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8enLonvllle Plgh School

A World PlsLory:
rlmary Source 8eader
[1ype Lhe documenL subLlLle]
aawllllams
1/1/2009

1able of ConLenLs
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Sect|on 1: ! Ioundat|ons (8,000 8.C.L. to 600 C.L.)

WhaL ?ou need Lo know ..................................... 1
Mesopotam|a
MesopoLamlan rayer and LgypLlan negaLlve Confesslon .................. 2
LxcerpLs from Cllgamesh ...................................... 3
1he Code of Pammurabl ...................................... 4
1he Pebrew CreaLlon narraLlve (Cenesls 1 - 3) ........................ 6
1he Law (Lxodus 20 - 21:27 and 22:16 - 23:9) ......................... 10
As|a
SelecLlon from Lhe Shu !lng: 1he MandaLe of Peaven ..................... 14
Pan lel - 1zu: LegallsL vlews ................................... 16
Confuclus: 1he AnalecLs ...................................... 18
Lao 1zu: 1he 1ao Lo Chlng ..................................... 21
1he 8lg veda ............................................. 24
1he 8hagavad - ClLa ........................................ 27
Greco ! koman Wor|d
PerodoLus: Lhe PlsLorles, xerxes aL Lhe PellesponL ....................... 30
laLo: 1he ueaLh of SocraLes ................................... 32
laLo: 1he 8epubllc (1he Allegory of Lhe Cave) ......................... 34
Chr|st|an|ty
1aclLus: nero's ersecuLlon of Lhe ChrlsLlans ......................... 38
Sermon on Lhe MounL ...................................... 39
aul on Marrlage v. Celebacy ................................... 40



Sect|on 2: ost ! C|ass|ca| (6S0 C.L. to 14S0)

WhaL ?ou need Lo know ...................................... 41
As|a
Sung (Song) Chlna: lmperlal LxamlnaLlon SysLem ........................ 42
1he 1ang uynasLy: 1he ArL of CovernmenL ........................... 43
1he !apanese CreaLlon MyLh ................................... 43
rlnce CLsu and Lady lshlkawa .................................. 49
rlnce ShoLoku's SevenLeen ArLlcle ConsLlLuLlon ....................... 30
Lxamples of llllal leLy ...................................... 33
Is|am
PerodoLus: 1he Arabs ...................................... 33
?akuL: 8aghdad under Lhe Abbaslds .............................. 36
1he Mongol khan's ulLlmaLum Lo Lhe naLlons of Lurope .................. 37
Sa'dl: A SLory AbouL WealLh vs. vlrLue .............................. 38
1he Cur'an: Call for !lhad .................................... 39
Lurope
Crdeal of 8olllng WaLer ..................................... 60
1he Converslon of Clovls ..................................... 61
Afr|ca
lbn 8aLLuLa ln Mall ......................................... 64
klngdom of Chana ......................................... 66
!ohn 8arboL: repossessed of Lhe Cplnlon .......................... 67
1able of ConLenLs
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Sect|on 3: 14S0 to 17S0

WhaL ?ou need Lo know ..................................... 70
Lurope
AccounLs of Lhe "oLaLo 8evoluLlon ................................ 71
lco uella Mlrandola: CraLlon on Lhe ulgnlLy of Man ..................... 74
nlccolo Machlavelll: 1he rlnce ................................. 76
8ene uescarLes: ulscourse on MeLhod ............................,, 78
Mlchel de MonLalgne: Cn Cannlbals ............................... 82
!onaLhon SwlfL: A ModesL roposal ............................... 84
Is|am
1he 1housand and Cne nlghLs: 1he Lady and Per llve SulLers ................. 90
Sunnl versus Shl'lLe: We LxhorL ?ou Lo Lmbrace Lhe 1rue lalLh!" ............. 93
Clgler de 8usbecq: Women ln CLLoman SocleLy ........................ 97
Afr|ca
1he lnLeresLlng narraLlve of Lhe Llfe of Claudah Lqulano .................. 98



Sect|on 4: 17S0 to 1914

WhaL ?ou need Lo know ..................................... 104
As|a
kalbara Lkken: CreaLer Learnlng for Women ........................ 103
Looklng aL Chlna ......................................... 106
1he Self-SLrengLhenlng" MovemenL ln Chlna ......................... 107
?ao Chen-?uan: My AdvenLures uurlng Lhe 8oxer War .................... 110
Lln Zexu WrlLlng Lo 8rlLaln's Cueen vlcLorla .......................... 113
1he MorallLy of Lhe Cplum 1rade ................................ 113
1he 1reaLy of nanklng ..................................... 117
Mohandas Candhl: lndlan Pome 8ule ............................ 118
Amer|cas
8uben uarlo (1867-1916): 1o 8oosevelL ............................. 120
Marla Lugenla Lchenlque: 1he LmanclpaLlon of Women ................. 121
Lurope
volLalre: A 1reaLlse on 1oleraLlon ................................ 123
!ean - !acques 8ousseau: 1he Soclal ConLracL ........................ 126
Women Mlners ln Lhe Lngllsh Coal lLs ........................... 128
karl Marx and lrledrlch Lngels: 1he CommunlsL ManlfesLo ................ 130
Charles uarwln: 1he Crlglns of Specles ........................... 134
8udyard klpllng: 1he WhlLe Man's 8urden .......................... 136
8udyard klpllng: lssues a Word of Warnlng ......................... 137
1he 8lack Man's 8urden ................................... 138
!oseph Conrad: PearL of uarkness ............................. 138
uocumenLs of Cerman unlflcaLlon .............................. 141
LxcerpLs lrom Perzl: 1he !ewlsh SLaLe ............................ 143
Is|am
1he SLaLus of !ews and ChrlsLlans ln Musllm Lands .................... 144


1able of ConLenLs
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Sect|on S: 1914 to resent

WhaL ?ou need Lo know ..................................... 148
1he Wor|d
CuoLaLlons from Chalrman Mao 1se - 1ung .......................... 149
8oupen of Sassoun: LyewlLness Lo Armenla's Cenoclde .................... 131
Woodrow Wllson: 1he lourLeen olnLs ............................ 134
1he 8alfour ueclaraLlon ..................................... 137
8rlLlsh WhlLe aper .......................................... 138
1he nuremberg Laws ....................................... 166
Ll Shaoql: Pow Lo be a Cood CommunlsL ........................... 167
1he 8ape of nan[lng ....................................... 169
korea: 1he 1hlrLy - LlghLh arallel ............................... 171
WlnsLon Churchlll: An lron CurLaln ................................ 173
!oseph SLalln: CaplLallsm versus Communlsm ......................... 173
ueclaraLlon of Puman 8lghLs .................................. 176
CreaLlon of lsrael: 1ruman uocumenLs ............................. 180
lsrael's roclamaLlon of lndependence ............................. 183
alesLlnlan ueclaraLlon of lndependence ........................... 187
Saddam's lnvaslon of kuwalL: 1wo 8aLlonales ......................... 189
Alaln uesLexhe: 8wanda and Cenoclde ln Lhe 20
Lh
CenLury ................. 196
Ioundat|ons (8000 8.C.L. to 600 C.L.)
!"$"!"

Ma[or Deve|opments
1) LocaLlng world hlsLory ln Lhe envlronmenL and Llme
A) LnvlronmenL
1) lnLeracLlon of geography and cllmaLe wlLh Lhe developmenL of human socleLy
2) 1he envlronmenL as hlsLorlcal acLor
3) uemography: Ma[or populaLlon changes resulLlng from human and envlronmenLal facLors
8) 1lme
1) erlodlzaLlon ln early human hlsLory
2) naLure and causes of changes assoclaLed wlLh Lhe Llme span
3) ConLlnulLles and breaks wlLhln Lhe Llme span
C) ulverse lnLerpreLaLlons
1) WhaL are Lhe lssues lnvolved ln uslng "clvlllzaLlon" as an organlzlng prlnclple ln world hlsLory?
2) WhaL ls Lhe mosL common source of change: connecLlon or dlffuslon versus lndependenL lnvenLlon?
3) WhaL was Lhe effecL of Lhe neollLhlc 8evoluLlon on gender relaLlons?
2) ueveloplng agrlculLure and Lechnology
A) AgrlculLural, pasLoral, and foraglng socleLles, and Lhelr demographlc characLerlsLlcs (lnclude Afrlca, Lhe Amerlcas, Lurope, and Asla)
8) Lmergence of agrlculLure and Lechnologlcal change
C) naLure of vlllage seLLlemenLs
u) lmpacL of agrlculLure on Lhe envlronmenL
L) lnLroducLlon of key sLages of meLal use
3) 8aslc feaLures of early clvlllzaLlons ln dlfferenL envlronmenLs: culLure, sLaLe, and soclal sLrucLure.
A) MesopoLamla
8) LgypL
C) lndus
u) Shang
L) Mesoamerlca and Andean SouLh Amerlca
l) (SLudenLs should be able Lo compare Lwo of Lhe early clvlllzaLlons above.)
4) Classlcal clvlllzaLlons
A) Ma[or pollLlcal developmenLs ln Chlna, lndla, and Lhe MedlLerranean
8) Soclal and gender sLrucLures
C) Ma[or Lradlng paLLerns wlLhln and among Classlcal clvlllzaLlons, conLacLs wlLh ad[acenL reglons
u) ArLs, sclences, and Lechnology
3) 8aslc feaLures of ma[or world bellef sysLems prlor Lo 600 C.L. and where each bellef sysLem applled by 600 C.L.
A) olyLhelsm
8) Plndulsm
C) !udalsm
u) Confuclanlsm
L) uaolsm
l) 8uddhlsm
C) ChrlsLlanlLy
6) LaLe Classlcal perlod (200 C.L.-600 C.L.)
A) Collapse of emplres (Pan Chlna, loss of wesLern porLlon of Lhe 8oman Lmplre, CupLa)
8) MovemenLs of peoples (Puns, Cermans)
C) lnLerreglonal neLworks by 600 C.L.: 1rade and rellglous dlffuslon
Ma[or Compar|sons and Snapshots
! Comparlsons of Lhe ma[or rellglous and phllosophlcal sysLems lncludlng some underlylng slmllarlLles ln cemenLlng a soclal hlerarchy, e.g.,
Plndulsm conLrasLed wlLh Confuclanlsm
! Compare Lhe role of women ln dlfferenL bellef sysLems-8uddhlsm, ChrlsLlanlLy, Confuclanlsm, and Plndulsm
! undersLand how and why Lhe collapse of emplre was more severe ln wesLern Lurope Lhan lL was ln Lhe easLern MedlLerranean or ln Chlna
! Compare Lhe casLe sysLem Lo oLher sysLems of soclal lnequallLy devlsed by early and classlcal clvlllzaLlons, lncludlng slavery
! Compare socleLles and culLures LhaL lnclude clLles wlLh pasLoral and nomadlc socleLles
! Compare Lhe developmenL of LradlLlons and lnsLlLuLlons ln ma[or clvlllzaLlons, e.g., lndlan, Chlnese, and Creek/8oman
! uescrlbe lnLerreglonal Lradlng sysLems, e.g., Lhe Sllk 8oads
Ioundat|ons (8000 8.C.L. to 600 C.L.)
!"%"!"

LkCLk1S IkCM ANCILN1 CIVILI2A1ICNS: WCkLD VILWS

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May Lhe wraLh of Lhe hearL of my god be paclfled!
May Lhe god who ls unknown Lo me be paclfled!
May Lhe goddess who ls unknown Lo me be paclfled!
May Lhe known and unknown god be paclfled!
May Lhe known and unknown goddess be paclfled!
1he sln whlch l have commlLLed l know noL.
1he mlsdeed whlch l have commlLLed l know noL.
A graclous name may my god announce!
A graclous name may my goddess announce.
1he lord, ln Lhe anger of hls hearL, haLh looked upon me.
1he god, ln Lhe wraLh of hls hearL, haLh vlslLed me.
1he goddess haLh become angry wlLh me, and haLh grlevously sLrlcken me.
unLo my merclful god l Lurn, l make suppllcaLlon.
l klss Lhe feeL of my goddess and crawl before her.
Pow long, known and unknown god, unLll Lhe anger of Lhy hearL be paclfled?
Pow long, known and unknown goddess, unLll Lhey unfrlendly hearL be paclfled?
Manklnd ls perverLed and has no [udgemenL."


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1. l have noL slnned agalnsL men.
2. l have noL oppressed or wronged my klnsfolk.
3. l have noL commlLLed evll ln Lhe place of LruLh.
4. l have noL known worLhless men.
3. l have noL commlLLed acLs of abomlnaLlon.
6. l have noL caused my name Lo appear for honors.
7. l have noL domlneered over slaves.
8. l have noL LhoughL scorn of Lhe god.
9. l have noL defrauded Lhe poor man of hls goods.
10. l have caused no man Lo suffer.
11. l have allowed no man Lo go hungry.
12. l have made no man weep.
13. l have slaln no man.
14. l have noL caused paln Lo Lhe mulLlLude.
13. l have noL fllched Lhe offerlngs ln Lhe Lemples.
16. l have noL cheaLed ln measurlng of graln.
17. l have noL obsLrucLed waLer when lL should run.
18. l have noL cuL a cuLLlng ln a canal of raLlng waLer.
19. l have noL repulsed Lhe god ln hls manlfesLaLlons. l am pure, l am pure, l am pure.

Ioundat|ons (8000 8.C.L. to 600 C.L.)
!"&"!"

Lxcerpts from 1he Lp|c of G||gamesh

lltst wtltteo Jowo otoooJ 2000 8c, tbe stoty of Cllqomesb ls ooe of tbe olJest sotvlvloq wotks of wotlJ
lltetotote. 8oseJ oo oo octool blstotlcol flqote, kloq Cllqomesb of utok (telqoeJ c. 2700 8c), lt tecooots
Cllqomesbs ttovels, oJveototes, ooJ bls seotcb fot lmmottollty. lo tbe ptocess, lt ptovlJes evlJeoce of
oocleot Mesopotomloo lJeos oboot Jeotb, tbe ploce of bomoolty lo tbe oolvetse, ooJ socletol
otqoolzotloo. 1be wotk sotvlves lo moltlple coples, ooJ lt seems to bove beeo o compllotloo of sevetol
beto oottotlves ossocloteJ wltb Cllqomesb, bls tlvol-totoeJ-ftleoJ oklJo, ooJ tbe qoJs ooJ meo tbey
eocoooteteJ tbtooqboot tbelt ttovels.

locus CuesLlons:
1. WhaL does Lhe documenL suggesL abouL
anclenL MesopoLamlan bellefs abouL Lhe gods
and Lhelr effecLs on men?
2. ls any of Lhls documenL famlllar Lo you from
oLher sources?

l wlll proclalm Lo Lhe world Lhe deeds of
Cllgamesh. 1hls was Lhe man Lo whom all Lhlngs
were known, Lhls was Lhe klng who knew Lhe
counLrles of Lhe world. Pe was wlse, he saw
mysLerles and knew secreL Lhlngs, he broughL
us a Lale of Lhe days before Lhe flood. Pe wenL
on a long [ourney, was weary, worn-ouL wlLh
labour, reLurnlng he resLed, he engraved on a
sLone Lhe whole sLory.
When Lhe gods creaLed Cllgamesh Lhey gave
hlm a perfecL body. Shamash Lhe glorlous sun
endowed hlm wlLh beauLy, Adad Lhe god of Lhe
sLorm endowed hlm wlLh courage, Lhe greaL
gods made hls beauLy perfecL, surpasslng all
oLhers, Lerrlfylng llke a greaL wlld bull. 1wo
Lhlrds Lhey made hlm god and one Lhlrd man.
Cllgamesh wenL abroad ln Lhe world, buL he
meL wlLh none who could wlLhsLand hls arms Llll
he came Lo uruk. 8uL Lhe men of uruk muLLered
ln Lhelr houses, 'Cllgamesh sounds Lhe Locsln
for hls amusemenL, hls arrogance has no
bounds by day or nlghL. no son ls lefL wlLh hls
faLher, for Cllgamesh Lakes Lhem all, even Lhe
chlldren, yeL Lhe klng would be a shepherd Lo
hls people. Pls lusL leaves no vlrgln Lo her lover,
nelLher Lhe warrlor's daughLer nor Lhe wlfe of
Lhe noble, yeL Lhls ls Lhe shepherd of Lhe clLy,
wlse, comely, and resoluLe.'
1he gods heard Lhelr lamenL, Lhe gods ln
heaven crled Lo Lhe Lord of uruk, Lo Anu Lhe
god of uruk: 'A goddess made hlm, sLrong as a
savage bull, none can wlLhsLand hls arms. no
son ls lefL wlLh hls faLher, for Cllgamesh Lakes
Lhem all, and ls Lhls Lhe klng, Lhe shepherd of
hls people? Pls lusL leaves no vlrgln Lo her lover,
nelLher Lhe warrlor's daughLer nor Lhe wlfe of
Lhe noble.' When Anu had heard Lhelr
lamenLaLlon Lhe gods crled Lo Aruru, Lhe
goddess of creaLlon, '?ou made hlm, C Aruru,
now creaLe hls equal, leL lL be as llke hlm as hls
own reflecLlon, hls second self, sLormy hearL for
sLormy hearL. LeL Lhem conLend LogeLher and
leave uruk ln quleL.'
So Lhe goddess concelved an lmage ln her mlnd,
and lL was of Lhe sLuff of Anu of Lhe flrmamenL.
She dlpped her hands ln waLer and plnched off
clay, she leL lL fall ln Lhe wllderness, and noble
Lnkldu was creaLed. 1here was
vlrLue ln hlm of Lhe god of war, of nlnurLa
hlmself. Pls body was rough, he had long halr
llke a woman's, lL waved llke Lhe halr of nlsaba,
Lhe goddess of Lhe corn. Pls body was covered
Ioundat|ons (8000 8.C.L. to 600 C.L.)
!"'"!"

wlLh maLLed halr llke Samuquan's, Lhe god of
caLLle.
ln uruk Lhe brldal bed was made, flL for Lhe
goddess of love. 1he brlde walLed for Lhe
brldegroom, buL ln Lhe nlghL Cllgamesh goL up
and came Lo Lhe house. 1hen Lnkldu sLepped
ouL, he sLood ln Lhe sLreeL and blocked Lhe way.
MlghLy Cllgamesh came on and Lnkldu meL hlm
aL Lhe gaLe. Pe puL ouL hls fooL and prevenLed
Cllgamesh from enLerlng Lhe house, so Lhey
grappled, holdlng each oLher llke bulls. 1hey
broke Lhe doorposLs and Lhe walls shook, Lhey
snorLed llke bulls locked LogeLher. 1hey
shaLLered Lhe doorposLs and Lhe walls shook.
Cllgamesh benL hls knee wlLh hls fooL planLed
on Lhe ground and wlLh a Lurn Lnkldu was
Lhrown. 1hen lmmedlaLely hls fury dled. When
Lnkldu was Lhrown he sald Lo Cllgamesh, '1here
ls noL anoLher llke you ln Lhe world. nlnsun,
who ls as sLrong as a wlld ox ln Lhe byre, she
was Lhe moLher who bore you, and now you are
ralsed above all men, and Lnlll has glven you
Lhe klngshlp, for your sLrengLh surpasses Lhe
sLrengLh of men.' So Lnkldu and Cllgamesh
embraced and Lhelr frlendshlp was sealed.
_______________________________________

Source: n.k. Sandars. Lrans.. 1he Lplc of Cllglmesh. (London:
enguln 8ooks LLd., 1978), pp. 61,62-3,69,87-8, 102,116-7,118.
1he Code of nammurab| [18th Century 8CL]

Of tbe sevetol low coJes sotvlvloq ftom tbe oocleot MlJJle ost, tbe most fomoos oftet tbe nebtew
1otob ls tbe coJe of nommotobl, slxtb kloq of tbe Amotlte uyoosty of OlJ 8obyloo. lt ls best koowo ftom
o beootlfolly eoqtoveJ Jlotlte stelo oow lo tbe loovte Moseom wblcb olso Jeplcts tbe kloq tecelvloq tbe
low ftom 5bomosb, tbe qoJ of jostlce. 1bls copy wos moJe looq oftet nommotobl's tlme, ooJ lt ls cleot
tbot bls wos o looq-lostloq coottlbotloo to Mesopotomloo clvll lzotloo. lt eocoJes mooy lows wblcb boJ
ptobobly evolveJ ovet o looq petloJ of tlme, bot ls lotetestloq to tbe qeoetol teoJet becoose of wbot lt
tells os oboot tbe ottltoJes ooJ Jolly llves of tbe oocleot 8obylooloos. lo tbe followloq selectloo, most of
tbe looq ptoloqoe ptolsloq nommotobl's powet ooJ wlsJom ls omltteJ.
wbot Jo tbese lows tell os oboot ottltoJes towotJ slovety? wbot loJlcotloo ls tbete tbot some
8obylooloo womeo eoqoqeJ lo bosloess? cleotly meo boJ mote tlqbts tboo womeo lo tbls soclety, bot
wbot lows coo yoo lJeotlfy tbot seem olmeJ ot ptotectloq cettolo tlqbts of womeo? wblcb lows Jevlote
ftom tbe eqolltotloo stooJotJ of "oo eye fot oo eye ooJ o tootb fot o tootb?" wbot poolltles Joes tbls
text soy o tolet sboolJ bove to eooble blm to wtlte oew lows?

