine and the custom. Interest Interest in in knowledge knowledge for for the the sake sake of of knowl knowlcustom. of edge, in thinking for the sake of the free play of thought, the free for the of sake in thought, play thinking edge, of practical then to the emancipation practical life life is necessary necessary then to the is emancipation of make it and progressive. rich and it rich progressive. of going We may now recur to the the pedagogic recur to going pedagogic maxim of may the concrete to the abstract. from from the concrete to the abstract to Begin with I. denotes thinking concrete denotes the concrete i. Since Since the Begin with applied to thinking applied n cr the concrete activities of dealing the sake for the sake of activities for effectively with the means dealing effectively s begin b e g^ " difficulties themselves practically, "beginwith practithemselves practithat present difficulties that beginpractically, present calmanipu" ning that we should at the the concrete" concrete signifies with the signifies that ning with lations outset of doing; outset make much of especially, make much in doing ; especially, occupations that are not of a routine a routine and mechanical of are not that occupations and adaptaselection and kind and hence require intelligent and hence kind adapta require intelligent selection " follow not tion of means and materials. We do not" follow the We do materials. tion of means and " or sensations or mere sensations order we multiply of nature" nature when we order of multiply mere number is in accumulate Instruction Instruction in number is accumulate physical objects. physical objects. are dots are or dots or beans beans or not because splints not concrete concrete merely splints or merely because number of number employed, while whenever the use and bearing of and the use whenever while bearing employed, is concon idea number relations perceived, the number idea is the are clearly relations are clearly perceived, of sort of what crete alone are used. Just what sort used. are alone even if if figures crete even Just figures to to

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HOW WE THINK

symbol it it is is best best to to use use at at a a given given time - whether blocks, blocks, symbol - is is entirely entirely a a matter matter of of adjustment adjustment in used If given case. If physical things in teaching case. physical things teaching given number or or geography geography or or anything anything else else do not not leave leave the the number mind illuminated illuminated with with recognition recognition of of a a meaning meaning beyond beyond mind themselves, the the instruction instruction that that uses uses them is is as as abstract abstract themselves, as that that which which doles doles out out ready-made ready-made definitions definitions and rules rules; as for it it distracts distracts attention attention from ideas ideas to to mere physical physical for excitations. excitations. conception that that we have only only to to put put before before the the The conception senses particular particular physical physical objects objects in in order order to to impress impress senses certain ideas ideas upon upon the the mind amounts almost almost to to a a supersupercertain stition. introduction of of object object lessons lessons and sensesensestition. The introduction training scored a distinct advance over the prior method a advance over the scored distinct method prior training of linguistic symbols, symbols, and this this advance advance tended tended to to blind blind of linguistic a had educators to the the fact fact that that only a halfway step been been educators to only halfway step develop the the child, child, indeed, indeed, taken. Things Things and sensations taken. sensations develop but because he uses uses them in in mastering his body body and but only mastering his only because in the the scheme of of his his activities. activities. Appropriate Appropriate contincontin in uous occupations or activities involve involve the use use of of natural natural uous occupations or activities it in in a a way materials, tools, way of energy, materials, tools, modes of energy, and do it to that thinking as to what they mean, they that compels as how mean, compels thinking they they to the the realization are realization of ends; are related to one another another and to of ends related to while remains of things the mere isolated while the isolated presentation presentation of things remains barren ago the great the dead. ob barren and dead. A few generations generations ago great obstacle in in the the way of primary education was stacle way of reform of primary education wa3 of reform of the the symbols of lanlan belief in the the almost belief in almost magical magical efficacy efficacy of symbols of guage (including number) to produce mental training; to produce training guage (including number) in the as objects, at just as at present, the efficacy of objects belief in objects, objects just present, belief efficacy of better is blocks is blocks the the way. happens, the better way. As frequently frequently happens, an enemy of the best. of the best. enemy in results, 2. 2. The interest successful carrying interest in in the the successful results, in carrying on ac ^v ^y should of transferred to o an activity, should be gradually to study transferred study gradually to the the to
; ;

or lines, lines, or or figures figures or

Conr.Jsion Confusion
of the concrete with ereteVith" the sensibly sensibly the

isolated isolated

Trusfer of Transfer of
interest to interest to

CONCRETE AND AND ABSTRACT ABSTRACT THINKING THINKING CONCRETE

141 141

intellectual - their their properties, properties, consequences, consequences, structures, structures, intellectual matte1:S causes, and and effects. effects. The The adult adult when when at at work work in in his his life life matters causes, rarely free free to to devote devote time time or or energy energy - beyond beyond calling is is rarely calling the necessities necessities of of his his immediate immediate action action - to to the the study study of of the what he he deals deals with. with. (Ante, (Ante, p. p. 43.) 43.) The The educative educative activ activwhat ities of of childhood childhood should should be be so so arranged arranged that that direct direct ities a demand in the activity and its outcome create a demand interest create and outcome its in the interest activity for attention attention to to matters matters that that have have a a more and and more more in infor the and remote connection with the original activity. direct remote connection with direct original activity. direct interest interest in in carpentering carpentering or or shop shop work should should The direct in an interest and gradually interest in geometric yield organically and geometric gradually organically yield and mechanical mechanical problems. problems. The interest interest in in cooking cooking and should grow grow into into an an interest interest in in chemical chemical experimentation experimentation should and in in the the physiology physiology and hygiene hygiene of of bodily bodily growth. growth. and making of of pictures pictures should should pass pass to to an interest interest in in the The making aesthetics of technique of representation the ::esthetics of appreciand the of appreci representation technique This development is is what the the term ation, This development and so on. so on. ation, and to the go signifies in the maxim "go "go from the concrete to signifies in the go " educative and abstract"; it truly the dynamic it represents abstract truly educative dynamic represents the factor the process. of the factor of process. is to to Develop3. The outcome, to which education is abstract to the abstract Deveiopoutcome, the 3. ment of an interest in intellectual proceed, is intellectual matters for their in an interest is proceed, delight in JJ^f^ the activity of thinking. activity own sake, for the sake of in thinking a delight thinking, the sake, a thinking for delight in * of thinking mg It acts and processes that acts an old It is is an old story processes which at the story that else develop outset to something incidental to are incidental outset are develop and something else it is is with maintain an absorbing value of their own. So it their value of an maintain absorbing re to reincidental thinking and with knowledge; at first incidental to first at thinking and with knowledge attract and adjustments beyond themselves, they attract sults sults and adjustments beyond themselves, they become till they more themselves till to themselves attention to and more more attention more and they become Children ends, Children engage, means. not means. unconstrainedly engage, unconstrainedly ends, not for and testing and in reflective inspection and in reflective and continually, testing for inspection continually, in doing the are interested in successfully. interested are what they of what the sake sake of successfully. doing they in volume volume increase in Habits thus generated of thinking Habits of may increase generatedmay thinkingthus
;
;

of objects objects of

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HOW WE THINK

Examples Examples
of of the the transition transition

Theoretical Theoretical knowledge knowledge never the the whole end

and extent till they they become of of importance importance on their their own extent till account. account. cited in instances cited in Chapter Chapter Six represented represented three instances The three an ascending cycle from the the practical practical to to the the theoretical. theoretical. ascending cycle Taking thought to keep keep a personal engagement is is obob personal engagement thought to Taking kind. viously of the concrete concrete kind. Endeavoring to work out of the out Endeavoring to viously the meaning meaning of part of of a a boat boat is is an instance of a certain certain part of a instance of the an intermediate intermediate kind. kind. The reason for for the the existence existence and position of the the pole pole is is a practical practical reason, reason, so so that that to to the the position of architect problem was purely purely concrete - the the main mainthe problem architect the action. But for tenance a certain certain system of action. for the the pas pasof a tenance of system of was the senger the boat, the problem theoretical, on the more boat, theoretical, problem senger It made no difference to It to his his reachor less reach or less speculative. speculative. ing his destination he out the meaning whether worked out the his destination ing meaning of the the pole. pole. The third third case, that of of the appearance appearance and of case, that illustrates a the bubbles, bubbles, illustrates a strictly theoretiof the movement of strictly theoreti calor case. No overcoming physical ob obof physical abstract case. cal or abstract overcoming of of external stacles, to ends, is at external means to at ends, is stacles, no adjustment adjustment of stake. Curiosity, intellectual curiosity, curiosity, is is challenged challenged by stake. Curiosity, intellectual by occurrence and thinking a seemingly thinking tries tries seemingly anomalous occurrence; simply to account account for in terms terms of of for an apparent apparent exception exception in simply to recognized principles. principles. recognized (i) thinking, it be noted, noted, represents represents Abstract thinking, it should should be (Y) Abstract end, not not the end. The power power of thinking an end, the end. of sustained sustained thinking on matters remote from direct use is of direct use is an outgrowth outgrowth of practical and immediate modes of thought, but but not a not a of thought, practical substitute for them. them. The educational educational end is is not not the the de desubstitute for struction power to to think think so as to obstacles of power so as to surmount obstacles struction of and adjust ends; it is not its replacement and it its ends is not means adjust replacement by by abstract reflection. abstract reflection. Nor N or is is theoretical theoretical thinking thinking a a higher higher of thinking at type of thinking than than practical. person who has at A person practical type command both types types of is of a higher order of thinking is of thinking higher than he who possesses dein depossesses only Methods that that in one. only one.
;
;

CONCRETE AND ABSTRACT THINKING

143 143

veloping abstract abstract intellectual intellectual abilities abilities weaken habits habits of of veloping the practical or or concrete concrete thinking, thinking, fall fall as as much short short of of the practical
educational educational ideal ideal as as do do the the methods methods that that in in cultivating cultivating

ability to to plan, plan, to to invent, invent, to to arrange, arrange, to to forecast, forecast, fail fail to to ability
secure secure some delight delight in in thinking thinking irrespective irrespective of of practical practical
~onseq uences. consequences. that (z"i) Educators Educators should should also also note note the the very very great great indiindi- Nor that (if) most convidual vidual differences differences that that exist exist; they they should should not not try try to to force force ^aTt^t genial to the majority In many many (probably (probably majority one pattern pattern and model model upon upon all all. In one of pupils the majority) majority) the the executive executive tendency, tendency, the the habit habit of of mind pup the
;

that thinks thinks for purposes of of conduct conduct and achievement, achievement, for purposes that not for for the the sake of knowing, knowing, remains remains dominant dominant to to the the sake of not end. end. Engineers, lawyers, lawyers, doctors, doctors, merchants, merchants, are are Engineers,
much

than scholars, scientists, more numerous numerous in in adult adult life life than more scholars, scientists, and philosophers. philosophers. While While education education should should strive strive to to and however prominent their professional their make men who, who, professional prominent partake of of the the spirit of the the scholar, scholar, interests and aims, interests aims, partake spirit of no good appears why why philosopher, and scientist, reason appears scientist, no good reason philosopher, education the one mental habit habit inhe inheesteem the education should should esteem rently superior to the the other, try to to other, and deliberately deliberately try superior to rently transform the from practical to theoretical. Have theoretical. to the type transform from practical type onenot not our our schools schools (as p. 49) suggested, p. 49) been one(as already already suggested, of sidedly devoted to the abstract type of thinking, the more abstract to devoted thinking, type sidedly ? not thus doing the majority pupils? Has not of pupils to the thus doing injustice majority of injustice to " " education tended the idea and" tended humane " education and " humane" the idea of of a a "liberal" liberal be too of technical, the production in practice to the too often often in technical, beproduction of practice to cause thinkers cause overspecialized, overspecialized, thinkers? The aim to secure secure a balanced aim of should be to of education education should interaction of mental attitude, of the the two types interaction of attitude, having having types of individual not the individual sufficient the disposition of the to the sufficient regard regard to disposition of to to hamper naturally powers are naturally cripple whatever powers hamper and cripple of strong individuals The narrowness of individuals of strong in him. of narrowness in him. strong strong concrete Every opporto be be liberalized. liberalized. needs to bent needs concrete bent Every oppor?

of Aim of education is ^worki^ a working balance

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HOW THINK HOW WE WE THINK

Violence is is not done to to

tunity that occurs -within within their practical practical activities activities for for tunity developing curiosity and susceptibility susceptibility to intellectual intellectual developing curiosity problems should be seized. problems is broadened. As renatural disposition, re disposition, but the latter is number who have a gards the smaller of those taste a taste gards for abstract, purely intellectual topics, pains should be abstract, purely topics, pains multiply opportunities opportunities and demands for the taken to multiply for the ideas ; for translating application of ideas; translating symbolic truths into into application symbolic truths its ends. life and its Every being terms of social life Every human being and every will be more has both capabilities, capabilities, every individual will effective and happier if both powers are developed in happier if developed in with interaction easy and close each other. easy

CHAPTER ELEVEN
EMPIRICAL AND SCIENTIFIC THINKING

I. I ,Empirical Thinking Empirical Thinking

Apart from the the development development of of scientific scientific method, method, Apart inferences depend upon habits that been built up up habits that have built inferences depend upon the influence influence of of a a number of of particular particular experiexperiunder the ences not not themselves themselves arranged arranged for logical purposes. purposes. for logical ences " It will says, "It will probably probably rain rain to-morrow." to-morrow." B Basks, A says, asks, " " Because the " ? A "Why you think so ?" replies, " the and do so think replies, Why you sky lowering at sunset." Basks, "What has at When B was sunset." asks, lowering sky " " that to to do with it?" responds, "I know, but it ? A responds, I do not know, that it generally generally does does rain rain after after such a a sunset." He does does not not it sunset." the of perceive any connection the appearance of the the connection between appearance perceive any sky and coming rain; is not of any continuity aware of rain he is not any continuity coming sky in the facts or principle, in the facts themselves themselves - any principle, as we any law or con usually say. He simply, recurring confrequently recurring simply, from frequently usually say. so junctions of the events, associated them so that has associated of the events, junctions other. One suggests thinks of of the other. when he sees sees one he thinks suggests A the or is associated it. A man may believe with it. the other, is associated or other, may believe it because he has consulted the ba bait will rain to-morrow because will rain rometer; but if he has no conception how the height has if but he rometer; height of conception an the column (or the position of :;tn index moved of the the mercury position (or mercury at of atvariations by its rise and fall) is connected with variations of is its rise by fall) in turn mospheric pressure, and how these in tum are connected mospheric pressure, in the his belief belief in with the amount of in the air, moisture in with the of moisture air, his likelihood empirical. When men lived is purely likelihood of of rain rain is empirical. purely in and got their living by hunting. fishing, or their in the the open hunting, fishing, living by open got
;

Empirical Empirical thinking depends on past habits habits past

145 H5

146

HOW HOW WE WE THINK THINK

is fairly It is It fairly adequate adequate in

some

matters.

the detection pasturing detection of of the the signs and indicaindica flocks, the pasturing flocks, signs and tions of weather changes was was a matter of great importions a matter of changes great impor A body of proverbs tance. A proverbs and maxims, maxims, forming body of forming an section of traditionary extensive section folklore, was developed. traditionary folklore, developed. But as as long as or how long as there was no understanding understanding why why or certain events were signs, as long as foresight signs, as long as foresight and weather shrewdness rested rested simply con upon repeated repeated consimply upon junction beliefs about about the the weather weather were facts, beliefs junction among among facts, thoroughly thoroughly empirical. empirical. In similar fashion learned men in in the the Orient learned Orient learned to predict, the recurrent to with considerable accuracy, considerable the recurrent predict, accuracy, of the planets, positions the moon, to positions of planets, the sun and the moon, and to foretell the time of of eclipses, foretell without understanding in eclipses, without understanding in any heavenly laws of of the the movements of of heavenly any degree degree the laws bodies that is, bodies-that the conwithout having notion of of the con is, without having a notion tinuities themselves. They tinuities existing the facts facts themselves. existing among among the They had learned from repeated repeated observations that things things hap hapobservations that pened in in about such such and such such a a fashion. fashion. Till Till a a compara comparapened recent time, time, the the truths truths of of medicine medicine were were mainly mainly in in tively recent tively " upon the the same condition. condition. Experience Experience had shown shown that that" upon the whole/' whole," "as a a rule," rule," "generally "generally or or usually usually speak speaking," certain certain results results followed followed certain certain remedies, remedies, when ing," symptoms were given. given. Our beliefs beliefs about about human na nasymptoms ture ture in in individuals individuals (psychology) (psychology) and in in masses masses (sociol (sociology) are are still still very very largely largely of of a a purely purely empirical empirical sort. sort. ogy) Even the the science science of of geometry, geometry, now frequently frequently reckoned reckoned a among the the Egyptians, Egyptians, a typical typical rational rational science, science, began, began, among as as an an accumulation accumulation of of recorded recorded observations observations about about methods methods of of approximate approximate mensuration mensuration of of land land surfaces surfaces; and and only only gradually gradually assumed, assumed, among among the the Greeks, Greeks, scien scientific tific form. form. The The disadvantages disadvantages of of purely purely empirical empirical thinking thinking are are obvious. obvious.
;

EMPIRICAL AND SCIENTIFIC THINKING

1. I.

147 147

but is is very While many very many empirical conclusions are, are, roughly roughly but empirical conclusions apt to lead to speaking, they are are exact to be be of of f while they exact enough correct while speaking, correct; enough to beHefs false se beliefs,
;

life while great help help in in practical practical life; while the presages presages of of a great weatherwise sailor or hunter may may be more accurate, accurate, weatherwise sailor or hunter
;

within certain restricted than those of a scien scienwithin a certain restricted range, range, than those of tist tist who relies wholly upon upon scientific relies wholly scientific observations observations and

and records records furnish the or crude crude material material of scientific knowlfurnish the raw or of scientific knowl yet the empirical empirical method affords way of of edge, yet affords no way edge, right and wrong wrong conclusions. discriminating conclusions. discriminating between right it is Hence it is responsible a multitude multitude of of false false beliefs. beliefs. for a responsible for The technical technical designation for one of of the the commonest designation for fallacies post hoc, propter hoc hoc; belief that befallacies is is post the belief that be hoc, ergo ; the ergo propter cause one thing after another, it because it comes comes because thing after another, of of the the other. N ow this this fallacy fallacy of of method is is the other. the anima:tanimat Now of ing principle of empirical conclusions, when correct even correct ing principle empirical conclusions, correctness being of the correctness being almost as matter of - the as much a matter luck as of method. potatoes should good should be good luck as of method. That potatoes the crescent sea planted only during the crescent moon, moon, that that near near the the sea planted only during born at at high tide and die low tide, tide, that that a people are are born die at at low people high tide is an omen of of danger, danger, that that bad luck luck follows follows the the comet is of a cracking a mirror, a patent patent medicine medicine cures that a cures a mirror, that cracking of disease - these thousand like are asdisease these and a a thousand notions are as like notions severated the basis basis of of empirical coincidence and severated on the coincidence empirical conjunction. Moreover, habits of of expectation beMoreover, habits conjunction. expectation and be lief are of repeated than by by a number of repeated lief are formed otherwise otherwise than similar cases. similar cases. 2. 2. The more numerous the the experienced experienced instances instances and the the closer closer the kept upon upon them, greater is the watch kept the greater is them, the the of constant conjunction the trustworthiness trustworthiness of conjunction as evidence of connection among the the things things themselves. Many of of connection among themselves. Many of our this our most important beliefs still have only this sort of sort of beliefs still have important only yet tell, tell, with with certainty, the neceswarrant. No one one can yet the warrant necescertainty,

tests tests; while, empirical observations observations indeed, empirical ; while, indeed,

and does does not enable us to cope with the the novel novel,

^^^

148

HOW HOW WE WE THINK THINK

sary of death death - which which are are empirically cause of old age or of of old age or sary cause empirically the most the But even all expectations. But even the most certain certain of of all the most most expectations. reliable beliefs fail fail when they confront the reliable of this this type when confront beliefs of the they type novel. Since novel. rest upon past uniformities, they are rest Since they upon past uniformities, they are they useless useless when when further further experience in any consider experience departs departs in any considerable measure from able from ancient ancient incident incident and and wonted wonted preceprece dent. Empirical dent. inference follows follows the the grooves ruts Empirical inference grooves and ruts that custom wears, that has no track track to to follow follow when the the wears, and has groove is this this aspect of the the groove disappears. disappears. So important important is aspect of that Clifford matter that Clifford found the the difference difference between ordiordi skill and scientific scientific thought nary right here. " Skill here. "Skill nary skill thought right a man to to deal deal with enables a with the the same circumstances circumstances that that he has met before, scientific thought enables him to deal scientific enables to deal before, thought different circumstances with different circumstances that that he has has never never met before." And he goes before." goes so to define so far far as as to define scientific scientific thinking as "the application of old experience to new thinking application of old experience to circumstances." circumstances." and and leads leads to to 3. not yet yet made the the acquaintance acquaintance of of the the most most 3. We have not laziness:d harmful feature feature of of the the empirical empirical method. method. Mental Mental in inpresump on, . I . . 'fiabl e conservatism, . . pro b a ble ertia, azmess, unjustifiable unJusti are its Its ertia, laziness, conservatism, are probable Its general general effect effect upon upon mental mental attitude attitude accompaniments. Its accompaniments. is is more serious serious than than even even the the specific specific wrong wrong conclusions conclusions in in which it it has landed. landed. Wherever the the chief chief dependence dependence in in forming forming inferences inferences is is upon upon the the conjunctions conjunctions observed observed in in past past experience, experience, failures failures to to agree agree with with the the usual usual order order are are slurred slurred over, over, cases cases of of successful successful confirmation confirmation are are Since exaggerated. Since the the mind mind naturally naturally demands demands some some exaggerated. principle of of continuity, continuity, some some connecting connecting link link between between principle separate facts facts and and causes, causes, forces forces are are arbitrarily arbitrarily invented invented separate for for that that purpose. purpose, Fantastic Fantastic and and mythological mythological explana explanations are resorted resorted to to in in order order to to supply supply missing missing links. links, tions are The The pump pump brings brings water water because because nature nature abhors abbors a a vacuum vacuum; opium opium makes makes men men sleep sleep because because it it has bas a a dormidormi;

EMPIRICAL AND SCIENTIFIC THINKING

tive tive
;

149 149

" " hidden essences" first stage first of empiricism; while" essences and stage of empiricism while " " forces mark its " occult occult forces" its second second stage. By their veryvery stage. By their " " these causes nature, these" causes" escape observation, so that their so that their nature, escape observation, explanatory neither confirmed nor refuted refuted explanatory value can be neither by further further observation observation or or experience. experience. Hence belief belief in in by them becomes purely purely traditionary. traditionary. They They give give rise rise to to doctrines which, inculcated and handed down, doctrines which, inculcated down, become dogmas; inquiry and reflection are reflection are actually dogmas subsequent subsequent inquiry actually stifled. p. 23.) stifled. (A1zte, (Ante, p. 23.) Certain men or or classes classes of to be the of men come to the accepted accepted guardians and transmitters -instructorsof established transmitters instructors of established guardians doctrines. question the the beliefs beliefs is is to their doctrines. To question to question question their authority; the beliefs beliefs is is evidence of loyalty loyalty to to to accept evidence of accept the authority to the powers powers that that be, be, a proof proof of of good good citizenship. Pasthe Pas citizenship. primal intellec intellecsivity, docility, to be primal sivity, acquiescence, come to docility, acquiescence, tual tual virtues. virtues. Facts Facts and events events presenting presenting novelty novelty and till they fit are slighted, variety are or are are sheared sheared down till slighted, or variety they fit the Procrustean Procrustean bed of habitual belief. belief. Inquiry Inquiry into the into of habitual doubt are by citation ancient laws laws or or a and doubt are silenced silenced by citation of of ancient of miscellaneous unsifted cases. cases. This multitude of multitude miscellaneous and unsifted attitude change, and the the attitude of of mind generates dislike of of change, generates dislike What resulting aversion to novelty is fatal to progress. aversion to to is fatal progress. resulting novelty will not not fit into the the established established canons canons is is outlawed outlawed; men will fit into are objects who make new discoveries of suspicion discoveries are suspicion and objects of even of persecution. Beliefs Beliefs that that perhaps perhaps originally originally of persecution. even obser the products of fairly extensive and careful carefulobserwere the products of fairly extensive are stereotyped fixed traditions vation are into fixed traditions and semisemivation stereotyped into and sacred accepted simply upon authority, sacred dogmas dogmas accepted upon authority, simply are with fantastic fantastic conceptions that happen to that are mixed with conceptions happen to have won the of authorities. of the acceptance authorities. have acceptance
;
;

potency; we recollect recollect a past past event because we have have event because potency a of memory. a faculty In the history of the progress the the of of faculty of memory. history progress of human knowledge, knowledge, out out and out accompany the out myths the myths accompany

and to to d dogmatism smatism

_

ISO

HOW WE
SCentijic Scientific
Method

THINK

2. 2.

Scientific Scientific In contrast contrast with with the the empirical empirical method stands stands the In thinklng thinking con the method scientific. Scientific replaces the repeated scientific. Scientific repeated conreplaces analyzes the analyzes present case facts of by discovery discovery of junction or of separate or coincidence coincidence of present separate facts by junction

a single comprehensive fact, effecting this this replacement replacement fact, effecting single comprehensive into by the coarse coarse or gross gross facts facts of observatz"on into of observation up the by breaking breaking lip to processes not not directly dz"rectly accessible accessible to a number of minuter processes of mz"nuter perceptz"on. perception. If a layman IDustration If layman were asked why rises from the Illustration why water rises from suction, he would cistern when an ordinary is cistern pump is worked, worked, ordinary pump of empirical " method, doubtless "By suction." Suction is regarded doubtless answer, is suction." Suction method, answer, regarded By is a as force like heat or or pressure. If such a person like heat as a force If person is pressure. confronted by the the fact that water water rises rises with with a a suction suction fact that confronted by pump only thirty-three feet, feet, he easily disposes of of pump only about thirty-three easily disposes in their the that all the the ground that all forces vary in their the difficulty on forces ground vary difficulty intensities and finally finally reach reach a limit limit at at which they they cease intensities The variation to variation with elevation the elevation above the to operate. operate. of the sea level of the height height to to which water water can can be be pumped pumped sea level is unnoticed, or, or, if is dismissed as one of of is either either unnoticed, if noted, dismissed as noted, is the curious curious anomalies anomalies in abounds. the in which nature nature abounds. of scientific scientific Now the scientist scientist advances advances by by assuming assuming that that what N ow the method seems ~eems to to be a single total fact is in in truth to observation observation to total truth fact is single complex. He attempts, therefore, to break up the to break therefore, complex. attempts, up the fact of number of single fact of water-rising-in-the-pipe into a of into single water-rising-in-the-pipe lesser facts. facts. His method of lesser proceeding is by varying varying of proceeding is by conditions condz"tz"ons one by by one 01Z& so so far as possible, possible, and noting noting just just far as what happens happens when a given condition is eliminated. eliminated. condition is given l are two methods for There are conditions. 1 The for varying varying conditions. Relies on Relies is an first extension first is extension of of the of observa observathe empirical empirical method of differences, differences, tion. It consists consists in in comparing carefully the the results results tion. It comparing very very carefully of a great great number of of observations occurred observations which have occurred

!to:n:;;::-

1 1

in a different what we have already different context. context already noted in

The next two paragraphs paragraphs repeat, repeat, for for purposes purposes of of the the present present discussion, discussion, See p. p. 88 99See 88 and p. p. 99.

EMPIRICAL AND SCIENTIFIC THINKING

15 1 151

under accidentally conditions. The difference difference different conditions. accidentally different in rise of of the in the the rise the water water at at different different heights heights above above the the
sea cessation when the sea level, level, and its its total total cessation the distance distance to to be be lifted is, lifted at sea level, than thirty-three thirty-three feet, is, even at level, more than feet, slurred over. are emphasized, instead of being being slurred over. The emphasized, instead is to purpose is to find out what special speCal conditz"ons are present present find out conditions are purpose when the occurs and absent when it fails to to effect occurs the effect it fails occur. occur. These special conditions are then substituted conditions then substituted special for or regarded as its for the the gross regarded as principle - the the its principle fact, or gross fact, it. key to to understanding understanding it. key The method of of analysis by comparing comparing cases cases is, is, howanalysis by badly handicapped handicapped; it it can do nothing nothing until until it it is is ever, badly ever, presented with a certain of diversified cases. certain number of diversified cases. presented And even when different different cases cases are at hand, it it will will be be at hand, in questionable whether they vary in just these respects these in respects in just questionable they vary which it it is is important important that that they they should should vary in order to in order to vary throw light the at issue. upon the question is light upon question at issue. The method is external accidents. upon external accidents. Hence passive and dependent dependent upon passive the active or the superiority superiority of of the the active or experimental method. experimental method. an Even a small small number of observations may of observations may suggest suggest an explanation - a hypothesis or theory. theory. Working upon explanation hypothesis or Working upon this this suggestion, scientist may may then then -intentionally suggestion, the scientist intentionally what If the vary conditions and note happens. the empir empirconditions note happens. If vary suggested to to him the the possibility possibility ical observations have suggested ical observations air pressure of a connection pressure on the the water water and of a connection between air in the the rising rising of the tube tube where air air pressure pressure is is the of the the water in air deliberately empties the air out of the vessel absent, the he out of the vessel absent, deliberately empties in is contained and notes that suction in which the the water is notes that suction or he intentionally increases atmos atmosno longer works or longer works; intentionally increases pheric pressure pressure on the water and notes the result. result. He the water notes the pheric institutes to calculate calculate the the weight air at at of air institutes experiments weight of experiments to at various levels above, the sea level various levels level and at the above, and compares compares the results results of reasoning based based upon upon the pressure pressure of of air air of reasoning the
;

and crea1es creates

diffewnces difierences

152

WE THINK HOW WE

4na1ys!s Analysis

andsynthe,is again again

basis servations formed by variation of conditz"ons on on the the basis nervations formed of conditions by variation idea or constitute experiment. of some idea or theory theory constitute Experiment Experiment of experiment. it is in scientific scientific reasoning the chief resource in reasoning because it is the chief resource in elements facilitates the picking picking out of significant elements in a facilitates the out of significant gross, vague whole. whole. gross, vague reasoning, is is thus Experimental thinking, or thus or scientific scientific reasoning, Experimental thinking, and synthesis, in less analysis a?zd synthesis, or, in less a cottjohit conjoint process process of of analysis or, technical of discrimination discrimination and assimilation assimilation technical language, language, of fact of of water or identification. identification. The gross water rising rising when or gross fact the suction valve the suction valve is is worked is is resolved or discriminated discriminated resolved or into of independent independent variables, variables, some of of which into a a number of had never never before before been been observed or even thought thought of of in in observed or connection with the the fact. these facts, connection with fact. of these One of facts, the weight of of the atmosphere, is then selectively selectively seized upon the atmosphere, is then seized upon weight as the key entire to the entire phenomenon. This disentanas to the disentan phenomenon. key constitutes analysis. But atmosphere presgling its pres gling constitutes analysis. atmosphere and its sure or a not sure or weight weight is confined to to this this single single fact not confined is a fact instance. It is It is a fact fact familiar or at at least instance. familiar or least discoverable discoverable as operative as in a a great great number of other events. In fixing of other events. operative in fixing this imperceptible upon as the the essence fact as minute fact essence upon this imperceptible and minute or key or to the the elevation elevation of water by by the pump, the the pumppumpof water the pump, key to fact has fact has thus thus been assimilated to a whole whole group of ordiassimilated to of ordi group facts which it nary facts from it was previously isolated. This isolated. This nary previously assimilation constitutes assimilation constitutes synthesis. syntheszs. Moreover, Moreover, the the fact fact of atmospheric pressure is itself a case of one of the is itself a of one case of the atmospheric pressure of all commonest of all facts facts - weight or gravitational force. weight or gravitational force. Conclusions that Conclusions that apply the common fact of weight weight to the fact of apply to are thus transferable transferable to to the the consideration consideration and interinter the relatz"vely case of pretation of the rare and exceptional of pretation of relatively rare exceptional case the suction of of water. water. The suction pump is is seen seen to to be be suction pump a case of the the same kind kind or or sort as the the siphon, the sort as siphon, the

of of water of these various weights weights upon upon a a certain these various certain volume of Ob* with observation. the results results actually actually obtained by observation. Ob. with the obtained by

EMPIRICAL AND SCIENTIFIC THINKING

153 153

of the balloon, barometer, multitude of of barometer, the rising balloon, and a multitude rising of at first first sight it has no connecother things connec things with which at sight it all This is is another instance of the synthetic tion at all. or synthetic or of scientific assimilative phase assimilative of scientific thinking. phase thinking. If we revert revert to to the advantages If scientific over over em. em advantages of scientific find that pirical thinking, we find that we now have the clue to the clue to pirical thinking, them. increased security, (a) factor of of cercer- Lessened Lessened (a) The increased security, the added factor is due to tainty proof, is bility or proof, to the the substitution substitution of the detailed of the detailed lia tainty or t o error of atmospheric and specific fact of for the the gross atmospheric pressure specific fact pressure for gross total and relatively and total miscellaneous fact fact of of suction. suction. relatively miscellaneous is complex, its complexity is The latter latter is is due to many to complex, and its complexity many unknown and unspecified factors factors; hence, any state hence, unspecified any stateit is is more or ment about it or less and likely less random, to be random, likely to variation defeated by any unforeseen variation of circumstances. of circumstances. by any Comparatively, the minute and detailed fact of of detailed fact least, the Comparatively^ at least, air pressure is a measurable and definite air pressure is one definite fact fact that with assurance. that can be picked picked out out and managed managed with assurance. analysis accounts accounts for for the added certainty, certainty, so so Ability AbilitytG (b) te (b) As analysis synthesis accounts for for ability ability to to cope the novel novel cope with the synthesis and variable. variable. Weight Weight is is a much commoner fact fact than than atmospheric weight, weight, and this this in in turn turn is is a much com comatmospheric moner fact of the fact than the the workings workings of the suction suction pump. pump. To be able able to to substitute substitute the the common and frequent frequent fact fact for is to for that that which is is relatively relatively rare rare and peculiar pecuIiaris to reduce reduce the seemingly seemingly novel novel and exceptional exceptional to to cases cases of of a a gen general and familiar familiar principle, principle, and thus thus to to bring bring them eral under control control for for interpretation interpretation and prediction. prediction. Think of Professor James James says says: " "Think of heat heat as as motion As Professor and whatever is is true true of of motion motion will will be true true of of heat heat; but but we have a hundred experiences experiences of of motion motion for for every every one of heat. heat. Think of of rays rays passing passing through through this this lens lens as as of bending toward toward the the perpendicular, perpendicular, and you you cases of of bending cases
;

::n=

154 154

WE THINK HOW WE

Interest in in Interest the the future future or in in or

progress progress

Physical Physical
versus 'Oersus

logical force force logical

lens the substitute the comparatively unfamiliar lens the very very substitute for for the comparatively unfamiliar in direction familiar notion of particular change change in direction of of a a particular familiar notion of a us countless line, notion every day brings us countless of which notion line, of brings every day 1 examples." examples." 1 (c) The change change of conservative reliance reliance of attitude attitude from conservative (c) in faith to upon the past, upon routine and custom, to faith in progroutine the custom, prog past, upon upon condi the intelligent regulation of existing condiress of the ress through existing intelligent regulation through the scientific of scientific method of tions, is, of course, the the reflex of the of course, reflex of tions, is, method experimentation. The empirical inevitably magempirical inevitably mag experimentation. influences of of the the past past; the experimental experimental method nifies the nifies the influences the possibilities of the the future. future. The throws into relief the into relief throws possibilities of " till there is a sufficient there is empirical sufficient empirical method says, says, " Wait till " "Pro cases;" the experimental says, "Proof cases the number of experimental method says, The former depends duce the the cases." depends upon upon nature's nature's cases." duce certain con accidentally happening to present us us with with certain conto present accidentally happening the latter deliberately junctions of circumstances; latter of circumstances deliberately and junctions the to intentionally endeavors to bring about the conjunction. endeavors bring conjunction. intentionally scientific By this the notion of progress secures scientific of secures method the notion this progress By warrant. warrant. Ordinary experience largely by by the the direct is controlled controlled largely direct experience is Ordinary is strength intensity of various occurrences. occurrences. What is of various strength and intensity bright, notice and is is given secures notice a concon sudden, loud, loud, secures given a bright, sudden, is dim, dim, feeble, continuous spicuous rating. What is feeble, and continuous spicuous rating. is regarded gets ignored, or or is regarded as as of of slight slight importance. gets ignored, importance. Customary to the the control thinking tends to control of of thinking experience tends Customary experience and by considerations of direct immediate strength rather direct of considerations strength rather by in than by by those those of of importance in the long run. run. than the Animals long importance without the power of forecast and planning planning must, must, upon of forecast without the power upon the whole, stimuli that are most urgent the whole, respond respond to to the the stimuli that are urgent at the moment, cease to to exist. exist. These stimuli stimuli lose at the or cease lose moment, or their direct direct urgency urgency and clamorous insistency insistency nothing of of their nothing when the the thinking power develops; yet thinking thinking thinking power develops; and yet
;

1 Psychology, vol. I II. p. p. 342. 342. Psychology* voL II.

EMPIRICAL AND AND SCIENTIFIC EMPIRICAL SCIENTIFIC THINKING THINKING

155 155

demands the the subordination subordination of of the demands the immediate immediate stimulus stimulus to to theremote remoteand anddistant. distant. The Thefeeble the minute feeble and and the the minute may may be of of much much greater be than the greater importance the glaring importance than and the the glaring and The latter be big. of a big. The latter may force that that is is already maybe signs signs of a force already the former former may exhausting exhausting itself; itself; the indicate the the beginmay indicate begin of a a process in which which the nings of nings the whole process in whole fortune fortune of of the the individual is is involved. involved. The The prime individual for scienfor scien prime necessity necessity tific thought is that the the thinker thinker be tific be freed thought is that freed from from the the tyrtyr of sense sense stimuli stimuli and and habit, anny anny of and this this emancipation habit, and emancipation is also also the the necessary condition of of progress. is necessary condition progress. Consider the the following quotation: Consider "When it it first following quotation "When first ococ- IDustration illustration from movcurred to to a a reflecting that curred mind that moving water had reflecting ?ommova ingwater moving water had a mgwater identical with human or property or brute property identical brute force, force, namely, namely, the property of the of setting other masses in in motion, property setting over motion, overinertia and and resistance,-when coming inertia when the the sight resistance, of the the sight of stream stream suggested through this this point point of of likeness likeness the the suggested through power of of the the animal, animal, - a new addition addition was was made made to to the class the class of of prime prime movers, movers, and when circumstances circumstances per permitted, for the the mitted, this this power power could could become a a substitute substitute for others. others. It It may may seem seem to to the the modern understanding, understanding, familiar water wheels wheels and and drifting drifting rafts, rafts, that that the the familiar with with water similarity here here was was an an extremely extremely obvious obvious one. one. But But if if similarity we we put put ourselves ourselves back back into into an an early early state state of of mind, mind, when when running water water affected affected the the mind mind by by its ts brilliancy, bnlHancy, its ts roar roar running and and irregular rregular devastation, devastaton, we we may may easily easily suppose suppose that that to this with animal to identify identify this with animal muscular muscular energy energy was was by by no no means means an an obvious obvious effort." effort."*1 If Ifwe we add add to to these these obvious obvious sensory sensory features features the the varivari- Value Valueof of abstraction ous social action and expectations expectationswhich which fix fix the the attiatti- abstr ous social customs customs and tude tude of of the the individual, individual, the the evil evilof of the the subjection subjection of of free free and and fertile fertile suggestion suggestion to to empirical empirical considerations considerations bebe:

Bain, 1 Bain,The TluSenses Sensesand and Intelkct,third thirdAmerican Americaned., ed.,1879, 1879, p. 492 (italics Intellect, p. 492 (italics not notin inoriginal) original).
.

156

HOW WE THINK

certain power power of of abstraction, abstraction, of of de de. certain a to habitual the away the habitual responses to a from responses away situation, was was required required before before men could could be be emancipated emancipated situation, to follow follow up up suggestions suggestions that that in in the the end end are are fruitful. fruitful. to Experience be short, the experience may interpreted either In the term Experience interpreted either short, experience may as inclusive atti the or with reference to the empirical or the experimental attithe witil to Deference experimental empirical of thought tude of of mind. mind. Experience Experience is is not a rigid rigid and closed closed tude thing; it it is is vital, vital, and hence growing. growing. When dominated thing by the past, by routine, it it is is often often opposed opposed and custom routine, by the past, by to the the reasonable, reasonable, the the thoughtful. thoughtful. But experience experience also also to includes the the reflection reflection that that sets sets us free free from the the limiting limiting includes influence of of sense, sense, appetite, appetite, and tradition. tradition. Experience Experience influence may welcome and assimilate assimilate all all that that the most exact and may penetrating thought thought discovers. discovers. Indeed, Indeed, the business of of penetrating education might might be defined defined as as just just such an emancipation emancipation education enlargement of of experience. experience. Education takes takes the and enlargement individual while while he is is relatively relatively plastic, plastic, before he has individual so indurated indurated by by isolated to be isolated experiences become so experiences as to rendered hopelessly hopelessly empirical empirical in in his his habit habit of of mind. The rendered is naive, attitude naIve, wondering, attitude of of childhood is experimental wondering, experimental; the world of Right is new. of man and nature is Right methods of education preserve and perfect thereby this attitude, education preserve attitude, and thereby perfect this individual the slow progress short-circuit progress of the for the individual short-circuit for race, race, eliminating eliminating the waste that comes from inert routine. comes clear. clear. comes liberate turning turning liberate
;

PART THREE: THE TRAINING OF

THOUGHT
CHAPTER TWELVE
ACTIVITY AND THE TRAINING OF THOUGHT

this chapter shall gather gather together together and amplify amplify IN this chapter we shall considerations that that have already already been advanced, advanced, in in vari variconsiderations ous passages passages of of the the preceding preceding pages, pages, concerning re" ous concerning the re

lation not to thought. shall follow, We shall action to of action lation of follow, though though not thought. exactness, the the order in the the unfold unfoldof development with exactness, order of development in ing being. ing human being.

I. i.

The Early Activity of Activity Early Stage Stage of

:

The sight calls out the question: a baby often calls of a question sight of baby often " "What do you thinking about? " By is thinking By the suppose he is you suppose in dedenature is unanswerable in the case, of the nature of case, the question question is tail; but, also by the nature of the case, we may be sure of tail case, but, also by may is about His primary chief interest. interest. a baby's about a problem is primary problem baby's chief a mastery of his body as a tool of securing comfortable and of as tool his of securing body mastery effective his surroundings, to his effective adjustments surroundings, physical physical and adjustments to sociaL The child child has to to learn learn to to do almost everything: social. everything to to balance the body, to reach, to handle, to hear, to see, reach, to handle, to hear, to see, to body, true that that if it it be true to so on. on. Even if to walk, to creep, walk, and so creep, to human beings have even more instinctive reactions than instinctive beings lower it is also true true that instinctive tendencies is also lower animals, animals, it are in men, in less perfect are much less men, and that most of them are perfect 157
;

i. I .

The

baby's problem deterMS mines his * thinking g

I 58

HOW WE WE THINK

the the body body

Mastery of of Mastery
is

is

an intellec intellec-

tualprobtual prob
lem \em

di of little of little use use till they are are intelligently till they intelligently combined and diafter a rected. shell will out of rected. A little little chick chick just just out of the the shell will after its beak few trials peck at grains of with its trials peck food with at and grasp of food grasp grains as well a as well as as at later time. This involves a complicated at any This involves time. later complicated any infant does the eye the head. coordination of the coordination of head. An infant eye and the not even begin begin to to reach reach definitely for things that the the not even for things that definitely till eye sees till he is several months old, even then is and even several old, eye sees learns several weeks' several weeks' practice practice is required before before he learns is required the the adjustment so as as neither neither to to overreach overreach nor nor to to underunderadjustment so reach. It It may true that may not not be literally that the the child child will will reach. literally true grasp for the the moon, moon, but but it is true that he he needs needs much it is true that grasp for tell whether whether an object object is is within within practice before he can tell practice before or not in re reach or not. The arm is out instinctively instinctively in reis thrust thrust out a to the eye, this tendency is sponse to a stimulus from stimulus the and this sponse tendency is eye, of the the origin of the ability to reach grasp exactly and to reach and origin grasp exactly ability final mastery but nevertheless nevertheless final requires ob obquickly; but quickly; mastery requires and serving selecting the successful movements, and the successful movements, serving selecting arranging view of an end. These of in view These operations of an end. arranging them in operations of conscious selection constitute thinking, consCous selection and arrangement arrangement constitute thinking, of a though of a rudimentary rudimentary type. type. though for Since mastery of of the the bodily bodily organs organs is is necessary necessary for Since mastery all later later developments, problems are are both both interestall interest such problems developments, such ing supplies a a very ing and important, important, and solving solving them supplies very The joy the child genuine training of thinking power. of child the genuine training thinking power. joy in learning learning to to use use his to translate shows in his limbs, translate what he limbs, to sees he handles, handles, to to connect with sights, sights, sees into into what he connect sounds sounds with taste touch, and the rapidity with and sights with taste which the with touch, sights rapidity intelligence grows in in the first year and a half of life the first a half of life (the intelligence grows (the year time time during during which which the the more fundamental problems problems of of are mastered), the use of of the organism organism are are sufficient sufficient evievi mastered), are that the development development of of physical physical control control is is not dence that not a physical but but an intellectual intellectual achievement. achievement. physical in the the early early months the the child child is is mainly mainly ocoe Although in Although

ACTIVITY AND THE TRAINING OF THOUGHT

159 159
2. Theprob* Theprob. 2. lem of social ^dLstment adjustment and inter interC01irse course

in learning to use cupied learning to use his his body body to to accommodate himhimcupied in comfortable way self to physical conditions in a comfortable way and to to use and social use things things skillfully effectively, yet social adjustadjusteffectively, yet skillfully are very In connection connection with with parents, parents, ments are very important. important. In ments of the nurse, brother, and sister, the child learns the signs child learns the nurse, brother, sister, signs of the of discomfort, of of hunger, hunger, of of removal removal of of the satisfaction satisfaction of discomfort, so on. approach light, color, on. of agreeable sound, and so color, sound, approach of agreeable light, His contact with physical physical things things is regulated by by persons, persons, is regulated His contact with persons as the most important important as the and he he soon soon distinguishes distinguishes persons to do. do. and interesting objects with with which he has has to the objects and all the of all interesting of of sounds Speech, accurate adaptation heard to to the the sounds heard the accurate adaptation of Speech, the of tongue tongue and lips, lips, is, the great great movements of however, the is, however, the instrument and with the developof social social adaptation; instrument of adaptation develop ment of in the the second year) of speech ment adapta speech (usually year) adapta(usually in with those those of of other tion of baby's activities to and with other the baby's activities to of the tion life. the His persons gives the keynote of mental life. His range of range persons gives keynote as he indefinitely widened as he of possible possible activities activities is of is indefinitely widened he to under as do, and as tries underwatches what other persons do, watches other persons tries to do what they they encourage to attempt. attempt. stand to do stand and to encourage him to set in The outline pattern of mental life in the the of mental life is is thus thus set outline pattern five years. years. Years, Years, centuries, first four first four or or five centuries, generations generations the develop of invention planning, may may have have gone to the developinvention and planning, of gone to adults performances and and occupations occupations of of the the adults the performances ment of of the activities are the Yet for their surrounding the child. for him their activities are child. surrounding are part of his natural environment; direct stimuli j they are his natural environment direct stimuli of part they on in physical terms terms that that appeal appeal to to his his they are in physical are carried carried on they of course, eye, touch. He cannot, course, appropriate cannot, of ear, and touch. appropriate eye, ear, their meaning meaning directly through his but they they his senses; their senses; but directly through furnish stimuli which he he responds, responds, so his atten attenthat his to which so that stimuli to furnish of materials a higher is focussed upon a higher order order of materials and of of tion is tion focussed upon which the it not for this process by the problems. Were it not for this process by problems. the stimuli stimuli that of one generation form the that achievements of one generation achievements direct the the activities of the the next, next, the of civilization of civilization the story activities of direct story
self to physical conditions in a
;

160 i6o laboriously to to laboriously

HOW WE

THINK

would be be writ writ in in water, water, and each generation generation would have
of out of make for for itself, if it it could, its way way out could, its itself, if savagery. savagery. is one see p. Imitation Imitation is one (though only one, p. 47) 47) of of the the one, see (though only of adults the activities activities of adults supply supply stimuli stimuli means by by which the so complex, so varied, so which are so varied, which so interesting, are so complex, and so interesting, so of a novel, as to occasion a rapid progress of thought. Mere occasion as to novel, thought rapid progress thinking; if imitation, however, would not not give rise to to thinking if imitation, however, give rise we could could learn learn like parrots by by simply copying the out like parrots the out simply copying think; nor nor ward acts acts of of others, never have have to to think should never others, we should mastered the the copied should know, after after we had mastered should we know, act, copied act, the thing of the what was the the meaning meaning of thing we had done. done. Ed Edpsychologists) have have often ucators (and ucators often assumed that that (and psychologists) acts reproduce the the behavior behavior of of others are acquired acts which reproduce others are acquired But merely by imitation. a child rarely learns by can imitation. child learns con merely by rarely by imitation and to that to say that his imitation is unconscious scious imitation; his imitation is uncon say to say is not scious is is to not from his his standpoint scious that it it is imitation standpoint imitation say that at all. all. the at The word, word, the the gesture, the act, the occupation the act, gesture, occupation of another, impulse already already active of falls in in line line with with some impulse active another, falls and suggests of expression, some suggests some satisfactory satisfactory mode of expression, some find fulfillment. end in in which it it may may find Having this fulfillment. this Having end of of his his own, own, the the child child then notes notes other persons, other persons, as he notes natural to get as natural events, events, to further suggestions suggestions get further as to to means of of its its realization. realization. He selects selects some of of the means he observes, observes, tries tries them on, on, finds them sucfinds them suc cessful or cessful or unsuccessful, unsuccessful, is weakened in his is confirmed confirmed or or weakened in his in their belief so continues their value, value, and so continues selecting, arrangbelief in selecting, arrang he can accomplish what what he ing, adapting, testing, testing, till till he can accomplish he ing, adapting, wishes. The wishes. onlooker then observe the resem resemonlooker may observe the may then blance act to blance of of this this act to some act of an an adult, adult, and and conclude conclude act of that it it was acquired that acquired by by imitation, while as as a a matter matter of of imitation, while fact it fact it was acquired acquired by by attention, selection, attention, observation, observation, selection, by results. results. Only experimentation, confirmation by experimentation, and confirmation Only
;

ad Social adSocial

justment justment
results results in

imitation imitation but is not but is not caused

by it it by

ACTIVITY AND THE TRAINING OF THOUGHT

161 161

because this this method is is employed employed is is there there intellectual intellectual discipline result. The presence presence of of discipline and an educative result. activities plays adult activities plays an enormous r61e r6le in in the the intellecintellec tual tual growth of the the child child because because they they add to natural to the the natural growth of stimuli stimuli of the world new stimuli stimuli which are exactly are more exactly to of adapted to the needs of a being, are richer, human which are adapted richer, being,
better better organized, organized,

more complex in range, range, permitting permitting complex in more flexible and flexible adaptations, calling out novel reactions. out novel reactions. adaptations, calling stimuli child these the But in in utilizing these stimuli the child follows the same follows the utilizing methods that he uses when he is is forced to think think in in order forced to order
to to master his his body. body.

and Allied AIled Forms of Activity of Activity When things things become signs, a reprerepre- Playindisigns, when they gain a piay indithey gain cates ate the sentative sentative capacity standing for play is as standing for other things, is **": capacity as things, play domination transformed from mere physical physical exuberance into into an an of of activity activity meanings activity involving a mental factor. factor. A little girl who by little girl activity involving or ideas had broken her doll doll was seen to to perform with the the leg leg perform with of washing, of the the doll the operations operations of washing, putting putting to to of doll all all the bed, and fondling, that she she had been accustomed to to per perbed, fondling, that with the the entire part stood for for the the whole whole; form with doll. The part entire doll. she reacted reacted not to the the stimulus stimulus sensibly sensibly present, present, but but to to she not to the meaning meaning suggested by the sense object. So chilthe chil the sense suggested by object. dren use use a stone for a table, table, leaves plates, acorns acorns stone for leaves for for plates, for cups. So they use their dolls, their trains, their use their their for dolls, trains, their cups. they blocks, their other toys. In manipulating them, they their other blocks, manipulating them, they toys. are living living not with with the the physical physical things, things, but but in the large large in the are world of meanings, natural natural and social, by these these of meanings, world social, evoked by things. So when children play horse, play store, play children store, horse, play play things. play house or making calls, they are subordinating subordinating the phys physor making house calls, they to the the ideally signified. In this this way, way, a a ically present ideally signified. present to ically store of of concepts world of a store of meanings, world (so fundamental concepts (so meanings, a to all all intellectual achievement), is built up. up. defined and built is defined to intellectual achievement),
2. 2.
!