. . . Anu ad 8el called by name me, Pammurabl,
Lhe exalLed prlnce, who feared Cod, Lo brlng
abouL Lhe rule of rlghLeousness ln Lhe land, Lo
desLroy Lhe wlcked and Lhe evll-doers, so LhaL
Lhe sLrong should noL harm Lhe weak, so LhaL l
should rule over Lhe black-headed people llke
Shamash, and enllghLen Lhe land, Lo furLher Lhe
well-belng of manklnd. . . .
13: lf any one Lake a male or female slave of Lhe
courL, or a male or female slave of a freed man,
ouLslde Lhe clLy gaLes [Lo escape], he shall be
puL Lo deaLh.
16: lf any one recelve lnLo hls house a runaway
male or female slave of Lhe courL, or of a
freedman, and does noL brlng lL ouL aL Lhe
publlc proclamaLlon of Lhe [pollce], Lhe masLer
of Lhe house shall be puL Lo deaLh.
33: lf any one be Loo lazy Lo keep hls dam ln
proper condlLlon, and does noL so keep lL, lf
Lhen Lhe dam break and all Lhe flelds be
flooded, Lhen shall he ln whose dam Lhe break
occurred be sold for money, and Lhe money
shall replace Lhe [graln] whlch he has caused Lo
be rulned.
Ioundat|ons (8000 8.C.L. to 600 C.L.)
!"("!"

34: lf he be noL able Lo replace Lhe [graln], Lhen
he and hls possesslons shall be dlvlded among
Lhe farmers whose corn he has flooded.
108: lf a [woman wlne-seller] does noL accepL
[graln] accordlng Lo gross welghL ln paymenL of
drlnk, buL Lakes money, and Lhe prlce of Lhe
drlnk ls less Lhan LhaL of Lhe corn, she shall be
convlcLed and Lhrown lnLo Lhe waLer. (1)
109: lf consplraLors meeL ln Lhe house of a
[woman wlne-seller], and Lhese consplraLors
are noL capLured and dellvered Lo Lhe courL, Lhe
[wlne-seller] shall be puL Lo deaLh.
110: lf a "slsLer of a god"[nun] open a Lavern, or
enLer a Lavern Lo drlnk, Lhen shall Lhls woman
be burned Lo deaLh.
129: lf a man's wlfe be surprlsed [havlng
lnLercourse] wlLh anoLher man, boLh shall be
Lled and Lhrown lnLo Lhe waLer, buL Lhe
husband may pardon hls wlfe and Lhe klng hls
slaves.
130: lf a man vlolaLe Lhe wlfe (beLroLhed or
chlld-wlfe) of anoLher man, who has never
known a man, and sLlll llves ln her faLher's
house, and sleep wlLh her and be surprlsed
[caughL], Lhls man shall be puL Lo deaLh, buL Lhe
wlfe ls blameless.
131: lf a man brlng a charge agalnsL [hls] wlfe,
buL she ls noL surprlsed wlLh anoLher man, she
musL Lake an oaLh and Lhen may reLurn Lo her
house.
132: lf Lhe "flnger ls polnLed" aL a man's wlfe
abouL anoLher man, buL she ls noL caughL
sleeplng wlLh Lhe oLher man, she shall [ump lnLo
Lhe rlver for [Lhe sake of her] husband. (2)
138: lf a man wlshes Lo separaLe from hls wlfe
who has borne hlm no chlldren, he shall glve
her Lhe amounL of her purchase money and Lhe
dowry whlch she broughL from her faLher's
house, and leL her go.
141: lf a man's wlfe, who llves ln hls house,
wlshes Lo leave lL, plunges lnLo debL [Lo go lnLo
buslness], Lrles Lo ruln her house, neglecLs her
husband, and ls [udlclally convlcLed: lf her
husband offer her release, she may go on her
way, and he glves her noLhlng as a glfL of
release. lf her husband does noL wlsh Lo release
her, and lf he Lake anoLher wlfe, she shall
remaln as servanL ln her husband's house.
142: lf a woman quarrel wlLh her husband, and
say: "?ou are noL congenlal Lo me," Lhe reasons
for her pre[udlce musL be presenLed. lf she ls
gullLless, and Lhere ls no faulL on her parL, buL
he leaves and neglecLs her, Lhen no gullL
aLLaches Lo Lhls woman, she shall Lake her
dowry and go back Lo her faLher's house. (3)
143: lf she ls noL lnnocenL, buL leaves her
husband, and rulns her house, neglecLlng her
husband, Lhls woman shall be casL lnLo Lhe
waLer.
193: lf a son sLrlke hls faLher, hls hands shall be
[cuL] off. (4)
196: lf a [noble-]man puL ouL Lhe eye of anoLher
[noble-]man, hls eye shall be puL ouL. (3)
197: lf he break anoLher [noble-]man's bone, hls
bone shall be broken.
198: lf he puL ouL Lhe eye of a [commoner], or
break Lhe bone of a [commoner], he shall pay
one [sllver] mlna.
199: lf he puL ouL Lhe eye of a man's slave, or
break Lhe bone of a man's slave, he shall pay
one-half of lLs value.
200: lf a man knock ouL Lhe LeeLh of hls equal,
hls LeeLh shall be knocked ouL.
201: lf he knock ouL Lhe LeeLh of a [commoner],
he shall pay one-Lhlrd of a [sllver] mlna.
Ioundat|ons (8000 8.C.L. to 600 C.L.)
!")"!"

ln fuLure Llme, Lhrough all comlng generaLlons,
leL Lhe klng, who may be ln Lhe land, observe
Lhe words of rlghLeousness whlch l have wrlLLen
on my monumenL, leL hlm noL alLer Lhe law of
Lhe land whlch l have glven, Lhe edlcLs whlch l
have enacLed, my monumenL leL hlm noL mar. lf
such a ruler have wlsdom, and be able Lo keep
hls land ln order, he shall observe Lhe words
whlch l have wrlLLen ln Lhls lnscrlpLlon, Lhe rule,
sLaLuLe, and law of Lhe land whlch l have glven,
Lhe declslons whlch l have made wlll Lhls
lnscrlpLlon show hlm, leL hlm rule hls sub[ecLs
accordlngly, speak [usLlce Lo Lhem, glve rlghL
declslons, rooL ouL Lhe mlscreanLs and crlmlnals
from Lhls land, and granL prosperlLy Lo hls
sub[ecLs.
Pammurabl, Lhe klng of rlghLeousness, on
whom Shamash has conferred rlghL (or law) am
l. My words are well consldered, my deeds are
noL equaled, Lo brlng low Lhose LhaL were hlgh,
Lo humble Lhe proud, Lo expel lnsolence.
1ranslaLed by L. W. klng (1913), edlLed by aul
8rlans.
1he nebrew Creat|on Narrat|ve (Genes|s 1-3)
1be mytboloqles of oll tbe wotlJ's people ote JeslqoeJ to ooswet socb poestloos os "wbo ote we os o
people?" "now JlJ we otlqloote?" ooJ wby Jo we Jle?"cteoteJ by Iews, oJopteJ by cbtlstloos, tbe
followloq cteotloo stotles bove boJ oo exceptlooolly looq ooJ complex blstoty wblcb coo botJly be
exploteJ lo tbls volome's oecessotlly btlef ootes. lt wos oboot o ceototy ooJ o bolf oqo tbot scbolots fltst
ooteJ tbot Ceoesls seemeJ to cootolo two Jlstloct cteotloo stotles, osloq Jlffeteot oomes fot tbe cteotot
(ttoosloteJ bete os "CoJ" ooJ "tbe lotJ"), wltb Jlffeteot empboses (pbyslcol vs. motol lssoes), ooJ eveo
o Jlffeteot otJet of cteotloo (ploots befote bomoos, ploots oftet bomoos). 5cbolots wbose tellqloos foltb
Joes oot tepolte tbem to belleve otbetwlse bove sloce qeoetolly oqteeJ tbot tbe qtooJ bot stotkly slmple
poetlc opeoloq of Ceoesls wos tbe ptoJoct of o mocb lotet petloJ tboo tbe stoty of wbot ttoJltlooolly ls
colleJ "tbe loll." 1be fltst oottotlve stotes tbemes typlcol of motote IoJolsm. tbe cteotot ls tbe sole tolet
of tbe oolvese, ooJ eveo lo tbe ptocess of cteotloo be bos ptovlJeJ tbe foooJotloo fot tbe Iewlsb
sobbotb. Altbooqb lt tejects tbe typlcol polytbelsm of Mesopotomloo cteotloo stotles llke tbe oomo
llsb, lt sbotes cettolo feototes wltb tbem. looJ emetqloq oot of oo otlqlool wotety cboos ooJ wotets
obove ooJ beoeotb tbe eottb. Altbooqb tbe oolvetse ls oot cteoteJ by CoJ JlvlJloq op o qoJJess llke
1lomot, otbet possoqes lo tbe nebtew 8lble soqqest tbot tbe metopbot of tbe sloyloq of o ptlmotJlol seo-
setpeot oomeJ levlotboo lotkeJ lo nebtew tbooqbt oboot cteotloo, to be llokeJ lo some possoqes wltb
tbe mltocoloos Jlvlsloo of wotets wblcb eoobleJ tbe coptlves to leove qypt. Note bow tbls occooot ls
Jeeply embeJJeJ lo tbe ose of looqooqe. speecb colls tbe wotlJ loto beloq, ooJ speecb blesses lt. 1be
coocept of tbe Jlvloe wotJ of CoJ wos to be o ceottol coocept of IoJolsm, lotet oJopteJ by botb
cbtlstloolty ooJ lslom.
wby Jo yoo soppose ploots wete so lmpottoot tbot tbey ote JeplcteJ os beloq cteoteJ eveo befote tbe
soo? wbot kloJ of ploots Joes tbe oottotlve pottlcolotly focos oo?

1he Creat|on

ln Lhe beglnnlng when Cod creaLed Lhe heavens
and Lhe earLh, Lhe earLh was a formless vold
and darkness covered Lhe face of Lhe deep,
whlle a wlnd from Cod swepL over Lhe face of
Lhe waLers.(1) 1hen Cod sald, "LeL Lhere be
llghL," and Lhere was llghL. And Cod saw LhaL
Lhe llghL was good, and Cod separaLed Lhe llghL
from Lhe darkness. Cod called Lhe llghL uay, and
Lhe darkness he called nlghL. And Lhere was
evenlng and Lhere was mornlng, Lhe flrsL day.
And Cod sald, "LeL Lhere be a dome ln Lhe mldsL
of Lhe waLers, and leL lL separaLe Lhe waLers
from Lhe waLers." So Cod made Lhe dome and
Ioundat|ons (8000 8.C.L. to 600 C.L.)
!"*"!"

separaLed Lhe waLers LhaL were under Lhe
dome from Lhe waLers LhaL were above Lhe
dome. (2) And lL was so. Cod called Lhe dome
Sky. And Lhere was evenlng and Lhere was
mornlng, Lhe second day.
And Cod sald, "LeL Lhe waLers under Lhe sky be
gaLhered LogeLher lnLo one place, and leL Lhe
dry land appear." And lL was so. Cod called Lhe
dry land LarLh, and Lhe waLers LhaL were
gaLhered LogeLher he called Seas. And Cod saw
LhaL lL was good. 1hen Cod sald, "LeL Lhe earLh
puL forLh vegeLaLlon: planLs yleldlng seed, and
frulL Lrees of every klnd on earLh LhaL bear frulL
wlLh Lhe seed ln lL." And lL was so. 1he earLh
broughL forLh vegeLaLlon: planLs yleldlng seed
of every klnd, and Lrees of every klnd bearlng
frulL wlLh Lhe seed ln lL. And Cod saw LhaL lL was
good. And Lhere was evenlng and Lhere was
mornlng, Lhe Lhlrd day.
And Cod sald, "LeL Lhere be llghLs ln Lhe dome
of Lhe sky Lo separaLe Lhe day from Lhe nlghL,
and leL Lhem be for slgns and for seasons and
for days and years, (3) and leL Lhem be llghLs ln
Lhe dome of Lhe sky Lo glve llghL upon Lhe
earLh." And lL was so. Cod made Lhe Lwo greaL
llghLs-Lhe greaLer llghL Lo rule Lhe day and Lhe
lesser llghL Lo rule Lhe nlghL-and Lhe sLars. Cod
seL Lhem ln Lhe dome of Lhe sky Lo glve llghL
upon Lhe earLh, Lo rule over Lhe day and over
Lhe nlghL, and Lo separaLe Lhe llghL from Lhe
darkness. And Cod saw LhaL lL was good. And
Lhere was evenlng and Lhere was mornlng, Lhe
fourLh day.
And Cod sald, "LeL Lhe waLers brlng forLh
swarms of llvlng creaLures and leL blrds fly
above Lhe earLh across Lhe dome of Lhe sky." So
Cod creaLed Lhe greaL sea monsLers and every
llvlng creaLure LhaL moves, of every klnd, wlLh
whlch Lhe waLers swarm, and every wlnged blrd
of every klnd. And Cod saw LhaL lL was good.
Cod blessed Lhem, saylng, "8e frulLful and
mulLlply and flll Lhe waLers ln Lhe seas, and leL
blrds mulLlply on Lhe earLh." And Lhere was
evenlng and Lhere was mornlng, Lhe flfLh day.
And Cod sald, "LeL Lhe earLh brlng forLh llvlng
creaLures of every klnd: caLLle and creeplng
Lhlngs and wlld anlmals of Lhe earLh of every
klnd." And lL was so. Cod made Lhe wlld anlmals
of Lhe earLh of every klnd, and Lhe caLLle of
every klnd, and everyLhlng LhaL creeps upon Lhe
ground of every klnd. And Cod saw LhaL lL was
good. 1hen Cod sald, "LeL us make humanklnd
ln our lmage, (4) accordlng Lo our llkeness, and
leL Lhem have domlnlon over Lhe flsh of Lhe sea,
and over Lhe blrds of Lhe alr and over Lhe caLLle,
and over all Lhe wlld anlmals of Lhe earLh, and
over every creeplng Lhlng LhaL creeps upon Lhe
earLh."
So Cod creaLed humanklnd ln hls lmage,
ln Lhe lmage of Cod he creaLed Lhem,
male and female he creaLed Lhem. (3) Cod
blessed Lhem, and Cod sald Lo Lhem, "8e frulLful
and mulLlply, and flll Lhe earLh and subdue lL,
and have domlnlon over Lhe flsh of Lhe sea and
over Lhe blrds of Lhe alr and over every llvlng
Lhlng LhaL moves upon Lhe earLh." Cod sald,
"See, l have glven you every planL yleldlng seed
LhaL ls upon Lhe face of all Lhe earLh, and every
Lree wlLh seed ln lLs frulL, you shall have Lhem
for food. And Lo every beasL of Lhe earLh, and Lo
every blrd of Lhe alr, and Lo everyLhlng LhaL
creeps on Lhe earLh, everyLhlng LhaL has Lhe
breaLh of llfe, l have glven every green planL for
food." (6) And lL was so. Cod saw everyLhlng
LhaL he had made, and lndeed, lL was very good.
And Lhere was evenlng and Lhere was mornlng,
Lhe slxLh day.
1hus Lhe heavens and Lhe earLh were flnlshed,
and all Lhelr mulLlLude. And on Lhe sevenLh day
Cod flnlshed Lhe work LhaL he had done, and he
resLed on Lhe sevenLh day from all Lhe work
LhaL he had done. So Cod blessed Lhe sevenLh
day and hallowed lL, because on lL Cod resLed
from all Lhe work LhaL he had done ln creaLlon.
1hese are Lhe generaLlons of Lhe heavens and
Lhe earLh when Lhey were creaLed.

Ioundat|ons (8000 8.C.L. to 600 C.L.)
!"+"!"

Creat|on and Ia||
lf tbe fltst cteotloo stoty ooswets tbe poestloo
"wbete JlJ we come ftom?" tbe secooJ focoses
oo otbet poestloos, socb os "wby Jo we bove to
Jle?" "wby most we wotk?" ooJ "wby ote
womeo sobotJloote to meo?"
wbot evlJeoce coo yoo floJ to soppott tbe
tbeoty tbot womeo's sobotJlootloo to meo ls
tbe tesolt of oo lobetlteJ cotse? 1be ttee of tbe
koowleJqe of qooJ ooJ evll ls ofteo coofoseJ
wltb tbe ttee of llfe, coo yoo Jlstloqolsb
betweeo tbelt oppoteot fooctloos? lo wbot woy
ls tbe eoJ of tbls stoty slmllot to tbe tbeme of
tbe plc of Cllqomesb?

ln Lhe day LhaL Lhe Lord Cod (7) made Lhe earLh
and Lhe heavens, when no planL of Lhe fleld was
yeL ln Lhe earLh and no herb of Lhe fleld had yeL
sprung up-for Lhe Lord Cod had noL caused lL Lo
raln upon Lhe earLh, and Lhere was no one Lo Llll
Lhe ground, buL a sLream would rlse from Lhe
earLh, and waLer Lhe whole face of Lhe ground-
Lhen Lhe Lord Cod formed man from Lhe dusL of
Lhe ground, and breaLhed lnLo hls nosLrlls Lhe
breaLh of llfe, and Lhe man became a llvlng
belng. And Lhe Lord Cod planLed a garden ln
Lden, ln Lhe easL, and Lhere he puL Lhe man
whom he had formed. CuL of Lhe ground Lhe
Lord Cod made Lo grow every Lree LhaL ls
pleasanL Lo Lhe slghL and good for food, Lhe Lree
of llfe also ln Lhe mldsL of Lhe garden, and Lhe
Lree of Lhe knowledge of good and evll. A rlver
flows ouL of Lden Lo waLer Lhe garden, and
from Lhere lL dlvldes and becomes four
branches. 1he name of Lhe flrsL ls lshon, lL ls
Lhe one LhaL flows around Lhe whole land of
Pavllah, where Lhere ls gold, and Lhe gold of
LhaL land ls good, bdelllum and onyx sLone are
Lhere. 1he name of Lhe second rlver ls Clhon, lL
ls Lhe one LhaL flows around Lhe whole land of
Cush. 1he name of Lhe Lhlrd rlver ls 1lgrls, whlch
flows easL of Assyrla. And Lhe fourLh rlver ls Lhe
LuphraLes. (8)
1he Lord Cod Look Lhe man and puL hlm ln Lhe
garden of Lden Lo Llll lL and keep lL. And Lhe
Lord Cod commanded Lhe man, -"?ou may
freely eaL of every Lree of Lhe garden, buL of Lhe
Lree of Lhe knowledge of good and evll you shall
noL eaL, for ln Lhe day LhaL you eaL of lL you
shall dle." (9)
1hen Lhe Lord Cod sald, "lL ls noL good LhaL Lhe
man should be alone, l wlll make hlm a helper
as hls parLner." So ouL of Lhe ground Lhe Lord
Cod formed every anlmal of Lhe fleld and every
blrd of Lhe alr, and broughL Lhem Lo Lhe man Lo
see whaL he would call Lhem, and whaLever Lhe
man called every llvlng creaLure, LhaL was lLs
name. 1he man gave names Lo all caLLle, and Lo
Lhe blrds of Lhe alr, and Lo every anlmal of Lhe
fleld, buL for Lhe man Lhere was noL found a
helper as hls parLner. So Lhe Lord Cod caused a
deep sleep Lo fall upon Lhe man, and he slepL,
Lhen he Look one of hls rlbs and closed up lLs
place. And Lhe rlb LhaL Lhe Lord Cod had Laken
from Lhe man he made lnLo a woman and
broughL her Lo Lhe man. 1hen Lhe man sald,
"1hls aL lasL ls bone of my bones
and flesh of my flesh,
Lhls one shall be called Woman,
for ouL of Man Lhls one was Laken."
1herefore a man leaves hls faLher and hls
moLher and cllngs Lo hls wlfe, and Lhey become
one flesh. (10) And Lhe man and hls wlfe were
boLh naked, and were noL ashamed. (11)
now Lhe serpenL was more crafLy Lhan any
oLher wlld anlmal LhaL Lhe Lord Cod had made.
(12) Pe sald Lo Lhe woman, "uld Cod say, i?ou
shall noL eaL from any Lree ln Lhe garden'?" 1he
woman sald Lo Lhe serpenL, "We may eaL of Lhe
frulL of Lhe Lrees ln Lhe garden, buL Cod sald,
i?ou shall noL eaL of Lhe frulL of Lhe Lree LhaL ls
ln Lhe mlddle of Lhe garden, nor shall you Louch
lL, or you shall dle.'" 8uL Lhe serpenL sald Lo Lhe
woman, "?ou wlll noL dle, for Cod knows LhaL
when you eaL of lL your eyes wlll be opened,
and you wlll be llke Cod, knowlng good and
evll." (13) So when Lhe woman saw LhaL Lhe
Lree was good for food, and LhaL lL was a dellghL
Lo Lhe eyes, and LhaL Lhe Lree was Lo be deslred
Lo make one wlse, she Look of lLs frulL and aLe,
and she also gave some Lo her husband, who
Ioundat|ons (8000 8.C.L. to 600 C.L.)
!","!"

was wlLh her, and he aLe. (14) 1hen Lhe eyes of
boLh were opened, and Lhey knew LhaL Lhey
were naked, and Lhey sewed flg leaves LogeLher
and made lolncloLhs for Lhemselves.
1hey heard Lhe sound of Lhe Lord Cod walklng
ln Lhe garden aL Lhe Llme of Lhe evenlng breeze,
and Lhe man and hls wlfe hld Lhemselves from
Lhe presence of Lhe Lord Cod among Lhe Lrees
of Lhe garden. 8uL Lhe Lord Cod called Lo Lhe
man, and sald Lo hlm, "Where are you?" Pe
sald, "l heard Lhe sound of you ln Lhe garden,
and l was afrald, because l was naked, and l hld
myself." Pe sald, "Who Lold you LhaL you were
naked? Pave you eaLen from Lhe Lree of whlch l
commanded you noL Lo eaL?" 1he man sald,
"1he woman whom you gave Lo be wlLh me, she
gave me frulL from Lhe Lree, and l aLe." 1hen Lhe
Lord Cod sald Lo Lhe woman, "WhaL ls Lhls LhaL
you have done?" 1he woman sald, "1he serpenL
Lrlcked me, and l aLe." 1he Lord Cod sald Lo Lhe
serpenL,
"8ecause you have done Lhls,
cursed are you among all anlmals
and among all wlld creaLures,
upon your belly you shall go,
and dusL you shall eaL
all Lhe days of your llfe. (13)
l wlll puL enmlLy beLween you and Lhe woman,
and beLween your offsprlng and hers,
he wlll sLrlke your head,
and you wlll sLrlke hls heel." (16)
1o Lhe woman he sald,
"l wlll greaLly lncrease your pangs ln
chlldbearlng,
ln paln you shall brlng forLh chlldren,
yeL your deslre shall be for your husband,
and he shall rule over you."
And Lo Lhe man he sald,
"8ecause you have llsLened Lo Lhe volce of your
wlfe,
and have eaLen of Lhe Lree
abouL whlch l commanded you,
i?ou shall noL eaL of lL,'
cursed ls Lhe ground because of you,
ln Loll you shall eaL of lL all Lhe days of your llfe,
Lhorns and LhlsLles lL shall brlng forLh for you,
and you shall eaL Lhe planLs of Lhe fleld.
8y Lhe sweaL of your face you shall eaL bread
unLll you reLurn Lo Lhe ground,
for ouL of lL you were Laken,
you are dusL,
and Lo dusL you shall reLurn."
1he man named hls wlfe Lve, because she was
Lhe moLher of all llvlng. And Lhe Lord Cod made
garmenLs of sklns for Lhe man and for hls wlfe,
and cloLhed Lhem.
1hen Lhe Lord Cod sald, "See, Lhe man has
become llke one of us, knowlng good and evll,
and now, he mlghL reach ouL hls hand and Lake
also from Lhe Lree of llfe, and eaL, and llve
forever"- Lherefore Lhe Lord Cod senL hlm forLh
from Lhe garden of Lden, Lo Llll Lhe ground from
whlch he was Laken. Pe drove ouL Lhe man, and
aL Lhe easL of Lhe garden of Lden he placed Lhe
cherublm, and a sword flamlng and Lurnlng Lo
guard Lhe way Lo Lhe Lree of llfe.

(1) Many modern lnLerpreLers see Lhese waLers as
Lhe same prlmordlal waLery chaos of oLher Mlddle
LasLern creaLlon myLhs, buL LradlLlonallsLs have
usually asserLed LhaL Lhe waLer ls creaLed ouL of Lhe
"vold and darkness," a bellef known by lLs LaLln
name of creaLlon ex nlhllo (ouL of noLhlng).
(2) 8aln seemed Lo provlde Lo many anclenL peoples
evldence LhaL a body of waLer exlsLed above Lhe sky.
(3) Lven Lhe heavenly bodles are seen as servlng
human needs, by provldlng Lhe basls for a calendar.
(4) A wlde varleLy of scholarly oplnlon has been
expressed abouL Lhls use of Lhe plural ln Cod's
speech, unlque Lo Cenesls. Some Lhlnk lL reflecLs an
earller polyLhelsm (an argumenL re[ecLed by mosL
scholars because of Lhe oLherwlse lnslsLenL
monoLhelsm of Lhe narraLlve), as an exalLed "royal"
use of Lhe pronoun (buL no oLher examples are
known from Lhls culLure), as addresslng Lhe angels
(prevlously unmenLloned ln Lhe sLory ), or even--ln
Lhe Mlddle Ages--as Lhe members of Lhe 1rlnlLy
speaklng among Lhemselves (a fanclful
Ioundat|ons (8000 8.C.L. to 600 C.L.)
!"$-"!"

lnLerpreLaLlon flaLly re[ecLed by !ews as
lncorporaLlng a unlquely ChrlsLlan bellef). no general
agreemenL exlsLs on Lhls quesLlon.
(3) Some scholars malnLaln LhaL Cod musL be
LhoughL of here as havlng a human form, oLhers
argue LhaL Lhe resemblance ls purely splrlLual ln
naLure. ConLemporary femlnlsLs have polnLed ouL
LhaL boLh sexes are creaLed ln Cod's lmage.
(6) 1he ldea of absoluLe domlnlon over an
abundanLly producLlve earLh musL have been hlghly
appeallng Lo people sLruggllng Lo scraLch a llvlng
from Lhe soll of anclenL lsrael, prey Lo aLLacks by wlld
anlmals. 1he lmage of Lhe earLh as a rlch garden
would have lndeed seemed a paradlse losL. Some
lnLerpreL Lhls passage as ldeallzlng vegeLarlanlsm.
(7) up Lo Lhls polnL Lhe orlglnal Pebrew LexL has
called Cod loblm, buL ln Lhe subsequenL passages,
he ls glven Lhe LlLle now usually LranslaLed as
obweb. 8ecause Lhls laLLer name was consldered
Loo sacred Lo uLLer ln laLer !ewlsh LradlLlon, varlous
subsLlLuLes were devlsed. Pere "Lord " caplLallzed
lndlcaLes occurances of Lhe sacred name.
(8) 1he namlng of Lhe 1lgrls and LuphaLes as rlvers
flowlng from Lden locaLes Lhe orlglnal aradlse
somewhere ln MesopoLamla, whlch ls also Lhe
reglon Lo whlch Lhe Pebrews Lraced Lhelr ancesLry.
(9) 1he paradox LhaL Lhls prophecy ls noL fulfllled
llLerally has led Lo many lngenlous explanaLlons,
lncludlng Lhe one domlnanL for cenLurles ln
ChrlsLlanlLy: LhaL by eaLlng Lhe frulL Adam and Lve
fall from Lhe sLaLe of dlvlne grace lnLo Lhe deaLh-llke
sLaLe of sln.
(10) aLrlachal lnLerpreLraLlons of Lhls sLory sLress
LhaL Lhe woman ls a secondary creaLlon, broughL
lnLo belng Lo serve Lhe man, buL some femlnlsLs
have argued LhaL Lhe LexLs sLresses Lhe unlLy of Lhe
Lwo.
(11) !ews shunned nudlLy far more Lhan mosL of
Lhelr nelghbors, buL seemed Lo vlew Lhe sense of
shame as a curse.
(12) LaLer lnLerpreLaLlons, boLh !ewlsh and ChrlsLlan,
ldenLlfy Lhe serpenL wlLh SaLan, buL Lhe laLLer ls a
flgure whom many scholars belleve Lo have been
lnLroduced lnLo !udalsm aL a comparaLlvely laLe
daLe.
(13 ) Agaln, Lhe facL LhaL Lhe serpenL's prophecy
comes Lrue whlle Cod's does noL has led Lo much
speculaLlon. WhaLever lnLerpreLaLlon ls followed,
gullL and shame are Lhe resulL of Lhe lall. 1radlLlonal
ChrlsLlanlLy gave Lhe lncldenL a sexual lnLerpreLaLlon,
ofLen argulng LhaL eroLlclsm lLself was a shameful by-
producL, whereas !ews seldom accepLed Lhls vlew.
1he docLrlne of an lnherlLed curse called "orlglnal
sln" ls also allen Lo malnsLream !udalsm, buL ls Lhe
maln focus of ChrlsLlan commenLary on Lhls passage.
(14) 1he klnd of frulL ls noL speclfled. lL was ofLen
ldenLlfled as a flg ln Lhe early Mlddle Ages, buL an
lrreslsLable pun evenLually seLLled Lhe maLLer for
ChrlsLlans: malum ln LaLln meanL boLh "apple" and
"evll."
(13) resumably snakes orlglnally had legs llke oLher
anlmals, buL losL Lhem because of Lhls curse.
(16) ChrlsLlan arLlsLs made much use of Lhls passage
Lo creaLe lmages of Lhe vlrgln Mary crushlng a
serpenL beneaLh her heel.

1he Law: Lxodus 20-21:27, 22:16-23:9
1be Iewlsb 8lble ls JlvlJeJ loto tbtee potts. tbe low (1otob), tbe ltopbets, ooJ o mlscellooeoos qtoop of
wotks koowo os tbe wtltloqs, wblcb cottespooJ tooqbly to tbe cbtlstloo OlJ 1estomeot. (1be cotbollc
text cootolos possoqes ooJ wotks oot oJmltteJ loto tbe Iewlsb 8lble.) Of tbese tbtee, tbe low ls lo some
woys tbe most lmpottoot, fot lt ls tbe low tbot Jefloes fot Iews wbot CoJ expects of tbem ooJ ptovlJes o
meoos eosote wlo bls fovot ooJ ptotectloo. 1be low ls vleweJ by ploos Iews os o speclol blessloq qtooteJ
CoJ's cboseo people to sbow tbem tbe potb to vlttoe wblle otbet peoples looqolsb lo lqootoot slo. Mooy
people ossome tbot tbe etblcs of IoJolsm ooJ cbtlstloolty ote boseJ ptlmotlly oo tbe 1eo
Ioundat|ons (8000 8.C.L. to 600 C.L.)
!"$$"!"

commooJmeots, bot lo foct Iews ote colleJ to obsetve some slx booJteJ commooJmeots ooJ cbtlstloos
osoolly Jo oot obsetve two of tbe teo, bovloq tejecteJ tbe Iewlsb 5obbotb fot tbe lotJ s uoy eotly lo tbelt
blstoty ooJ fteely vlolotloq tbe commooJmeot oqolost qtoveo lmoqes by scolptloq looometoble lmoqes
of cbtlst os tbe Jlvloe sovlot. 1be fltst teo ote set opott, ooJ tepeoteJ, lo tbe text, ooJ ote obvloosly
cooslJeteJ os lmpottoot, bot lo some woys tbe sobsepoeot lows ote mote teveolloq. Almost oll peoples
bove ootloweJ motJet, tbeft, ooJ oJoltety, bowevet tbey JefloeJ tbem, bot tbe otbet Iewlsb lows teflect
tbe ottltoJes ooJ costoms of tbe people wbo followeJ tbem. Ao ottboJox Iew ls expecteJ to obsetve
sttlctly oll of tbe lows (except, of cootse tbose telotloq to tltool soctlflce wblcb wete sospeoJeJ oftet tbe
Jesttoctloo of tbe temple lo Ietosolem lo 70 c). uollke lo cbtlstloolty, bellef ls oot tbe ceottol lssoe--
obeJleoce ls. 1be Jellvety of tbe low ls JeplcteJ os tbe oftetmotb of qeoetotloos of slovety lo qypt
followeJ by fotty yeots of wooJetloq lo tbe wllJetoess of tbe 5lool leolosolo.
wbot ptovlsloo lo tbe low mlqbt Jlscootoqe mooy nebtew sloves ftom seekloq tbelt fteeJom? wbot lows
eofotce tespect fot poteots? lo wbot woys ote tbe lows oo sloves Jlffeteot ftom tbose of nommotobl's
coJe? wbot Joes tbe low bove to soy oboot tbe ptopet tteotmeot of eoemles ooJ olleos?
1hen Cod spoke all Lhese words: l am Lhe LC8u
your Cod, who broughL you ouL of Lhe land of
LgypL, ouL of Lhe house of slavery, you shall
have no oLher gods before me. (1)
?ou shall noL make for yourself an ldol, wheLher
ln Lhe form of anyLhlng LhaL ls ln heaven above,
or LhaL ls on Lhe earLh beneaLh, or LhaL ls ln Lhe
waLer under Lhe earLh. (2) ?ou shall noL bow
down Lo Lhem or worshlp Lhem, for l Lhe LC8u
your Cod am a [ealous Cod, punlshlng chlldren
for Lhe lnlqulLy of parenLs, Lo Lhe Lhlrd and Lhe
fourLh generaLlon of Lhose who re[ecL me, buL
showlng sLeadfasL love Lo Lhe LhousandLh
generaLlon of Lhose who love me and keep my
commandmenLs.
?ou shall noL make wrongful use of Lhe name of
Lhe LC8u your Cod, for Lhe L C8u wlll noL
acqulL anyone who mlsuses hls name. (3)
8emember Lhe sabbaLh day, and keep lL holy.
Slx days you shall labor and do all your work.
8uL Lhe sevenLh day ls a sabbaLh Lo Lhe LC8u
your Cod, you shall noL do any work-- you, your
son or your daughLer, your male or female
slave, your llvesLock, or Lhe allen resldenL ln
your Lowns. lor ln slx days Lhe LC8u made
heaven and earLh, Lhe sea, and all LhaL ls ln
Lhem, buL resLed Lhe sevenLh day, Lherefore Lhe
LC8u blessed Lhe sabbaLh day and consecraLed
lL. (4)
Ponor your faLher and your moLher, so LhaL
your days may be long ln Lhe land LhaL Lhe LC8u
your Cod ls glvlng you.
?ou shall noL murder.
?ou shall noL commlL adulLery.
?ou shall noL sLeal.
?ou shall noL bear false wlLness agalnsL your
nelghbor.
?ou shall noL coveL your nelghbor's house, you
shall noL coveL your nelghbor's wlfe, or male or
female slave, or ox, or donkey, or anyLhlng LhaL
belongs Lo your nelghbor. (3)
When all Lhe people wlLnessed Lhe Lhunder and
llghLnlng, Lhe sound of Lhe LrumpeL, and Lhe
mounLaln smoklng, Lhey were afrald and
Lrembled and sLood aL a dlsLance and sald Lo
Moses, ?ou speak Lo us, and we wlll llsLen, buL
do noL leL Cod speak Lo us, or we wlll dle.
Moses sald Lo Lhe people, uo noL be afrald, for
Cod has come only Lo LesL you and Lo puL Lhe
fear of hlm upon you so LhaL you do noL sln.
Ioundat|ons (8000 8.C.L. to 600 C.L.)