Play, Work, Work, Play,

162 162

THINK HOW WE THINK

familiar thus become familiar Moreover, do meanings not only OrganizaMoreover, not meanings thus Organizaonly do tion of ideas acquaintances, but in are organized, but they organized, arranged arranged in they are involved in acquaintances, groups, in connected ways. to cohere cohere in play ways. A play play play groups, made to other. The most into each other. and a a story blend insensibly insensibly into story blend

The playful playful attitude attitude

all touch with the lose all fanciful children rarely fanciful plays of children rarely lose plays of of to mutual of various meanings various mutual fitness fitness and pertinency meanings to pertinency one another; observe some principles observe the " freest" freest plays another the" principles plays a beginning, of They unification. of coherence coherence and unification. They have a beginning, order run through middle, In games, rules of end. of order middle, and end. games, rules through into a connected various bind them into acts and bind connected various minor acts the competition, The rhythm, whole. whole. competition, and cooperarhythm, the coopera in most plays tion tion involved involved in also introduce introduce games also plays and games organization. There is, or is, then, then, nothing organization. nothing mysterious mysterious or in mystical in the discovery made by Plato and remade by the Plato remade mystical discovery by by Froebel the chief, the only, that play is the Froebel that almost the of chief, almost play is only, mode of education for the child child in years of of later later infancy. infancy. education for the in the the years Playjitbzess is is a more important consideration than than Playfulness important consideration a jj ie j f ormer s play. The former is an attitude of mind; the latter latter is is attitude of mind the pj ^ a outward a passing passing manifestation of of this this attitude. attitude. When manifestation things are are treated treated simply simply as vehicles of of suggestion, suggestion, as vehicles things what is is suggested suggested overrides overrides the the thing. thing. Hence the the playful attitude attitude is is one of of freedom. freedom. The person person is is playful not not bound to to the the physical physical traits traits of of things, things, nor nor does does he he care care whether a thing thing really really means (as (as we say) say) what what he he takes takes it it to to represent. represent. When the the child child plays plays horse horse with with a cars with with chairs, chairs, the the fact fact that that the the broom a broom and cars does not really really represent represent a a horse, horse, or or a a chair chair a a locomo locomodoes not is of no In order, order, then, then, that that playfulness playfulness tive, is of account. In account. tive, may not not terminate terminate in in arbitrary arbitrary fancifulness fancifulness and and in in build buildmay ing up up an imaginary imaginary world world alongside alongside the the world world of of ing actual actual things, things, it it is is necessary necessary that that the the play play attitude attitude should should gradually pass pass into into a a work attitude. attitude. gradually What is is work - work not not as as mere mere external external performperform.
J>
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ACTIVITY AND THE TRAINING OF THOUGHT

3 16 163
The work attitude is ^itute * interested lHt6r6StCu. in in means and ends andends

but as as attitude attitude of of mind? It ance, but ance, It signifies that the the signifies that is not not content longer person to accept and to act upon to person is and to act accept longer upon the meanings the but demands demands congrumeanings that things things suggest, suggest, but congruof meaning the things ity themselves. In ity of In the the meaning with the things themselves. natural course of growth, natural children come to find irresponchildren to find irrespon growth, sible make-believe plays sible too A fiction fiction is is too plays inadequate. inadequate. A a way to afford afford content. easy There not enough content. There is is not easy a way out to enough call forth satisfactory stimulus to call mental response. satisfactory mental response. When this point is reached, this ideas that that things must reached, the ideas point is things suggest suggest must to the things be applied to fitness. A to fitness. A applied to things with some regard regard small cart, a "real" cart, with "real" wheels, with "real" cart, resembling cart, resembling wheels, the mental mental demand better than tongue, and body, better than tongue, body, meets the believe that merely making believe that anything which comes to to merely making anything is a cart. cart. hand is Occasionally to take part in setting to take in a Occasionally part setting a "real** table with "real" dishes real" table brings more reward " dishes brings reward than forever to to make believe believe a flat flat stone is a a table table and stone is that that leaves leaves are dishes. The interest interest may center in dishes. still center in may still the the meanings, meanings, the things things may may be of importance only of importance as only as far the attitude is amplifying a certain certain meaning. meaning. So far the attitude is amplifying the a one of such of play. But the meaning is now of a character is of character meaning play. that that it it must find find appropriate appropriate embodiment in in actual actual things. things. The dictionary does not not permit permit us us to to call call such activities activities dictionary does work. Nevertheless, they represent represent a a genuine genuine passage passage Nevertheless, they of play play into work. For work (as (as a mental attitude, attitude, not not into work. of ade the as mere external external performance) performance) means interest interest in in the adeas of a meaning meaning (a (a suggestion, suggestion, purpose, purpose, quate embodiment of quate in objective objective form form through through the the use use of of appropriate appropriate ma maaim) in aim) terials and appliances. applz"ances. Such an attitude attitude takes takes advantage advantage terials of the the meanings meanings aroused aroused and built built up up in in free free play, play, but of controls their their development development by by seeing seeing to to it it that that they they are are ap apcontrols the observable with plied to things in ways consistent the observable to consistent in ways plied things structure of of the the things things themselves. themselves. structure
j

164
and in in pro processes cesses on account account of their their of
results results

WE THINK HOW WE

ConseConse quences of of quences

the the sharp sharp separation separation of play and of play

work

distinction between play The point point of this distinction play and work of this may be be cleared up by by comparing comparing it it with with a a more usual usual way way cleared up may In the difference. In play play activity, it is is said, said, the of difference. the of stating activity, it stating the sake in interest is the activity activity for its own sake; in work, work, it for its is in in the it is is interest in the product product or or result result in in which the the activity activity terminates. terminates. in the latter is Hence the former is is purely purely free, while the the latter is tied tied the former free, while achieved. When the down by by the to be be achieved. the difference difference the end to there is is almost always is stated in this sharp sharp fashion, in this is stated fashion, there always introduced a false, unnatural separation between process process a unnatural introduced false, separation between its achieved and product, product, between between activity activity and its achieved outcome. outcome. The true true distinction not between an interest interest in in activity distinction is is not activity for its the external for its own sake and interest interest in in the external result result of of that that an but between interest in activity, but interest in an activity just as it as it just activity, activity flows on flows on from from moment to to moment, interest in in an an moment, and an interest to an outcome, activity as tending to a a culmination, and culmination, to outcome, and tending to activity as therefore possessing therefore possessing a a thread thread of of continuity continuity binding binding toto gether its successive stages. Both may equally exemits successive Both exem gether stages. may equally interest in in an activity activity" for its sake"; but but in in plify "for its own sake" plify interest one case case the the activity in which the the interest resides is is more interest resides more activity in or less less casual, the accident or accident of of circumstance circumstance and and casual, following following the in the whim, or of of dictation dictation; in the other, activity is is enriched enriched the activity whim, or other, the sense that by the sense that it it leads leads somewhere, that it it amounts amounts to to somewhere, that by something. something. it not Were it not that that the the false theory of of the relation of of the the false theory the relation and the work play the attitudes has been connected with attitudes has been connected with play of school unfortunate modes of school practice, insistence upon upon a a practice, insistence truer view seem an unnecessary unnecessary refinement. refinement. But But truer might might the sharp the that unfortunately unfortunately prevails prevails between between sharp break that the kindergarten the grades evidence that that is evidence kindergarten and the grades is theoretical distinction the theoretical has practical practical implications. implications. distinction has Under the the title title of of play, play, the the former is rendered rendered unduly unduly former is symbolic, fanciful, sentimental, and arbitrary; and while fanciful, symbolic, sentimental, arbitrary; while under the antithetical the latter conantithetical caption of work of the work conlatter caption
; ;
;

THE TRAINING TRAINING OF OF THOUGHT 165 165 ACTIVITY AND THE

tains tains

many tasks tasks externally externally assigned. assz"gned. The former former has has many end and the the latter latter an an end so so remote remote that that only only the the no end educator, not not the the child, child, is is aware aware that that it it is is an end. end. educator, a time time when children children must extend extend and There comes a make more exact exact their their acquaintance acquaintance with with existing existing things things; conceive ends ends and consequences consequences with with sufficient sufficient must conceive definiteness to to guide guide their their actions actions by by them, them, and must definiteness in selecting arranging acquire technical skill in technical skill some selecting and arranging acquire
;

means to to realize realize these these ends. ends.

Unless these these factors factors are are

the earlier earlier play play period, period, they they gradually introduced introduced in in the gradually be introduced introduced later later abruptly abruptly and arbitrarily, arbitrarily, to to the the must be manifest disadvantage disadvantage of of both both the the earlier earlier and the the later later manifest stages. stages. opposition of of play play and The sharp sharp opposition associated with with false false notions notions of of utility utility associated
work is is usually usually False notions of and imagination, imagination. ^agination imaginatioll utility is directed directed upon upon matters matters of horne and and utility Activity that of home that is Activity utilita neighborhood interest is depreciated as merely utilitaas is interest merely depreciated neighborhood child wash dishes, the table, table, engage engage rian. To let set the the child rian. let the dishes, set make boxes in dolls' clothes, cut and sew dolls' in cooking, clothes, cooking, cut his own that real things," construct his hold "real will hold" that will things," and construct playthings by using hammer and nails, excludes, so excludes, nails, using by playthings elim it aesthetic and appreciative is said, the ::esthetic it is factor, elimsaid, the appreciative factor, inates child's development the child's inates imagination, development subjects the imagination, and subjects it is is said) concerns; while (so to concerns and practical to material material and said) (so it practical the domestic relationships to symbolically the to reproduce relationships of reproduce symbolically father and mother birds of human father and other other animals, birds and animals, of and child, of workman and tradesman, of knight, and child, of soldier, tradesman, of knight, soldier, exercise and magistrate, secures a liberal exercise of mind, a liberal and magistrate, secures mind, of It has been great It value. as intellectual intellectual value. as well well as moral as great moral if a a utilitarian if even is over-physical it is that it even stated stated that over-physical and utilitarian in child of growing care of takes care seeds and takes child plants plants in growing plants plants seeds the while reproducing dramatically operwhile the kindergarten; oper dramatically reproducing kindergarten; ations of planting, on, either ations of cultivating, reaping, reaping, and so on, planting, cultivating,
;

i66 166

HOW WE THINK

Imagination Imagination a medium of realizing realizing of the absent the

and

significant significant

Only the the Only aluady already experienced experienced can be be Iymbolized symbolized

with no no physical physical materials materials or or with symbolic symbolic represent represent. with the imagination to atives, highly educative educative to to the is highly imagination and to atives, is of trains spiritual appreciation. Toy dolls, trains of cars, boats, and dolls, cars, boats, Toy spiritual appreciation. the employ employ of cubes, engines rigidly excluded, excluded, and the are rigidly cubes, engines are for representing social balls, other symbols symbols for representing these these social balls, and other ground. The activities is recommended on the same ground. activities is its imagined for its more unfitted unfitted the the physical physical object more imagined pur. pur* object for the pose, such as a cube for a boat, the greater is the the cube for as such boat, greater is pose, the supposed to the imagination. imagination. supposed appeal appeal to of thinking. There are several fallacies fallacies in in this this way way of thinking. are several There deals not (a) healthy imagination imagination deals not with with the the unreal, unreal, (a) The healthy of what is but with mental realization realization of is suggested. suggested. with the the mental the purely Its not a flight into purely fanciful fanciful and a flight into the Its exercise is not exercise is and ideal, but a of expanding filling in what is a of method but is ideal, expanding filling in activities child the the homely activities going on about real. To the the child real. about homely going devices for for accomplishing not utilitarian utilitarian devices physical him are are not accomplishing physical a ends; exemplify a wonderful world the depths the ends they world of depths of they exemplify a he has which he not world full of the has not sounded, mystery sounded, a world full of the mystery all the of the and promise promise that that attend attend all the doings doings of the grown-ups grown-ups he admires. prosaic this world may may be be whom he admires. However prosaic this world to the the adults adults who find find its to the to its duties duties routine routine affairs, the affairs, to child it child it is with social meaning. To engage in is fraught social meaning. fraught with engage in it is to exercise it the imagination in constructing an exis to exercise the in ex imagination constructing of wider perience wider value value than any child has has yet yet the child perience of any the mastered. mastered. (b) sometimes think children are are reacting reacting think children (#) Educators sometimes to a great moral or spiritual truth when the children's to a or the children's great spiritual truth reactions are are largely reactions physical and sensational. sensational. Children Children largely physical have great of dramatic and their their great powers powers of dramatic simulation, simulation, and physical bearing bearing may may seem (to adults prepossessed prepossessed with with physical (to adults a philosophic philosophic theory) theory) to to indicate indicate they they have have been been imim pressed with with some lesson lesson of devotion, or nobilof chivalry, nobil or pressed devotion, chivalry, the children children themselves themselves are ity, when the are occupied ity, occupied only only
;

ACTIVITY AND AND THE THE TRAINING ACTIVITY TRAINING OF OF THOUGHT THOUGHT 167 167
with transitory with To excitations. To symbolize transitory physical physical excitations. symbolize great great truths far far beyond the child's child's range truths of actual actual experience beyond the range of experience is an impossibility, and to to attempt is it is to invite is to invite love love of of impossibility, and attempt it stimulation. momentary stimulation. momentary as the opponents of play in education (c) education always Just as (V) Just opponents of play in always conceive of playas as mere amusement, so the conceive so the opponents play amusement, opponents of direct direct and useful useful activities activities confuse of confuse occupation with occupation with labor. The adult is acquainted adult is labor. with responsible labor acquainted with responsible labor serious financial financial results upon results depend. Conse upon which serious depend. Consequently amusement Unless Unless relief, relaxation, quently he seeks relief, relaxation, amusement. they children have prematurely worked for hire, unless for unless hire, prematurely they of have come under the blight of child labor, no such divichild such divi labor, blight exists for for them. Whatever appeals to them at all, sion exists to at all, appeals its account. appeals directly on its own account. There is no conis con appeals directly trast between doing utility and for for fun. for utility fun. Their Their things for doing things life is more united life is united and more wholesome. wholesome. To suppose suppose that activities customarily that activities customarily performed performed by by adults adults only only under the of not be the pressure pressure of utility utility may may not perfectly done perfectly freely and joyously joyously by by children children indicates indicates a a lack lack of of im imfreely the thing thing done but but the the quality quality of of mind agination. Not N at the agination. that that goes goes into into the the doing doing settles settles what is is utilitarian utilitarian and what is is unconstrained unconstrained and educative. educative.

Useful Useful work work is not neceslabor sarily glrtyUboT

3. 3. Constructive Constructive Occupations Occupations

The historic historic The history history of of culture culture shows shows that that mankind's mankind's scientific scientific The growth of and abilities knowledge technical abilities have developed, espetechnical have knowledge developed, espe- SaSs^t sciences out of occupaoccupathe fundamental fundamental of cially in in all all their their earlier earlier stages, stages, out out of of the cially tions tions Anatomy and physiology physiology grew grew out out of of problems of of life. life. Anatomy problems the the practical practical needs needs of of keeping keeping healthy healthy and active active; ge geand mechanics mechanics out out of of demands demands for for measuring measuring ometry and ometry land, for for building, building, and and for for making making labor-saving labor-saving machines machines; land, has with been astronomy has been closely connected with navigation, connected navigation, astronomy closely the passage passage of of time time; botany botany grew grew out out keeping record record of of the keeping
;

168

HOW WE THINK

The intelIntellectual possiMUtiesoT sibilities of school occuschool occupations

of the requirements requirements of of medicine and of of agronomy; agronomy; of the chemistry has been been associated dyeing, metallurgy, metallurgy, associated with dyeing, chemistry has and industrial pursuits. pursuits. In turn, turn, modern industry industry other industrial and other of applied matter of applied science science; year year by by is wholly a matter almost wholly is almost crude is nar of routine year the of routine and empiricism is narthe domain empiricism year scientific discovery rowed by the translation of of scientific into the translation rowed by discovery into the The trolley, the telephone, industrial invention. invention. industrial telephone, the trolley, all their with electric light, the steam engine, with all their revolu revolusteam the electric light, engine, and intercourse for social control, tionary consequences for social intercourse control, tionary consequences fruits of are the fruits of science. science. are the full of are full These f facts of educational significance. acts are Most significance. active in are preeminently preeminently active in their their tendencies, tendencies. children ^^ren are also taken on -largely The schools utilitaschools have also largely from utilitaf rom strictly rian, strictly educative reasons - a large educative reasons ra ^]ier than than from a large r j an rather of active active pursuits pursuits commonly grouped under the under the number of commonly grouped head of training, including including also also school school gardens, gardens, of manual training, head various graphic arts. Perhaps Perhaps the the most most excursions, excursions, and various graphic arts. at of the education present moment is pressing problem problem of education at the present is pressing to relate these subjects subjects so so that that they they will will to organize organize and relate persistent, and instruments for for forming become instruments alert, persistent, forming alert, fruitful intellectual fruitful intellectual habits. habits. That they take hold hold of of the the they take more primary primary and native native equipment of children children (appealequipment of (appeal their desire is generally ing to their desire to to do) recognized; that that ing to do) is generally recognized afford they afford great opportunity for training in self-reliant for in self-reliant great opportunity they training is gaining efficient social social service and efficient service is gaining acknowledgment. acknowledgment. But they also be be used used for for presenting presenting typical probmay also they may typical prob lems be solved solved by by personal personal reflection and experimento be lems to reflection experimenand by by acquiring acquiring definite dejitzite bodies bodies of knowledge tation, tation, a7zd of knowledge to more specialized sde1ztijic knowledge. knowledge. leading later to specialized scientific leading later There is is indeed indeed no magic by which which mere physical physical magic by deft manipulation manipulation will will secure activity or deft secure intellectual intellectual activity or results. p. 43.) 43.) Manual subjects may be be taught taught results. (See (See p. subjects may by routine, by dictation, or by convention as readily or convention as routine, dictation, by by by readily
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ACTIVITY AND THE TRAINING OF THOUGHT THOUGHT

169 169

But intelligent as bookish subjects. intelligent consecutive work subjects. in gardening, weaving, or in in elementary elementary cooking, or weaving, gardening, cooking, will which iron, may planned will inevitably be wood and iron, planned may inevitably result in students not only pracamassing information of prac only amassing tical and scientific importance in botany, zoology. chemtical scientific importance chem botany, zoology, is more istry, physics, and other sciences, sciences, but (what (what is istry, physics, significant) in their their becoming becoming versed in methods of ex exsignificant) and perimental inquiry proof. proof. perimental inquiry is overloaded is a com- Reorganize is a Reorganiza' That the elementary elementary curriculum is tion of the to a alternative The only to reactionary mon complaint. reactionary course of complaint. only study return to traditions of the past past lies lies in study to the educational traditions return working out the intellectual possibilities resident in the intellectual possibilities working occupations, and reorganizing various arts, crafts, and occupations, arts, crafts, reorganizing the curriculum accordingly. Here, more than else elseHere, accordingly. blind which and where, are found the by the means where, by routine experience routine experience of the race may be transformed into illuminated and emancipated emancipated experiment. experiment.

CHAPTER THIRTEEN
LANGUAGE AND THE TRAINING OF THOUGHT

Ambiguous Ambiguous position position of language language

1. r.

the Tool of Language of Th1zkng Thinking Language as the

Language Language a necessary necessary

tool tool of of

thirJ.king, thinking,

intimate connection with SPEECH has such a peculiarly with peculiarly intimate to thought as to require special discussion. Although as discussion. the thought require special Although the very word logic comes from logos ("A.oryoc;), meaning in logos (^0709), meaning inlogic very both or differently both word or speech, and thought or reason, or reason, speech, thought differently " yet" words, words, words, words words" denote intellectual intellectual barrenness, barrenness, yet "words, a sham of Although schooling of thought. has language thought. Although schooling has language its chief chief instrument (and as its often as its chief often as its chief matter) of (and matter) of study, educational reformers reformers have for brought for centuries centuries brought study, educational their their severest indictments against the current use of of lan lanseverest indictments current use against the in the schools. The that guage conviction conviction that language is guage in the schools. language is necessary to to thinking thinking (is with it) is met identical with (is even identical necessary it) is by the the contention contention that that language perverts and conceals conceals by language perverts thought. thought. Three typical typical views views have been maintained maintained regarding regarding the the relation relation of of thought thought and language language: first, first, that that they they are are identical identical; second, second, that that words words are are the the garb garb or or clothing clothing of of thought, thought, necessary necessary not not for for thought thought but but only only for for concon veying it it; and third third (the (the view view we shall shall here here maintain) maintain) veying that that while while language language is is not not thought thought it it is is necessary necessary for for thinking as as well well as as for for its its communication. communication. When it it is is thinking said, however, however, that that thinking thinking is is impossible impossible without without lan lansaid, guage, we must recall recall that that language language includes includes much more guage, than oral oral and written written speech. speech. Gestures, Gestures, pictures, pictures, monu monuments, visual visual images, images, finger finger movements - anything anything conconments,
:

170 170

THE TRAINING OF THOUGHT LANGUAGE AND THE THOUGHT 171 171

as a sign sciously is, logically, sciously employed employed as sign is, logically, language. language. To is necessary for thinking say is to to say say that language language is necessary for thinking is say that signs that Thought deals not with bare deals not with bare signs are necessary. Thought necessary. their meanings, things, their suggestions; things, but with their meanings, their suggestions; in order to and meanings, in order to be apprehended, meanings, apprehended, must be in sensible sensible and particular embodied in existences. WithWith particular existenc:es. are but blind stimuli or out meaning, things are nothing blind but stimuli or for for it it alone alone meaning, things nothing fixes 63 meanmea*of pleasure chance sources of and pain; and since meansince f* pleasure pain ings are not not themselves tangible ings ings are tangible things, things, they they must be to some physical anchored by existence. by attachment to physical existence. that are are especially Existences that set aside aside to to fixate fixate and especially set are signs or symbols. convey If If a man moves convey meanings meanings are signs or symbols. to throw him out toward another to out of of the the room, his movemove room, his is not a sign. the man points ment is If, however, the points to the to the If, however, sign. his hand, or utters door with with his utters the the sound go, his movement his hand, or go, is is reduced to to a vehicle vehicle of of meaning meaning: it it is is a sign or symbol. sign or symbol. In the case of of signs we care care nothing for they are for what signs nothing they are in for in themselves, themselves, but everything for what they signify and everything they signify represent. Canis, hund, chien, chien, dog dog - it it makes no differ differCanis, hund, represent. ence what the the outward thing thing is, is, so so long long as as the the meaning meaning is is presented. presented. Limitations Natural objects objects are are signs signs of of other other things things and events. events. Limitations of natural Clouds stand stand for for rain rain; a a footprint footprint represents represents game game or or symbols an enemy; enemy; a projecting projecting rock rock serves serves to to indicate indicate minerals minerals below the the surface. surface. The limitations limitations of of natural naturai signs signs are, are, (i) The physical physical or or direct direct sense sense excita excitahowever, great. great. (2) however, tion tends tends to to distract distract attention attention from what is is meant or or tion 1 Almost everyone to indicated. out indicated.1 will recall pointing out to one will recall pointing every a a kitten kitten or or puppy puppy some object object of of food, food, only only to to have the the animal devote the hand pointing, pointing, not not to to the the devote himself himself to to the thing pointed pointed at. at. (if) (ii) Where natural natural signs signs alone alone exist, exist, thing we are are mainly mainly at at the the mercy mercy of of external external happenings happenings; we
;
:

1 1

Compare the the quotation quotation from from Bain :Bain on on p. p. 155. ISS. Compare

172

HOW WE THINK

itself in to wait wait until until the the natural natural event presents presents itself in have to of the of some advised of order to be be warned or or advised the possibility possibility of order to

Artificial Artificial signs overcoSe these come these restrictions. restrictions.

Natural signs, not being being originally originally other event. (iii) other event. signs, not (zYz) Natural are are cumbrous, bulky, inconvenient, intended to be signs, intended to cumbrous, inconvenient, bulky, signs, unmanageable. unmanageable. It is therefore therefore indispensable for any high development It is development indispensable for any high also intentional thought that that there there should be be also intentional signs. of ^ thought signs, the requirement. requirement. Gestures, Gestures, sounds, Speech sounds, Speech supplies supplies the are strictly written or printed printed forms, physical existences, existences, written or forms, are strictly physical their native is intentionally but their native value value is to intentionally subordinated to as representative the value the value they they acquire representative of of meanings. meanings. acquire as value of faint sounds (i) sensible value sounds and of faint direct and sensible (f) The direct minute written written or printed marks is very is or printed very slight. slight. is distracted not distracted their Accordingly, attention is attention from their Accordingly, (ii) Their production is under representative function. function. is representative production (zY) our direct they may may be be produced produced direct control that they control so so that the word rain, rain, we when needed. needed. When we can make the do not not have to to wait wait for for some physical physical forerunner forerunner of rain of rain to in that call our that direction. direction. We cannot make to call our thoughts thoughts in cloud we can make the the cloud; the sound, a token token of the as a of sound, and as the sound serves serves the the purpose purpose as as well wen as as the meaning the meaning the cloud, cloud. (iii) Arbitrary linguistic are convenient convenient linguistic signs signs are (zYz) Arbitrary to are and easy to manage. They are compact, portable, manage. They compact, portable, and easy delicate. As long live we breathe delicate. long as as we live breathe; and and modifica modifications by of throat by the the muscles muscles of of the the volume tions throat and mouth of and quality of the the air air are indefinitely are simple, simple, easy, quality of easy, and indefinitely controllable. of the the hand controllable. Bodily postures postures and gestures Bodily gestures of and arm are are also also employed but they they are as signs, coarse are coarse signs, but employed as and unmanageable with modifications modifications of of breath breath unmanageable compared compared with to to produce produce sounds. that oral has been sounds. No wonder that oral speech speech has selected as selected as the the main stuff stuff of intentional intellectual intellectual signs. of intentional signs. Sounds, refined, and easily easily modifiable, modifiable, are are subtle, refined, Sounds, while subtle, transitory. This defect is met by the system of written defect is the of written transitory. by system
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LANGUAGE AND THE TRAINING OF THOUGHT 173 LANGUAGE 173

and printed printed words, words, appealing to the the eye. Litera serif scripta Litera ta appealing to eye. manet. Bearing in mind the intimate intimate connection meanings connection of of meanings Bearing and signs signs (or language), we may may note note in in more detail detail (or language), what language (I) for for specific specific meanings, meanings, and (2) for language does (i) (2) for the organization organization of of meanings. meanings. I. Individual Meanings. 1. A verbal verbal sign Meanings. A selects, sign (a) (a) selects, detaches, vague is otherwise otherwise a a vague detaches, a meaning meaning from what is flux and blur (see p. 12 I); (b) it retains, stores (see p. retains, registers, 121); () it registers, stores that meaning meaning; and (c) applies it, to the the it, when needed, (c) applies needed, to comprehension things. Combining varithese vari comprehension of other things. Combining these ous functions in in a mixture of metaphors, we may may say say of metaphors, that a linguistic is a fence, a label, vehiclefence, a linguistic sign label, and a vehicle sign is all in one. all in one. (a) experienced how learning learning an apap- A sign sign (a) Everyone Every one has experienced a propriate name for vague cleared cleared up up makes for what was dim and vague propriate meaning ^?* distinct and crystallized matter. Some meaning meaning seems distinct crystallized the whole matter. almost within reach, reach, but is to condense is elusive; elusive it it refuses to into into definite definite form; form the attaching of a word somehow attaching of it is (just how, it is almost impossible to say) puts limits limits impossible to (just how, say) puts around the meaning, meaning, draws it out from the void, void, makes it out it stand out as an entity it its own account. When entity on its true Emerson said that he would almost rather know the true name, the poet's poet's name, name, for thing, than to to know the for a thing, name, thing itself, presumably had this this irradiating irradiating and il ilitself, he presumably thing luminating function of language in The delight in mind. function of luminating delight language that children children take in in demanding demanding and learning learning the the names that of everything everything about them indicates meanings are indicates that meanings becoming concrete individuals to them, that their their individuals to them, so that becoming commerce with things things is is passing passing from the the physical physical to to plane. It hardly surprising savis hardly the intellectual It is intellectual plane. surprising that sav ages attach to words. To name anyattach a magic any ages magic efficacy efficacy to thing is to give it a title; title j to to dignify dignify and honor hQnor it it by by is to thing give it
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174 174