!"$%"!"

1hen Lhe people sLood aL a dlsLance, whlle
Moses drew near Lo Lhe Lhlck darkness where
Cod was.
1he LC8u sald Lo Moses: 1hus you shall say Lo
Lhe lsraellLes: ?ou have seen for yourselves LhaL
l spoke wlLh you from heaven. ?ou shall noL
make gods of sllver alongslde me, nor shall you
make for yourselves gods of gold. ?ou need
make for me only an alLar of earLh and sacrlflce
on lL your burnL offerlngs and your offerlngs of
well-belng, your sheep and your oxen, ln every
place where l cause my name Lo be
remembered l wlll come Lo you and bless you.
8uL lf you make for me an alLar of sLone, do noL
bulld lL of hewn sLones, lf you use a chlsel upon
lL you profane lL. ?ou shall noL go up by sLeps Lo
my alLar, so LhaL your nakedness may noL be
exposed on lL. (6)
1hese are Lhe ordlnances LhaL you shall seL
before Lhem: When you buy a male Pebrew
slave, he shall serve slx years, buL ln Lhe sevenLh
he shall go ouL a free person, wlLhouL debL. (7)
lf he comes ln slngle, he shall go ouL slngle, lf he
comes ln marrled, Lhen hls wlfe shall go ouL
wlLh hlm. lf hls masLer glves hlm a wlfe and she
bears hlm sons or daughLers, Lhe wlfe and her
chlldren shall be her masLer's and he shall go
ouL alone. 8uL lf Lhe slave declares, l love my
masLer, my wlfe, and my chlldren, l wlll noL go
ouL a free person, Lhen hls masLer shall brlng
hlm before Cod. Pe shall be broughL Lo Lhe door
or Lhe doorposL, and hls masLer shall plerce hls
ear wlLh an awl, (8)
When a man sells hls daughLer as a slave, she
shall noL go ouL (9) as Lhe male slaves do. lf she
does noL please her masLer, who deslgnaLed her
for hlmself, Lhen he shall leL her be redeemed,
(10) he shall have no rlghL Lo sell her Lo a
forelgn people slnce he has dealL unfalrly wlLh
her. lf he deslgnaLes her for hls son, he shall
deal wlLh her as wlLh a daughLer. lf he Lakes
anoLher wlfe Lo hlmself, he shall noL dlmlnlsh
Lhe food, cloLhlng, or marlLal rlghLs of Lhe flrsL
wlfe. (11) And lf he does noL do Lhese Lhree
Lhlngs for her, she shall go ouL wlLhouL debL,
wlLhouL paymenL of money.
Whoever sLrlkes a person morLally shall be puL
Lo deaLh. lf lL was noL premedlLaLed, buL came
abouL by an acL of Cod, Lhen l wlll appolnL for
you a place Lo whlch Lhe klller may flee. (12) 8uL
lf someone wlllfully aLLacks and kllls anoLher by
Lreachery, you shall Lake Lhe klller from my alLar
for execuLlon.
Whoever sLrlkes faLher or moLher shall be puL
Lo deaLh.
Whoever kldnaps a person, wheLher LhaL
person has been sold or ls sLlll held ln
possesslon, shall be puL Lo deaLh.
Whoever curses faLher or moLher shall be puL
Lo deaLh.
When lndlvlduals quarrel and one sLrlkes Lhe
oLher wlLh a sLone or flsL so LhaL Lhe ln[ured
parLy, Lhough noL dead, ls conflned Lo bed, buL
recovers and walks around ouLslde wlLh Lhe
help of a sLaff, Lhen Lhe assallanL shall be free of
llablllLy, excepL Lo pay for Lhe loss of Llme, and
Lo arrange for full recovery.
When a slaveowner sLrlkes a male or female
slave wlLh a rod and Lhe slave dles lmmedlaLely,
Lhe owner shall be punlshed. 8uL lf Lhe slave
survlves a day or Lwo, Lhere ls no punlshmenL,
for Lhe slave ls Lhe owner s properLy.
When people who are flghLlng ln[ure a pregnanL
woman so LhaL Lhere ls a mlscarrlage, and yeL
no furLher harm follows, Lhe one responslble
shall be flned whaL Lhe woman's husband
demands, paylng as much as Lhe [udges
deLermlne. lf any harm follows, Lhen you shall
glve llfe for llfe, eye for eye, LooLh for LooLh,
hand for hand, fooL for fooL, burn for burn,
wound for wound, sLrlpe for sLrlpe. (13)
When a slave owner sLrlkes Lhe eye of a male or
female slave, desLroylng lL, Lhe owner shall leL
Ioundat|ons (8000 8.C.L. to 600 C.L.)

!"$&"!"

Lhe slave go, a free person, Lo compensaLe for
Lhe eye. lf Lhe owner knocks ouL a LooLh of a
male or female slave, Lhe slave shall be leL go, a
free person, Lo compensaLe for Lhe LooLh. . . .
When a man seduces a vlrgln who ls noL
engaged Lo be marrled, and lles wlLh her, he
shall glve Lhe brlde-prlce for her and make her
hls wlfe. 8uL lf her faLher refuses Lo glve her Lo
hlm, he shall pay an amounL equal Lo Lhe brlde-
prlce for vlrglns.
?ou shall noL permlL a female sorcerer Lo llve.
(14)
Whoever lles wlLh (13) an anlmal shall be puL Lo
deaLh.
Whoever sacrlflces Lo any god, oLher Lhan Lhe
Lord alone, shall be devoLed Lo desLrucLlon.
?ou shall noL wrong or oppress a resldenL allen,
for you were allens ln Lhe land of LgypL. ?ou
shall noL abuse any wldow or orphan. lf you do
abuse Lhem, when Lhey cry ouL Lo me, l wlll
surely heed Lhelr cry, my wraLh wlll burn, and l
wlll klll you wlLh Lhe sword, and your wlves shall
become wldows and your chlldren orphans.(16)
lf you lend money Lo my people, Lo Lhe poor
among you, you shall noL deal wlLh Lhem as a
credlLor, you shall noL exacL lnLeresL from Lhem.
(17) lf you Lake your nelghbor's cloak ln pawn,
you shall resLore lL before Lhe sun goes down,
for lL may be your nelghbor's only cloLhlng Lo
use as cover, ln whaL else shall LhaL person
sleep? And lf your nelghbor crles ouL Lo me, l
wlll llsLen, for l am compasslonaLe.
?ou shall noL revlle Cod, or curse a leader of
your people.
?ou shall noL delay Lo make offerlngs from Lhe
fullness of your harvesL and from Lhe ouLflow of
your presses. 1he flrsLborn of your sons you
shall glve Lo me. ?ou shall do Lhe same wlLh
your oxen and wlLh your sheep: seven days lL
shall remaln wlLh lLs moLher, on Lhe elghLh day
you shall glve lL Lo me. (18)
?ou shall be people consecraLed Lo me,
Lherefore you shall noL eaL any meaL LhaL ls
mangled by beasLs ln Lhe fleld, you shall Lhrow
lL Lo Lhe dogs. (19)
?ou shall noL spread a false reporL. ?ou shall noL
[oln hands wlLh Lhe wlcked Lo acL as a mallclous
wlLness. ?ou shall noL follow a ma[orlLy ln
wrongdolng, when you bear wlLness ln a
lawsulL, you shall noL slde wlLh Lhe ma[orlLy so
as Lo perverL [usLlce, nor shall you be parLlal Lo
Lhe poor ln a lawsulL. (20)
When you come upon your enemy's ox or
donkey golng asLray, you shall brlng lL back.
When you see Lhe donkey of one who haLes you
lylng under lLs burden and you would hold back
from seLLlng lL free, you musL help Lo seL lL free.
?ou shall noL perverL Lhe [usLlce due Lo your
poor ln Lhelr lawsulLs. keep far from a false
charge, and do noL klll Lhe lnnocenL and Lhose
ln Lhe rlghL, for l wlll noL acqulL Lhe gullLy. ?ou
shall Lake no brlbe, for a brlbe bllnds Lhe
offlclals, and subverLs Lhe cause of Lhose who
are ln Lhe rlghL.
?ou shall noL oppress a resldenL allen, you know
Lhe hearL of an allen, for you were allens ln Lhe
land of LgypL.
(1) AlLhough laLer !udalsm lnslsLs LhaL only one god
exlsLs, some scholars have argued LhaL Lhls wordlng
reflecLs a Llme when !ews acknowledged Lhe exlsLence
of oLher gods buL forbade Lhelr worshlp.
(2) 1hls has usually been broadly lnLerpreLed by
orLhodox !ews as a prohlblLlon agalnsL all flguraLlve arL,
esLabllshlng a paLLern also followed by orLhodox
Musllms. AlLhough aL some perlods !ews have
decoraLed bulldlngs and manuscrlpLs wlLh lmages from
Lhe 8lble, Lhelr general avoldance of dlvlne sculpLure
led Lo a hlsLorlc mlsundersLandlng when Lhe 8omans
lnvaded Lhe sancLuary of Lhe 1emple ln !erusalem and,
flndlng lL empLy, announced Lo Lhe world LhaL Lhe !ews
were aLhelsLs. More sLrongly Lhan clrcumclslon, Lhe
Ioundat|ons (8000 8.C.L. to 600 C.L.)

!"$'"!"

re[ecLlon of ldols seL Lhe !ews aparL from Lhe people
who surrounded Lhem.
(3) 1he deslre Lo avold mlsuslng Cod's name led
evenLually Lo Lhe cusLom of noL pronounclng lL or
spelllng lL ouL fully. Some Lngllsh-speaklng !ews even
Loday follow Lhls paLLern by wrlLlng Lhe delLy s name as
C*d.
(4) 1he SabbaLh was a unlque !ewlsh lnvenLlon, whlch
aLLracLed some crlLlclsm from ouLslders as an excuse
for lazlness, buL mosL modern people are probably
graLeful Lo lL as Lhe ulLlmaLe orlgln of Lhe cusLom of Lhe
weekend.
(3) SomeLlmes lnLerpreLed as prohlblLlng mere envy,
Lhls may have been more narrowly lnLended aL Lhose
who would ploL Lo selze whaL was noL Lhelrs.
(6) SLeps mlghL cause a parLlng of Lhe fronL of Lhe sklrL
whlch men wore.
(7) lollowlng Lhe paLLern of slx days of labor followed
by a day of resL.
(8) A mark of enslavemenL, comparable Lo brandlng.
and he shall serve hlm for llfe.
(9) 8e freed.
(10) 8oughL back by her parenLs. lL ls assumed LhaL she
has been boughL as a wlfe or concublne.
(11) Compare Lhe prohlblLlon ln Lhe Cur'an agalnsL
LreaLlng mulLlple wlves unequally.
(12) 1he concepL of places of refuge or sancLuary was
also held ln anclenL Creece, and Lo some exLenL ln
Medleval Lurope. A fleelng crlmlnal could Lake refuge
aL an alLar or oLher sacred spoL and demand proLecLlon
from [usLlce. Pere Lhe law provldes an excepLlon for
whaL ls now called lnvolunLary manslaughLer.
(13) noLe LhaL Lhe deaLh of a feLus ls LreaLed as much
less serlous Lhan lasLlng ln[ury Lo Lhe moLher. 1he "eye
for an eye" paLLern used here and elsewhere was
moderaLed laLer ln !ewlsh pracLlce by allowlng money
flnes Lo subsLlLuLe for muLllaLlon, buL ln varlous perlods
boLh ChrlsLlans and Musllms have also used Lhe
severlng of members as punlshmenL.
(14) used as Lhe classlc [usLlflcaLlon for wlLch-burnlng
by ChrlsLlans.
(13) l. e., has lnLercourse wlLh. Many of Lhe laws
prohlblL varlous sexual acLlvlLles.
(16) 1hls unequlvocal demand for mercy and hosplLallLy
Lo forelgners ls repeaLed elsewhere ln Lhe !ewlsh 8lble,
and becomes a hallmark of Lhe propheLlc era.
(17) 1hls prohlblLlon agalnsL charglng lnLeresL Lo
corellglonlsLs was also malnLalned by Lhe Medleval
CaLhollc Church, buL Lhe caplLal necessary for Lrade was
provlded by all owlng !ews, who could noL charge each
oLher lnLeresL, Lo be lenders Lo ChrlsLlans. ChrlsLlans
maneuvered !ews lnLo Lhls poslLlon and made lL
lmposslble for Lhe moneylenders Lo enforce repaymenL
ln courL (desplLe Lhe fanLasy deplcLed ln Shakespeare s
MerchanL of venlce). 1hey Lhen blLLerly reproached
Lhem for Lhelr greed. Cne of Lhe cruclal foundaLlon
sLones for modern caplLallsm was lald when
roLesLanLs accepLed Lhe leglLlmacy of lnLeresL.
(18) 1o Lhe Pebrews, Lhls dedlcaLlon of Lhe flrsL-born Lo
Cod (as prlesLs) reflecLed Lhe LradlLlon LhaL Lhelr flrsL-
born had been spared when Cod kllled Lhose of Lhe
LgypLlans. ChrlsLlan Lheologlans laLer saw ln lL an
anLlclpaLlon of Lhe sacrlflclal offerlng of !esus as Cod s
son ln Lhe cruclflxlon.
(19) Musllms are also prohlblLed from eaLlng carrlon.
(20) 1hls passage spells ouL ln more deLall whaL ls
meanL by Lhe commandmenL agalnsL bearlng false
wlLness.

1he Mandate of neaven: Se|ect|ons from the 1:2(M$#>


from !ames Legge, Lrans, 1be 5octeJ 8ooks of cbloo. 1be 1exts of coofocloolsm, ln l. Max Mueller, ed.,
1be 5octeJ 8ooks of tbe ost, 30 vols., (Cxford: Clarendon, 1879-1910), vol J. pp. 92-93, repr. ln Alfred !.
Andrea and !ames P. Cverfleld, 1be nomoo kecotJ. 5ootces of Clobol nlstoty, vol 1, 2d. ed., (8osLon:
PoughLon Mlfflln, 1994), pp. 23-27

Ioundat|ons (8000 8.C.L. to 600 C.L.)

!"$("!"

jAoJteo lottoJoctloo] 1be 5bo Iloq, ot closslc of nlstoty, ls tbe olJest complete wotk omooq wbot ote
koowo os tbe flve coofocloo closslcs. 1be flve closslcs wete coooolzeJ os tbe boslc elemeots of tbe
coofocloo eJocotloool system Jotloq tbe secooJ ceototy 8c., wbeo tbe books wete tecoosttocteJ by
otJet of sevetol empetots of tbe noo uyoosty (202 8c-220 c). Altbooqb noo scbolots ptobobly
tefosblooeJ elemeots of tbe 5bo Iloq, tbe wotk wos olteoJy oocleot lo coofoclos's Joy, ooJ tbe book, os
we bove tecelveJ lt, ls ptobobly esseotlolly tbe some text tbot coofoclos (551-479 8c) koew, stoJleJ,
ooJ occepteJ os oo ootbeotlc tecotJ of cbloese clvlllzotloo.

uesplte lts tltle, tbe closslc of nlstoty ls oot o wotk of blstotlcol lotetptetotloo ot oottotloo. kotbet, lt ls o
collectloo of Jocomeots spoooloq some seveoteeo booJteJ yeots of cbloese blstoty ooJ leqeoJ, ftom
2J57 to 6J1 8c. Mooy of tbe Jocomeots, bowevet, ote tbe spotloos cteotloos of mocb lotet petloJ fote
teflect tbe ottltoJes of tbose sobsepoeot etos.

1be Jocomeot tbot oppeots bete wos composeJ lo tbe oqe of 2boo bot potpotts to be tbe oJvlce qlveo by
tbe foltbfol l lo to kloq 1ol Ilo, secooJ of tbe 5booq kloqs. AccotJloq to tbe stoty bebloJ tbls Jocomeot,
wbeo tbe fltst 5booq kloq, cbeoq 1ooq, JleJ otoooJ 175J, bls cblef mlolstet l lo took lt opoo blmself to
losttoct tbe oew yoooq kloq lo tbe woys ooJ Jotles of kloqsblp ooJ tbe wotkloqs of tbe MooJote of
neoveo.

1be MooJote of neoveo wos o polltlcol-soclol pbllosopby tbot setveJ os tbe boslc cbloese exploootloo fot
tbe soccess ooJ follote of moootcbs ooJ stotes Jowo to tbe eoJ of tbe emplte lo 1912 c. wbeoevet o
Jyoosty fell, tbe teosoo lovotlobly offeteJ by cbloo's soqes wos tbot lt boJ lost tbe motol tlqbt to tole
wblcb ls qlveo by neoveo olooe. lo tbls cootext beoveo JlJ oot meoo o petsoool qoJ bot o cosmlc oll-
petvoJloq powet. Most blstotloos toJoy oqtee tbot tbe tbeoty tbe MooJote of neoveo wos oo loveotloo
of tbe 2boo to jostlfy tbelt ovettbtow of tbe 5booq. 1be kloq, oftet oll, wos tbe fotbet of bls people, ooJ
potetool ootbotlty wos tbe boslc cemeot of cbloese soclety ftom eotllest tlmes. kebellloo oqolost o
fotbet, tbetefote, oeeJeJ exttootJlooty jostlflcotloo.


ln Lhe LwelfLh monLh of Lhe flrsL year... ?l ?ln
sacrlflced Lo Lhe former klng, and presenLed Lhe
helr-klng reverenLly before Lhe shrlne of hls
grandfaLher. All Lhe prlnces from Lhe domaln of
Lhe nobles and Lhe royal domaln were presenL,
all Lhe offlcers also, each conLlnulng Lo
dlscharge hls parLlcular duLles, were Lhere Lo
recelve Lhe orders of Lhe chlef mlnlsLer. ?l ?ln
Lhen clearly descrlbed Lhe compleLe vlrLue of
Lhe MerlLorlous AncesLor for Lhe lnsLrucLlon of
Lhe young klng.

Pe sald, "Ch! of old Lhe former klngs of xla
culLlvaLed earnesLly Lhelr vlrLue, and Lhen Lhere
were no calamlLles from Peaven. 1he splrlLs of
Lhe hllls and rlvers allke were all ln LranqulllLy,
and Lhe blrds and beasLs, Lhe flshes and
LorLolses, all en[oyed Lhelr exlsLence accordlng
Lo Lhelr naLure. 8uL Lhelr descendanL dld noL
follow Lhelr example, and greaL Peaven senL
down calamlLles, employlng Lhe agency of our
ruler- who was ln possesslon of lLs favorlng
appolnLmenL. 1he aLLack on xla may be Lraced
Lo Lhe orgles ln Mlng 1lao... Cur klng of Shang
brllllanLly dlsplayed hls sagely prowess, for
oppresslon he subsLlLuLed hls generous
genLleness, and Lhe mllllons of Lhe people gave
hlm Lhelr hearLs. now your Ma[esLy ls enLerlng
on Lhe lnherlLance of hls vlrLue, -- all depends
on how you commence your relgn. 1o seL up
love, lL ls lor you Lo love your relaLlons, Lo seL
up respecL, lL ls for you Lo respecL your elders.
1he commencemenL ls ln Lhe famlly and Lhe
sLaLe....
"Ch! Lhe former klng began wlLh careful
aLLenLlon Lo Lhe bonds Lhar hold men LogeLher.
Pe llsLened Lo exposLulaLlon, and dld noL seek
Ioundat|ons (8000 8.C.L. to 600 C.L.)

!"$)"!"

Lo reslsL lL, he conformed Lo Lhe wlsdom of Lhe
anclenLs, occupylng Lhe hlghesL poslLlon, he
dlsplayed lnLelllgence, occupylng an lnferlor
poslLlon, he dlsplayed hls loyalLy, he allowed
Lhe good quallLles of Lhe men whom he
employed and dld noL seek LhaL Lhey should
have every LalenL....
"Pe exLenslvely soughL ouL wlse men, who
should be helpful Lo you, hls descendanL and
helr. Pe lald down Lhe punlshmenLs for offlcers,
and warned Lhose who were ln auLhorlLy,
saylng, 'lf you dare Lo have consLanL danclng ln
your palaces, and drunken slnglng ln your
chambers, -- LhaL ls called Lhe fashlon of
sorcerers, lf you dare Lo see your hearLs on
wealLh and women, and abandon yourselves Lo
wanderlng abouL or Lo Lhe chase, -- Lhar ls
called Lhe fashlon of exLravagance, lf you dare
Lo desplse sage words, Lo reslsL Lhe loyal and
uprlghL, Lo puL far from you Lhe aged and
vlrLuous, and Lo seek Lhe company of...youLhs, -
- LhaL ls called Lhe fashlon of dlsorder. now lf a
hlgh noble or offlcer be addlcLed Lo one of
Lhese Lhree fashlons wlLh Lhelr Len evll ways, hls
famlly wlll surely come Lo ruln, lf Lhe prlnce of a
counLry be so addlcLed, hls sLaLe wlll surely
come Lo ruln. 1he mlnlsLer who does noL Lry Lo
correcL such vlces ln Lhe soverelgn shall be
punlshed wlLh brandlng.'...
"Ch! do you, who now succeed Lo Lhe Lhrone,
revere Lhese warnlngs ln your person. 1hlnk of
Lhem! -- sacred counsels of vasL lmporLance,
admlrable words forclbly seL forLh! 1he ways of
Peaven are noL lnvarlable: -- on Lhe good-doer
lL sends down all blesslngs, and on Lhe evll-doer
lL sends down all mlserles. uo you buL be
vlrLuous, be lL ln small Lhlngs or ln large, and Lhe
myrlad reglons wlll have cause for re[olclng. lf
you noL be vlrLuous, be lL ln large Lhlngs or ln
small, lL wlll brlng Lhe ruln of your ancesLral
Lemple."
ULS1ICNS ICk ANALSIS
1. Pow does a monarch lose Lhe MandaLe of Peaven,
and whaL are Lhe consequences of Lhls loss?
2. WhaL evldence can you flnd here of Lhe Chlnese
culL of reverence for Lhe ancesLors?
3. WhaL evldence can you flnd Lo supporL Lhe
concluslon LhaL classlcal Chlnese pollLlcal
phllosophy percelved Lhe sLaLe as an exLended
famlly?
4. WhaL sorL of harmony does Lhe monarch
malnLaln?
3. Would ?l ?ln accepL Lhe noLlon LhaL Lhere can be a
dlsLlncLlon beLween ruler's prlvaLe morallLy and
publlc pollcles?
6. WhaL does Lhe Lheory of Lhe MandaLe of Peaven
suggesL abouL Lhe naLure of Chlnese socleLy?
7. Amerlcan pollLlclans ofLen promlse "lnnovaLlve
answers Lo Lhe challenge of Lomorrow." WhaL
would ?l ?ln Lhlnk abouL such an approach Lo
sLaLecrafL? WhaL would ?l ?ln Lhlnk abouL modern
pollLlclans who aLLempL Lo appear youLhful? WhaL
would he chlnk of popular oplnlon polls?
nan Ie|-tzu (d. 233 8CL): Lega||st V|ews on Good Government
1be coofocloo lJeol of "qovetomeot tbtooqb vlttoe" ooJ tbe teoJeocy of coofocloolsts to seek qolJooce
lo tbe tole of fotmet kloqs wos sttooqly ctltlclzeJ by oootbet scbool of tbooqbt. tbe leqollsts ot 5cbool of
low. AccotJloq to tbe leqollsts, oeltbet tbe wlsJom of oocleot kloqs oot oo etblcol coJe woolJ moke o
stote sttooq. losteoJ "qooJ" ooJ "boJ" wete JefloeJ by wbotevet tbe self-lotetest of tbe tolet
JemooJeJ. A system of botsb poolsbmeots ooJ tewotJs, teqoloteJ tbtooqb lows ooJ eofotceJ wltboot
exceptloos, sboolJ qootootee qooJ bebovlot wltblo tbe stote. 1be leqollsts cooslJeteJ mllltoty setvlce
ooJ oqtlcoltote os tbe ooly occopotloos beoeflclol to tbe welfote of tbe stote ooJ JlscootoqeJ oll
scbolotsblp.
1be stote of Olo lo westeto cbloo wos tbe fltst to oJopt leqollst Jocttloes. 1be Olo wete so soccessfol
tbot by 221 8c tbey boJ coopoeteJ tbe otbet cbloese stotes ooJ oolfleJ tbe emplte oftet ceototles of
wot. 1be followloq potoqtopb wos tokeo ftom Pan lel-Lzu, 1he "[book of] MasLer Pan lel," cboptet 50.
Ioundat|ons (8000 8.C.L. to 600 C.L.)

!"$*"!"

noo lel-tzo boJ stoJleJ ooJet tbe coofocloo scbolot nsoo-tzo ooJ become tbe mojot tbeotlst of tbe
leqollst scbool. coofocloo scbolots vlqotoosly JeooooceJ bls teocbloqs lo oll sobsepoeot qeoetotloos, yet
bls botsb ptoqmotlsm, ofteo compoteJ to tbot of Mocblovelll ooJ kootllyo, mote occototely explolos tbe
octloos of mooy tolets tboo Joes tbe lJeollstlc coofocloo moJel.
wbot ottltoJe Joes noo lel exptess towotJ tbe commoo people? wbot kloJs of steto meosotes Joes be
soqqest sboolJ be eoocteJ fot tbelt owo qooJ?

When a sage governs a sLaLe, he does noL rely
on Lhe people Lo do good ouL of Lhelr own wlll.
lnsLead, he sees Lo lL LhaL Lhey are noL allowed
Lo do whaL ls noL good. lf he relles on people Lo
do good ouL of Lhelr own wlll, wlLhln Lhe
borders of Lhe sLaLe noL even Len persons can
be counLed on [Lo do good]. ?eL, lf one sees Lo lL
LhaL Lhey are noL allowed Lo do whaL ls noL
good, Lhe whole sLaLe can be broughL Lo
unlform order. Whoever rules should conslder
Lhe ma[orlLy and seL Lhe few aslde: Pe should
noL devoLe hls aLLenLlon Lo vlrLue, buL Lo law.
lf lL were necessary Lo rely on a shafL LhaL had
grown perfecLly sLralghL, wlLhln a hundred
generaLlons Lhere would be no arrow. lf lL were
necessary Lo rely on wood LhaL had grown
perfecLly round, wlLhln a Lhousand generaLlons
Lhere would be no carL wheel. lf a naLurally
sLralghL shafL or naLurally round wood cannoL
be found wlLhln a hundred generaLlons, how ls
lL LhaL ln all generaLlons carrlages are used and
blrds shoL? 8ecause Lools are used Lo sLralghLen
and bend. 8uL even lf one dld noL rely on Lools
and sLlll goL a naLurally sLralghL shafL or a plece
of naLurally round wood, a sklllful crafLsman
would noL value Lhls. Why? 8ecause lL ls noL [usL
one person LhaL needs Lo rlde and noL [usL one
arrow LhaL needs Lo be shoL. Lven lf wlLhouL
relylng on rewards and punlshmenLs Lhere
would be someone dolng good ouL of hls own
wlll, an enllghLened ruler would noL value Lhls.
Why? 8ecause a sLaLe's law musL noL be
neglecLed, and noL [usL one person needs Lo be
governed. 1herefore, Lhe skllled ruler does noL
go afLer such unpredlcLable goodness, buL walks
Lhe paLh of cerLaln success. . . .
ralslng Lhe beauLy of Ma Ch'lang or Psl shlh (1)
does noL lmprove your own face. 8uL uslng oll
Lo molsLen lL, and powder and palnL wlll make lL
Lwlce as aLLracLlve.
ralslng Lhe benevolence and rlghLeousness of
former klngs does noL lmprove your own rule.
8uL maklng laws and regulaLlons clear and
rewards and punlshmenLs cerLaln, ls llke
applylng oll, powder and palnL Lo a sLaLe.
An enllghLened ruler holds up facLs and dlscards
all LhaL ls wlLhouL pracLlcal value. 1herefore he
does noL pursue rlghLeousness and
benevolence, and he does noL llsLen Lo Lhe
words of scholars. 1hese days, whoever does
noL undersLand how Lo govern wlll lnvarlably
say: "Wln Lhe hearLs of Lhe people." lf wlnnlng
Lhe hearLs of Lhe people ls all LhaL one needs ln
order Lo govern, a ?l ?ln or a kuan Chung (2)
would be useless. LlsLenlng Lo Lhe people would
be enough. 8uL Lhe wlsdom of Lhe people ls
useless: 1hey have Lhe mlnds of llLLle lnfanLs! lf
an lnfanL's head ls noL shaved, lLs sores wlll
spread, and lf lLs boll ls noL opened, lL wlll
become slcker. ?eL whlle lLs head ls belng
shaved and lLs boll opened, one person has Lo
hold lL LlghL so LhaL Lhe carlng moLher can
perform Lhe operaLlon, and lL screams and walls
wlLhouL end. lnfanLs and chlldren don'L
undersLand LhaL Lhe small paln Lhey have Lo
suffer now wlll brlng greaL beneflL laLer.
Llkewlse, lf Lhe people are forced Lo Llll Lhelr
land and open pasLures ln order Lo lncrease
Lhelr fuLure supplles, Lhey conslder Lhelr ruler
harsh. lf Lhe penal code ls belng revlsed and
punlshmenLs are made heavler ln order Lo wlpe
ouL evll deeds, Lhey conslder Lhelr ruler sLern. lf
Ioundat|ons (8000 8.C.L. to 600 C.L.)

!"$+"!"

llghL Laxes ln cash and graln are levled ln order
Lo flll granarles and Lhe Lreasury so LhaL Lhere
wlll be food ln Llmes of sLarvaLlon and sufflclenL
funds for Lhe army, Lhey conslder Lhelr ruler
greedy. lf lL ls requlred LhaL wlLhln Lhe borders
everybody ls famlllar wlLh warfare, LhaL no one
ls exempLed from mlllLary servlce, and LhaL Lhe
sLaLe ls unlLed ln sLrengLh ln order Lo Lake all
enemles capLlve, Lhe people conslder Lhelr ruler
vlolenL. 1hese four Lypes of measures would all
serve Lo guaranLee order and peace, yeL Lhe
people do noL have Lhe sense Lo welcome Lhem.
1herefore one has Lo seek for an enllghLened
[ruler] Lo enforce Lhem.
(1) 1he beauLy of Lhese women ls proverblally
famous.
(2) AnclenL Chlnese sLaLesmen famous for Lhelr
wlsdom.
1toosloteJ by lyJlo Cetbet
Confuc|us:(N#&'"B%6 (Sth C. 8CL?)

1be soyloqs of coofoclos wete temembeteJ by bls followets ooJ wete lotet complleJ lo o book of
Aoolects (soyloqs), petbops bovloq beeo expooJeJ oo lo tbe meootlme. 1btooqb tbem we Jlscovet
coofoclos' ootloos of tbe vlttoes, l.e., tbe posltlve cbotoctet ttolts, to wblcb we sboolJ osplte. lotemost
omooq tbese ls llllol llety, tbe tespect wblcb cbllJteo owe to poteots--ooJ by exteosloo, wlves owe to
bosbooJs, slstets to btotbets, ooJ evetyooe to oocestots. wbeo socb vlttoe ls coltlvoteJ lo tbe bome, lt ls
sopposeJ to cotty ovet loto ooe's telotloos lo offolts of stote os well.
now Joes coofoclos fotmolote tbe epolvoleot of tbe ColJeo kole ("Jo ooto otbets os yoo woolJ bove
tbem Jo ooto yoo")? ls bls o sttooqet lojooctloo ot o less JemooJloq ooe?

Cn I|||a| |ety
Mang l asked whaL flllal pleLy ls. 1he MasLer
sald, "lL ls belng obedlenL." Soon afLer, as lan
Chl was drlvlng hlm, Lhe MasLer Lold hlm "Mang
asked me whaL flllal pleLy ls, and l answer hlm
'belng obedlenL.'" lan Chl asked, "WhaL exacLly
dld you mean?" 1he MasLer replled, "1haL
parenLs, when allve, should be served accordlng
Lo rlLual, LhaL, when dead, Lhey should be
burled accordlng Lo rlLual, and LhaL Lhey should
be sacrlflced Lo accordlng Lo rlLual."
Zlyou asked whaL flllal pleLy ls. 1he MasLer sald,
"1he flllal pleLy of now-a-days means provldlng
nourlshmenL for one's parenLs. 8uL dogs and
horses llkewlse are able Lo do someLhlng along
LhaL llne for Lhelr own klnd. WlLhouL reverence,
whaL ls Lhere Lo dlsLlngulsh Lhe one supporL
glven from Lhe oLher?"


Cn Goodness
1he MasLer sald, "A youLh, when aL home,
should behave well Loward hls parenLs, and
when abroad, respecLfully Lo hls elders. Pe
should be earnesL and LruLhful. Pe should
overflow ln love Lo all, and culLlvaLe Lhe
frlendshlp of Lhe good. When he has Llme and
opporLunlLy, afLer dolng Lhose Lhlngs, he should
sLudy Lhe pollLe arLs."
1he MasLer sald, "WlLh coarse rlce Lo eaL, wlLh
waLer Lo drlnk, and my bended arm for a plllow,
l sLlll have [oy ln Lhe mldsL of Lhese Lhlngs.
8lches and honours acqulred by
unrlghLeousness are Lo me as a floaLlng cloud."
Zhonggong asked abouL perfecL vlrLue. 1he
MasLer sald, "When abroad, behave Lo
everyone as lf you were recelvlng an lmporLanL
guesL, LreaL people as lf you were asslsLlng aL a
greaL sacrlflce, do noL do Lo oLhers as you
would noL wlsh done Lo yourself. 1hereby you
Ioundat|ons (8000 8.C.L. to 600 C.L.)

!"$,"!"

wlll leL no murmurlng rlse agalnsL you ln Lhe
counLry, and none ln Lhe famlly. . . ."
1he MasLer sald, "1he deLermlned scholar and
Lhe man of vlrLue wlll noL seek Lo llve aL Lhe
expense of humanlLy. 1hey wlll even sacrlflce
Lhelr llves Lo preserve Lhelr humanlLy."
Someone sald, "WhaL do you say concernlng
Lhe prlnclple LhaL ln[ury should be recompensed
wlLh klndness?" 1he MasLer sald, "WlLh whaL
Lhen wlll you recompense klndness?
8ecompense ln[ury wlLh [usLlce, and
recompense klndness wlLh klndness."
coofoclos took tbe ootloo of tbe qeotlemoo, os
ooe wbo owoeJ looJ ooJ boJ some polltlcol
powet, ooJ tewotkeJ lt loto o motol ootloo
wblcb coptotes tbe esseoce of tbe qooJ llfe. 1be
qtocloosoess ooJ self-Jlsclplloe wblcb
cbotoctetlze socb o qeotlemoo ote fosteteJ by,
ooJ exptesseJ lo, tltool ooJ moslc. 8ot tbls olso
leoJs to mooy JetolleJ qolJelloes oboot bow to
Jtess ooJ bow to petfotm tbe tltools. (1be
coootetpott woolJ be toles of etlpoette lo oot
soclety.)
wby ls tltool sopposeJ to be lmpottoot? wbot
boppeos to otbetwlse vlttooos ttolts wltboot
socb tltool?

Cn the Gent|eman

1he MasLer sald, "8lches and honours are whaL
men deslre, buL lf Lhey cannoL be obLalned ln
Lhe proper way, Lhey should be leL go. overLy
and meanness are whaL men dlsllke, buL lf Lhey
cannoL be avolded ln Lhe proper way, Lhey
should noL be avolded. lf a genLleman abandons
vlrLue, how can he fulflll Lhe requlremenLs of hls
LlLle? A genLleman noL, even for Lhe space of a
slngle meal, acL conLrary Lo vlrLue. Lven ln
momenLs of hasLe, and ln Llmes of danger, he
cllngs Lo vlrLue."
1he MasLer sald, "A genLleman, well sLudled ln
llLeraLure, and abldlng by Lhe rules of rlLual, wlll
noL go very wrong."
"When genLlemen perform well all Lhelr duLles
Lo Lhelr relaLlons, Lhe people are lnsplred Lo
vlrLue. When Lhey remaln Lrue Lo Lhelr old
frlends, Lhe people are preserved from
lrresponslble behavlor."
1he MasLer sald, "A genLleman polnLs ouL Lhe
admlrable quallLles of men and does noL polnL
ouL Lhelr bad quallLles. A peLLy man does [usL
Lhe opposlLe."
1he MasLer sald, "A genLleman ls dlsLressed by
hls lack of ablllLy, buL he ls noL dlsLressed by
men's noL knowlng hlm."
1he MasLer sald, "WhaL Lhe genLleman
demands ls someLhlng of hlmself. WhaL Lhe
peLLy man demands ls someLhlng of oLhers."
A genLleman does noL wear a deep purple or a
puce color, nor ln hls aL-home cloLhes does he
wear red. ln warm weaLher, he wears a slngle-
layered garmenL, elLher of coarse or flne
LexLure, buL when golng ouL he wears lL over
anoLher garmenL. Pe wears lambskln wlLh a
garmenL of black, fawn wlLh whlLe, and fox wlLh
yellow. Pls fur dresslng gown should be long,
buL wlLh Lhe rlghL sleeve shorL. Pls nlghL cloLhes
musL be half agaln as long as hls body. When
sLaylng aL home, he wears Lhlck furs of Lhe fox
or Lhe badger. So long as he ls noL ln mournlng,
he wears all Lhe Lrlmmlngs of hls glrdle. . . . Pe
does noL wear lamb's fur or a black cap when
maklng a vlslL of condolence. And on Lhe flrsL
day of Lhe monLh he musL puL on hls courL
robes and presenL hlmself aL courL.
The Master said, "The progress of the superior
man is upwards; the progress of the mean man is
downwards."
Confucius said, "There are three things of which
the superior man stand in awe. He stands in awe
of the ordinances of Heaven. He stands in awe
Ioundat|ons (8000 8.C.L. to 600 C.L.)