HOW WE WE THINK THINK HOW

A sign
prMtnres a

meaning

A sign sip transfers tranafers

mu.ning meaning

it from a mere physical occurrence raising to a a meaning raising it physical occurrence to meaning is distinct that is distinct and permanent. that the names of of permanent. To know the to be able able to to manipulate people these people and things things and to manipulate these in possession in savage to be in names is, of their their lore, to is, in savage lore, possession of to and worth, to master them. dignity worth, dignity or we come and go, (b) and go; or Things come and go; (b) Things go, and either way notice. either things escape our notice. Our direct sensible direct sensible way things escape is very limited. relation to to things The suggestion relation of things is very limited. suggestion of meanings is limited limited to to occasions occasions of natural signs of didi meanings by signs is by natural a meaning contact or rect contact or vision. rect vision. But a fixed by a linguistic meaning fixed by a linguistic is conserved future use. use. Even if sign conserved for for future if the the thing is not not sign is thing is there to the meaning, there to represent the word may be prorepresent the meaning, the may be pro as to duced so so as to evoke the the meaning. Since intellectual intellectual meaning. Since life depends of a store life meanings, the store of of meanings, the depends on possession possession of of as a tool importance of language as a tool of preserving meanings of importance language preserving meanings the method of storage cannot be overstated. overstated. To be sure, of storage sure, the is words not wholly aseptic; often corrupt and modify is not often wholly aseptic corrupt modify the meanings meanings they they are to keep intact, but are supposed supposed to keep intact, but liability to infection infection is is a a price price paid paid by by every every living living thing thing liability to for the for the privilege privilege of of living. living. (c) a meaning meaning is is detached detached and and fixed fixed by by a a sign, sign, (c) When a it it is is possible possible to to use use that that meaning meaning in in a a new context context and and situation. situation. This This transfer transfer and reapplication reapplication is is the the key key to to all all judgment judgment and inference. inference. It It would would little little profit profit a a man to that a a given given particular particular cloud cloud was the the prepreto recognize recognize that monitor of of a a given given particular particular rainstorm rainstorm if if his his recognition recognition ended there, then have have to to learn learn over over and and there, for for he would then over over again, again, since since the the next next cloud cloud and and the the next next rain rain are are differ different ent events. events. No cumulative cumulative growth growth of of intelligence intelligence would would occur occur; experience experience might might form habits habits of of physical physical adapta adaptation but it it would would not not teach teach anything, anything, for for we should should not not tion but be be able able to to use use a a prior prior experience experience consciously consciously to to anticipate anticipate and regulate regulate a a further further experience. experience. To To be be able able to to use use
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LANGUAGE AND THE TRAINING OF THOUGHT 175 175

to judge infer the the new and unknown implies the past past to judge and infer implies that, its meaning that, although although the past past thing thing has gone, gone, its meaning as to to be applicable abides in such a way in determining way as applicable in determining of the new. the character of Speech are our our great Speech forms are great carriers the easy-running carriers: vehicles by which meanings vehicles easy-running by meanings are transported that no longer concern transported from experiences experiences that longer concern to those that that are are as as yet us to dark and dubious. dubious. yet II. Organization of Meanings. II. the Organization of Meanings. In emphasizing emphasizing the in relation of signs relation to importance to specific importance of signs in specific meanings, meanings, we have overlooked another aspect, valuable, aspect, equally equally valuable. off specific Signs or individual individual meanings, Signs not only only mark off specific or meanings, but they also instruments of of grouping in they are also grouping meanings meanings in relation to to one another. another. relation or Words are are not not only or names only titles of of single f they also form sentences in titles meanings; also srmsentences in which single meanings they in relation meanings are organized relation to to one another. another. When organized in meanings " " we say" book is That blur That is a dictionary," or "That blur of or of say dictionary," in the is light in the heavens is Halley's comet," we express light express a Halley's comet," an act logical connection act of of classifying logical defining classifying and defining that that goes goes beyond the physical physical thing into the the logical logical thing into beyond the attributes. Propof genera region of things and attributes. species, things Prop region genera and species, bear the the same relation relation to to judgments judgments ositions, sentences, sentences, bear ositions, that that distinct distinct words, words, built built up up mainly mainly by by analyzing proposianalyzing proposi in their their various various types, types, bear bear to to meanings meanings or or concep conceptions in tions so a a sentence tions; and just as words imply sentence, so a sentence words as sentence, tions; imply just implies a a larger larger whole whole of of consecutive consecutive discourse discourse into into implies it fits. fits. As is is often often said, said, grammar grammar expresses expresses the the which it intel The mind. unconscious logic logic of of the the popular popular mind. chz"if intelunconscious chief lectual classifications classifications that that constitute constitute the the working working capital capital lectual of thought thought have have been bem built built up up for for us us by by ourmother our mother tongue. tongue. of very lack lack of of explicit explicit consciousness consciousness in in using using language language Our very that we are are employing employing the the intellectual intellectual systematizations systematizations that of the the race race shows how thoroughly thoroughly accustomed we have of groupings. to its its logical logical distinctions distinctions and groupings. become to
: ;

Logical orLogical or ganization 011 depends upon signs signs upon

f^^

I76 176

HOW WE THINK

Teaching Teaching merely merely things, not not things, educative educative

But words words But separated separated from from things things are not true true are not signs signs

2. 2. The Abuse of of Linguistic Lz"ngztz"stz"c Methods in z"n Education Educatz"on " Teach literally, the the maxim, maxim," things, not words," words," Taken literally, things, " would be the Teach things before words," the negation of or " before or words," negation of things life to mental mere education; it it would would reduce reduce life to physical education physical the proper proper sense, sense, and sensible sensible adjustments. adjustments. Learning, Learning, in in the and is not not learning learning things, things, but but the the meanings mcam"ngs of of things, things, and and is this process process involves involves the the use use of of signs, signs, or or language language in in its its this like In the warfare of In like fashion, the warfare of generic sense. some sense. fashion, generic educational reformers reformers against against symbols, symbols, if if pushed pushed to to ex exeducational the of destruction intellectual the the destruction of the intellectual life, tremes, involves involves life, tremes, has its its being being in in those those pro prosince this this lives, lives, moves, moves, and has since cesses of definition, definition, abstraction, abstraction, generalization, generalization, and cesses of that are possible by symbols symbols alone. classification that are made alone. classification possible by Nevertheless, these contentions of educational reformers of educational reformers Nevertheless, these contentions been needed. needed. The liability liability of of a a thing thing to to abuse have been abuse have of its its right the value value of right use. use. is proportion to to the in proportion is in as pointed Symbols are themselves, themselves, as pointed out out above, above, partic particSymbols are other things. ular, physical, sensible sensible existences, like any things. existences, like ular, physical, any other They are symbols virtue of of what they they suggest suggest symbols only only by by virtue They are and i.e. meanings. (i) They stand for these stand for these i.e. meanings, and represent, (i) They represent, he e::cpemeanings to any individual only when he has has had individual to only expe meanings any rz"ence meanings are these meanings are rience of situation to to which these of some situation and preserve actually relevant. can detach relevant. Words preserve a actually in the meaning has been first involved meaning only when the has first involved in meaning only meaning to To attempt our our own direct direct intercourse with things. intercourse with things. attempt to deal give a meaning a word alone without any alone without give a any dealmeaning through through a ings with a of intelligible a thing is to to deprive the word of intelligible ings with thing is deprive the a tendency too signification; against this attempt, signification against this attempt, a tendency only only too More Moreprevalent in education, reformers have protested. education, reformers prevalent in protested. there over, that whenever there there is is a tendency to assume that over, there tendency to defi a definite definite word or or form of there is also is there is also a defiis a of speech speech a nite as a matter of fact, adults and childre~ nite idea; idea while, as of children matter adults while, fact, alike verbal formula:: formulae alike are are capable of using capable of using even precise precise verbal
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LANGUAGE AND THE TRAINING OF THOUGHT

177 177

with only the vaguest vaguest and most confused confused sense sense of of what only the is more profitable they mean. Genuine ignorance ignorance is profitable be bethey to be cause likely to accompanied by humility, curiosity, accompanied by humility, curiosity, likely

and open-mindedness open-mindedness; while while ability ability to to repeat catchrepeat catchfamiliar cant terms, familiar propositions, gives the phrases, terms, phrases, propositions, gives the conceit of learning and coats coats the the mind with with a varnish varnish conceit of learning waterproof to to new ideas. ideas. waterproof Language Again, although of words withwith- Language (ii) Again, although new combinations of (ii) tends to intervention of out the intervention physical things things may may supply of physical out the supply new ^f^** arrest per insonai inlimits to are limits to this there are inertness sona! this possibility. possibility. Lazy ideas, there ideas, Lazy inertness quiry and causes individuals to accept ideas that individuals to that have currency causes accept ideas currency reflection reflection A about them without personal personal inquiry about testing. inquiry and testing. thought, perhaps, perhaps, to to find find out out what others others man uses uses thought, as em and then stops. ideas of others as embelieve, The ideas of others then believe, stops. for one's language become substitutes substitutes for one's own bodied in in language bodied of linguistic linguistic studies to ideas. The use use of studies and methods to ideas. halt the the human mind on the the level level of of the the attainments attainments halt the past, to prevent prevent new inquiry to of the of discovery, to inquiry and discovery, past, to of in put the authority of tradition in place of the authority of tradition the authority place authority put of natural facts laws, to to reduce reduce the the individual individual to to a facts and laws, of natural of parasite living on the secondhand experience of others the on experience parasite living of the reformers' -these things have been been the the source reformers' source of these things to protest against the preeminence assigned to language in the language in preeminence assigned protest against schools. schools. ideas come, for ideas Finally, words words that originally stood stood for that originally come, Words as Finally, mere become to be be mere counters; they with repeated with counters; they stimuli use, to repeated use, certain things to be manipulated according to certain physical to be according manipulated things physical rules, or by certain without con concertain operations to by reacted to or reacted operations without rules, has called Mr. Stout (who called sciousness their meaning. Stout of their sciousness of (who meaning. " " substitute signs") remarks that such terms terms" that "algebrasubstitute signs ") such algebra used to are ical and and arithmetical are to a great extent used as as arithmetical signs ical great signs use to is possible mere substitute It is to signs It ... mere substitute signs. signs possible signs. of operarules of definite rules operaof this kind fixed and definite whenever fixed kind whenever of this
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1/8

HOW WE THINK

tion can be derived of the tion derived from the the nature nature of the things things sym sym so as as to bolized, to be in manipUlating be applied the signs, bolized, so applied in manipulating the signs, their signification. without further further reference without A reference to to their signification. is an instrument about the about the meaning word is instrument for for thinking thinking meaning it expresses; a is a means of which it substitute sign of ?wt not sign is expresses a substitute it thinking about the meaning which it symbolizes." The about the thinking meaning symbolizes." principle to ordinary as well well as as however, to words, as principle applies, applies, however, ordinary words, to algebraic to signs; they also enable us to use meanings also us to enable use algebraic signs they meanings so as as to to get without thinking. so In many results without get results thinking. respects, many respects, that are of not not thinking signs are means of of great are of advan signs that thinking are great advan. for the tage; the familiar, release attention attention for for familiar, they tage standing standing for they release meanings that, being require conscious conscious interpreta. novel, require meanings that, being novel, interpreta tion. tion. N everthe1ess, the the premium put in the schoolroom in the schoolroom Nevertheless, premium put of technical facility, upon upon attainment attainment of technical skill in in upon facility, upon skill external p. 5 I), often changes producing external results (ante, results often producing (ante, p. 51), changes this into a a positive manipulat. this advantage advantage into detriment. In In manipulat positive detriment. so as as to recite well, to recite to get get and give ing symbols correct well, to ing symbols so give correct to follow answers, to follow prescribed formulce of analysis, the formulae of answers, prescribed analysis, the attitude pupil's attitude becomes becomes mechanical, rather than than thought thought. mechanical, rather pupil's verbal memorizing ful; memorizing is inquiry into is substituted substituted for for inquiry into ful; verbal the the meaning meaning of of things. things. This This danger danger is is perhaps perhaps the the one one uppermost in in mind when verbal verbal methods methods of of education education uppermost are are attacked. attacked.
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3. 3. The Use of of Language Language in its Educational Educational Bearings Bearings in its
Language stands stands in in a a twofold twofold relation relation to to the the work of of Language
education. education. On the the one one hand, hand, it it is is continually continually used used in in as in in all all the the social social discipline discipline of of the the all studies as well well as school; on on the the other, other, it it is is a a distinct distinct object object of of study. study. school; We shall shall consider consider only only the the ordinary ordinary use use of of language, language, since of thought thought are are much deeper deeper since its its effects effects upon upon habits habits of than than those those of of conscious conscious study. study. " The common statement statement that that" language is is the the expresexpres language
all studies as

LANGUAGE AND THE TRAINING OF THOUGHT

179 179
Language Language not primarily intel. lectual in purpose puxpose

" sion sion of of thought thought" conveys only a a half-truth, a halfhalfhalf-truth, and a conveys only truth is likely to in truth that is to result in positive error. Language result error. positive Language likely

does express thought, but but not not primarily, primarily, nor, at first, nor, at first, express thought, motive The for primary motive for language is even consciously. consciously. primary language is to of to influence influence (through the expression of desire, emotion, the desire, emotion, expression (through and thought) the activity its secondary thought) the activity of of others; use is others its is secondary use to enter into into more intimate to enter relations with with them them; intimate sociable sociable relations its employment employment as a conscious conscious vehicle vehicle of thought and its as a of thought knowledge is is a tertiary, relatively late, formation. late, formation. knowledge tertiary, and relatively contrast is The contrast is well well brought brought out out by by the the statement of statement of " " that words have a double use, John Locke that civil and use, - " civil" John " " civil use, I mean such a "philosophical." "By their civil a use, I philosophical." By their communication of thoughts and ideas words as may of thoughts ideas by communication as by may serve the upholding upholding of of common conversation serve for for the conversation and commerce about the ordinary affairs the ordinary affairs and cOllveniences conveniences the of I By the philosophical use of words, words, I of civil civil life. life. . .. of philosophical By as may serve to the may serve to convey the use of of them as mean such a use convey of things, precise notions notions of things, and to to express in general express in general precise truths." certain and undoubted truths." propositions certain propositions This distinction practical and social social from the the the practical of the distinction of intellectual use use of the of language intellectual light on the language throws much light in respect problem of the school respect to to speech. school in of the problem speech. That probprobf -^ j lem is is to pupz"ls' oral oral and written wrz"tten speech, used to dz"rect direct pupils lem speech, that gradually prz"marz"ly for for practical practcal and social sodal ends, so that gradually ends, so primarily # shall shall become a conscious conscious tool tool of of conveying conveying knowledge knowledge become a it and assz"sting without checking checking the the How without thought. assisting thought. lan to which motives spontaneous, natural natural motives motives - motives to lanspontaneous, guage owes force, vividness, vividness, and variety its vitality, owes its variety - are vitality, force, guage to modify modify speech habits so so as as to to render render them accu accuwe to speech habits It is rate and and flexible z"ntellectual instruments? is com cominstruments? It flexible intellectual rate the the original spontaneous paratively easy to encourage to original spontaneous encourage paratively easy of re into a servant of flow and not not make language reflow and language over into and thought; it is comparatively comparatively easy to check flective thought to it is flective easy
;

eduHence education has to transform totransfonn it into an intellectual intellectual tool tool
it into

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180 i So

HOW WE THINK

To enlarge enlarge vocabulary, vocabulary, the fund of of the concepts concepts should be should be enlarged enlarged

is concerned) far as as the almost destroy (so (so far the schoolroom is almost destroy concerned) to set set up artificial and native aim and interest, interest, and to up artificial native formal modes of in some isolated isolated and techni techniof expression formal expression in lies in over lies in making over habits cal matters. The difficulty cal matters. hahits making difficulty " " affairs that have to to do do with with" ordinary affairs and conveniences" conveniences that ordinary " into concerned with with" precise precise notions." notions." The sucinto habits habits concerned suc the transformation cessful accomplishing of the transformation requires of cessful accomplishing requires (i) enlargement of the pupil's vocabulary; Ui) rendering (zY) rendering (2) enlargement of the pupil's vocabulary accurate, and (ii) its precise and accurate, its terms formation terms more precise (iii) formation discourse. of habits of of consecutive consecutive discourse. of habits of vocabulary. (i) Enlargement of vocabulary. This takes takes place, place, of of (i) Enlargement by wider wider intelligent with things things and course, course ky intelligent contact with persons, also vicariously, vicariously, by by gathering the meanings meanings gathering the persons, and also context in in which they the context they are heard or of are heard of words from the or grasp by by either either method a word in in its its meaning meaning read. To grasp read. act of intelligent is to exercise intelligence, to perform an act to perform of intelligent is to exercise intelligence, is and it also to analysis, it is also to widen widen the the fund of selection or analysis, selection or of in further meanings or or concepts readily available available in further intel intel concepts readily meanings It is lectual enterprises (ante, p. I26). It is usual usual to to distinlectual enterprises distin (ante, p. 126). one's active active and one's one's passive passive vocabulary, vocabulary, guish guish between one's of the words the latter being composed composed of words that that are underare under the latter being or seen, they are heard or former of of words stood the former stood when they words seen, the that used intelligently. The fact that the passive that are are used fact the that intelligently. passive than the the active vocabulary is is ordinarily active larger than ordinarily much larger vocabulary indicates energy, of of power power not certain amount of of inert inert energy, indicates a certain not an individual. by individual. Failure to use meanfreely controlled controlled Failure to mean use by freely ings that are nevertheless understood understood reveals reveals dependence are nevertheless ings that dependence and lack of intellectual initiative. upon external stimulus, lack of intellectual initiative. stimulus, upon external is to This laziness is to some extent extent an an artificial artificial prodThis mental laziness prod uct of of education. education. Small children usually attempt uct children usually to attempt to put use every every new word they hold of, of, but but when to use they get put to get hold are introduced they learn to to read read they they are introduced to to a a large large variety variety they learn that there there is is no ordinary opportunity to use. of terms that of terms use. ordinary opportunity to
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1.ANGUAGE AND THE THE TRAINING OF THOUGHT LANGUAGE

lSI 181

result is is a a kind kind of of mental mental suppression, suppression, if if not not smother smotherThe result the meaning meaning of of words words not not actively actively used used Moreover, the Moreover, in building building up up and conveying conveying ideas ideas is is never never quite quite clearclearin cut or or complete. complete. cut may be due due to to a a limited limited Looseness a limited limited vocabulary vocabulary may While a Looseness of of C~ thinking aca range of experience, to a sphere of contact with persons of to of contact with experience, sphere range persons ^5^f es companies limited things so so narrow as as not not to to suggest suggest or or require require a a full full a limited and things u vocabulary store of of words, words, it it is is also also due due to to carelessness carelessness and and vaguevague- voca store the ness. A happy-go-lucky happy-go-lucky frame of of mind makes the ness. individual averse averse to to clear clear discriminations, discriminations, either either in in per perindividual in his his own speech. speech. Words are are used used loosely loosely ception or or in ception in an indeterminate indeterminate kind kind of of reference reference to to things, things, and in the mind approaches approaches a a condition condition where practically practically the everything is just a thing-um-bob or a what-do-you-calla or is thing-um-bob just what-do-you-calleverything the part part of of those those with with it. Paucity Paucity of of vocabulary vocabulary on the it. triviality and meagerness child associates, in the child whom the associates, triviality meagerness in the child's reading matter (as frequently even in his matter even in his child's the reading (as frequently textbooks), tend tend to to shut the school readers readers and textbooks), shut down the school area of mental mental vision. vision. area of great difference between flow flow Command the great difference between note also also the We must note of language is not not j^JJ^ age of of language. words and command of of words language. Volubility Volubility is involves necessarily a sign a large of a talking command of large vocabulary; vocabulary much talking sign of necessarily a things gs or speech is quite compatible with moving with is or even even ready moving quite compatible ready speech radius. round in a circle of moderate radius. circle of round in round and round materials and lack of of materials Most schoolrooms suffer from a lack schoolrooms suffer appliances save perhaps perhaps books - and even these are appliances save "written down" to or incapacity, the supposed to the "written incapacity, capacity, or supposed capacity, vo an enriched vofor enriched of Occasion of children. children. Occasion and demand for of The vocabulary cabulary restricted. are accordingly vocabulary of accordingly restricted. cabulary are things is very schoolroom is the schoolroom in the studied in isolated; largely isolated; very largely things studied of the to the range it itself organically link itself not link it does does not range of organically to school. outside the school. ideas are in in vogue that are and words words that ideas and vogue outside often nominal, Hence is often takes place that takes the enlargement nominal, Hence the place is enlargement that ing. ing.

1 82 182

HOW WE WE THINK

The genet'aZ general as the vague and as a&ftut* the

distinctly distinctly

generic generic

Twofold

growth of
woifefa* words in sense sense or or

signification signification

rather than to to the to the inert, the active, adding fund of of inert, rather active, fund adding to terms. meanings meanings and terms. in which the (ii) of vocabulary. the (ii) Accuracy way in vocabulary. One way Accuracy of of words and concepts is increased fund of discovering increased is is by concepts is by discovering is to and naming that is to say, shades of of meaning mak naming shades meaning - that say, by by mak. the ing the vocabulary more precise. Increase in definiteIncrease in definiteing precise. vocabulary as important is as as is ness is is the the enlargement of important relatively enlargement of relatively as the capital stock the stock absolutely. capital absolutely. of terms, The first first meanings since they are due to to terms, since meanings of they are su P er fi c i a l acquaintance with things, are general superficial in the the acquaintance with things, are general in sense of of being sense little child child calls calls all all men being vague. vague. The little call the the first papa; first horse horse papa acquainted acquainted with a dog, dog, he may may call a big he sees Differences and intensity sees a Differences of of quantity big dog. dog. quantity intensity are noted, the fundamental meaning vague that are is so so vague that noted, but the meaning is it covers things that are far it that are far apart. To many persons things apart many persons trees are trees are just just trees, trees, being being discriminated only into discriminated only into dede trees and evergreens, evergreens, with with perhaps perhaps recognition recognition ciduous trees of each. each. Such vagueness vagueness tends tends to to of one or two kinds kinds of and to persist to become a a barrier barrier to to the the advance advance of of think thinkpersist that are are miscellaneous miscellaneous in in scope scope are are clumsy clumsy ing. Terms that ing. tools at best best; in in addition addition they they are are frequently frequently treacherous, treacherous, tools at for for their their ambiguous ambiguous reference reference causes causes us us to to confuse confuse things that that should should be be distinguished. distinguished. things The growth growth of of precise precise terms terms out out of of original original vaguevague ness ^ es P^ce ness ta takes place normally normally in in two two directions directions: toward toward words that that stand stand for for relationships relationships and and words words that that stand stand f Qr jjg^jy for highly individualized individualized traits traits (compare (compare what was said said about the the development development of of meanings, meanings, p. p. 122); 122); the the first first being associated associated with with abstract, abstract, the the second second with with concrete, concrete, being are said said to to have have no no thinking. Some Australian Australian tribes tribes are thinking. words for animal or or for for plant, plant, while while they they have have specific specific for animal names for for every every variety variety of of plant plant and and animal animal in in their their neighborhoods. This This minuteness minuteness of of vocabulary vocabulary reprerepreneighborhoods.
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AND THE TRAINING OF THOUGHT LANGUAGE AND

3 18 183

sents progress but in in a a one-sided one-sided way. progress toward definiteness, definiteness, but way. Specific but not not relationrelation Specific properties properties are distinguished, distinguished, but 1 ships.I On the other hand, students of of philosophy and hand, students ships. philosophy and of natural of the general of natural and social science are social science are general aspects aspects to store of apt to acquire a store of terms that signify relations that relations apt acquire signify without balancing up with with terms terms that that designate balancing them up designate traits. and traits. The ordinary specific individuals use of of specific ordinary use such as terms such terms as causation, causation, law, law, society, individual, capital, society, individual, capital, this tendency. illustrates this illustrates tendency. find both In the history both aspects of the the history of language language we find aspects of illustrated by growth in the the sense sense growth of vocabulary vocabulary illustrated by changes changes in r J words oi words: some words originally in their of their applicaoriginally wide in applicato denote shades tion are narrowed to shades of of meaning; others meaning: others originally specific are widened to express relationships. to originally specific express relationships. The term vernacular, meaning mother speech, has vernacular, now meaning speech, has been generalized generalized from the the word verna, verna, meaning a slave slave meaning born in in the master's master's household. household. Publication Publz"ca#on has has evolved evolved its by means of print, through its meaning meaning of of communication by of print, through earlier meaning restricting an earlier meaning of of any kind of of communicommuni restricting any kind cation cation - although the wider wider meaning meaning is retained in legal is retained in legal although the as publishing of the the word procedure, as publishing a a libel. libel. The sense sense of procedure, average has has been generalized generalized from a a use use connected connected with with average loss by shipwreck proportionately among various dividing loss various dividing by shipwreck proportionately among 2 2 sharers sharers in in an enterprise. enterprise. These historical historical changes changes assist assist the the educator educator to to appre appreciate the changes changes that that occur occur with with individuals individuals together together ciate the with advance in in intellectual intellectual resources. resources. In studying studying
i
:

..,,.,.,.

'

Words aIte!: alter flieir meantheir mean" ings so as to as to ings so change their change their logical functions functions

1 1

The term term general general is is itself itself an ambiguous ambiguous term, term. meaning meaning (in (in its its best best

logical sense) sense) the the related related logical vague. vague.
General, in in the the General,

and also also (in (in its its natural natural usage) usage) the the indefinite, indefinite, the the first sense, sense, denotes denotes the the discrimination discrimination of of a prin prin. ciple or or generic generic relation relation; in in the the second second sense, sense, it it denotes denotes the the absence absence of of ciple discrimination of of specific specific or or individual individual properties. properties. discrimination * "A large amount of of material material illustrating illustrating the the twofold twofold change change in in the the sense sense A large of of words will will be be found found in in Jevons, Jevons, Lessons Lessons in in Logic. Logic.
first
;

84

HOW WE THINK

Similar Similar changes changes in the occur in vocabulary vocabulary of every of every student student

The value of technical of technical terms tenns

learn both to narrow and to both to geometry, a pupil to pupil must learn geometry, a familiar words as as lz"ne, of such such familiar extend extend the the meanings sur line, surmeanings of to narrow them to to the the precise face, angle, circle; to face, square, circle; precise angle, square, to extend in meanings involved in demonstrations; to extend them involved demonstrations; meanings in not relations to relations not expressed in ordinary to cover cover generic expressed generic ordinary size must be excluded usage. of color color and size excluded j Qualities of usage. Qualities in direction, relations of variation variation in of limit, relations of of direction, direction, of direction, of limit, transformation must be definitely seized. A like transformation occurs, like seized. be definitely occurs, at this of study. this point in every of Just of course, course, in Just at point subject of study. every subject of simply lies to above, alluded to lies the the danger, above, of simply overlaying danger, alluded overlaying isolated meanings in common meanings with new and isolated meanings inmeanings with of of effecting stead a genuine working-over of popular stead of working-over genuine popular effecting into adequate and practical meanings into logical tools. tools. practical meanings adequate logical Terms used as to with intentional used with intentional exactness exactness so so as ex to exa press a meaning, the whole meaning, and only the meanthe mean the press meaning, meaning, only ing, are called technz"cal. For educational educational purposes, purposes, a called technical. a ing, are technical term indicates something technical term indicates relative, not not absolute; absolute; something relative, is technical for a term because of of its technical not not because verbal form or for term is its verbal form or its unusualness, is employed its unusualness, but but because because it it is employed to to fix fix a a meaning precisely. precisely. Ordinary words get a technical a words technical meaning get Ordinary quality when used used intentionally intentionally for for this this end. end. Whenever Whenever quality becomes thought becomes more accurate, a (reJatively) technical more a accurate, thought (relatively) technical vocabulary grows up. Teachers are apt to oscillate Teachers are to oscillate vocabulary grows up. apt between extremes to technical technical terms. terms. On the the extremes in in regard regard to one one hand, hand, these these are are multiplied multiplied in in every every direction, direction, seemseem on the the assumption assumption that that learning learning a a new piece piece of of ingly on ingly terminology, accompanied accompanied by by verbal verbal description description or or terminology, to grasping grasping a a new idea. idea. When definition, is is equivalent equivalent to definition, it is seen seen how largely largely the the net net outcome outcome is is the the accumula accumulait is tion tion of of an isolated isolated set set of of words, words, a a jargon jargon or or scholastic scholastic cant, and to to what extent extent the the natural natural power power of of judgment judgment cant, is is a a reaction reaction to to is clogged clogged by by this this accumulation, accumulation, there there is the the opposite opposite extreme. extreme. Technical Technical terms terms are are banished; banished;
;

LANGUAGE AND THE TRAINING OF THOUGHT

" " exist "name words" exist but but not not nouns nouns; " "action action name words
;

185 185
"

words" but but words

not verbs; verbs; pupils pupils not

"take may" take away/ away," but but not not subtract; subtract; may they may may tell tell what four four fives fives are, are, but but not not what four four they times five five are, are, and so so on. on. A sound sound instinct instinct underlies underlies this this times reaction - aversion aversion to to words that that give give the the pretense, pretense, but but reaction not the the reality, reality, of of meaning. meaning. Yet the the fundamental fundamental diffi diffinot culty is is not not with with the the word, word, but but with with the the idea. idea. If the If the culty idea is is not not grasped, grasped, nothing nothing is is gained gained by by using using a a more idea familiar word word; if if the the idea idea is is perceived, perceived, the the use use of of the the familiar term that that exactly exactly names it it may may assist assist in in fixing fixing the the idea. idea. term denoting highly highly exact exact meanings meanings should be intro introshould be Terms denoting that is, is, a a few at at a a time; time; they they duced only sparingly, that duced only sparingly, should be be led up to to gradually, gradually, and great great pains pains should should be led up should taken to to secure the circumstances circumstances that that render render precision precision secure the taken of meaning meaning significant. significant. of (iii) Consecutive discourse. As we saw, language saw, language (iii) Consecutive discourse. selects as as well and organizes meanings as well as selects and connects connects organizes meanings context of in fixes them. As every meaning is set in the context of is set fixes them. every meaning use some every word in in concrete belongs to to concrete use belongs so every some situation, situation, so sen some sentence may itself represent a condensed sensentence (it (it may itself represent to some larger and the sentence, in turn, belongs to tence), larger tence), and the sentence, in turn, belongs It is unnecessary It is unnecessary story, description, or reasoning process. or process. reasoning story, description, repeat what has to about the importance said about has been been said to repeat importance of continuity and ordering of meanings. We may, of however, and may, however, meanings. ordering continuity inter in which school practices tend to internote some ways school in which note practices ways interfere rupt consecutiveness of language and thereby interfere of consecutiveness thereby language rupt harmfully importance reflection, (a) with systematic (a) Teachers have Importance systematic reflection. harmfully with cu " of consecuif M d if discourse. a habit of monopolizing continued iscourse. any, tive a habit of monopolizing continued Many, ^! ^v^ discourse at course if informed at not be surprised would be instructors would not most, surprised if most, instructors have time of the they the amount of of the the day of the end of the end they day of conver talked Children's converwith any as compared talked as pupil. any pupil. compared with in brief sation to answering confined to often confined is often sation is questions in brief answering questions sentences. phrases, or in single disconnected sentences. ExpatiaExpatiaphrases, or in single disconnected
7

<

186 tion tion

HOW WE THINK

Too minute questioning questiomng

Making Making
avoidance avoidance

of the of erlOl error the

aim

for the are reserved and explanation explanation are reserved for the teacher, teacher, who at an of the hint at an answer on the the part part of the often admits any often admits any hint he the child and then amplifies what supposes the child must pupil, then supposes amplifies pupil, of sporadic habits of have meant. The habits have meant. sporadic and fragm<tntary fragmentary discourse thus promoted promoted have inevitably inevitably a disintegrating disintegrating discourse thus intellectual influence. intellectual influence. short lessons when accom too short (b) Assignment accomof too (#) Assignment of the order to it usually is in order to pass the time of the panied (as v time u } s j n of the pass pan j e(j ^ s ^ usua minute "analytic" questioning recitation period) period) by by recitation "analytic" questioning at its its height has effect. This evil evil is is usually usually at height the same effect. has the in history and literature, as history not in such subjects literature, where not subjects as material is so so the material is minutely subdivided as infrequently the subdivided as minutely infrequently break up up the the unity unity of meaning belonging belonging to to a a given given to break of meaning to the matter, matter, to to destroy destroy perspective, perspective, and in portion of of the in portion the whole topic topic to to an accumulation accumulation of effect reduce the to reduce effect to of the same level. More disconnected details details all all upon the level. disconnected upon his mind carries the teacher teacher is aware, !tis carries and and often than is aware, than the often the of background of unity of meaning meaning against against supplies of unity supplies the background pupils project project isolated isolated scraps. which pupils scraps. of attain (c) Insistence upon upon avoiding error instead instead of attain avoiding error (c) Insistence to interruption of continuous ing power power tends tends also also to continuous disdis interruption of ing course and thought. thought. Children begin with with something something course Children who begin to say with intellectual intellectual eagerness to say say it it are to are some some eagerness to say and with so conscious times conscious of of minor errors in substance substance times made so errors in and form that that the the energy energy that that should go into into constructive constructive should go is diverted thinking is diverted into anxiety not to mistakes, to make into mistakes, thinking anxiety not even, in in extreme cases, cases, into passive quiescence and even, into passive quiescence as as the the best best method of of minimizing error. This tendency tendency minimizing error. with the the writing writing of of is especially is in connection connection with especially marked in has even even been been compositions, essays, and themes. themes. It It has compositions, essays, little children that little gravely children should should always gravely recommended that always write on in short sentences because write on trivial trivial subjects and in short sentences because subjects in that in that way way they they are less likely likely to mistakes, while while are less to make mistakes,

LANGUAGE AND AND THE THE TRAINING TRAINING OF OF THOUGHT THOUGHT LANGUAGE

I87 187

the teaching teaching of of writing writing to to high high school school and and college college the a to itself reduces students occasionally reduces itself to a technique for technique for students occasionally selfThe mistakes. detecting and designating mistakes. The resulting selfand resulting designating detecting consciousness and and constraint constraint are are only only part part of of the the evU evil consciousness that comes comes from froTIl a a negative negative ideal. ideal. that

CHAPTER FOURTEEN FOURTEEN

OBSERVATION AND AND INFORMATION OBSERVATION INFORMATION IN IN THE THE TRAINING TRAINING OF OF MIND MIND
is an ordering THINKING is of subject-matter with refref ordering of subject-matter with to discovering erence to what it signifies or indicates. it or indicates. discovering signifies exists apart Thinking this arranging of Thinking no more exists apart from this arranging of subject-matter than digestion occurs apart from the occurs from the subject-matter digestion apart of food. food. The way assimilating in which which the the subjectassimilating of way in subjectis furnished furnished marks, matter is a fundamental fundamental marks, therefore, therefore, a If the point. If the subject-matter provided in too scanty is provided in too point. subject-matter is scanty or too too profuse or profuse fashion, in disordered disordered array or if it it comes in fashion, if array or in is in isolated isolated scraps, scraps, the the effect effect upon upon habits habits of of thought thought is detrimental. If personal detrimental. If personal observation observation and and communica communication tion of of information information by by others others (whether (whether in in books books or or speech) are are rightly rightly conducted, conducted, half half the the logical logical battle battle is is speech) won, for for they they are are the the channels channels of of obtaining obtaining subjectsubjectwon, matter. matter.

Fo thinking No thinking without acquaintance quS^^Tce" with facts with facts

I. r. The Nature Nature and Value Value of of Observation Observation

The The protest, protest, mentioned mentioned in in the the last last chapter, chapter, of of educa educational tional reformers reformers against against the the exaggerated exaggerated and and false false use use of of language, language, insisted insisted upon personal and and direct direct observa observa-

upon personal

Fallacy of of Fallacy

making "facts" au
end end in in
thwnselves themselves

The reformers reformers The felt that the the current current emphasis emphasis upon upon the the linguistic linguistic factor factor eliminate d a11 eliminated all opportunity opportunity for for first-hand first-hand acquaintance acquaintance with with real real things; things; hence hence they they appealed appealed to to sense-percepsense-perception to fill the gap. It is not surprising that this g enthusiastic enthusiastic zeal zeal failed failed frequently frequently to to ask ask how how and and why why
felt that

tion tion as as the the proper proper alternative alternative course. course.

188 188

OBSERVATION AND INFORMATION OBSERVATION

189 189

observation observation

is is educative, educative, and and hence hence fell fell into into the the error error of of making observation observation an an end end in in itself itself and was satisfied satisfied making with any kind kind of of material material under under any any kind kind of of conditions. conditions. with any isolation of of observation observation is is still still manifested manifested in in the the Such isolation

statement that that this this faculty faculty develops develops statement

first, then then that that of of first, and memory imagination, finally the faculty of and the of imagination, memory finally faculty thought. From this this point point of of view, view, observation observation is is re rethought. garded as furnishing crude masses of material, to raw as crude masses of material, to furnishing garded which, later on, reflective processes may be applied. which, later on, reflective processes may applied. previous pages pages should should have made obvious obvious the the fal falOur previous by bringing bringing out out the the fact fact that that lacy of of this this point point of of view by lacy simple concrete concrete thinking thinking attends attends all all our our intercourse intercourse with with simple not on a purely physical level. things which is a is on level. which not purely physical things sYlIl!)aI. All All persons persons have a a natural natural desire desire - akin akin to to curioscurios- The syn^aI. thetic ity for a widening of their range of acquaintance of their of a for range acquaintance motive in widening ity things. The sign in art art galleries galleries that that extending with persons persons and things. with extending sign in acquaintforbids the carrying of canes and umbrellas is obvious umbrellas is obvious forbids the carrying of canes ance is not fact that that simply simply to not enough enough testimony to to the to see see is the fact testimony of lack lack of of acquaintfor is a a feeling there is for many feeling of acquaint people there many people; This demand ance is made. contact is direct contact until some direct ance until different from for is quite closer knowledge fuller and closer for fuller quite different knowledge is its own sake. sake. for any conscious interest in observation for its in observation interest conscious any " self-realization," is its is motive. for" its motive. Desire for for expansion, Desire for self-realization," expansion, The interest is sympathetic, interest is aesthetically socially and resthetically sympathetic, socially interest rather than cognitive. While the interest sympathetic, than cognitive. sympathetic, rather ex actual their is children (because in children is especially (because their actual exespecially keen in so perience their possible small and their so small is so experience so possible experience perience is routine has not large), adults when routine it still characterizes adults still characterizes large), it interest blunted This sympathetic interest provides This its edge. blunted its provides sympathetic edge. the and binding together what for carrying the medium for together binding carrying discon would of items, multitude of a multitude be a would otherwise otherwise be diverse, disconitems, diverse, These systems nected, use. intellectual use. no intellectual and of of no systems are nected, and intelindeed rather than consciously and resthetic aesthetic rather social and indeed social consciously intel;

190

THINK HOW WE THINK

but lectual; but they they provide provide the the natural natural medium for for more more lectual ; conscious intellectual intellectual explorations. explorations. Some educators educators have have conscious

that nature nature study study in in the the elementary elementary schools schools recommended that be conducted conducted with with a a love love of of nature nature and a cultivation cultivation of of be in view rather rather than in in a purely purely resthetic appreciation appreciation in aesthetic analytic spirit spirit. Others Others have urged urged making making much of of the the analytic care of of animals animals and plants. plants. Both of of these these important important care recommendations have grown grown out out of of experience, experience, not not out out recommendations but they they afford afford excellent excellent exemplifications exemplifications of of of theory, theory, but of the theoretic theoretic point point just just made. the
Analytic Analytic inspection inspection for the the sake sake for of doing doing of

II. In In normal normal development, development, specific specific analytic analytic observa observaalmost connected originally connected almost exclusively with originally exclusively with the imperative imperative need need for for noting noting means and ends in in carry carrythe ing on on activities. activities. When one is is doing doing something, is something, one is ing it is to is succeed if the is to succeed (unless it is purely compelled, if the work (unless compelled, purely of touch touch as guides routine), to use use eyes, eyes, ears, ears, and sense of guides routine), to of the a constant alert exercise exercise of to constant and alert Without a action. to action. senses, not even plays plays and games go on; on; in in any senses, not games can go any form of of work, obstacles, appliances, failures, materials, obstacles, work, materials, appliances, failures, and successes, Sense-percepsuccesses, must be intently Sense-percep intently watched. for purposes of or for its own sake or tion for its occur for tion does does not occur purposes of of suc factor it is is but because it an indispensable factor of suctraining, but because indispensable training, in doing. cess is interested interested in cess in in doing Although doing. Although doing what one is senseeffects sensenot for sense-training, this method effects this for not designed sense-training, designed in the most economical and thoroughgoing training in the economical thoroughgoing way. way. training for teachers for Various Various schemes have been designed designed by by teachers as of forms, cultivating observation of forms, as prompt observation sharp and prompt cultivating sharp in an unknown language,by words, - even in language, writing words, by writing making of figures forms, arrangements of geometrical forms, figures and geometrical making arrangements after and having pupils reproduce them after a momentary momentary having pupils reproduce see in quick skill in attain great glance. often attain Children often quick seegreat skill glance. Children ing and full reproducing of even complicated meaningof full complicated meaning ing reproducing less of training such methods of less combinations. combinations. But such training ~
II.

tions are are tions

OBSERVATION AND INFORMATION

19 1 191

as occasional occasional games however valuable as diversions games and diversionscompare very unfavorably the training of eye compare very unfavorably with the training of eye and as an incident of work with tools tools in hand that comes as in of wood or metals, or of gardening, cooking, or the care of or care of metals, gardening, cooking, animals. Training by isolated exercises leaves deisolated animals. exercises no leaves de Training by posit, leads nowhere; and even the the technical leads nowhere technical skill skill acac posit, little quired little radiating power, or transferable value. has or value. transferable radiating power, quired of observation on the Criticisms made upon upon the training training of the Criticisms ground that many persons cannot correctly reproduce ground correctly reproduce many persons of the figures the forms and arrangement of Direct Direct and the arrangement of figures on the face of ct their watches misses point because because persons persons do not not sense indirect the point misses the their find out whether four o'clock look to find o'clock is is indiindi- training training at a watch to look at it is, cated by IIIl by IV, IV, but to to find find out what time it is, III I or or by cated by and, this matter, matter, noting other de deif observation observation decides this and, if noting other of time. tails is time. In the the training training is irrelevant tails irrelevant and a waste of of observation the question question of of end and motive is is allallof observation the important. important. de- Scientific III. intellectual or or scientific, Scientific III. The further, scientific, defurther, more intellectual the the follows line of observation velopment of observation follows line of growth ::~!~~: growth ^Hnked velopment of practical practical into theoretical reflection reflection already already traced traced problems problems into theoretical of (ante, problems emerge are emerge and are (ante, Chapter Chapter Ten). Ten). As problems dwelt upon, observation is directed directed less less to the facts facts observation is dwelt upon, that bear bear upon a practical practical aim and more upon upon what that upon a observa bears upon upon a problem problem as as such. such. What makes observabears is (more tions in intellectually ineffective ineffective is often intellectually in schools tions schools often (more are than anything else) that they are carried on independthat than independ they anything else) ently a sense of a a problem problem that that they they serve to to define sense of of a ently of is seen this isolation isolation is or help to to solve. evil of of this The evil solve. or help through the educational system, the kin kinentire educational the entire system, from the through dergarten, through the elementary to schools, to high schools, elementary and high through the dergarten, the college. Almost everywhere may be found, found, at some the everywhere may college. if they time, recourse observations as if they were of com comto observations recourse to time, means instead plete and final value in themselves, instead of the in value final themselves, plete
;

^^

2 19 192

HOW WE THINK

.. ObjectObject" S lessons" rarely rarey supply suppiy problems problems

that bears upon of material that of getting and upon some difficulty getting material difficulty and I*1 the its In * ts solution. s l ut i n tne kindergarten obserheaped up kindergarten are heaped up observations vations regarding forms, lines, lines, surfaces, regarding geometrical geometrical forms, surfaces, the elementary on. In the cubes, school, so on. cub es> colors, under colors, and so elementary school, under the the form and properties of "object-lessons," the name of properties "object-lessons," selected almost of almost at of objects, at chalk, - selected orange, chalk, apple, orange, objects, - apple, the while random, are minutely noted, while under the name of are of random, minutely noted, " " nature study" are directed "nature similar observations are similar observations directed upon upon study in almost equally leaves, selected in leaves, stones, stones, insects, insects, selected equally arbitrary arbitrary fashion. school and college, In high fashion. In mi college, laboratory high school laboratory and miif the are carried as observations the croscopic observations are carried on as if accumuaccumu croscopic the acquisition of observed facts facts and the lation lation of of skill skill in in acquisition of in manipUlation were educational ends in themselves. educational themselves. manipulation Compare with these these methods of observations of isolated isolated observations Compare with that observation of Jevons observation as the the statement of as conducted conducted Jevons that " scientific men is effective" only when excited excited and by scientific is effective and by only " " guided by hope of verifying verifying a theory"; and again, and the guided by hope of again, "the theory number of of things things which can be observed experiobserved and experi mented upon if we merely set upon are are infinite, infinite, and if to work work to to merely set to record record facts facts without without any any distinct distinct purpose, purpose, our our records records will will have no value." value." Strictly Strictly speaking, speaking, the the first first statement statement of of Jevons Jevons is is too too narrow. narrow. Scientific Scientific men institute institute observa observations not to tions not merely merely to test test an idea idea (or (or suggested suggested explanatory explanatory meaning), but also also to to locate locate the the nature nature of of a a problem problem and and meaning), thereby guide guide the the formation formation of of a a hypothesis. hypothesis. But But the the thereby that scientific scientific men never never principle of of his his remark, remark, namely, namely, that principle make the the accumulation accumulation of of observations observations an an end end in in itself, itself, but but always always a means to to a a general general intellectual intellectual conclusion, conclusion, is is absolutely absolutely sound. sound. Until Until the the force force of of this this principle principle is is in adequately recognized in education, observation will be adequately recognized education, observation will be largely a a matter matter of of uninteresting uninteresting dead dead work or or of of acquir acquirlargely ing forms of of technical technical skill skill that that are are not not available available as as in ining tellectual tellectual resources. resources.
-

OBSERVATION OBSERVATION AND AND INFORMATION INFORMATION

193 193

2. 2. Methods Methods and and Materials Materials of oj Observation Observation in in the the Schools Schools The best best methods methods in in use use in in our our schools schools furnish furnish many many The for right place in suggestions for giving observation its observation its giving suggestions right place in mental training. training. mental I. I. They They rest rest upon upon the the sound sound assumption assumption that that observaobserva- Observation ObservatiOll should inis active tion is an active process. process. Observation Observation is is exploration, exploration, ^JJJ^L"' tion volve disthe sake sake of of discovering discovering something something previously previously covery inquiry for for the covery inquiry hidden and unknown, unknown, this this something something being being needed needed in in hidden order to to reach reach some end, end, practical practical or or theoretical. theoretical Ob Oborder servation is is to to be be discriminated discriminated from from recognition, recognition, or or servation of identification perception of is familiar. identification of what is familiar. The of perception an is, indeed, indispensomething already understood understood indeed, is, indispen something already sable function function of of further further investigation investigation (ante, (ante, p. p. 119); but sable 119); but observation it is relatively automatic and passive, while observation while and automatic is it passive, relatively proper is searching and deliberate. deliberate. Recognition Recognition refers refers is searching proper is concerned the already with to the observation is concerned with mastered j observation to already mastered notions that mastering the unknown. The common notions that the unknown. mastering of paper, perception is is like blank piece on a blank like writing paper, or piece of writing on perception seal is as a seal like is the mind as like impressing image on the impressing an image imprinted on wax or as a picture is formed on a photois a as or on photo picture imprinted r61e disastrous role graphic that have played played a disastrous plate (notions graphic plate (notions that distin to distinfailure in arise from a failure to arise educational methods), in educational methods), the searching guish automatic recognition between automatic searching recognition and the guish between attitude observation. observation. attitude of of genuine genuine andsussusof appropriate II. selection of the selection in the II. Much assistance assistance in appropriate and pense during considermaterial for observation may be derived from considerderived material for observation may be an unfolding change attend change that attend ing observation that of observation and closeness closeness of the eagerness ing the eagerness and ob of Alertness of obthe or drama. drama. Alertness a story the following of a following of story or interest" is "plot servation there is wherever there at its is at its height servation is "plot interest." height wherever of the old Why? Because of the balanced combination of combination balanced the ? of Because Why We the unexpected. and and the familiar and and the the new, the familiar of the unexpected. We new, of of hang on the lips of the story-teller because of the the on the of story-teller hang lips are element Alternatives are suggested, Alternatives mental suspense. of mental element of suggested, suspense.
;

194 194

WE THINK HOW WE THINK HOW

:

This " plot This" plot interest" manifested in activity, activity,

and and in in cycles cycles of of growth growth

left ambiguous, that our whole being so that but are left ambiguous, so being questions: questions befell next? What befell Which way turn out? out? way did things things turn fullness with which a child Contrast the ease and fullness child notes notes all the the salient of a story, all salient traits traits of the labor labor and and story, with the of of his observation inadequacy of his observation of some dead and static static inadequacy thing raises a question or suggests alter thing where nothing nothing raises question or suggests alternative outcomes. native When an individual individual is is engaged in doing or making engaged in doing or making of such a mechanical something mechanical being of something (the (the activity activity not being an(j habitual its outcome is and habitual character character that that its is assured), there assured), there is an analogous is Something situation. is going to come come analogous situation. going to Something is of what is the sense, just what is of is present to the is doubtdoubt sense, but just present to ful. is unfolding The plot ful. success or or failure, plot is unfolding toward success failure, or how is is uncertain. but just just when or Hence the the keen uncertain. keen and tense tense observation observation of of conditions conditions and results results that that attends constructive constructive manual operations. attends the Where the operations. is of subject-matter is of a impersonal sort, the same more impersonal sort, the subject-matter of movement toward a denouement may principle of may apply. apply. principle It is It is a commonplace commonplace that that what is is moving moving attracts attracts notice notice when that that which is is at at rest rest escapes escapes it. it. Yet too too often often it it would almost been taken taken to to deprive deprive almost seem as as if if pains pains had been the the material material of of school school observations observations of of all all life life and and dra dramatic matic quality, quality, to to reduce reduce it it to to a a dead dead and inert inert form. form. Mere change change is is not not enough, enough, however. however. Vicissitude, Vicissitude, but if they they alteration, motion, excite observation; excite but if alteration, motion, observation; excite is there is thought. The changes merely excite it, there no it, merely thought. changes must (like (like the the incidents incidents of of a a well-arranged well-arranged story story or or plot) plot) take take place place in in a certain certain cumulative cumulative order order; each each succes successive at once once remind remind us us of of its its predecessor predecessor sive change change must at and arouse arouse interest interest in in its its successor successor if if observations observations of of change are are to to be be logically logically fruitful. fruitful. change animals, fulfill fulfill the the twofold twofold Living beings, beings, plants, plants, and animals, Living to an extraordinary degree. there requirement to there Where requirement extraordinary degree.
;

OBSERVATION OBSERVATION AND INFORMATION

is
;

195 195

is growth, growth, there there is is motion, motion, change, change, process process; and and there there is is

also arrangement arrangement of of the the changes changes in in a a cycle. cycle. The first first also the second second organizes, organizes, observation. observation. Much of of the the arouses, the arouses, extraordinary interest interest that that children children take take in in planting planting extraordinary watching the the stages stages of of their their growth growth is is due due to to seeds and watching seeds the fact fact that that a a drama is is enacting enacting before before their their eyes; eyes; the is something something doing, doing, each each step step of of which which is is impor imporis tant in in the the destiny destiny of of the the plant. plant. The great great practical practical tant that have occurred occurred of of late late years years in in the the improvements that improvements teaching of of botany botany and zoology zoology will will be found, found, upon upon in inteaching spection, to to involve involve treating treating plants plants and animals animals as as beings beings spection, that act, act, that that do do something, something, instead instead of of as as mere inert inert that specimens having having static static properties properties to to be be inventoried, inventoried, specimens registered. Treated Treated in in the the latter latter fashion, fashion, named, and registered. named, " observation is is inevitably inevitably reduced reduced to to the the falsely falsely" analytic" observation analytic" (ante, p. I 12), - to to mere dissection dissection and enumeration. enumeration. (ante, p. 112), There is, course, a place, place, and an important place, Observation of course, There is, of important place, for observation of of the static qualities of objects. the mere static for observation objects. qualities of hi is in interest When, however, the primary interest is in function, When, however, the primary function, in for more minute a motive what the motive for there is is a the object what does, there object does, Interest analytic study, for the observation of structure. Interest of structure. the for observation study, analytic how into in an activity passes insensibly into noting in noting noting insensibly passes activity noting accom is accomin what is interest the is carried on; the interest in the carried on is the activity activity its of its in the organs plished interest in into an interest over into organs of passes over plished passes is accomplishing. But when the beginning is made with the beginning accomplishing. of peculiarthe noting the the anatomical, the morphological, anatomical, the peculiar noting of morphological, the and distribution of parts, distribution ities of form, size, color, ities of form, size, color, parts, the as to to be dead and material off from significance is so so cut cut off material is significance as for look to dull. It for children children to look intently natural for dull. It is is as as natural intently for interested the after they a plant of a stomata of the stomata they have become interested plant after to attend it is is repulsive as it in of breathing, function of in its its function repulsive to breathing, as they are considered as isolated minutely to them when are to they minutely peculiarities of structure. of structure. peculiarities
;

there there

of structure grows out of of noting noting function

196
Scientific Scientific observation observation

HOW WE THINK

should be extensive extensive

and
intensive intensive

interest of of interest III. center of of observations observations becomes becomes III. As the center for effecting less a matter less personal, less matter of of means for less personal, one's effecting one's of contribution less a matter of less ;;esthetic, own ends, contribution aesthetic, less ends, and less to a total of parts to total emotional effect, of parts effect, observation becomes consciously intellectual intellectual in in quality. Pupils learn learn more consciously Pupils quality. what of the sake sake (i) of finding out sort of to to observe for the observe for sort of finding (Y) them of them; (i) of inferring hypothetical perplexity confronts confronts inferring hypothetical (zY) perplexity the puzzling puzzling features features that that observation observation explanations for the explanations for the ideas reveals; of testing testing the ideas thus thus suggested. reveals and (z"i) suggested. (iii) of in nature. scientific in In short, observation becomes scientific nature. short, observation said that Of such observations may be be said that they they should observations it it may should rhythm between the the extensive the intensive. follow a rhythm extensive and the follow a intensive. explanations Problems become definite, definite, and suggested suggested explanations a wide and between a by a certain alternation significant certain alternation significant by in relevant facts and a mi somewhat loose loose soaking in of relevant facts miof soaking study of a few selected facts. The nutely accurate accurate a selected facts. of nutely study wider, less exact observation is necessary to give give the less exact observation is the wider, necessary to student a feeling the reality reality of of the the field field of inquiry, a for the of inquiry, feeling for sense of sense its bearings bearings and possibilities, possibilities, and to to store his of its store his mind with that imagination imagination may may transform transform with materials materials that into suggestions. The intensive is necessary necessary for into intensive study for suggestions. study is limiting the problem, for securing the conditions of and the conditions of the for limiting securing problem, latter As the latter by itself is too experimental testing. the itself is too experimental testing. by technical to intellectual growth, growth, specialized to arouse intellectual specialized and technical the by itself itself is is too too superficial superficial and scattering the former by for scattering for of intellectual the the sciences control control of In sciences intellectual development. development. of life, field study, excursions, excursions, acquaintance with living of life, field study, living acquaintance with in their natural habitats, with things in alternate with their natural habitats, may things may alternate In the the physical physical microscopic and laboratory observation. In microscopic laboratory observation. of electricity, phenomena of of heat, heat, of electricity, of of sciences, of light, sciences, phenomena light, of moisture, of gravity, in their their broad broad setting in naturenature in moisture, of gravity, in setting their their physiographic physiographic setting prepare for for an exact exact should prepare setting - should of study of selected facts under conditions of laboratory selected of facts conditions study laboratory
;

OBSERVATION AND INFORMATION

197 197

In control. control. In this this way, the student student gets gets the benefit of of the benefit way, the scientific methods of technical technical scientific and testing, of discovery and discovery testing, while of the retains his his sense of the identity laborawhile he retains of the the labora identity of

tory tory

modes of of energy realities, out-of-door realities, energy with large large out-of-door thereby avoiding the impression (that so often accrues) so often impression (that thereby avoiding accrues) facts studied are that that the the facts are peculiar peculiar to the laboratory. to the laboratory.