!"%-"!"

of great men. He stands in awe of the words of
the sages. The mean man does not know the
ordinances of Heaven, and consequently does
not stand in awe of them. He is disrespectful to
great men. He makes sport of the words of the
sages."
The Master said, "The superior man is modest in
his speech, but exceeds in his actions."
Education is, of course, important to Confucius,
as one needs to learn the traditions and profit
from the wisdom of the past. Government can
then be carried on by " moral force, " as opposed
to requiring military or legal force. As to
religion, Confucius does not challenge it, but he
doesn't put his hope in it either. His stress is
always on living well, which means living
properly, here and now and by our own actions.
wblcb ls mote lmpottoot fot oo otJetly stote.
fooJ, weopoos, ot o qovetomeot tbot ooe coo
ttost.

Cn Lducat|on
1he MasLer sald, "Anyone learnlng wlLhouL
LhoughL ls losL, anyone Lhlnklng buL noL learnlng
ls ln perll."
1he MasLer sald, "?u, shall l Leach you whaL
knowledge ls? When you know a Lhlng, Lo
reallze LhaL you know lL, and when you do noL
know a Lhlng, Lo allow LhaL you do noL know lL:
Lhls ls knowledge." 1he MasLer sald, [l have
been] "a LransmlLLer and noL a maker, bellevlng
ln and lovlng Lhe anclenLs. . ."
When Lhe MasLer wenL Lo Wel, 8an ?u acLed as
drlver of hls carrlage. 1he MasLer observed,
"Pow numerous Lhe people are!" 8an ?u asked,
"When Lhey are more numerous, whaL more
shall be done for Lhem ?" "Lnrlch Lhem," was
Lhe reply. "And when Lhey have been enrlched,
whaL more shall be done?" 1he MasLer sald,
"lnsLrucL Lhem."

Cn Government
1he MasLer sald, "1o rule a counLry of a
Lhousand charloLs requlres reverenL aLLenLlon
Lo buslness, slncerlLy, economy ln expendlLures,
and love for men, as well as Lhe employmenL of
Lhe people only ln Lhe rlghL seasons."
1he MasLer sald, "lf Lhe people are governed by
laws and punlshmenL ls used Lo malnLaln order,
Lhey wlll Lry Lo avold Lhe punlshmenL buL have
no sense of shame. lf Lhey are governed by
vlrLue and rules of proprleLy [rlLual] are used Lo
malnLaln order, Lhey wlll have a sense of shame
and wlll become good as well."
Zlgong asked abouL governmenL. 1he MasLer
sald, "1he requlslLes of governmenL are LhaL
Lhere be sufflclenL food, sufflclenL mlllLary
equlpmenL, and Lhe confldence of Lhe people ln
Lhelr ruler." Zlgong sald, "lf one had Lo dlspense
wlLh one of Lhose Lhree, whlch should be glven
up flrsL?" "1he mlllLary equlpmenL, " sald Lhe
MasLer. Zlgong agaln asked, "lf one had Lo
dlspense wlLh one of Lhe Lwo remalnlng, whlch
should be glven up?" 1he MasLer answered,
"Clve up Lhe food. lrom of old, deaLh has
always been Lhe loL of men, buL lf Lhe people
have no falLh ln Lhelr rulers, Lhey cannoL sLand."
Chl k'ang-Lzu asked Confuclus abouL
governmenL, saylng, "WhaL do you say Lo kllllng
unprlnclpled people for Lhe sake of prlnclpled
people?" Confuclus replled, "Slr, ln carrylng on
your governmenL, why should you use kllllng aL
all? LeL your evlnced deslres be for whaL ls
good, and Lhe people wlll be good. 1he relaLlon
beLween superlors (cboo-tzo) and lnferlors ls
llke LhaL beLween Lhe wlnd and Lhe grass. 1he
grass musL bend, when Lhe wlnd blows across
lL.
1he MasLer sald, "When a prlnce's personal
conducL ls correcL, hls governmenL ls effecLlve
wlLhouL Lhe lssulng of orders. lf hls personal
conducL ls noL correcL, he may lssue orders, buL
Lhey wlll noL be followed."
Ioundat|ons (8000 8.C.L. to 600 C.L.)

!"%$"!"

1zu-lu asked how a soverelgn should be served.
1he MasLer sald, "uo noL lmpose on hlm, and,
moreover, wlLhsLand hlm Lo hls face.
1he MasLer sald, "1he full observance of Lhe
rules of proprleLy ln servlng one's prlnce ls
accounLed by people Lo be flaLLery.
WhaL ls called a greaL mlnlsLer,ls one who
serves hls prlnce accordlng Lo whaL ls rlghL, and
when he flnds he cannoL do so, reLlres.
Pslen asked whaL was shameful. 1he MasLer
sald, "When good governmenL prevalls ln a
sLaLe, Lo be Lhlnklng only of one's salary. When
bad governmenL prevalls, Lo be Lhlnklng, ln Lhe
same way, only of one's salary. 1haL ls whaL ls
shameful."
When a counLry ls well governed, poverLy and
mean condlLlon are Lhlngs Lo be ashamed of.
When a counLry ls poorly governed, rlches and
honor are Lhlngs Lo be ashamed of.

Cn ke||g|on
Someone asked Lhe meanlng of Lhe greaL
sacrlflce. 1he MasLer sald, "l do noL know.
Anyone who knew lLs meanlng would flnd lL as
easy Lo govern Lhe klngdom as Lo look on Lhls,"
and he polnLed Lo Lhe palm of hls hand.
Zllu asked abouL servlng Lhe ghosLs of Lhe dead.
1he MasLer sald, "unLll you are able Lo serve
men, how can you serve Lhelr ghosLs?" When
Zllu venLured Lo ask abouL deaLh, Lhe answer
was: "Whlle you do noL know llfe, how can you
[hope Lo] know abouL deaLh?"
Lao 1zu: 1ao te Ch|ng
1be 1ao Le Chlng (lltetolly, "tbe closslc of tbe woy of vlttoe") ls otttlboteJ to loo 1zo, tbooqb scbolots
Jlsoqtee oboot bls octool exlsteoce. lo lts vety poetlc fotm lt teocbes tbot tbete ls o Jyoomlc, cosmlc
sttoctote ooJetlyloq evetytbloq tbot boppeos lo tbe wotlJ. we bomoos oeeJ to Jlscovet tbot woy (1oo) ,
wblcb ls lmmooeot lo oll ospects of tbe wotlJ, oot o tole lmposeJ ftom wltboot, ooJ we oeeJ to flt loto lt,
lettloq tbloqs toke tbelt cootse, oot exettloq ootselves lo opposltloo to lt by ttyloq to beoJ tbloqs to oot
wlll.
Oot oomloq (Jesctlbloq) of tbloqs olwoys folls sbott of tbe woy tbloqs ote, sloce tbloqs ote oot llmlteJ os
oot looqooqe ptesopposes. veo tbe 1oo wblcb we ote ttyloq to tolk oboot bete eloJes oot wotJs. 1be
otlqlool polotlty ls tbot of beloq ooJ ooo-beloq, ooJ lt wlll be foooJ to lotetploy tbtooqboot tbe wotlJ,
wltb ooo-beloq (emptloess, wbot ls oot) bovloq os mocb slqolflcooce os Joes beloq (tbe folloess of tbloqs,
wbot ls). 1bos tbe ootloo of tbe 1oo tecoptotes tbe eotllet cbloese coocept of lo ooJ ooq, tbe polotltles
toooloq tbtooqb oll tbloqs.
wbot ptlce ls polJ wbeo people come to koow beooty ooJ qooJoess? (l.e., wbot comes olooq wltb socb
koowleJqe?) ls tbot boJ, occotJloq to 1oolsm?

1
1he 1ao LhaL can be spoken of ls noL Lhe
endurlng and unchanglng 1ao. 1he name LhaL
can be named ls noL Lhe endurlng and
unchanglng name.
Pavlng no name, lL ls Lhe CrlglnaLor of heaven
and earLh, havlng a name, lL ls Lhe MoLher of all
Lhlngs.
We should rld ourselves of deslres lf we wlsh Lo
observe lLs subLleLy, we should allow our
Ioundat|ons (8000 8.C.L. to 600 C.L.)

!"%%"!"

deslres lf we wlsh Lo see someLhlng of lLs
manlfesLaLlons.
under Lhese Lwo aspecLs, lL ls really Lhe same,
buL as developmenL Lakes place, lL recelves Lhe
dlfferenL names. 1ogeLher we call Lhem Lhe
mysLery, where Lhe mysLery ls Lhe deepesL ls
Lhe gaLe of all LhaL ls subLle and wonderful.

2
All ln Lhe world know Lhe beauLy of Lhe
beauLlful, and ln dolng so Lhey have Lhe ldea of
ugllness, Lhey all know Lhe good, and ln dolng
so Lhey have Lhe ldea of whaL ls Lhe bad.
So lL ls LhaL belng and non-belng glve blrLh each
Lo Lhe oLher, LhaL dlfflculLy and ease each
produce Lhe ldea of Lhe oLher, LhaL Lhe ldeas of
helghL and lowness arlse from Lhe conLrasL of
Lhe one wlLh Lhe oLher, LhaL Lhe muslcal noLes
and Lones become harmonlous Lhrough Lhe
relaLlon of one wlLh anoLher, and LhaL belng
before and behlnd glve Lhe ldea of one
followlng Lhe oLher.
1herefore Lhe sage manages affalrs wlLhouL
dolng anyLhlng, and conveys hls Leachlngs
wlLhouL Lhe use of speech.
[ln LhaL way] all Lhlngs come forLh, and Lhere ls
noL one whlch decllnes Lo show lLself, Lhey
grow, and Lhere ls no ownershlp clalm made
upon Lhem, Lhey go Lhrough Lhelr processes,
and Lhere ls no expecLaLlon placed on Lhem.
1he work ls accompllshed, and Lhere ls no
dlsrupLlon of order.
1oolsm escbews mooy of tbe ptoctlces ooJ
ptloclples of coofocloolsm, os lo tbe followloq
possoqe, wbete we ote otqeJ oot to sloqle oot
exemploty loJlvlJools ooJ oot to stote op
tteosotes ooJ lovest lo foocy clotbloq ooJ socb.
1be soqe toles bls people oot by fotce ftom tbe
top bot by sobtly eocootoqloq tbose tteoJs ooJ
locllootloos wblcb ote lo keeploq wltb tbe 1oo,
tbos be coo "oct wltboot octloo."
wblcb kloJ of koowleJqe ls lt tbot tbe soqe tolet
ptotects bls people ftom?

3
noL Lo value and employ men of superlor ablllLy
ls Lhe way Lo keep Lhe people from rlvalry
among Lhemselves, noL Lo prlze arLlcles whlch
are preclous dlfflculL Lo procure ls Lhe way Lo
keep Lhem from becomlng Lhleves, noL Lo show
Lhem whaL ls llkely Lo exclLe Lhelr deslres ls Lhe
way Lo keep Lhelr mlnds from dlsorder.
1herefore Lhe sage, ln Lhe exerclse of hls
governmenL, empLles Lhelr mlnds, (1) fllls Lhelr
bellles, weakens Lhelr wllls, and sLrengLhens
Lhelr bones.
Pe consLanLly (Lrles Lo) keep Lhem wlLhouL
knowledge and wlLhouL deslre, and where Lhere
are Lhose who have knowledge, Lo keep Lhem
from presumlng Lo acL (on lL). When Lhere ls
Lhls absLlnence from acLlon, good order ls
unlversal.

1be 1oo te cbloq oses o setles of lmoqes to
sbow tbe poteocy of tbot wblcb ls oot. 1be
vessel ot bowl ls esseotlolly oo empty spoce, bot
lt mokes cootolomeot, beoce Jtlokloq ooJ llfe,
posslble. 5lmllotly o toom qets lts osefoloess
ftom beloq empty, ooJ Joots ooJ wloJows ote
lmpottoot becoose tbete ls ootbloq tbete. 1be
volley, os o femole teceptocle, ls tlcb ooJ
ptoJoctlve. 1be bob of tbe wbeel ls tbe empty
spoce to wblcb tbe spokes coooect. wotet
becomes oo lmoqe fot tbe motol cbotoctet of
bomoos (ot leost lo lts posslve moJe), fot lt
"Joes oot compete" bot fllls lo tbe ctocks
Ioundat|ons (8000 8.C.L. to 600 C.L.)

!"%&"!"

betweeo otbet tbloqs. wblle oot tosk ls to flt lo
poletly, we moy stlll "love tbe eottb," l.e.,
extteme oscetlclsm ls oot colleJ fot.
A btlef llst of wbot 1oolsts love ooJ oppteclote
coo be qleooeJ ftom cboptet 8. wbot ote tbose
sotts of tbloqs?

4
1he 1ao ls (llke) Lhe empLlness of a vessel, and
ln our employmenL of lL we musL be on our
guard agalnsL all fullness. Pow deep and
unfaLhomable lL ls, as lf lL were Lhe Ponored
AncesLor of all Lhlngs!
We should blunL our sharp polnLs and unravel
Lhe compllcaLlons of Lhlngs, we should
moderaLe our brlghLness and brlng ourselves
lnLo agreemenL wlLh Lhe obscurlLy of oLhers.
Pow pure and sLlll Lhe 1ao ls, as lf lL would ever
so conLlnue!
l do noL know whose son lL ls. lL mlghL appear Lo
have been before Cod.

6
1he splrlL of Lhe valley dles noL, buL remalns Lhe
same,
1hus we name lL Lhe mysLerlous female.
lLs gaLe ls called Lhe rooL from whlch grew
heaven and earLh.
Long and unbroken does lLs power remaln,
used genLly, lL wlll never be exhausLed.

8
1he hlghesL excellence (2) ls llke LhaL of waLer.
1he excellence of waLer appears ln lLs
beneflLlng all Lhlngs, and ln lLs occupylng,
wlLhouL sLrlvlng, Lhe low place whlch all men
dlsllke. Pence lL ls near Lo Lhe 1ao.
1he excellence of a resldence ls ln Lhe sulLablllLy
of Lhe place, LhaL of Lhe mlnd ls ln Lhe sLlllness
of Lhe abyss, LhaL of relaLlonshlps ls ln Lhelr
belng wlLh Lhe vlrLuous, LhaL of governmenL ls
ln lLs securlng good order, LhaL of Lhe conducL
of affalrs ls ln lLs ablllLy, and LhaL of any
movemenL ls lLs Llmellness. And when one
wlLh Lhe hlghesL excellence does noL sLrlve
agalnsL hls low poslLlon, no one flnds faulL
wlLh hlm.

11
1he LhlrLy spokes unlLe ln Lhe one cenLer,
buL lL ls on Lhe empLy space for Lhe axle
LhaL Lhe use of Lhe wheel depends. Clay ls
fashloned lnLo vessels, buL lL ls on Lhelr
empLy hollowness LhaL Lhelr use depends.
1he door and wlndows are cuL ouL from Lhe
walls Lo form an aparLmenL, buL lL ls on Lhe
empLy space LhaL lLs use depends.
1herefore, whaLever has belng ls proflLable,
buL whaL does noL have belng can be puL Lo
use.
1toosloteJ by Iomes leqqe (1887), tevlseJ
by Mlcboel Nevllle

(1) "LmpLylng Lhe mlnd" seems here Lo mean
"freelng from concerns whlch mlghL press ln upon
Lhem."
(2) Some LranslaLors Lake Lhls Lo be "Lhe good man."
ln any case, lL ls human vlrLue LhaL ls belng Lalked
abouL.

Ioundat|ons (8000 8.C.L. to 600 C.L.)

!"%'"!"

nymns from the O$>(P"/&

Of tbe sevetol veJlc texts, tbe 8lg veda ls most fooJomeotol to loJloo tbooqbt, tbe otbets Jeolloq wltb
mote pottlcolot mottets socb os tbe soctlflclol fotmolos, meloJles, ooJ moqlc. composeJ ovet o looq
petloJ of tlme ooJ comloq loto tbelt pteseot fotm betweeo 1500 ooJ 1000 b.c.e., tbe veJlc bymos wete
eveotoolly otttlboteJ to tbe Jlvloe bteotb ot to o vlsloo of tbe seets.

A tlme ls eovlslooeJ wbeo tbe wotlJ wos oot,
ooly o wotety cboos (tbe Jotk,
"loJlstloqolsboble seo") ooJ o wotm cosmlc
bteotb, wblcb coolJ qlve oo lmpetos of llfe.
Notlce bow tbooqbt qlves tlse to Jeslte (wbeo
sometbloq ls tbooqbt of lt coo tbeo be JeslteJ)
ooJ Jeslte lloks ooo-beloq to beloq (we Jeslte
wbot ls oot bot tbeo tty to btloq lt oboot tbot lt
ls). et tbe wbole ptocess ls sbtooJeJ lo
mystety.
wbete Jo tbe qoJs flt lo tbls cteotloo scbeme?