3. 3. Communicatz"on Informatz"on Communication of of Information

all is said and done the When all is said the field of fact fact open open to to field of one observer by anyone by himself himself is is narrow. narrow. Into everyone of Into every one of any that we have worked out our beliefs, beliefs, even those those that under the the our out under

Importance Importance
of hearsay

a^ acquaintance

of utmost personal, conditions of personal, first-hand first-hand acquaintance, acquaintance, conditions entered we have heard heard much has insensibly entered from what have insensibly
of the observations or read read of observations or

and conclusions others. conclusions of of others.

the great In spite spite of in of the extension of of direct direct observation observation in great extension our vast bulk of of educational educational subject-matter our schools, schools, the vast subject-matter other sources text-book, lecture, lecture, is derived from other sources - from text-book, is derived

and viva-voce viva-voce interchange. question is educational question No educational is interchange. than how the of import than to get the logical good to of greater most get logical good greater import out of of learning through transmission transmission from others. others. out learning through chief meaning meaning associated with the the Doubtless the the chief associated with Doubtless is this this conveying and instilling of the instruction is of the word -instructz"on instilling conveying of others* results of the observations and inferences of others. the inferences observations results of the undue prominence prominence in of the the Doubtless the in education of Doubtless ideal information (ante, p. 52) has its source its source of amassing ideal of (ante, p. amassing information 52) has in the prominence prominence of of the the learning learning of of other other persons. persons. in the problem then then is is how to to convert convert it intelinto an intel it into The problem material supplied In logical logical terms, terms, the the material lectual asset. In lectual asset. supplied from the the experience is testimony: tes#mony: that that is is to to Logically, Logicany. of others others is from experience of to others evidence say, evZ"dence submitted by others to be employed by ~~r:::i employed by ^^jj^ by say, denceor How conclusion. one's own judgment in reaching a conclusion. dence or in one's reaching judgment unan7 shall we treat the subject-matter supplied by text-book testimony text-book treat the subject-matter supplied by shall for reflecas material for teacher so reflecit shall shall rank as that it and teacher so that

198

HOW WE THINK
ready-made intellectual intellectual pabulum pabulum ready-made swallowed just just as as supplied supplied by by the the and swallowed

tive inquiry, inquiry, not not as as tive to be be accepted accepted to store? ? store
Communiby cation by cation

others others

In reply reply to to this this question, question, we may may say say (i) (i) that that the the comcomIn needed. That is is to to say. say, munication of of material material should should be needed. tnunication J *

not should not should

it should should be be such such as as cannot cannot readily readily be attained attained by by perperit encroach on or cram book to teacher sonalobservation. teacher or to pupils For pupils observation, sonal observation. with facts facts which, which, with with little little more trouble, trouble, they they could could with is to violate violate their their intellectual intellectual by cultivating cultivating mental servility. servility. This does does not not integrity by integrity that the the material material supplied supplied through through communication mean that of others others should should be be meager meager or or scanty. scanty. With the the utmost utmost of world of nature and the range of the senses, the of nature history the of senses, history range out almost almost infinitely infinitely beyond. beyond. But the the fields fields stretches out stretches within which direct direct observation observation is is feasible feasible should should be within sacredly protected. protected. carefully chosen and sacredly carefully chosen (ii) Material should be supplied by way way of of stimulus, stimulus, supplied by (if) Material not with with dogmatic dogmatic finality rigidity. When pupils pupils not finality and rigidity. field of of study that any get the notion notion that study has been definitely definitely any field get the it is is exhaustive exhaustive and final, surveyed, about it that knowledge final, knowledge about surveyed, that to cease they may continue docile pupils, but they cease to be docile continue pupils, they they may is it is think so whatsoever All whatsoever-so be it thinkstudents. All thinking students. thinking ing This originality of originality. a phase contains a originality phase of originality. ing - contains varies from that the student's conclusion varies does that the student's does not not imply imply it is is a radically that it the less that of others, the conclusions conclusions of others, much less radically is not incompatible novel conclusion. His originality is novel conclusion. incompatible originality contributed with materials and suggestions use of of materials with large suggestions contributed large use in the the interest in by Originality others. personal interest Originality means personal by others. in turning over the suggesquestion, personal initiative in initiative sugges turning personal question, in following tions furnished by tions furnished others, and sincerity following sincerity in by others, them out the phrase a tested conclusion. Literally, to a tested conclusion. out to phrase Literally, is Think for is tautological; any thinking is for yourself" "Think tautological; any thinking is yourself" thinking for one's self. for one's self. thinking
is to
j(

by direct direct inquiry inquiry discover by discover

not should should not be dogmatic in tone,

OBSERVATION AND INFORMATION

199 199
should should have have

(iii) The material material furnished furnished by l?y way way of of information information (ii%) should be relevant relevant to to a question question that that is is vital vital in in the the should student's own experience. experience. What has been said said about about student's the evil evil of of observations observations that that begin begin and end in in themselves themselves the may transferred without change to transferred be without to communicated change may learning. Instruction Instruction in in subject-matter subject-matter that that does does not not learning.
fit into into any any problem problem already already stirring stirring in in the the student's student's own in a experience, or that is not presented in such a way way as as to to or is not that such presented experience, arouse a problem, problem, is is worse than useless useless for for intellectual intellectual arouse purposes. In In that that it it fails fails to to enter enter into into any any process process of of purposes. reflection, it it is is useless useless; in in that that it it remains in in the the mind as as reflection, so much lumber and debris, debris, it it is is a barrier, barrier, an obstruc obstrucso tion in in the the way way of of effective effective thinking thinking when a problem problem tion arises. arises. is that way of the same principle principle is that of stating Another way stating the material furnished by communication must be such furnished by material as to enter organization of or organization as to enter into into some existing existing system system or of experience. All students of psychology students All psychology are familiar experience. assimilate with the principle of apperception that we assimilate of the with apperception - that principle retained new material and retained with what we have digested material with digested " " basis from prior experiences. Now the" apperceptive the apperceptive basis" prior experiences. of teacher and text-book should material furnished furnished by of material by teacher de learner has debe as far as possible, in what the learner as far as be found, found, possible, in of his his own experience. rived rived from more direct direct forms of experience. school There is to connect connect material of the schoola tendency is a tendency to room simply with the material of prior school lessons, of material the with lessons, prior simply instead the pupil it to to what the of linking instead of acquired in pupil has acquired linking it his out-of-school experience. his out-of-school says, "Do experience. The teacher says, last you not remember what we learned from the book last learned not you " Do " - instead of saying, "Do such recall such week? you instead of saying, week ? " you not recall " As a a heard ? or heard?" and a thing that you and such such a you have seen or thing that result, there are built up detached and independent independent result, there are built up systems that inertly of school school knowledge overlay the inertly overlay knowledge that systems of
fit
;

personal ^0^** problem,

problem,

relation to a

and to prior andtoprio* systems of experience

200

HOW WE THINK

HOW WE

ordinary systems reacting to to experience instead of reacting ordinary systems of experience enlarge and refine them. Pupils Pupils' are taught to live live in in enlarge taught to two separate ex worlds, one the world of out-of-school exseparate worlds, perience, the other the world of books and lessons. lessons. perience,

CHAPTER FIFTEEN FIFTEEN CHAPTER

THE RECITATION RECITATION AND AND THE THE TRAINING TRAINING OF OF THOUGHT THOUGHT THE

IN the the recitation recitation the the teacher teacher comes comes into into his his closest closest importance IN Importance the contact with with the the pupil. pupil. In In the the recitation recitation focus focus the the of contact recitation possibilities of guiding children's activities, influencing children's activities, influencing possibilities of guiding their their language habits, habits, and directing directing their their observations. observations. language In discussing discussing the the significance significance of of the the recitation recitation as as an In instrumentality of of education, education, we are are accordingly accordingly bring bringinstrumentality last three the ing' to a the points considered in the last three in considered head the a to points ing The a new chapters, rather introducing topic. than rather topic. introducing chapters, method in recitation is is carried is a crucial crucial carried on is the recitation in which the method
intellectual test in diagnosing skill in a teacher's teacher's skill of a test of diagnosing the intellectual state and in supplying the conditions that in his pupils state of of his supplying pupils will serviceable mental responses: short, of arouse serviceable will arouse responses in short, his as a a teacher. teacher. art as his art The use to designate recitation to the word recitation of the Re-citing use of period Re-citing designate the period of teacher with versus of most intimate intellectual contact of of most intimate intellectual refiecting fact. pupil and pupil with pupil is a fateful fact. To re-cite pupil and pupil with pupil is a fateful If we is over and over. If tell over to tell to repeat, to cite cite again, is to repeat, to again, to the were to call this period reiteration, the designation this call were to designation period reiteration, word the word does the than does would more clearly out more would hardly clearly than bring out hardly bring instruction of recitation, the complete domination of instruction by domination the by recitation, complete rehearsing of secondhand information, by memorizing secondhand memorizing of information, by rehearsing at the the proper for correct replies of producing proper sake of the sake for the replies at producing correct in is inthis chapter in this time. that is in is said is said that chapter time. Everything Everything that truth the primary significant in comparison with with the primary truth that significant in comparison and for stimulating time for the and time a place is a stimulating and recitation is the recitation place and memorized directing that reproducing and that reproducing memorized reflection, and directing reflection,
:

201

202

WE THINK HOW WE

matter is only only an incident incident - even though though an indispen< indispen. matter is in the sable incident - in the process of cultivating cultivating a a thought thought. sable incident process of attitude. ful ful attitude.

Herbart's Herbart'. analysis analysis of of method of teaching teaching of

I. i.

Instruction The Formal Steps Steps of of lnstrltc#on

Illustration Illustration of method of

But few few attempts attempts have have been made to to formulate formulate a a of method, resting on general principles, of conducting method, resting general principles, conducting is of a of these these is of great a recitation. recitation. One of and great importance importance and has probably probably had more and better better influence influence upon upon the the others put "hearing lessons" than all all others put together; together; of lessons" "hearing of the analysis namely, by Herbart of of a recitation recitation into into analysis by namely, the The steps are commonly commonly known five five successive successive steps. steps are steps. of instruction." instruction." as steps of The underlying underlying as "the formal steps in no matter matter how subjects vary in scope and notion is is that that no notion subjects vary scope and detail there is is one and only one best way of mastering one of detail there best only way mastering is a single them, there is since there uni them, since "general method" unisingle "general mind attack formly followed by the in effective attack upon the in effective followed upon by formly a first-grade it be any Whether it be a child master masterfirst-grade child subject. any subject. a grammar-school of number, ing the rudiments rudiments of number, a grammar-school pupil ing the pupil dealing with studying history, history, or or a college student dealing with college student studying in case the first is philology, in each case the first step is preparation, each philology, step preparation, the the second presentation, presentation, followed in turn turn by by comparison comparison followed in the application of the and generalization, ending in in the the generalization, ending application of to generalizations to specific and instances. new instances. generalizations specific By preparation preparation is asking questions questions to to remind remind is meant asking By of pupils of familiar experiences of their own that will be their that will be familiar pupils experiences of useful one already already useful in in acquiring the new topic. topic. What one acquiring the the means with with which one one apprehends apprehends knows supplies supplies the the unknown. the Hence the process of learning the the new of learning the process will if related will be be made easier easier if ideas in in the the pupil's pupil's mind related ideas are brought to to the the foreground are aroused aroused to to activity activity - are are brought foreground of consciousness. of of take up the study study of When pupils take consciousness. pupils up the they are first questioned about streams or brooks rivers, are first brooks about or streams rivers, they questioned

RECITATION AND AND TRAINING TRAINING OF OF THOUGHT THOUGHT 203 RECITATION 203

with which which they they are are already already acquainted acquainted; if if they they have have with never seen seen any, any, they they may may be be asked asked about about water water running running never
;

in gutters. gutters. in

" " Somehow" apperceptive masses masses" are stirred stirred Somehow are apperceptive of the the new new subject subject. The The that will will assist assist in in getting getting hold hold of that

of the the aim aim of of step of of preparation preparation ends ends with with statement statement of step the lesson. lesson. Old Old knowledge knowledge having having been been made made active, active, the
" is then then " "presented" to the the pupils. pupils. new material material is to new presented
;

PicPic tures and relief models of rivers are shown; vivid oral of rivers are vivid models shown oral and relief tures descriptions are are given given; if if possible, possible, the the children children are are descriptions taken to to see see an an actual actual river. river. These These two two steps steps termi termitaken nate the the acquisition acquisition of of particular particular facts. facts. nate next two two steps steps are are directed directed toward toward getting getting a a The next is general principle or conception. local' river is river The local or conception. general principle compared with, with, perhaps, perhaps, the the Amazon, Amazon, the the St. St. Law Lawcompared and accidental rence, the Rhine; by this comparison accidental this the Rhine; by comparison rence, is concept unessential features are eliminated and the river the river eliminated are features unessential concept is are formed: the elements involved in the river-meaning. are in the involved formed the elements river-meaning the re regathered This done, and formulated. formulated. This done, the. together and gathered together is clarified clarified by sulting in mind and is fixed in is fixed by principle is sulting principle to the the to other streams, say to Thames,the being applied other to Thames/ihe streams, say being applied Po, the Connecticut. '-" '. Po, the Connecticut. in- Comparison of inthe methods of If of the account of this account If we compare Comparison compare this struction of a complete operation wi~ oural a of own analysis our own with our struction with complete operation pnor analysis an y' ^.^^ of sis of resemblances. of we are struck by obvious resemblances. In sis obvious are struck of thinking, by thinking, reflection are reflection our steps" are the "steps" statement (compare our statement Chapter Six) Six) the" (compare Chapter a puzzling the or a a problem of a the occurrence occurrence of phenom puzzling phenomproblem or locate to locate of enon; then observation. inspection of facts, facts, to enon then observation, inspection a of a formation the and then the formation of the problem; and clear clear up problem then up the solution of a hypothesis or the suggestion of a possible possible solution hypothesis or the suggestion the then the together with its by reasoning; then elaboration its elaboration with reasoning; by together a guide as a it as testing of the elaborated idea by using it guide testing of the elaborated idea by using each In to In each and experimentations. observations and new observations to new experimentations. and facts and is the sequence of (i) specific facts account, there of the is there specific (*) sequence account,
;

20 2O4 4

HOW WE THINK

The formal con steps steps concern the teacher's teacher's preparation preparation rather than rather than the recita the recitaitself tion tion itself

The
teacher's teacher's

problem problem

events, ideas and reasonings, of events, (ii) reasonings, and (iii) application of (iif) application (it) ideas facts. result to to specific their In each case, their result the movemove case, the specific facts. are struck struck also is inductive-deductive. inductive-deductive. We are also by ment is one by one the Herbartian method makes no reference difference: difference the reference a discrepancy a difficulty, to to a as requiring explanation, discrepancy requiring explanation, as difficulty, a the stimulus of the and stimulus of the whole process. As a the origin a process. origin if the the it often often as Herbartian if Herbartian method consequence, it seems as method consequence, incident in in the with thought as an incident the process deals deals with thought simply process simply as instead of of treating the latter of of acquiring latter information, instead treating the acquiring information, of developing as an incident in the the process incident in as an process of developing thought. thought. in more this comparison more detail, Before Before following detail, comparison in up this following up the we may raise the question whether the recitation should, raise the recitation should, question may follow a a uniform uniform prescribed ir ir any series of of steps case, follow prescribed series any case, steps it be if it --: even even if be admitted admitted that that this this series series expresses the expresses the In reply, it may be said that just no .'mallogicalorder. normal In it order. said be that logical reply, may just beeause the the order order is it represents the survey survey of is logical, because of logical, it represents the made suJ:.?ect-matter by one who already understands by already understands subject-matter the path it, Lot the path of progress followed by a a mind mind that of progress followed by that is is it, rot learning. former may describe a a uniform uniform straight straightThe former learning. may describe waf course, the the latter latter must must be be a a series of tacks, tacks, of series of of zigway course, zig zag movements movements back back and and forth. forth. In In short, short, the the formal formal zag steps indicate the the points points that that should be covered covered by by the the should be steps indicate teacher in preparing preparing to to conduct conduct a a recitation, recitation, but but should teacher in should not not prescribe prescribe the the actual actual course course of of teaching. teaching. Lack of on the the part part of of a a teacher teacher of any any preparation preparation on of leads, of course, to a random, haphazard recitation, its to a leads, course, random, haphazard recitation, its success success depending depending on on the the inspiration inspiration of of the the moment, moment, which may or may mayor may not not come. come. Preparation Preparation in in simply simply the to a a rigid rigid order, order, the the teacher teacher the subject-matter subject-matter conduces conduces to on their their exact exact knowledge knowledge of of their their text text. examining pupils pupils on examining But the the teacher's teacher's problem problem - as as a a teacher teacher - does. does .not not reside reside in in mastering mastering a a subject-matter, subject-matter, but but in in adjusting adjusting a a subject-matter subject-matter to to the the nurture nurture of of thought thought. Now the the
:
:

RECITATION AND AND TRAINING TRAINING OF OF THOUGHT THOUGHT 2O$ 205 RECITATION

formal steps steps indicate indicate excellently excellently well well the the questions questions aa formal teacher should should ask ask in in working working out outthe the problem problemof of teach teachteacher ing a a topic. topic. ing What preparation preparation have have my my pupils pupils for for at atWhat of familiar tacking this subject? What familiar experiences of What ? this experiences subject tacking are available available? What have have they they already already learned learned theirs are ? What theirs ? that will will come come to to their their assistance assistance? How shall shall II present present How that and the matter so as to fit economically and effectively into fit to as so the matter effectively into economically I ? show shall their present equipment? What pictures shall I show? What their present equipment pictures ? inci What attention To what objects shall I call their attention? What inciTo what objects shall I call their dents shall shall I I relate? relate? What What comparisons comparisons shall shall I I lead lead dents them to to draw, draw, what what similarities similarities to to recognize? recognize? What What them is the the general general principle principle toward toward which which the the whole whole dis disis cussion should should point point as as its its conclusion? conclusion? By By what ap apcussion make to and clear try to fix, to clear up, to plications shall I to to I shall fix, up, try plications real their their grasp grasp of of this this general general principle? principle? What real home to it activities of their may bring it to them as as own their activities of may bring a genuinely significant principle? ? a genuinely significant principle con- Only:flenhas conhe has if he better if teach better No teacher to teach fail to can fail teacher can sidered such questions somewhat systematically. But bility of sidered such questions systematically. procedure a the reflected upon has reflected gives a teacher has the teacher probable gives more the upon puplls' pupils* probable the more standfrom the various stand- ~~:on intellectual a topic to a intellectual response topic from response to he points indicated by the five formal steps, formal five the indicated steps, the more he by points a flexible flexible in a recitation in will the recitation conduct the to conduct be prepared will be prepared to to the let and free way, and yet not let the subject go not and go to subject free and yet way, directions all directions; in all drift in pieces and the pupils' attention drift attention the and pupils' pieces a to preserve order to in order the find it, he find will he preserve a it, in less necessary the less necessary will one some follow to semblance of intellectual order, to follow some one semblance of intellectual order, take advantage to take uniform will be be ready advantage He will scheme. He ready to uniform scheme. from any itself shows of any sign of vital response that shows itself from any of any sign of vital response that some have direction. inkling One pupil already have some iriklingdirection. One may already pupil may probably erroneous -of a general of a Applica principle. Applicageneral principle. probably erroneous to in order order to then come at beginning in tion the very at the come then beginning tion may very may and thereby not work, show will not work, and thereby the principle that the show that principle will
?
;

206
Any step step Any may come may

HOW WE THINK

first

induce facts and a a new generalization. generalization. for new facts search for induce search or object of some fact Or abrupt presentation of fact or may ^ rU p^ presentation Q r the a object may as to to render of pupils so the minds minds of render quite stimulate the so stimulate pupils as quite If pupils' pupils' superfluous any preliminary preparation. preparation. If superfluous any preliminary it is is quite that at all, all, it impossible that they minds are are at at work at quite impossible they should wait until until the the teacher teacher has has conscientiously taken should wait taken conscientiously of preparation, presentation, and them through the steps and preparation, presentation, steps of through the at at least a working hypothecomparison before they form least before working hypothe comparison they unless comparison sis generalization. Moreover, Moreover, unless comparison of sis or or generalization. of introduced at at the the familiar familiar and and the the unfamiliar unfamiliar is is introduced the the beginning, both both preparation preparation and presentation presentation will will be be beginning, aimless without logical isolated, and and in in aimless and without motive, isolated, logical motive, so student's mind cannot be student's cannot The far meaningless. so far be meaningless. in par for something at large, but only parprepared something in large, but prepared at only for the ticular, and presentation is usually the best way is best of ticular, presentation usually way of evoking associations. emphasis may fall on The fall now associations. on emphasis may evoking the familiar that will will help help grasp grasp the the new, new, now the familiar concept concept that the on new facts that frame but in either on the the facts that frame the problem problem; but in either with the case it it is contrast with is comparison and contrast the other other term term case comparison and In of the either its force. of the pair pair which which gives its force. In short, short, gives either to transfer the steps from the points that that the the the points to transfer the logical logical steps teacher needs needs to to consider to uniform uniform successive successive steps steps teacher consider to in the a recitation, the conduct is to in of a recitation, is to impose the logical logical conduct of impose the of a review of the review a mind that that already understands the subject, understands already subject, upon the the mind that that is is struggling struggling to it, and to comprehend upon comprehend it, to mind. thereby to obstruct the logic of the student's obstruct the of the student's own mind. logic thereby

2. 2.

The Factors Factors in in the Recz'tation the Recitation

in mind that formal steps Bearing in that the the formal represent interinter Bearing steps represent of a twined factors a student's progress and not not mileposts mileposts factors of student's progress on a a beaten beaten highway, highway, we may by itself. consider each each by itself. may consider In so it will be convenient to so doing, it will be convenient to follow the example follow the doing, example of many of many of the Herbartians reduce the the steps steps to to of the Herbartians and reduce

RECITATION AND AND TRAINING TRAINING OF OF THOUGHT THOUGHT 2O/ RECITATION 207

three: first, first, the the apprehension apprehension of of specific specific or or particular particular three facts; second, rational rational generalization generalization; third, application application facts second, ; third, ;
:

and verification. verification. and 1. The The processes processes having having to to do do with with particular particular facts facts Preparation I. Preparation is getting are preparation preparation and and presentation. presentation. The The best, best, indeed indeed the the ^f are g^f of
the sense of only preparation preparation is is arousal arousal to to a a perception perception of of something something a a problem problem only that needs explanation, something unexpected, puzzling, needs that explanation, something unexpected, puzzling, peculiar. When the the feeling feeling of of a a genuine genuine perplexity perplexity lays lays peculiar.

any mind (no (no matter matter hold of of any hold

how the the feeling feeling arises), arises), that that mind is is alert alert and inquiring, inquiring, because because stimulated stimulated from mind shock, the the bite, bite, of of a a question question will will force force the the within. The shock, within. mind to to go go wherever wherever it it is is capable capable of of going, going, better better than mind will the the most most ingenious ingenious pedagogical pedagogical devices devices unaccom unaccomwill of the sense panied by this mental ardor. It is the sense of a a It is ardor. mental this panied by of recall and that forces the to a survey recall of problem mind to the that forces survey problem the past past to to discover discover what the the question the question means and how it be dealt with. dealt with. it may may be call to call The teacher in his deliberate attempts his more deliberate teacher in attempts to a student's in a student's experience, into elements in familiar elements into play the familiar experience, play the of must certain dangers. must guard step of dangers, (i) (i) The step against certain guard against ex or too expreparation too long be too not be long continued or preparation must not in loses inend. The pupil haustive, its own end. it defeats defeats its or it pupil loses haustive, or res terest in medias res might in a plunge is bored, and is terest and might bored, when a plunge have his work. work. The preparation to his have braced braced him to part of preparation part re the of some conscientious teachers reconscientious of the recitation recitation period period in run a minds one of the boy who takes so long a run in order so takes of the one minds long boy reaches the he reaches to when he that when a jump for a to gain jump that headway for gain headway The line, he is too tired to jump far. (ii) The organs far. organs by by (if) line, he is too tired to jump To habits. our habits. To are our which material are new material we apprehend which we apprehend new habitual disposiinsist over habitual insist too too minutely disposi turning over upon turning minutely upon their be&t with their tions interfere with is to to interfere be$t ideas is into conscious conscious ideas tions into in must workings. Some factors of familiar experience must infamiliar of factors Some experience workings. transas deed to conscious recognition, just as transconscious to deed be be brought recognition, just brought

in Ktfafls Pitfalls in preparation

208

HOW WE THINK

Statement Statement
of of of aim of lesson lesson

How much
the the teacher teacher should tell tell should or or show

planting is necessary necessary for for the the best best growth growth of some plants. plants. planting is it is is fatal to be be forever up either either experiences experiences But it forever digging fatal to digging up are getting or to see they are getting along. along. Constraint, Constraint, or plants see how they plants to the consequence consequence of self-consciousness, embarrassment, are the of self-consciousness, embarrassment, too conscious refurbishing refurbishing of of familiar experiences. too much conscious experiences. it down that Herbartians generally lay it that stateStrict Strict Herbartians state generally lay of mentby the teacher-of the aim of a lesson is of the lesson is an ment teacher the by indispensable part of preparation. This preliminary of preparation. indispensable part preliminary the aim of lesson hardly hardly seems more statement of the of the the lesson statement of tapping a bell bell intellectual intellectual in in character, however, than tapping character, however, or any other transfer of of or giving for attention attention and transfer other signal giving any signal for the teacher To the teacher the thoughts diverting subjects. from the diverting thoughts subjects. statement of of an end is is significant, because he has has already already statement significant, because the been at at the the end; from a pupil's standpoint the statement end from statement pupil's standpoint is something of an Irish going to to learn of is going of what he is learn is Irish something of bull. If the statement taken too too seriously bull. If the of the the aim is statement of is taken seriously by as meaning meaning more than than a a signal signal to to atthe instructor, at instructor, as by the its probable the pupil's pupil's own tention, its probable result result is is forestalling tention, forestalling the of the the responsibility of developresponsibility of reaction, relieving him of reaction, relieving develop ing problem and thus thus arresting his mental mental initiative. initiative. ing a problem arresting his is unnecessary It is It unnecessary to to discuss at length presentation as discuss at as length presentation in the a factor the recitation, recitation, because because our our last last chapter chapter factor in topic under under the of observation observation and covered the covered the topic the captions captions of communication. The function of presentation presentation is is to to supfunction of sup that a ply materials that force home the nature of problem materials force the nature of ply problem and furnish with it. pracfurnish suggestions it. The prac for dealing dealing with suggestions for tical the teacher teacher is is to preserve a balance betical problem problem of of the a balance be to preserve so little fail to telling as to fail to stimulate stimulate tween so little showing showing and telling as to reflection reflection and so so much as to choke thought thought. Provided Provided as to the the student student is is genuinely upon a topic, topic, and pro proengaged upon genuinely engaged teacher is a good vided the the teacher is willing willing to to give the student student a give the good of leeway as to retains (not deal of to what he assimilates assimilates and retains leeway as (not requiring rigidly that everything be grasped or reproreprothat be requiring rigidly grasped or everything
;