<)"&%$+#(I*3#
1he non-exlsLenL was noL, Lhe exlsLenL was noL
aL LhaL Llme. 1he aLmosphere was noL nor Lhe
heavens whlch are beyond. WhaL was
concealed? Where? ln whose proLecLlon? Was
lL waLer? An unfaLhomable abyss?
1here was nelLher deaLh nor lmmorLallLy Lhen.
1here was noL dlsLlncLlon of day or nlghL. 1haL
alone breaLhed wlndless by lLs own power.
CLher Lhan LhaL Lhere was noL anyLhlng else.
uarkness was hldden by darkness ln Lhe
beglnnlng. All Lhls was an lndlsLlngulshable sea.
1haL whlch becomes, LhaL whlch was enveloped
by Lhe vold, LhaL alone was born Lhrough Lhe
power of heaL.
upon LhaL deslre arose ln Lhe beglnnlng. 1hls
was Lhe flrsL dlscharge of LhoughL. Sages
dlscovered Lhls llnk of Lhe exlsLenL Lo Lhe
nonexlsLenL, havlng searched ln Lhe hearL wlLh
wlsdom.
1helr llne [of vlslon] was exLended across, whaL
was below, whaL was above? 1here were
lmpregnaLors, Lhere were powers: lnherenL
power below, lmpulses above.
Who knows Lruly? Who here wlll declare
whence lL arose, whence Lhls creaLlon? 1he
gods are subsequenL Lo Lhe creaLlon of Lhls.
Who, Lhen, knows whence lL has come lnLo
belng?
Whence Lhls creaLlon has come lnLo belng,
wheLher lL was made or noL, he ln Lhe hlghesL
heaven ls lLs surveyor. Surely he knows, or
perhaps he knows noL.
Aqol, tbe qoJ of flte, wbose oome ls tbe
commoo wotJ fot flte, ls o tettesttlol Jelty, ooly
loosely ootbtopomotpblc. ne ls most ofteo
compoteJ to oolmols, wltb wooJ fot bls fooJ
ooJ melteJ bottet fot bls Jtlok. ne ls tbe mootb
by wblcb tbe qoJs coosome tbose ltems Jotloq
tbe soctlflce. ne ls boto ftom wooJ (os two
stlcks ote tobbeJ toqetbet), bot tbeo Jevoots bls
poteots. As "lotJ of tbe noose," be ls o qoest lo
bomoo Jwellloqs lo tbe fotm of tbe Jomestlc
flte.
now ls Aqol sopposeJ to "btloq tbe qoJs bete"?

1o Agn| (I|re)

l call upon Agnl, Lhe one placed ln fronL, Lhe
dlvlne prlesL of Lhe sacrlflce, Lhe lnvoker, Lhe
besL besLower of glfLs.
Agnl ls worLhy of belng called upon by seers
pasL and presenL: may he brlng Lhe gods here!
Ioundat|ons (8000 8.C.L. to 600 C.L.)

!"%("!"

1hrough Agnl may one obLaln wealLh and
prosperlLy day by day, splendld and aboundlng
ln herolc sons.
C Agnl, Lhe sacrlflce and work of Lhe sacrlflce,
whlch you encompass on all sldes--LhaL alone
goes Lo Lhe gods.
May Agnl, Lhe lnvoker who has Lhe powers of a
sage, Lrue and mosL brllllanL ln glory, come
here, a god wlLh Lhe gods!
WhaLsoever favor you wlsh Lo do for a
worshlpper, Agnl, LhaL favor of yours surely
comes Lrue, C Anglras [member of a prlesLly
famlly].
C Agnl, you who gleam ln Lhe darkness, Lo you
we come day by day, wlLh devoLlon and bearlng
homage,
Lo you, ruler of Lhe sacrlflces, keeper of Lhe 8La
[cosmlc law], brlghLly shlnlng, growlng ln your
abode.
So, be of easy access Lo us, Agnl, as a faLher Lo
hls son. Ablde wlLh us for our well-belng.
loJto ls o sky qoJ ooJ o wot qoJ wbo bolJs tbe
eottb ooJ tbe beoveos opott, oo occosloo
mokloq tbe eottb ttemble. As tbe coootetpott of
2eos fot tbe Cteeks ot Iopltet fot tbe komoos,
be ls tbe qoJ of tbe tbooJetstotm, wbo
voopolsbes Jtooqbt ooJ Jotkoess. ne ls tbe
most ftepoeotly meotlooeJ qoJ lo tbe veJo, tbe
most ootlooollstlc, ooJ tbe most
ootbtopomotpblc. 1be setpeot wblcb be slew
wos o Jemoo of Jtooqbt, wbo boJ bottleJ op
tbe stteoms, bot loJto sbotteteJ tbe moootolo,
teleosloq tbe stteoms llke peot op cows. "1be
lowly uoso colot" wbom be bos "pot lo blJloq"
ptesomobly tefets to tbe loJlqeooos peoples of
oottbeto loJlo wbo boJ beeo ovetcome by tbe
Atyoo lovoJets ooJ eltbet moveJ loto tbe
fotests ot mlqtoteJ sootbwotJ.
wbot ls loJto sopposeJ to Jo fot tbe weoty, tbe
weok, tbe oeeJy ptlest (o 8tobmoo, of cootse)
ooJ tbe sloqet?

1o Indra

1he one who ls flrsL and possessed of wlsdom
when born, Lhe god who sLrove Lo proLecL Lhe
gods wlLh sLrengLh, Lhe one before whose force
Lhe Lwo worlds were afrald because of Lhe
greaLness of hls vlrlllLy: he, C people, ls lndra.
1he one who made flrm Lhe quaklng earLh, Lhe
one who made fasL Lhe shaken mounLalns, Lhe
one who measured ouL wlde Lhe aLmosphere,
Lhe one who propped up heaven: he, C people,
ls lndra.
1he one who, havlng kllled Lhe serpenL,
released Lhe seven rlvers, Lhe one who drove
ouL Lhe cows by undolng vala, (1) Lhe one who
generaLes flre beLween Lwo rocks, vlcLor ln
baLLles: he, C people, ls lndra.
1he one by whom all Lhlngs here were made
movlng, Lhe one who puL ln hldlng Lhe lowly
uasa color, Lhe one who, llke a gambler who
has won Lhe sLake, has Laken Lhe enemy's
possesslons: he, C people, ls lndra.
1he one who ls Lhe Lerrlble one, abouL whom
Lhey ask "Where ls he?" and Lhey say of hlm,
"Pe ls noL!" Pe dlmlnlshed Lhe enemy's
possesslons llke sLakes [aL a game]. uL your
falLh ln hlm: he, C people, ls lndra.
1he one who ls Lhe lmpeller of Lhe weary, of Lhe
weak, of Lhe 8rahman seeklng ald, Lhe slnger,
Lhe one wlLh goodly musLaches who ls Lhe
helper of hlm who works Lhe sLones, who has
pressed Lhe Soma (2): he, C people, ls lndra.
1he one ln whose conLrol are horses, cows,
vlllages, all charloLs, Lhe one who has caused Lo
be born Lhe sun, Lhe dawn, Lhe one who ls Lhe
waLers' leader: he, C people, ls lndra.
Ioundat|ons (8000 8.C.L. to 600 C.L.)

!"%)"!"

1he one whom Lhe Lwo llnes of baLLle, comlng
LogeLher, call upon separaLely, Lhe nearer and
Lhe farLher, boLh foes, even Lhe Lwo who have
mounLed Lhe same charloL call upon hlm
lndlvldually: he, C people, ls lndra.
1he one wlLhouL whom people do noL conquer,
Lhe one Lo whom, when flghLlng, Lhey call for
help, Lhe one who ls a maLch for everyone, Lhe
one who shakes Lhe unshakable: he, C people,
ls lndra.
1bls ls ooe of tbe lotest composltloos lo tbe 8lg
veda, os lt soqqests o sott of pootbelstlc
pbllosopby. lotoso ls o cosmlc qloot, of wbom
tbe qoJs ooJ tbe cosmos ltself ote composeJ,
yet be ls olso tbe object of tbe soctlflce to tbe
qoJs. ltom blm tbeo ote JetlveJ tbe qoJs lo tbe
beoveo ooJ, ftom tbe temoloJet, oll tbe test of
wbot ls, botb tbe llvloq ooJ tbe ooo-llvloq.
1be top foot costes ote sopposeJ to bove beeo
JetlveJ ftom lotoso. tbe 8tobmoos, tbe
kojooyo (ot ksottlyo), tbe volsyo, ooJ tbe 5oJto.
wblcb boJy potts ote ossocloteJ wltb eocb
qtoop, ooJ wbot seems to be tbe slqolflcooce of
tbose potts?

urusa, the Cosm|c erson

1housand-headed ls urusa, Lhousand-eyed,
Lhousand-fooLed. Pavlng covered Lhe earLh on
all sldes, he sLood above lL Lhe wldLh of Len
flngers.
Cnly urusa ls all Lhls, LhaL whlch has been and
LhaL whlch ls Lo be. Pe ls Lhe lord of Lhe
lmmorLals, who grow by means of [rlLual] food.
Such ls hls greaLness, yeL more Lhan Lhls ls
urusa. Cne-quarLer of hlm ls all belngs, Lhree-
quarLers of hlm ls Lhe lmmorLal ln heaven.
1hree-quarLers of urusa wenL upward, one-
quarLer of hlm remalned here. lrom Lhls [one-
quarLer] he spread ln all dlrecLlons lnLo whaL
eaLs and whaL does noL eaL.
lrom hlm Lhe shlnlng one was born, from Lhe
shlnlng one was born urusa. When born he
exLended beyond Lhe earLh, behlnd as well as ln
fronL.
When Lhe gods performed a sacrlflce wlLh Lhe
offerlng urusa, sprlng was lLs clarlfled buLLer,
summer Lhe klndllng, auLumn Lhe oblaLlon.
lL was urusa, born ln Lhe beglnnlng, whlch Lhey
sprlnkled on Lhe sacred grass as a sacrlflce. WlLh
hlm Lhe gods sacrlflced, Lhe deml-gods, and Lhe
seers.
lrom LhaL sacrlflce compleLely offered, Lhe
cloLLed buLLer was broughL LogeLher. lL made
Lhe beasLs of Lhe alr, Lhe foresL and Lhe vlllage.
lrom LhaL sacrlflce compleLely offered, Lhe
manLras [8lg veda] and Lhe songs [Samaveda]
were born. 1he meLers were born from lL. 1he
sacrlflclal formulae [?a[urveda] were born from
lL.
lrom lL Lhe horses were born and all LhaL have
cuLLlng LeeLh ln boLh [aws. 1he cows were born
from lL, also. lrom lL were born goaLs and
sheep.
When Lhey dlvlded urusa, how many ways dld
Lhey apporLlon hlm? WhaL was hls mouLh?
WhaL were hls arms? WhaL were hls Lhlghs, hls
feeL declared Lo be?
Pls mouLh was Lhe 8rahman [casLe], hls arms
were Lhe 8a[anaya [ksaLrlya casLe], hls Lhlghs
Lhe valsya [casLe], from hls feeL Lhe Sudra
[casLe] was born.
1he moon was born from hls mlnd, from hls eye
Lhe sun was born, from hls mouLh boLh lndra
and Agnl [flre], from hls breaLh vayu [wlnd] was
born.
Ioundat|ons (8000 8.C.L. to 600 C.L.)

!"%*"!"

lrom hls navel arose Lhe alr, from hls head Lhe
heaven evolved, from hls feeL Lhe earLh, Lhe
[four] dlrecLlons from hls ear. 1hus, Lhey
fashloned Lhe worlds.
Seven were hls alLar sLlcks, Lhree Llmes seven
were Lhe klndllng bundles, when Lhe gods,
performlng Lhe sacrlflce, bound Lhe beasL
urusa.
1he gods sacrlflced wlLh Lhe sacrlflce Lo Lhe
sacrlflce. 1hese were Lhe flrsL rlLes. 1hese
powers reached Lhe flrmamenL, where Lhe
anclenL deml-gods and Lhe gods are.
1ranslaLed by Mlchael Myers

(1) 1he cave ln whlch Lhe caLLle were
lmprlsoned.
(2) A beverage made from Lhe [ulce of a planL
(probably a halluclnogenlc mushroom) and used
ln rellglous ceremonles, also a god.

1he 8hagavad-G|ta

1be 8boqovoJ-Clto bos beeo oo esseotlol text of nloJo coltote lo loJlo sloce tbe tlme of lts composltloo
lo tbe fltst ceototy A.u. Ooe of tbe qteot closslcs of wotlJ lltetotote, lt bos losplteJ socb Jlvetse tblokets
os neoty uovlJ 1boteoo, Mobotmo CooJbl, ooJ 1.5. llot.

Chapter Cne
1nL IIkS1 1LACnING
AkIUNA'S DLILC1ICN

Ar[una, hls war flag a
rampanL monkey,saw
uhrlLarashLra's sons
assembled as weapons were
ready Lo clash, and he llfLed
hls bow. 20

Pe Lold hls charloLeer:
"krlshna, halL my charloL
beLween Lhe armles! 21

lar enough for me Lo see
Lhese men who lusL for war,
ready Lo flghL wlLh me
ln Lhe sLraln of baLLle. 22

l see men gaLhered here,
eager Lo flghL, benL on
servlng Lhe folly of
uhrlLarashLra's son." 23

When Ar[una had spoken,
krlshna halLed Lhelr splendld
charloL beLween Lhe armles.
24

laclng 8hlshma and urona
and all Lhe greaL klngs, he
sald, "Ar[una, see Lhe kuru
men assembled here!" 23

Ar[una saw Lhem sLandlng
Lhere: faLhers, grandfaLhers,
Leachers, uncles, broLhers,
sons, grandsons, and frlends.
26
Pe surveyed hls elders and
companlons ln boLh armles,
all hls klnsmen assembled
LogeLher. 27

ue[ecLed, fllled wlLh sLrange
plLy, he sald Lhls: "krlshna, l
see my klnsmen gaLhered
here, wanLlng war. 28

My llmbs slnk, my mouLh ls
parched, my body Lrembles,
Lhe halr brlsLles on my flesh.
29

1he maglc bow sllps from my
hand, my skln burns, l cannoL
sLand sLlll, my mlnd reels. 30

l see omens of chaos,
krlshna, l see no good
ln kllllng my klnsmen
ln baLLle. 31

krlshna, l seek no vlcLory,
or klngshlp or pleasures.
WhaL use Lo us are klngshlp,
dellghLs, or llfe lLself? 32

We soughL klngshlp, dellghLs,
and pleasures for Lhe sake of
Lhose assembled Lo abandon
Lhelr llves and forLunes ln
baLLle. 33

Ioundat|ons (8000 8.C.L. to 600 C.L.)

!"%+"!"

1hey are Leachers, faLhers,
sons, and grandfaLhers,
uncles, grandsons, faLhers
and broLhers of wlves, and
oLher men of our famlly. 34

l do noL wanL Lo klll Lhem
even lf l am kllled, krlshna,
noL for klngshlp of all Lhree
worlds, much less for Lhe
earLh! 33

WhaL [oy ls Lhere for us,
krlshna, ln kllllng
uhrlLarashLra's sons?
Lvll wlll haunL us lf we klll
Lhem, Lhough Lhelr bows are
drawn Lo klll. 36

Ponor forblds us Lo klll
our couslns, uhrlLarashLra's
sons, how can we know
happlness lf we klll our own
klnsmen? 37

1he greed LhaL dlsLorLs Lhelr
reason bllnds Lhem Lo Lhe sln
Lhey commlL ln rulnlng Lhe
famlly, bllnds Lhem Lo Lhe
crlme of beLraylng frlends. 38

Pow can we lgnore Lhe
wlsdom of Lurnlng from Lhls
evll when we see Lhe sln of
famlly desLrucLlon, krlshna?
39

When Lhe famlly ls rulned,
Lhe Llmeless laws of famlly
duLy perlsh, and when duLy
ls losL, chaos overwhelms Lhe
famlly. 40

ln overwhelmlng chaos,
rlshna, women of Lhe famlly
are corrupLed, and when
women are corrupLed,
dlsorder ls born ln socleLy. 41
1hls dlscord drags Lhe
vlolaLors and Lhe famlly lLself
Lo hell, for ancesLors fall
when rlLes of offerlng rlce
and waLer lapse. 42

1he slns of men who vlolaLe
Lhe famlly creaLe dlsorder ln
socleLy LhaL undermlnes Lhe
consLanL laws of casLe and
famlly duLy. 43

krlshna, we have heard LhaL
a place ln hell ls reserved for
men who undermlne famlly
duLles. 44

l lamenL Lhe greaL sln we
commlL when our greed for
klngshlp and pleasures drlves
us Lo klll our klnsmen. 43

lf uhrlLarashLra's armed sons
klll me ln baLLle when l am
unarmed and offer no
reslsLance, lL wlll be my
reward." 46

Saylng Lhls ln Lhe Llme of
war, Ar[una slumped lnLo Lhe
charloL and lald down hls
bow and arrows, hls mlnd
LormenLed by grlef. 47

1nL SLCCND 1LACnING
nILCSCn AND
SIkI1UAL DISCILINL

Q+)/(E)$6:#&(

?ou grleve for Lhose beyond
grlef, and you speak words of
lnslghL, buL learned men do
noL grleve for Lhe dead or
Lhe llvlng. 11

never have l noL exlsLed,
nor you, nor Lhese klngs,
and never ln Lhe fuLure
shall we cease Lo exlsL. 12

!usL as Lhe embodled self
enLers chlldhood, youLh, and
old age, so does lL enLer
anoLher body, Lhls does noL
confound a sLeadfasL man.
13

ConLacLs wlLh maLLer make
us feel heaL and cold,
pleasure and paln Ar[una,
you musL learn Lo endure
fleeLlng Lhlngs-Lhey come
and go! 14

When Lhese cannoL LormenL
a man, when sufferlng and
[oy are equal for hlm and he
has courage, he ls flL for
lmmorLallLy. 13

noLhlng of nonbelng comes
Lo be, nor does belng cease
Lo exlsL, Lhe boundary
beLween Lhese Lwo ls seen
by men who see reallLy. 16

lndesLrucLlble ls Lhe
presence LhaL pervades all
Lhls, no one can desLroy Lhls
unchanglng reallLy. 17

Cur bodles are known Lo
end, buL Lhe embodled self ls
endurlng, lndesLrucLlble, and
lmmeasurable, Lherefore,
Ar[una, flghL Lhe baLLle! 18

Pe who Lhlnks Lhls self a
klller and he who Lhlnks lL
kllled boLh fall Lo
undersLand, lL does noL klll,
nor ls lL kllled. 19

lL ls noL born, lL does noL dle,
havlng been, lL wlll never noL
Ioundat|ons (8000 8.C.L. to 600 C.L.)