RECITATION AND TRAINING OF THOUGHT 209 209

little danger duced), there is is comparatively comparatively little that one one who duced), there danger that enthusiastic will is himself himself enthusiastic will communicate too too much con concerning cerning a topic. topic. II. II. The distinctively rational phase phase of of reflective in- The reflective inThepupU's distinctively rational pupil's 63?0118 responsibilwe have quiry consists, as already seen, in the elaborain the f elaboraquiry consists, already seen, for ity for malt< ity tion working hypothesis, hypothesis, through tion of an idea, ing out a idea, or working through conjoint conjoint ing reasonable comparison contrast, terminating terminating in definition or or reasonatle in definition comparison and contrast, case formulation, far as the recitation recitation is is concerned, formulation. (i) (z) So far as the concerned, the is that the primary primary requirement that the the student be held held student be requirement is for working out mentally mentally every responsible for responsible working out suggested every suggested by it, it, how principle so as to to show what he means by principle it bears facts at it bears upon the facts at hand, hand, and how the the facts facts upon the it. Unless is made responsible bear upon upon it. Unless the the pupil pupil is responsible for bear for his the the reaso1zableness of the developing on his own account reasonableness of the developing guess the recitation recitation counts for practically practically counts for forth, the guess he puts puts forth, in nothing in the training of reasoning power. clever the of nothing training reasoning power. A clever teacher easily dropping out the teacher in dropping out the skill in great skill acquires great easily acquires inept pupils, and in in selectsenseless contributions contributions of of pupils, select inept and senseless the result ing and emphasizing those in in line line with with the result he ing emphasizing those wishes to to reach. reach. But this this method (sometimes called wishes (sometimes called the of relieves "suggestive questioning") relieves the pupils of intelintel pupils "suggestive questioning ") follow lectual responsibility, save save for for acrobatic agility in in followacrobatic agility lectual responsibility, ing the teacher's lead. teacher's lead. ing the less The (ii) The working of a a vague vague and more or or less over of Then6te8< nc*es< working over (if) sityfor definite form is is impossible impossible j^^JJ casual idea into coherent coherent and definite idea into casual mental leisure without a without freedom from distraction, distraction. leisure a pause, without pause, without " " We say" think"; well, all all reflection reflection involves, involves, well, Stop and think say Stop observations and re at reexternal observations at some point, stopping external point, stopping an idea may mature. mature. Meditation, Meditation, with withactions so that idea may that an actions so of the assailants of drawal from clamorous assailants the abstraction from drawal or or abstraction senses and from demands for overt action, is as as necessary necessary for overt senses action, is are observation observation and experi at the reasoning as are experiat the stage, as reasoning stage, of digestion other periods. periods. The metaphors metaphors of at other ment at digestion and
Tnftip*

is

HOW WE WE THINK THINK HOW

assimilation, that that so so readily readily occur occur to to assimilation, with with
silent,

mind mind in in connection connection

A typical Atypical

central central

necobject nec object essary essary

Importance Importance of of types types

are highly highly instructive. instructive. A rational elaboration, elaboration, are rational uninterrupted working-over working-over of of considerations considerations by by silent, uninterrupted alternative is and weighing alternative suggestions, is comparing and suggestions, weighing comparing and coherent of com the development of coherent and comindispensable for the for development indispensable pact conclusions. conclusions. Reasoning Reasoning is is no more more akin akin to to disput disputpact and ing or arguing, or to the abrupt seizing dropping of the or to dropping of abrupt seizing ing or arguing, of a the to is than digestion is to a noisy champing of the suggestions, noisy champing suggestions, than digestion jaws. The teacher teacher must secure secure opportunity opportunity for for leisurely leisurely jaws. mental digestion. digestion. mental (z"i~) In the process of of comparison, comparison, the the teacher teacher must (iii) In the process avert the the distraction distraction that that ensues ensues from putting putting before before avert the mind mind a a number of of facts facts on the the same level level of of im imthe some one is portance. Since attention is selective, object attention Since selective, object portance. thought and furnishes furnishes the the center center of of normally claims claims thought normally the suc is fatal fatal to This and reference. fact is to the sucdeparture reference. departure con cess pedagogical methods that that endeavor to to conof the the pedagogical cess of the before mind of duct the basis basis of putting duct comparison putting before the comparison on the a of equal a row of of objects comparing, importance. In comparing, equal importance. objects of the not naturally does not the mind does c, d, d, #, b, c, objects a, begin with objects naturally begin It bebe in and to find the respect in which they agree. It the find to and try agree. they respect try or less less vague or situation situation more or gins a single with a vague single object object or gins with to and and makes excursions to other in meaning, and inchoate inchoate in meaning, central of in order to render understanding of the centra] objects to order in understanding objects clear. object The mere multiplication consistent and clear. multiplication object consistent reason to successful reasonis of of comparison is adverse to of objects of comparison objects of Each fact brought within the field of comparison within field ing. fact brought comparison ing. or extend some should feature or obscure feature clear up should clear up some obscure fragmentary trait of of the the primary object. primary object. fragmentary trait to see see that that the object In should be taken to In short, short, pains object pains should is typical: on centers is which thought on which being typitypical: material being typi thought centers as it is is such such as cal individual or or specific, cal when, when, although although individual specific, it an enof the and fruitfully suggests the principles of an enreadily and principles fruitfully suggests readily
,

RECITATION AND TRAINING OF THOUGHT 211 2II

tire

tire class class of of facts. facts. No sane sane person person begins begins to to think think about about rivers rivers wholesale wholesale or or at at large. large. He begins begins with with the the one river river that that has has presented presented some puzzling puzzling trait. trait. Then one studies other other rivers rivers to to get get light light upon upon the the baffling baffling he studies at the the same time time he he employs employs features of of this this one, one, and at features the characteristic characteristic traits traits of of his his original original object object to to reduce reduce to to the order the multifarious details that appear in connection the multifarious details that in connection order appear other with other with
rivers.

rivers.

This working working back and forth forth pre preThis

it from mo moserves unity unity of of meaning, meaning, while while protecting protecting it serves notony and narrowness. narrowness. Contrast, Contrast, unlikeness, unlikeness, throws throws notony features into these become instru instrusignificant features into relief, relief, and these significant ments for for binding binding together together into into an organized organized or or coher coherments ent meaning meaning dissimilar dissimilar characters. characters. The mind is is de deent the deadening deadening influence influence of of many many isolated isolated fended against against the fended particulars and also also against against the the barrenness barrenness of of a a merely merely particulars and properties supformal principle. Particular cases Particular cases formal principle. properties sup ply emphasis and concreteness; general principles conconcreteness general principles con ply emphasis
;

vert the the particulars particulars into into a a single system. vert single system.
All insight insight is not (z'v) generalization is not a separate single All separate and single (z) Hence generalization into meanact; it it is rather a constant tendency tendency and function of of the the ^g a constant is rather act ffectT ing e effects generalizentire recitation. Every or recitation. discussion or entire discussion step forward generaiizEvery step ation that explains, toward an that that comprehends, idea that an idea toward explains, that comprehends, that unites what therefore puzzling, puzzling, generisolated and therefore what was isolated unites gener adoles as as alizes. The little as truly as the adoleslittle child child generalizes alizes. truly generalizes cent at the the even though or adult, cent or adult, even though he does not arrive at his river same generalities. If he is studying a river basin, his is he basin, If same generalities. studying as knowledge is generalized in so far as the various details far in so knowledge is generalized sin a SiDof a effects of that to be the effects are found to he apprehends that he apprehends are from downward gle of water from water pushing that of as that pushing force, as gle force, his of a a single gravity, or are seen to be successive stages of hissuccessive to are seen be or single stages gravity, tory of formation. Even if there were acquaintance if there acquaintance tory of formation. condi it under such condiof it one river, knowledge of with one with only knowledge river, only knowledge. tions be generalized tions would would be knowledge. generalized
;

212

HOW WE THINK

into Insight of conscious conscious stating, The factor factor of of formulation, involved insight into formulation, of stating, involved meaning also be a constant function, should in also * n generalization, should function, generalization, requires Squire? formulation not Definition means essentially act. Definition a single not a formal act. single formal essentially

GeneraUzaGeneralizationmeans capacity for application application e new to the

fossilized :Fossilized

versus
flexible flexible

principles principles

into dejinz"teout of of vagueness a meaning the of a the growth vagueness into meaning out definitegrowth of as takes takes place definition as ness. Such final final verbal verbal definition ness. should place should a in of be the culmination of a steady growth in distinctthe culmination be only distinct steady growth only verbal definiIn ness. reaction against ness. In the the reaction defini against ready-made ready-made verbal should tions and rules, the pendulum should never swing the to the tions the rules, swing to pendulum to summarize the of neglecting opposite that of the extreme, that neglecting to opposite extreme, net meaning that emerges net dealing with particular particular emerges from dealing meaning that are made from time facts. as general facts. Only time general summaries are Only as a resting a conclusion conclusion or or a to time does does the reach a to time the mind reach resting only as reached is place as conclusions conclusions are are reached is there there an an place j and only in intellectual available in future understanding. intellectual deposit available future deposit understanding. III. and gen. last words indicate, III. As the the last indicate, application application and genlie close eralization close together. together. Mechanical skill skill for for fureralization lie further use ther use may may be be achieved achieved without recogniwithout any explicit recogniany explicit t j on of ^ principle ^a in routine tion principle; nay, nay, in routine and narrow narrow technical technical a hindrance. matters, conscious conscious formulation formulation may be a hindrance. matters, may be But without without recognition of a a principle, recognition of principle, without without generalgeneral the power power gained gained cannot cannot be be transferred transferred to to new ization, the ization, and dissimilar inherent significance significance of dissimilar matters. matters. The inherent of is that it is that it frees a meaning from local regeneralization a frees from local re generalization meaning Z"S meaning meaning so so freed; freed; strictions; rather, rather, generalization generalization is strictions; it is so it is meaning meaning emancipated emancipated from from accidental accidental features features so as to be available as to available in in new cases. cases. The surest surest test test for for de detecting a a spurious spurious generalization generalization (a (a statement statement general general in in tecting verbal verbal form but but not not accompanied accompanied by by discernment discernment of of meaning), is is the the failure failure of of the the so-called so-called principle principle spon spon meaning), to essence of the general taneously to extend itself. extend itself. The essence of the taneously general is p. 29.) 29.) is application. application. (Ante, (Ante, p. ^e urP se of f exercises The true true P purpose exercises that that apply apply rules rules and and principles is, then, not so to drive or drill not so much them or drill to drive principles is, then,
;

RECITATION RECITATION AND TRAINING OF OF THOUGHT 213 21 3

in as as to to give give adequate adequate insight insight into into an an idea idea or or prin prinin To treat ciple. treat application application as as a separate separate final final step step is is ciple.
In every disastrous. every judgment judgment disastrous. for as a basis ployed basis for estimating estimating ployed
;

some meaning meaning is is em emand interpreting interpreting some fact; by by this this application application the meaning meaning is is itself itself enlarged enlarged fact tested. When the the general general meaning meaning is is regarded regarded as as and tested. complete in in itself, itself, application application is is treated treated as as an external, external, complete non-intellectual use to to which, which, for for practical practical purposes purposes alone, alone, non-intellectual it is is advisable advisable to to put put the meaning. meaning. The principle principle is is one it self-contained thing thing; its its use is is another and independent independent self-contained thing. this divorce occurs, occurs, principles principles become When this thing. fossilized and rigid rigid; they they lose lose their their inherent vitality, vitality, fossilized their self self-impelling power. their power. -impelling A true true conception conception is is a 'moving moving idea, idea, and it it seeks outoutA let, or or application application to to the interpretation interpretation of of particulars particulars and let, the guidance guidance of of action, action, as as naturally naturally as water runs downthe hill. In fine, fine, just just as as reflective reflective thought thought requires requires particuparticuhill. lar facts facts of of observation and events of of action for its its lar facts and deeds origination, it also also requires requires particular particular facts so it origination, so " " for its own consummation. "Glittering for its Glittering generalities" generalities is are Application inert because they are inert Application is spurious. they are spurious. as intrinsic part as much an intrinsic inquiry genuine reflective inquiry part of genuine itself. as Truly or reasoning observation or is alert alert observation as is gen Truly genreasoning itself. eral tend to apply themselves. The teacher to eral principles apply principles needs, to supply indeed, to needs, indeed, supply conditions favorable to use and artificial tasks exercise; but something is wrong exercise wrong when artificial something is have arbitrarily to be invented in order to secure apap arbitrarily to plication for principles. principles. plication for
; ; ;

Self-app1i~ Seif-appH-

na cation ^ ^^ mark of genuine

genuine

prindples

CHAPTER SIXTEEN
SOME GENERAL CONCLUSIONS
shall conclude conclude our our survey survey of of how we think think and WE shall should think think by by presenting presenting some factors factors of of how we should but each which con thinking should balance other, conbalance which should other, thinking stantly tend tend to to become so so isolated isolated that that they they work against against stantly each other other instead instead of of cooperating cooperating to to make reflective reflective in ineach quiry efficient. efficient. quiry

The
understood

I. i.

The Unconscious the ConsCous Conscious The Unconscious and the

It that one meaning of the term underunderis significant It is meaning of significant that

as the the tinunas ~onsciously consciously

!l.Ssumed. assumed

stood is something so thoroughly mastered, so completely so thoroughly is something stood mastered, so completely is to assumed agreed upon, as to be assumed; that is to say, to as ; say, taken as a agreed upon,
matter without explicit course without of course matter of explicit statement. The familiar If "it is is understood." "goes without saying" If without saying'* means "it "goes it two persons can converse intelligently' with each other, it other, intelligently persons is supplies a background a common experience is because because a background experience supplies re their respective of of mutual understanding respective reo upon which their understanding upon to this marks are To dig up and to formulate this are projected. dig up projected. " it is is "under under imbecile it common background background would be imbecile; stood" sup-plied and im-plied it is is silently that is, stood" ; that is, it im-plied as the silently sup-plied ideas. taken-for-granted of inteIligentexchange taken-f or-granted medium of intelligent exchange of ideas. crossfind If, find themselves at crossIf, however, however, the two persons persons to purposes, it is necessary to dig up and compare the preit is compare pre dig up purposes, necessary which basis of the implied context, on the basis of which suppositions, the context, implied suppositions, is made ex-plicit; each each is is speaking. ex-plicit what speaking. The im-plicit im-plicit is of to the light is was assumed is exposed to the assumed was unconsciously light of exposed unconsciously misunderof the the root In conscious In this way, the root of the misunderthis conscious day. way, day.
;

Inquiry as Inquiry as conscious conscious formT,tlation formulation

214 214

SOME GENERAL CONCLUSIONS

21 5 215

is removed. is Some such rhythm the uncon unconof the rhythm of is involved and the conscious is involved in in all all fruitful fruitful A person thinking. A person in in pursuing pursuing a consecutive train of consecutive train of thinking. takes of ideas thoughts takes some system of ideas for granted (which for thoughts system granted (which unexpressed, "unconscious") accordingly "unconscious ") as as accordingly he leaves unexpressed, in as he with surely as does in conversing with others. Some conothers. con surely conversing text, some situation, controlling purpose purpose dominates dominates situation, some controlling text, so thoroughly his ideas so that it it does does not not need need his explicit thoroughly that explicit ideas to be consciously formulated and expounded. to consciously formulated expounded. Explicit Explicit limits of of what is thinking goes the limits is implied or goes on within the thinking implied or understood. the fact fact that that reflection reflection originates a understood. Yet the in a originates in it necessary necessary at at some points points consciously consciously problem makes it problem to to inspect inspect and examine this this familiar familiar background. background. We turn upon upon some unconscious unconscious assumption and have to to turn assumption and make it it explicit. explicit. rules can be be laid laid down for for attaining the due balance balance No rules attaining the of these two of mental rhythm of these phases of life. and rhythm life. No ororphases prescribe at at just just what point the spontaneous dinance can prescribe point the spontaneous of some unconscious habit is is to to be be working of unconscious attitude attitude and habit working is implied in it. it. checked till till we have made explicit explicit what is implied in far the Noone in detail detail just just how far the analytic analytic intell in in one can tell No are to carried. to be carried. We can say say spection and formulation formulation are spection so that individual that they they must be be carried far enough enough so that the individual carried far that able to to guide is about about and be able his will know what he is will guide his how far that? We is thinking; but in a given case just far is tha.t? in a case but given just thinking detect and can say that they be carried carried far far enough to detect can enough to they must be say that false guard against the the source perception or or of some false perception source of guard against reasoning, and to to get a leverage the investigation investigation; leverage on the get a reasoning, the original but such restate the such statements statements only but original difficulty. difficulty. only restate reliance must be upon upon the the disposition tact Since our reliance Since our disposition and tact is no test of the individual particular case, there is test in the the particular individual in of the case, there the of the the success of an education than the education more important success of of important of mind competent extent which it it nurtures a type type of competent to to nurtures a extent to to which

standing standing
scious scious

^^^^

Rules Rules cannot be given for attain* inga fog balance

2l6 ZI6

HOW WE THINK THINK HOW WE

The overoverThe

analytic

to be avoided avoided

The detecdetecThe tion of error, ^ctoch-*' the clinching ing of of truth, truth, demand consciotis conscious statement statement

of the the unconscious balance of maintain maintain an an economical economical balance unconscious and and the conscious. conscious. the in the the foregoing The criticised in The ways of teaching teaching criticised ways of foregoing pages pages " " of analytic" methods of instruction (ante, as instruction methods as false" fal se (ante, p. analytic p. IIZ), 112), all reduce mistake of of directing all themselves to to the the mistake reduce themselves directing explicit explicit attention would work to what what would attention and and formulation formulation to work better better if if and working left assumption. an unconscious attitude and left an unconscious attitude working assumption. To the usual, the automatic, To pry into the the familiar, familiar, the usual, the automatic, simply pry into simply for the sake of making it conscious, simply it for the sake of making for the the sake sake of of conscious, simply for formulating both an impertinent is both and it, is interference, and formulating it, impertinent interference, a source a To be forced source of of boredom. forced to to dwell dwell consciously consciously upon the accustomed is is the the essence essence of of ennui; to pursue upon the ennui; to pursue methods of of instruction instruction that that have that that tendency is dede tendency is to cultivate of liberately to cultivate lack of interest. interest liberately On the other hand, hand, what has has been said said in in criticism criticism of of merely routine what has been said about merely forms of of skill, routine forms has been said about skill, the the importance importance of of having having a genuine genuine problem, problem, of of introintroducin the novel, novel, and of of reaching reaching a a deposit deposit of of gengenducing the eral the other other side side of of the the scales. scales. eral meaning meaning weighs weighs on the It It is is as as fatal fatal to to good good thinking thinking to to fail fail to to make con conscious the standing standing source source of of some error error or or failure failure as as scious the it it is is to to pry pry needlessly needlessly into into what what works works smoothly. smoothly. To over-simplify, to to exclude exclude the the novel novel for for the the sake sake of of over-simplify, the sake sake of of averting averting prompt skill, skill, to to avoid avoid obstacles obstacles for for the prompt try to to get get pupils pupils to to formu formuerrors, is is as as detrimental detrimental as as to to try errors, late they know know and and to to state state every every step step of of the the late everything everything they in process employed in getting a result. Where the shoe a result. Where the shoe process employed getting pinches, analytic analytic examination examination is is indicated. indicated. When When a a pinches, is to be clinched topic is to be clinched so that knowledge of it will carry so that topic knowledge of it will carry over over into into an an effective effective resource resource in in further further topics, topics, conscious conscious condensation condensation and and summarizing summarizing are are imperative. imperative. In In the the early stage stage of of acquaintance acquaint-nce with with a a subject, subject, a a good good deal deal of of early unconstrained unconstrained unconscious unconscious mental mental play play about about it it may may be be

CONCLUSIONS SOME GENERAL CONCLUSIONS

21 7 217

permitted, even even at at the the risk risk of of some random experiment experimentpermitted, ing j in in the the later later stages, stages, conscious conscious formulation formulation and and re reing
;

may be be encouraged. encouraged. Projection Projection and reflection, reflection, view may view ahead and back in turning in scrutiny, should going directly turning scrutiny, should going directly freshalternate. Unconsciousness Unconsciousness gives gives spontaneity spontaneity and fresh alternate. ness; consciousness, consciousness, conviction conviction and control. controL ness
;

2. 2. Process Process and Product Product

like balance balance in in mental mental life life characterizes characterizes process process and and piay A like Play and work again We met one important phase of this adjustproduct. of this important phase adjustproduct. in considering considering play play and work. work. In In play, play, interest interest cen cenment in ters in in activity, activity, without without much reference reference to to its its outcome. outcome. ters sequence of of deeds, deeds, images, images, emotions, emotions, suffices suffices on on The sequence its own account. In work, work, the the end holds holds attention attention and In account. its the notice notice given given to to means. means. Since the difference difference controls the Since the controls is of em the contrast is one of emis one of direction of interest, is one of direction of interest, the contrast not of cleavage. When comparative comparative prominence prominence phasis, not of cleavage. phasis, or outcome is in Of activity is transformed transformed consciousness 6f in consciousness activity or into the other, of one from the isolation of into isolation other, play degenerates play degenerates into and work into drudgery. into into fooling, drudgery. fooling, " of disconnected Playshoul4 Play should series of By understand a series fooling" we understand By " fooling" not be temporary overflows of energy dependent upon whim of overflows fooling, energy dependent upon temporary is elimielimi to outcome is and reference to all reference accident. When all and accident. acts that make nated ideas and acts of ideas from the the sequence nated from sequence of loose from cut loose play, is cut the sequence of the each member of sequence is play, each every j other and becomes fantastic, aimless; fantastic, arbitrary, arbitrary, aimless every other tend mere There is inveterate tendis some inveterate follows. mere fooling fooling follows. is th~ tha ency as in in animals j nor is as well well as in children children as to fool fool in ency to militates it militates tendency wholly evil, for at least it against at least for against evil, tendency wholly in amount, is excessive excessive in falling But when it it is into ruts. ruts. amount; falling into and disintegration follow; and the only dissipation follow way only way disintegration dissipation for to of this consequence is to make regard is this of preventing, regard for consequence preventing> results activity. freest play the freest into even even the enter into results enter play activity.
; ;

218 218
nor work, tlor work, dru,dgery drudgery

HOW WE THINK

Balance of of

playfulness playfulness and serious seriousness the ness the

intellectual intellectual ideal ideal

in the result result alters alters work to Exclusive interest in Exclusive interest to drudg" drudg is meant those activities For by drudgery is in ery. activities in drudgery by ery. in the outcome does not suffuse which the the interest interest in suffuse the the result. of getting Whenever a piece means of of work work piece of getting the result. of loses all the process of doing loses all value becomes drudgery, value doing process drudgery, for what is is to for cares solely the doer; to be had doer he cares for the had at at solely for the The work itself, the putting forth of it forth of it. the end of of enen itself, putting it is is just ergy, is hateful; since without without evil, since hateful; it just a necessary necessary evil, ergy, is it it some important it is is a a important end would be missed. Now it of the in the work of the world many that in commonplace commonplace that many things things of which is have to the doing is not not intrinsically to be done the doing of intrinsically the argument that very interesting. However, the that children children However, argument interesting. very doing drudgery-tasks because thereby should should be kept because kept doing drudgery-tasks thereby to faithful they acquire power to be faithful to distasteful duties, to distasteful is duties, is they acquire power and evasion are wholly fallacious. Repulsion, shirking, fallacious. are evasion Repulsion, shirking, wholly of having the repulsive the having the repulsive imposed imposedthe consequences consequences of not love of duty. Willingness to work for not loyal love of to for ends ends by Willingness loyal duty. by of acts means of acts not not naturally natwrally attractive is best best attained attained by attractive is by securing appreciation of of the the value value of of the the end end securing such an appreciation that that a a sense sense of of its its value value is is transferred transferred to to its its means of of interesting in in themselves, themselves, they they accomplishment. Not interesting accomplishment. borrow interest the result result with with which which they they are are interest from the associated. associated. The intellectual intellectual harm accruing accruing from from divorce divorce of of work work and play, play, product product and process, process, is is evidenced evidenced in in the the "All work and no play makes Jack a dull proverb, no proverb, Jack a dull play the obverse obverse is is true true is is perhaps perhaps sufficiently sufficiently boy." That the boy." signalized in in the the fact fact that that fooling fooling is is so so near near to to foolish foolishsignalized ness. playful and serious serious at at the the same time time ness. To be playful is it defines defines the the ideal ideal mental mental condition. condition. is possible, possible, and it Absence of of dogmatism dogmatism and prejudice, prejudice, presence presence of of intel intellectual and flexibility, flexibility, are are manifest manifest in in the the free free lectual curiosity curiosity and of the mind a play of the mind upon a topic. give the mind this To the mind this play upon topic. give
;

SOME GENERAL GENERAL CONCLUSIONS CONCLUSIONS SOME

9 2 21 19

free play play free but but

is

is not not to to encourage encourage toying toying with with a a subject, subject, is is to to be be interested interested in in the the unfolding unfolding of of the the subject subject on its its own own account, account, apart apart from from its its subservience subservience to to a a on is aim. preconceived belief or habitual aim. Mental play is or habitual Mental belief play preconceived open-mindedness, faith faith in in the the power power of of thought thought to to Free Free play pIa1 open-mindedness, of of mind mind and preserve its own integrity without external supports and without external its own supports integrity preserve arbitrary restrictions. restrictions. Hence Hence free free mental mental play play involves involves arbitrary seriousness, the earnest following of the development of of the earnest the seriousness, following development of or with carelessness It is incompatible with carelessness or subject-matter. It is incompatible subject-matter. it exacts exacts accurate accurate noting noting of of every every result result flippancy, for for it flippancy, reached in in order order that that every every conclusion conclusion may may be be put put to to reached further use. use. What is is termed termed the the interest interest in in truth truth for f01' further its own sake sake is is certainly certainly a a serious serious matter, matter, yet yet this this pure pure its normal in isnormaIin interest in in truth truth coincides coincides with with love love of of the the free free play play of of is interest childhood childhood thought. thought the contrary In spite many appearances appearances to to the usuof many In contrary - usu spite of ally due to social conditions of either undue superfluity of either superfluity ally due to social conditions that or undue economic pressure idle fooling induces idle that induces pressure fooling or the realizes the that childhood normally that compels normally realizes drudgery - childhood compels drudgery ideal mental play free mental of conjoint ideal of thoughtfulness. play and thoughtfulness. conjoint free Successful of children have always children of Successful portrayals always made portrayals their lack their obvious as their as obvious at least least as intentness at wistful intentness their wistful is in the present live in of for the morrow. To live is morrow. the for of worry present worry compatible with condensation of far-reaching meanings of with condensation meanings far-reaching compatible its for its the present of the in Such enrichment of Such enrichment the present. present for in the present. best the and childhood sake is the just heritage of childhood and the best own of the is own sake just heritage into preforced into insurer child forced The child future growth. pre of future insurer of growth. The de results remote mature concern with economic remote results may may demature concern with economic a in wits of in a particular velop a surprising sharpening of wits particular velop a surprising sharpening is always direction, this precocious always but this specialization is precocious specialization direction, but dullness. paid for by later apathy and dullness. and later for apathy by paid The atticommon saying. a common is a That in play saying, tude of tilt art originated That art play is originated in artist it artist Whether is historically correct, it the saying not the or not historically correct, Whether or saying is
^

220

WE THINK HOW WE HOW

art of of The art

the teacher culminates in in nurturing nurturing ibis attitude

suggests that harmony seri playfulness and seriharmony of mental playfulness suggests that artistic ideal. ideal. When the artist ousness describes the artistic artist is ousness describes is and materials, he preoccupied overmuch with means he materials, preoccupied may achieve wonderful technique, artistic technique, but not the artistic may achieve idea par excellence. When the animating idea is in spirit is excellence. in exex animating spirit far aesthetic of method, cess ::esthetic feeling may the command of cess of of the be method, feeling may be is art too but the art of presentation is too defective indicated, of the but defective indicated, presentation the thought to the feeling to express thoroughly. When the feeling thoroughly. express the thought it compels of so adequate of the the end becomes so transla adequate that it compels translaor when attention that embody tion the means that into the tion into attention it, or embody it, of the the end they to is inspired to means is recognition of inspired by by recognition they the attitude typical of the artist, serve, atti artist, an attiserve, we have the attitude typical in all be tude displayed in all activities, even though tude that that may activities, may displayed though arts. not not conventionally designated arts. conventionally designated is an art art and the true teacher an artist That teaching the true artist is is teaching is the teacher's teacher's own claim to rank a familiar saying. Now the familiar saying. claim to rank is measured by to foster as an artist his ability ability to foster the the attitude attitude artist is as by his of the the artist artist in in those those who study him, whether whether they they of study with him, be youth youth or or little little children. children. Some succeed in in arousing arousing in communicating large ideas, ideas, in evoking enthusiasm, in evoking enthusiasm, in communicating large well but the final well; but the final test is whether the energy. So far, test is whether the far, energy. stimulus stimulus thus thus given given to to wider wider aims aims succeeds succeeds in in transform transforming itself itself into into power, power, that that is is to to say, into the the attention attention to to ing say, into detail that that ensures ensures mastery mastery over over means of of execution. execution. detail If not, the the zeal zeal flags, flags, the the interest interest dies dies out, out, the the ideal ideal be beIf not, Other teachers teachers succeed succeed in in clouded memory. memory. Other comes a clouded training facility, skill, mastery of the technique of subtraining facility, skill, mastery of the technique of sub Again it it is is well well- so so far. far. But unless unless enlarge enlargejects. Again jects. ment of of mental mental vision, vision, power power of of increased increased discrimination discrimination of of final final values, values, a a sense sense for for ideas ideas - for for principles principlesaccompanies this this training, training, forms forms of of skill skill ready ready to to be be accompanies to end put indifferently to any may the result. Such be the result Such put indifferently any may modes of of technical technical skill skill may may display display themselves, themselves, accordaccord;

SOME GENERAL GENERAL CONCLUSIONS CONCLUSIONS SOME

221 221

ing to to circumstances, circumstances, as as cleverness cleverness in in serving serving self-inter self-intering or est, as as docility docility in in carrying carrying out out the the purposes purposes of of others, others, or est, as unimaginative unimaginative plodding plodding in in ruts. ruts. To To nurture nurture inspir inspiras ing aim aim and and executive executive means means into into harmony harmony with with each each ing other is is at at once once the the difficulty difficulty and and the the reward reward of of the the other teacher. teacher.
3. 3. The The Far Far and and the the Near Near

Teachers who who have have heard heard that that they they should should avoid avoid "Familiar.. F.amiliar. Teachers
breeds matters foreign foreign to to pupils' pupils' experience, experience, are are frequently frequently ity matters contempt," surprised to to find find pupils pupils wake up up when something something beyond beyond surprised their ken ken is is introduced, introduced, while while they they remain apathetic apathetic in in their child the considering the familiar. In geography, the child upon In the familiar. upon geography, considering

the plains plains seems seems perversely perversely irresponsive irresponsive to to the the intel intelthe lectual his local local environment, fascinated of his charms of environment, and fascinated lectual charms sea. or the sea. by whatever mountains or Teachers concerns mountains whatever concerns
extract from avail to to extract who little avail with little have struggled who have struggled with of pupils essays describing the details of things details the things with which pupils essays describing find them eager they are well acquainted, sometimes find eager they are well acquainted, of or imaginary themes. A woman of to on lofty write on to write lofty or imaginary a as education, her experience recorded her has recorded factory experience as a factory education, who has to some factory worker, Women to Little Womm girls tried retelling factory girls retelling Little worker, tried for it, little for cared during their working hours. They cared little hours. it, their They working during " more saying, "Those girls had no more interesting experience no had Those experience interesting girls saying, and millionaires and of millionaires than stories of demanded stories and demanded we have," than we have/' and con mental conthe mental in the society leaders. A man interested interested in man A leaders. society a Scotch Scotch asked a dition labor asked routine labor in routine those engaged of those dition of engaged in all about she girl in a cotton factory what she thought about all what thought girl in a cotton factory free was mind her as She replied that as soon as her mind was free day. as soon She replied that day. and a duke, married a from she married duke, and the machinery, from starting machinery, she starting the the of remainder of the day. the remainder their for the her for day. fortunes occupied theirfortunes occupied her en to enorder to in order told in not told are not Naturally, these incidents are incidents these Naturally, sensathe to the sensacourage methods of teaching that appeal to courage methods of teaching that appeal

by

222 222
since only only since the novel novel the demands demands attention, attention,

HOW HOW WE WE THINK THINK

which, which, in in

turn, turn,
old old

can can be be

given only only given through the the through

The The given given and and the the

suggested suggested

the extraordinary, tional, or the the incomprehensible. tional, the extraordinary, or incomprehensible. are They are told, however, to enforce the point that the told, however, to enforce the the They point that familiar and and the the near familiar near do do not not excite excite or or repay on repay thought thought on their own own account, but only their as they are adjusted account, but to only as they are adjusted to the strange mastering and remote. remote. It It is is a a commoncommon mastering the strange and of psychology that we place we do do not not attend attend to to the the old, place of psychology that old, nor consciously nor mind that to which we are thoroughly mind that to which we are consciously thoroughly accustomed. For this, is good there is reason to to devote this, there devote good reason: attention to to the the old, attention when new circumstances circumstances are are concon old, to which we should stantly should adjust stantly arising arising to adjust ourselves, ourselves, would be wasteful and dangerous. must be be dangerous. Thought Thought must for the new, reserved for the precarious, the problematic. new, the precarious, the problematic. Hence the mental constraint, the sense sense of of being constraint, the lost, being lost, to pupils that comes to are invited to turn are invited to turn their their pupils when they they that with thoughts upon that with which which they are already thoughts upon familiar, they are already familiar. The old, old, the the near, near, the the accustomed, is not that to which is that to not which accustomed, with which we attend but but that that wt"th attend; it it does does not not furnish furnish the the material material of of a a problem, problem, but but of of its its solution. solution. The last last sentence sentence has has brought brought us us to to the the balancing balancing of of new and old, the far far and and that that close close by, by, involved involved in in re reold, of of the flection. flection. The more remote remote supplies supplies the the stimulus stimulus and and the the motive motive; the the nearer nearer at at hand furnishes furnishes the the point point of of ap apThis principle principle may may proach and and the the available available resources. resources. This proach also also be be stated stated in in this this form form: the the best best thinking thinking occurs occurs when when the the easy easy and and the the difficult difficult are are duly duly proportioned proportioned to to each The easy easy and and the the familiar familiar are are equivalents, equivalents, each other. other. The as that is is as are are the the strange strange and and the the difficult. difficult. Too Too much much that no for easy gives no ground for inquiry; too much of the hard easy gives ground inquiry too much of the hard renders renders inquiry inquiry hopeless. hopeless. The The necessity necessity of of the the interaction interaction of of the the near near and and the the far far follows follows directly directly from from the the nature nature of of thinking. thinking. Where Where there there is is thought, thought, something something present present suggests suggests and and indi indicates the familiar familiar cates something somethingabsent. absent. Accordingly Accordingly unless unless the
:

SOME GENERAL CONCLUSIONS

Is

223 223

is presented presented under under conditions conditions that that are are in in some respect respect unusual, it it gives gives no jog jog to to thinking, thinking, it it makes no no demand unusual, upon what is is not not present present in in order order to to be be understood. understood. upon if the the subject subject presented presented is is totally totally strange, strange, there there is is And if no basis basis upon upon which it it may may suggest suggest anything anything service serviceno able for for able
its

its comprehension. comprehension. When a a person person first first has has to to

do with with fractions, fractions, for for example, example, they they will will be be wholly wholly do far as they do not signify to relabaffling so as to him so far do not some rela signify baffling they tion that that he he has has already already mastered mastered in. in dealing dealing with with whole whole tion numbers. When fractions fractions have become thoroughly thoroughly numbers. simply as as a a signal signal familiar, his his perception perception of of them acts acts simply familiar, to do do certain things; they they are are a a "substitute to certain things; "substitute sign," to sign," to can react react without without thinking. thinking. (Ante, (Ante, p. p. 178.) which he can which 178.) If, nevertheless, nevertheless, the the situation as a a whole whole presents presents some somesituation as If, thing novel novel and hence hence uncertain, uncertain, the the entire response is is entire response thing not mechanical, mechanical, because because this this mechanical mechanical operation operation is is put put not this is no to use in solving a problem. There is end to this a to to use in solving problem. foreign subject-matter subject-matter transformed transformed spiral foreign process spiral process:
:

through thinking into a a familiar familiar possession a possession becomes a thinking into through judging and assimilating resource for additional foreign for judging resource foreign assimilating additional subj ect-matter. subject-matter. in Observation observation in The need for both imagination for both observation imagination and observation supplies the of every mental enterprise illustrates another aspect of the another illustrates aspect enterprise every near, imagi. J^^JJ^Sj same principle. Teachers have tried tried object-lessons Teachers who have object-lessons nation principle. the remoto theremoto that when the conventional have usually usually found that of conventional type of the type have to them as attracted to the the lessons lessons were new, new, pupils pupils were attracted of matters of a a diversion, but as as they as soon soon as diversion, but they became matters as was ever the course as dull dull and wearisome as course they were as they were most of mere symbols. Imagination of most mechanical mechanical study Imagination symbols. study to enrich as could about the objects so as to enrich them. so not play about could not the objects play " " facts The feeling that instruction in "facts, facts" produces in that instruction facts, produces feeling in facts in a not because facts is justified a narrow narrow Gradgrind justified not Gradgrind is dealt are themselves but because facts are dealt out facts because but themselves are are limiting, limiting,

224 224

HOW WE WE THINK THINK HOW

as such such hard hard and and fast fast ready-made ready-made articles articles as as to to leave leave as be facts the Let so no room to imagination. Let the facts be presented no room to imagination. presented so as to to stimulate stimulate imagination, imagination, and and culture culture ensues ensues naturally naturally as
The The imagina imaginathat the unreal that is, the unreal. imaginary; is, imaginary proper function function of of imagination imagination is is vision vision of of realities realities The proper that cannot cannot be be exhibited exhibited under under existing existing conditions conditions of of that the into sense-perception. Clear Clear insight insight into the remote, remote, the the sense-perception. absent, the the obscure obscure is is its its aim. aim. History, History, literature, literature, and and absent, of science, science, nay, nay, even even geometry geometry geography, the the principles principles of geography, and arithmetic, arithmetic, are are full full of of matters matters that that must be imagi imagiand at all. realized are natively realized if they are realized at all. Imagination if Imagination they natively realized supplements and and deepens deepens observation; observation; only only when it it supplements for turns into into the the fanciful fanciful does does it it become a a substitute substitute for turns observation and and lose lose logical logical force. force. observation the of beof the required balance be final exemplification A final required balance exemplification that obtains the relation in tween near and far is found in the relation that obtains found tween near and far is realized in in an of experience field of between the narrower narrower field between the experience realized individual's contact with persons individual's own contact things, and persons and things, that may race that the the race of the wider experience the wider may become experience of Instruction his communication. Instruction always communication. his through always runs through nar of swamping the pupil's own vital, the risk the the risk of swamping vital, though though narpupil's material. of communicated material. row, row, experience experience under masses of at the teacher begins the teacher The instructor ceases and the instructor ceases begins at into fuller fuller stimulates point where communicated matter stimulates into matter communicated where point and life that which has entered by life that and more significant by significant of the strait and narrow gate of sense-perception and the strait sense-perception gate con involves conmotor Genuine motor activity. Genuine communication involves activity. in tagion; its name should not be taken in vain by terming not be should its terming by tagion of communication that which produces communication that produces no community community of and the child thought and purpose between the child and the race purpose thought of heir. which he he is is the the heir. of which

enough. enough.

The converse converse is is equally equally true. true. The

;

tive is is not not necessarily necessarily the the tive

communicommuni cation cation of of others' others' experience experience

Jbperlence Experience through through

INDEX INDEX
Abstract, i35~*44 I3S-I44 Abstract, Abstraction, 155 ISSf. f. Abstraction, Action, activity, activity, activities, activities, 46, 46, Action, I40 f., IS7-I69, I90 f. f. 190 140 f., 157-1^9, Active attitude attitude and and the the con conActive
>
*

cept, I:28 cept, 128 Analysis, III-II 5, 1IS:2 in 5 2 ff.; in Analysis, 1 1 x-i 1 5 education, 112 II2 education, Apperception, I99; appercepApperception, 199; apperceptive masses, masses, 203 203 tive Application, I29 f., 21:2 f. Application, 129 f., 212 f. Apprehension, II9 .; see UnApprehension, H9f.; see Un derstanding. derstanding. Artist, attitude of, 219 f. Artist, attitude of, 219 f. Articulation, 3 3 Articulation, Authority, 4? 4, 25 25 Authority,
5

Conclusion, Conclusion,3, 3,55f., f.,40? 40,77, 77,80 80f.; f.; techniqueof, of, 87 87f.f. technique Concrete, I35~44 135-44 Concrete, Congruity,3, 3, 72 72 Congruity, Connection, 7; 7; see seeRelation. Relation. Connection, Consecutive, 2, 2, 40, 40, 42 42 Consecutive, Consequence, consequential, consequential, 2; 2; Consequence, consequences, 55 consequences, Consistency, 40 40 Consistency, Continuity, 3, 3, 40, 40, 80 80 Continuity, Control, 18-28; :I8-28; of of deduction, deduction, Control, 93-100; of of induction, induction, 84-93; 84-93; 93-100; of of suggestion, suggestion, 84 84 f., f., 93; 93; see see Regulation. Regulation. Corroborate, corroboration, corroboration, 9, 9, Corroborate,
77 77 Curiosity, 31 3:I ff., ff., 105 105 Curiosity,

Bacon, 22, 22, 25, 25, 33 33 Bacon, Bain, 155 ISS Bain, Balance, 38 38 Balance, Behavior, 5, 5, 42-4, 4 2-4, S4I-J 54 .; Behavior, Action, Occupations Occupations Action, Belief, I, 3-7; reached reached 3~7; x, Belief, directly, I8 directly, 1 8

see see

inin

Central in thinking, 7 factor in thinking, 7 Central factor Children, 4:2 f. f 42 Children, Clifford, 148 Clifford, 148 Coherence, 80 3, 80 Coherence, 3, Comparison, 89 f., 202 f ,, 202 89 Comparison, Comprehension, :I20; see UnComprehension, 120; see Un derstanding. derstanding. Concentration, 40 Concentration, 40 Concept, 125107, :I2Sconception, :I07, Concept, conception, 9, 2I3; see Meaning. 9, 213; see Meaning.
.

Darwin, 38, 38, 90, 90, 127 I27 f., 95, 95, *3 103 *-> f., I0<5 :I06 Data, 79 f-, Decision, 107 :I07 Decision, I0 3; 79, 93-*> 93-:IOO, :I03; Deduction, 79* control of, of, 93-100 definitions, Definition, .; definitions, 130!; Definition, :I30 212 131-4, 131-4, 212 see of ideas, 83; see Development, of Elaboration, Ratiocination, Reasoning. Reasoning. 45, formal, 45, 63, 78; 78; formal, Discipline, Discipline, 63,
50 5
f. 185 f. consecutive, :I8S Discourse, Discourse, consecutive, 116 81, :II6 inductive, 81, Discovery, Discovery, inductive, Division, 131 Division, :I31 *9 8 X49> :I98 Dogmatism, Dogmatism, :I49, Doing, 139? 1:90 Doing, 139,

225 225

226

HOW HOW WE THINK

f. Generalization, 2II f. Generalization, 211 Grounds, I, 4-8, see Evi EviGrounds, i, 4-8, 80; So; see dence. dence. Guiding in reflection, reflection, In I factor in Guiding factor

Doubt, see Per Per102; see Doubt, 6, 6, 9, 9, 13, 13, 102; plexity, Uncertainty. Uncertainty. plexity, Drill, 63 Drill, 52, 52, 63 Drudgery, Drudgery, 218 Education, intellectual, 57, 57, 62; 62; Education, intellectual, aim of, 156 143 f., of, 143 f., 156 of ideas, Elaboration, 75 f., f., 84, 84, ideas, 75 Elaboration, of see 94 f., f., 103, 106, 209; see 94 209; 103, 106, Development, RatiocinaRatiocina Development, tion, Reasoning. tion, Reasoning. Emerson, 173 Emerson, 173 Emotion, 4, 4, II, Emotion, n, 74 74 Emphasis, II2, f. ii4f. 112, 114 Emphasis, Empirical thinking, 145-9 Empirical thinking, 145-9 End, I f. ir f. End, I Evidence, 5, 7 f., 27, 103 f.; 7 Evidence, f., 27, 103 f.; 5, see Grounds. see Experience, f., Experience, 132, 132, 156, 199 f., 156, 199
224 224 Experiment, experimental, 70 experimental, 70 Experiment, 77, 91 f .. 154 77, f,, 99 f., 151 IS4 91 f., 99 f., I5if.,t Extension, 130 f Extension, 130 f.
.

Habits; see Action. Action. Habits; see Herbart, 202 Herbart, Herbartian Hcrbartian method, method, 202-6 Hobhouse, 31 Hobhouse, 31 Hypothesis, 5, 5, 75, 77, 81 75, 77, Hypothesis, 94 f., 209 ., I08, 108, 209 94 f

f., f.,

f .,

f.,

Idea, 77, 79, see Idea, 75, 75, 77, 79> 107-10; 107-10; see Meaning. Meaning. Idle Idle thinking, thinking, 2 Image, 109 Image, 109 Imagination, 165 f., 223 223 f. f. 165 f., Imagination, Imitation, 47, 47, 51, 5r, 160 Imitation, Implication,s, 75, 77 77 Implication, 5, 75, Impulse, 64 64 Impulse, Induction, 79-93, 79-93, 103; r03; control control Induction, of, scientific, 86 of, 84-93; 84-93; scientific, Inference, 26 f., 75, 77, 101; Inference, f., 75, 77, 101; critical, critical, 74, 74, 82; 82; systematic, systematic,
81

vs. idea, Fact vs. idea, 109; facts, 3, 3, 5 5 109; facts, Faculty psychology, 45 Faculty psychology, 45

familiarity, familiarity, 120-25, 120-25, 136 214 f,, f., 221 f. f. 136 f., 206, 214 f., 206, Fooling, 217 217 Fooling, Formalism; see see Discipline. Formalism; Discipline. instruction, Formal sLeps of instruction, steps of
202, 206 202, Formulation, 112 f., 209, 212, 212, Formulation, f., 209, 214-17 214-17 Freedom, 64 intellectual, f 64 f.; Freedom, intellectual, 66 of Function, 123; function of Function, 123; . function
.

Familiar, Familiar,

Information, 52 52 Information, Inquiry, 5, 9f f. Inquiry, 5, 9

.

f.,

f., 197-200 197-200

Intellect, intellectual activity, Intellect, intellectual activity, 44, So, 44, So, 62 f. Intension, 130 I,~O f. Intension, Intcmal congruity, 3 Internal congruity, 3 Isolation, 96-100, 96-100, 1I7, 191 Isolation, 117, 191 James, IIg, f. James, 119, 121, 121, 153 153 f. Jevons, 91 91 f., f., 183, 183, 192 192 Jevons, Judgment,s; factors of, of, 101; 101; Judgment, 5; factors good judgment, judgment, 101, IOI, 103, good 103, 106 f.; f.; and inference, inference, 101 fl.; ft.; intuitive, 104 principles 104 f.; .intuitive, f.; principles f of, suspended, of, 106 f.; suspended, 74, 74, 82, 82, 105, tentative, 101 108; tentative, 105, 108;
.

signifying, 7, 7, 15 signifying, 15 General, 80, 99, 182 General, 82, 99, 80, 82, Principles, Universal. Universal. Principles, Generality, Generality, 129, 129, 134 134
f.;

f.; see see

INDEX
Knowledge, 3 3f f., 6, 95 95; 6, ., Knowledge,
;

227 227
of of sub sub-

spiral spiral

of, 120, 120, 223 223 movement of, Language, 170-87; 170-87; and and educa educaLanguage, tion, 176-87; 176-87; and meaning, meaning, tion, 171; technical, technical, 184 184 f.; f.; as as a 171; tool of of thought, thought, 170 170 fL, fL, 179 179 tool Leap, in in inference, inference, 26, 26, 75 75 Leap, Leisure, 209 209 f. f. Leisure, Locke, 19 1911., 22-5 n., 22-5 Locke, Logical, Logical, cal, cal, 56 56
f.;

Organization, 39, 39, 41; 4I; Organization, ject matter, matter, 62 62 ject Originality, 198 198 Originality, Particulars, 80, 80, 82; 82; Particulars, Universal. Universal.
cf.

cf. General, General,

Passion, 4, 4, 23, 23, 25, 25, 106 106 Passion, Perception, 3, 3, 190; 190; cf. cf. Obser ObserPerception, vation. vation. Perplexity, 9, 9, 11, II, 72 72 Perplexity, Placing, 114, II4, 126 I26 Placing, Play, 161-7, 161-7, 217-21; 217-21; Play, 21 9 219
of of mind, mind,

f.;

vs.

vs. psychologi psychologi-

62 f. f. 62

Meaning, meanings, meanings, 7, 7, 17, 79 f., f., 17, 79 Meaning, 82, 94, 94, 116-34; II6-34; capital capital fund 82, store of, of, 118, 1 I 8, 120, 126, store 120, 126, individual, 161, 1 80; individual, 174, 180; i6r, 174, I73 f.; organization of, 175, 175, organization of, 173!".; 185; as tools, tools, keys, keys, instru instru185; as ments, 108 f., 120, io8f., 120, 125 125 f., f., ments, 129. See Concept. Concept. See 129. Memory, 107 I07 Memory, Method, analytic analytic 58; Method, 46-50, 46-50, 58; and synthetic, 114; formal,60 formal, 60 synthetic, II4; Mill, n. Mill, 18 n. Mood,5 Mood, 5 Motivation, 42 Motivation, 42 Negative 90 cases, 90 Negative cases, Notion. Notion. See Concept. Concept. Object 192 140, I92 lessons, 140, Object lessons, Observation, 76 f., 7, 69 69 f., 3, 7, Observation, 3, f., 76 f., 85, f.; 96, 188-97, 188-97, 223 223!; 85, 91, 91, 96, in in schools, scientific, schools, 193-7; 193-7; scientific, 196 196 Occupation, occupations, 43, 43, Occupation, occupations, f. 99, 99, 167 167 f. Openmindedness. 219 Openmindedness, 219 Order, 41, 39, 41, orderliness, 2, 2, 39, Order, orderliness, j see 46, see Consecutive. Consecutive. 46? 57 57; of, of,

Playfulness, 162, 162, 218 f. f. Playfulness, Practical Practical deliberation, deliberation, 68 f f. Prejudice, 4 4 Prejudice,
.

Principles, 212 f. f. Principles, 74, 76, 76, Problem, 9, 9, 12, 33, 72, 7 2, 74, 12, 33, Problem,
109, 120, I91 f., f., 199, 207 199, 207 109, 120, 191 Proof, 7, 27,81 Proof, 7, 27, 8 1 Pseudo-idea, Pseudo-idea, 109 109 Psychological (vs. f. (vs. logical), logical), 62 f. Psychological Purpose, I ii Purpose, I

Ratiocination, f., 83 83 Ratiocination, 75 75 f., Reason, f., 94f-> 75-8, 94 reasoning, 75-8, Reason, reasoning, 8 9 98 f Reasons, Reasons, 5 5 f. Recitation, in, 201-13; factors in, Recitation, 201-13; 20613 206-13 2 f., Reflection, 5 f.; central 5!; f., Reflection, 2 function II6; double function of, 116; of, movement of, 79-84; 79-84; five of, f. steps 203 f. 72-8, 203 in, 72-8, steps in, see Control. Regulation, 18-28; see Regulation, 18-28; Relation, 82, 97; 97; relationship, 82, Relation, relationship, see see Connection.
.

Scientific Scientific thinking, 145-6 thinking, 145-6 Sense training, training, 190-97 190-97 Sequence, Consequence. cf. Consequence. 2; cf. Sequence, 2;

228
Sidgwick, 127 I27 Sidgwick,

HOW WE WE THINK THINK HOW IOO; see see Reasoning, Reasoning, Reflec Reflec100;
tion. tion.

Signify, 7, 7, IIS S Signify, Signs, 1I6, I7I-6 6, 171-6 Signs, Spiral movement, movement, see see Knowl KnowlSpiral edge. edge. Stimulus-response, 47 47 Stimulus-response, Studies, types types of, of, 50 50 Studies, Subject matter, matter, sSf,; 58 f.; intel int.elSubject lectual, 45 45 f-J f.; logical, logical, 61 6I f.; f.; lectual, practical, 49; 49; theoretical, theoretical, 49; 49; practical, and the the teacher, teacher, 204 204 ff. and Substitute signs, signs, 177 I77 f-> f., 223 223 Substitute Succession, 3 3 Succession, Suggestion, 7, 7, 12, I2, 27, 27, 74 74 ff., 84 84 *> f.; Suggestion, control of, of, 84 84 f f., 93; dimen dimencontrol ., 93 sions of, of, 3 34-7 sions 4 7 Supposition, 4, 4, 9 9 Supposition, 82 Suspense of of judgment, judgment, 13, I3, 74? 74,82 Suspense Symbols, se0 see Signs. Signs. Symbols, Synthesis, 114 II4 ff. Synthesis,
.

Thought, 8 8 ff.; educative educative value value Thought, of, 2; 2; reflective, reflective, 2; 2; train train of, of, of, s; types types of, of, iI 3; Trut.h, truths, truths, 3 3 Truth,
. ;

Uncertainty, see see Doubt, Doubt, Per PerUncertainty, plexity. plexity. E. Unconscious, 214 2I4 ft. Unconscious, Uncritical thinking, thinking, 12 I2 Uncritical Understanding, 116-20; :U6-20; direct direct Understanding, and and indirect, indirect, 11820, II8-20, 136 I36 Universal,9 9 Universal, Vagueness, 129 I29 f., f., 182, I82, 212 2I2 Vagueness, Vailati, 81 8I n. n. Vailati, I7 Venn, 17 Verification, 77 77 Verification, I8o-4 Vocabulary, 180-4 IIO n. n. Ward, no 7 Warrant, 7 Wisdom, 52 fWonder, 3I, 31, 33 f. Wordsworth, S I 31 217-19 Work, 3:62-7, 162-7, 23:7-I9

Terms, 3, 3, 72 7 2 f., f., 76, 76 , 79> 79, 95 95 Terms, Testing, 9, 9, 13, I3, 4*7 4I, 82, 82, 116; II6; of Testing, deduction, 9 6 , 99 99 deduction, 96, Theory, 138 Theory, I38 Theoretical, 137 Theoretical, I37 Thinking, f., 98 f., 96, 98 complete, 96, Thinking, complete,