!"%,"!"

be, unborn, endurlng,
consLanL, and prlmordlal, lL ls
noL kllled when Lhe body ls
kllled. 20

Ar[una, when a man knows
Lhe self Lo be lndesLrucLlble,
endurlng, unborn,
unchanglng, how does he klll
or cause anyone Lo klll? 21

As a man dlscards worn-ouL
cloLhes Lo puL on new and
dlfferenL ones, so Lhe
embodled self dlscards lLs
worn-ouL bodles Lo Lake on
oLher new ones. 22

Weapons do noL cuL lL, flre
does noL burn lL, waLers do
noL weL lL, wlnd does noL
wlLher lL. 23

lL cannoL be cuL or burned, lL
cannoL be weL or wlLhered, lL
ls endurlng, all-pervaslve,
flxed, lmmovable, and
Llmeless. 24

lL ls called unmanlfesL,
lnconcelvable, and
lmmuLable, slnce you know
LhaL Lo be so, you should noL
grleve! 23

lf you Lhlnk of lLs blrLh and
deaLh as ever-recurrlng, Lhen
Loo, CreaL Warrlor, you have
no cause Lo grleve! 26

ueaLh ls cerLaln for anyone
born, and blrLh ls cerLaln for
Lhe dead, slnce Lhe cycle ls
lnevlLable, you have no cause
Lo grleve! 27

CreaLures are unmanlfesL ln
orlgln, manlfesL ln Lhe mldsL
of llfe, and unmanlfesL agaln
ln Lhe end. Slnce Lhls ls so,
why do you lamenL? 28

8arely someone sees lL,
rarely anoLher speaks lL,
rarely anyone hears lL- even
hearlng lL, no one really
knows lL. 29

1he self embodled ln Lhe
body of every belng ls
lndesLrucLlble, you have no
cause Lo grleve for all Lhese
creaLures, Ar[una! 30

Look Lo your own duLy, do
noL Lremble before lL,
noLhlng ls beLLer for a
warrlor Lhan a baLLle of
sacred duLy. 31

1he doors of heaven open
for warrlors who re[olce
Lo have a baLLle llke Lhls
LhrusL on Lhem by chance. 32

lf you fall Lo wage Lhls war
of sacred duLy, you wlll
abandon your own duLy and
fame only Lo galn evll. 33

eople wlll Lell of your
undylng shame, and for a
man of honor shame ls
worse Lhan deaLh. 34

1he greaL charloL warrlors
wlll Lhlnk you deserLed ln
fear of baLLle, you wlll be
desplsed by Lhose who held
you ln esLeem. 33

?our enemles wlll slander
you, scornlng your sklll ln so
many unspeakable ways-
could any sufferlng be
worse? 36
lf you are kllled, you wln
heaven, lf you Lrlumph, you
en[oy Lhe earLh, Lherefore,
Ar[una, sLand up and resolve
Lo flghL Lhe baLLle! 37

lmparLlal Lo [oy and
sufferlng, galn and loss,
vlcLory and defeaL, arm
yourself for Lhe baLLle,
lesL you fall lnLo evll. 38

undersLandlng ls deflned ln
Lerms of phllosophy, now
hear lL ln splrlLual dlsclpllne.
Armed wlLh Lhls
undersLandlng, Ar[una,
you wlll escape Lhe bondage
of acLlon. 39

no efforL ln Lhls world ls losL
or wasLed, a fragmenL of
sacred duLy saves you from
greaL fear. 40

1hls undersLandlng ls unlque
ln lLs lnner core of resolve,
dlffuse and polnLless are Lhe
ways lrresoluLe men
undersLand. 41

undlscernlng men who
dellghL ln Lhe LeneLs of rlLual
lore uLLer florld speech,
proclalmlng, "1here ls
noLhlng else!" 42

urlven by deslre, Lhey sLrlve
afLer heaven and conLrlve Lo
wln powers and dellghLs, buL
Lhelr lnLrlcaLe rlLual language
bears only Lhe frulL of acLlon
ln reblrLh. 43

Cbsessed wlLh powers and
dellghLs, Lhelr reason losL ln
words, Lhey do noL flnd ln
conLemplaLlon Lhls
Ioundat|ons (8000 8.C.L. to 600 C.L.)

!"&-"!"

undersLandlng of lnner
resolve. 44

Ar[una, Lhe realm of sacred
lore ls naLure-beyond lLs
Lrlad of quallLles, duallLles,
and mundane rewards, be
forever lucld, allve Lo your
self. 43

lor Lhe dlscernlng prlesL, all
of sacred lore has no more
value Lhan a well when waLer
flows everywhere. 4
nerodotus: kerxes at the ne||espont (m|d Sth Century 8CL)

wbeteos mooy MlJJle osteto peopleswelcomeJ tbe oJveot of tbe letsloo mplte, tbe Cteeks vleweJ
tbelt owo vlctotles ovet tbe tbe letsloos os mokloq posslble tbe vety cootlooooce of tbelt clvlllzotloo. 1be
otmy of uotlos wos JefeoteJ ot tbe 8ottle of Mototboo lo 490 8c ooJ tbot of \etxes l ot 5olomls lo 486
8c. 1be Cteeks cooslJeteJ tbelt polels mooy of tbem Jemoctocles os lofloltely sopetlot to tbe obsolote
moootcby of letslo. otopeoos bove ttoJltlooolly molotoloeJ tbot lf tbese bottles boJ oot beeo woo,
blstoty woolJ bove beeo ottetly cbooqeJ, wltb otope follloq ooJet tbe swoy of osteto Jespotlsm.
wbetbet ot oot tbls tbeoty ls ttoe coo oevet be koowo, bot tbe tbeoty ltself belpeJ to sbope ceototles of
otopeoo bostlllty to ooJ cootempt fot tbe ootloos of tbe MlJJle ost. lott of tbot cootempt ls exptesseJ
lo tbe followloq stoty, lo wblcb tbe qteot \etxes ls JeplcteJ by tbe Cteek blstotloo netoJotos os o
sopetstltloos fool ooJ o blooJtbltsty tytoot. nls mosslve otmy ls ptepotloq to ctoss tbe oottow sttolt (tbe
nellespoot, oow lo 1otkey) wblcb sepototeJ Aslo ftom otope.
wbot loclJeots JesctlbeJ below Jeplct \etxes os sopetstltloos? As tytooolcol?

1hey Lhen began Lo bulld brldges across Lhe
PellesponL from Abydos Lo LhaL headland
beLween SesLus and MadyLus, Lhe hoenlclans
bulldlng one of ropes made from flax, and Lhe
LgypLlans bulldlng a second one ouL of papyrus.
lrom Abydos Lo Lhe opposlLe shore lL ls a
dlsLance of almosL Lwo-Lhlrds of a mlle. 8uL no
sooner had Lhe sLralL been brldged Lhan a greaL
sLorm came on and cuL aparL and scaLLered all
Lhelr work.
xerxes flew lnLo a rage aL Lhls, and he
commanded LhaL Lhe PellesponL be sLruck wlLh
Lhree hundred sLrokes of Lhe whlp and LhaL a
palr of fooL-chalns be Lhrown lnLo Lhe sea. lL's
even been sald LhaL he senL off a rank of
branders (1) along wlLh Lhe resL Lo Lhe
PellesponL! Pe also commanded Lhe scourgers
Lo speak ouLlandlsh and arroganL words: "?ou
haLeful waLer, our masLer lays hls [udgemenL on
you Lhus, for you have un[usLly punlshed hlm
even Lhough he's done you no wrong! xerxes
Lhe klng wlll pass over you, wheLher you wlsh lL
or noL! lL ls flLLlng LhaL no man offer you
sacrlflces, (2) for you're a muddy and salLy
rlver!" ln Lhese ways he commanded LhaL Lhe
sea be punlshed and also LhaL Lhe heads be
severed from all Lhose who dlrecLed Lhe
brldglng of Lhe PellesponL.
And Lhls scourglng was done by Lhose
appolnLed Lo Lhls graceless honor, and oLher
bullders were chosen. 1he brldglng was done ln
Lhe followlng way: flfLy-oared shlps and
Lrlremes were seL slde by slde, abouL Lhree
hundred and slxLy Lo form Lhe Luxlnlan brldge,
and abouL Lhree hundred and fourLeen Lo form
Lhe oLher brldge, all of Lhem aL rlghL angles Lo
Lhe onLus and parallel Lo Lhe PellesponL, Lhus
Laklng off some of Lhe Lenslon from Lhe ropes.
Cnce Lhe shlps were alongslde one anoLher,
Lhey released huge anchors, boLh from Lhe end
near Lhe onLus because of Lhe wlnds blowlng
from LhaL sea, and on Lhe oLher end Lowards
Lhe wesL and Lhe Aegean because of Lhe
wesLern and souLhern wlnds. A passage was lefL
ln Lhe openlng of Lhe flfLy-oared shlps and
Lrlremes ln order LhaL, lf he wlshed Lo go lnLo or
ouL of Lhe onLus, he could pass Lhrough ln a
small shlp. Pavlng done all Lhls, Lhey sLreLched
Ioundat|ons (8000 8.C.L. to 600 C.L.)

!"&$"!"

ropes from Lhe land and LwlsLed Lhem wlLh
wooden pulleys, and Lhey dld noL keep each
separaLe, buL asslgned Lwo flaxen cables and
four papyrus cables for each brldge. Lach Lype
of cable was Lhlck and comely, buL Lhe reporL
goes LhaL Lhe flaxen cables were heavler, a
slngle yard welghlng over 100 pounds. (3) When
Lhe sea was brldged, wooden Llmbers equal Lo
Lhe breadLh of Lhe floaLlng shlps were felled and
were lald on Lhe sLreLched cables, and laylng
Lhem alongslde one anoLher Lhey Lled Lhem
fasL. Pavlng done Lhls, Lhey puL down
brushwood, laylng lL on Lhe Llmbers, and Lhey
puL down earLh on Lop of Lhe brushwood,
sLamplng lL down and bulldlng a fence on Lhe
earLh on each slde ln order LhaL Lhe beasLs of
burden and Lhe horses would noL be frlghLened
by Lhe sea flowlng beneaLh Lhem.
When Lhey had bullL Lhe brldges, Lhe work
around ALhos, and Lhe dlkes around Lhe mouLhs
of Lhe canals, Lhese bullL because of Lhe sea
breaklng on Lhe shore whlch would sllL up Lhe
mouLhs of Lhe canals, and Lhese canals belng
reporLed as compleLely flnlshed, Lhe army Lhen
and Lhere prepared Lo wlnLer and, when sprlng
came, was ready and seL forLh Lo Abydos from
Sardls. When Lhey had sLarLed Lo seL forLh, Lhe
sun ecllpsed lLself and was noL Lo be seen ln lLs
place ln Lhe heavens, even Lhough Lhe sky was
unclouded and as clear as can be, so LhaL Lhe
day Lurned Lo nlghL. When xerxes percelved Lhls
he became anxlous, and he asked Lhe Maglans
Lo clarlfy whaL Lhls omen meanL. 1hese sald LhaL
Lhe god, yLhlan Apollo, was foreshowlng Lo Lhe
Creeks Lhe ecllpse of Lhelr clLy, for Lhe sun was
a propheL Lo Lhe Creeks, as Lhe moon was Lo
Lhem. Pearlng LhaL, xerxes' mood became
exceedlngly sunny and he conLlnued Lhe march.
As he marched ouL Lhe army, yLhlas Lhe
Lydlan, dreadlng Lhe heavenly omen and
encouraged by Lhe glfLs glven Lo hlm by xerxes,
came up Lo xerxes and sald, "MasLer, l wlsh Lo
ask a favor of you, whlch would be a small favor
for you Lo render, buL would be a greaL favor for
me Lo recelve." xerxes, Lhlnklng LhaL he knew
everyLhlng yLhlas could ask for, answered LhaL
he would granL Lhe favor and asked hlm Lo
proclalm whaL lL was he wlshed. "MasLer, lL
happens LhaL l have flve sons, and Lhey are all
bound Lo soldler for you agalnsL Lhe Creeks. l
pray you, klng, LhaL you have plLy on one who
has reached my age and LhaL you seL free one of
my sons, even Lhe oldesL, from your army, so
LhaL he may provlde for me and my
possesslons. 1ake Lhe oLher four wlLh you, and
may you reLurn havlng accompllshed all you
lnLended."
xerxes flew lnLo a horrlble rage and replled,
"?ou vlllalnous man, you have Lhe effronLery,
seelng me marchlng wlLh my army agalnsL Lhe
Creeks, wlLh my sons and broLhers and relaLlves
and frlends, Lo remlnd me of your son, you, my
slave, who should raLher come wlLh me wlLh
your enLlre household, lncludlng your wlfe! ?ou
may now be cerLaln of Lhls, LhaL slnce Lhe splrlL
llves ln a man's ears, hearlng good words lL fllls
Lhe body wlLh dellghL, when lL hears Lhe
opposlLe lL swells up. When you aL one Llme
performed well and promlsed more, you had no
reason Lo boasL LhaL you ouLperformed your
klng ln beneflLs, and now LhaL you have Lurned
mosL shameless, you shall recelve less Lhan
whaL you deserve. ?ou and four of your sons
are saved because of your hosplLallLy, buL one
of your sons, Lhe one you mosL deslre Lo hold
your arms around, wlll lose hls llfe!" Pavlng
answered Lhus, he commanded Lhose charged
Lo accompllsh Lhls Lo flnd Lhe eldesL of yLhlas's
sons and cuL hlm ln half, and havlng cuL hlm ln
Lwo Lo seL one half of hls corpse on Lhe rlghL
slde of Lhe road and Lhe oLher on Lhe lefL slde,
and beLween Lhese Lhe army moved forLh.
(1) 8odles of waLer were rouLlnely LreaLed as gods,
and offered sacrlflces.
(2) Men wlLh hoL brandlng lrons.
(3) LlLerally: "18 1/2 lnches welghlng abouL 37 3/4
pounds."
Ioundat|ons (8000 8.C.L. to 600 C.L.)
!"&%"!"

1he Death of Socrates
5octotes opposeJ tbe 5opblsts, otqoloq tbot tbete ote obsolote, ttooscoltotol stooJotJs of tlqbt ooJ
wtooq, qooJ ooJ boJ. ne otqoeJ (os lo tbe fltst possoqe below) tbot ooce we tecoqolze wbot ls ttoly
qooJ, we wlll oct lo occotJ wltb tbot koowleJqe--beoce bls clolm tbot "tbe vlttoes ote o kloJ of
koowleJqe." ne olso fltmly belleveJ (os sbowo lo tbe secooJ possoqe) tbot tbe cosmos ls qtoooJeJ lo
qooJoess, beoce tbot o qooJ petsoo coooot soffet ooJoly ooJ tbot Jeotb ls oot sometbloq to be feoteJ.
lloto tecooots tbe lost boots of 5octotes' llfe lo o movloq Jloloqoe. 1bls ls tbe eoJ of bls flool speecb, jost
oftet be boJ beeo cooJemoeJ to Jeotb by tbe cltlzeos of Atbeos, bls bome towo. 1be metboJ of
execotloo wos tbot tbe cooJemoeJ sboolJ Jtlok o cop of bemlock, o oot oocommoo moJe of execotloo.
wbot teosoos Joes 5octotes qlve fot oot feotloq Jeotb? wby ls 5octotes so llttle coocetoeJ wltb bow bls
boJy ls to be botleJ?

now as you see Lhere has come upon me LhaL
whlch may be LhoughL, and ls generally belleved
Lo be, Lhe lasL and worsL evll. 8uL Lhe oracle
made no slgn of opposlLlon . . . l regard Lhls as a
proof LhaL whaL has happened Lo me ls a good,
and LhaL Lhose of use who Lhlnk LhaL deaLh ls an
evll are ln error . . . . LeL us reflecL ln anoLher
way, and we shall see LhaL Lhere ls greaL reason
Lo hope LhaL deaLh ls a good, for one of Lwo
Lhlngs:--elLher deaLh ls a sLaLe of noLhlngness
and uLLer unconsclousness, or, as men say,
Lhere ls a change and mlgraLlon of Lhe soul from
Lhls world Lo anoLher. now lf you suppose LhaL
Lhere ls no consclousness, buL a sleep llke Lhe
sleep of hlm who ls undlsLurbed even by Lhe
slghL of dreams, deaLh wlll be an unspeakable
galn. . . . now lf deaLh ls llke Lhls, l say LhaL Lo
dle ls galn, for eLernlLy ls Lhen only a slngle
nlghL. 8uL lf deaLh ls a [ourney Lo anoLher place,
and Lhere, as men say, all Lhe dead are, whaL
good, C my frlends and [udges, can be greaLer
Lhan Lhls? . . . WhaL would noL a man glve lf he
mlghL converse wlLh Crpheus and Musaeus and
Peslod and Pomer? nay, lf Lhls be Lrue, leL me
dle agaln and agaln. . . . Above all, l shall be able
Lo conLlnue my search lnLo Lrue and false
knowledge, as ln Lhls world, so also ln LhaL, l
shall flnd ouL who ls wlse, and who preLends Lo
be wlse, and ls noL. . . . 1he hour of deparLure
has arrlved, and we go our ways--l Lo dle, and
you Lo llve. Whlch ls beLLer Cod only knows.

1he Death of Socrates
1hen he Lurned Lo us, and added wlLh a smlle: "l
cannoL make CrlLo belleve LhaL l am Lhe same
SocraLes who has been Lalklng and conducLlng
Lhe argumenL, he fancles LhaL l am Lhe oLher
SocraLes whom he wlll soon see, a dead body--
and he asks, Pow shall he bury me? And Lhough
l have spoken many words ln Lhe endeavor Lo
show LhaL when l have drunk Lhe polson l shall
leave you and go Lo Lhe [oys of Lhe blessed--
Lhese words of mlne, wlLh whlch l was
comforLlng you and myself, have had, as l
percelve, no effecL upon CrlLo. And Lherefore l
wanL you Lo be sureLy for me Lo hlm how, as aL
Lhe Lrlal he was sureLy Lo Lhe [udges for me: buL
leL Lhe promlse be of anoLher sorL, for he was
sureLy for me Lo Lhe [udges LhaL l would remaln,
and you musL be my sureLy Lo hlm LhaL l shall
noL remaln, buL go away and deparL, and Lhen
he wlll suffer less aL my deaLh, and noL be
grleved when he sees my body belng burned or
burled. l would noL have hlm sorrow aL my hard
loL, or say aL Lhe burlal, 1hus we lay ouL
SocraLes, or 1hus we follow hlm Lo Lhe grave or
bury hlm, for false words are noL only evll ln
Lhemselves, buL Lhey lnfecL Lhe soul wlLh evll.
8e of good cheer Lhen, my dear CrlLo, and say
LhaL you are burylng my body only, and do wlLh
LhaL whaLever ls usual, and whaL you Lhlnk
besL."
Ioundat|ons (8000 8.C.L. to 600 C.L.)

!"&&"!"

When he had spoken Lhese words, he arose and
wenL lnLo a chamber Lo baLhe, CrlLo followed
hlm and Lold us Lo walL. So we remalned
behlnd, Lalklng and Lhlnklng of Lhe sub[ecL of
dlscourse, and also of Lhe greaLness of our
sorrow, he was llke a faLher of whom we were
belng bereaved, and we were abouL Lo pass Lhe
resL of our llves as orphans. When he had Laken
Lhe baLh hls chlldren were broughL Lo hlm (he
had Lwo young sons and an elder one), and Lhe
women of hls famlly also came, and he Lalked Lo
Lhem and gave Lhem a few dlrecLlons ln Lhe
presence of CrlLo, Lhen he dlsmlssed Lhem and
reLurned Lo us.
now Lhe hour of sunseL was near, for a good
deal of Llme had passed whlle he was wlLhln.
When he came ouL, he saL down wlLh us agaln
afLer hls baLh, buL noL much was sald. Soon Lhe
[aller, who was Lhe servanL of Lhe eleven,
enLered and sLood by hlm, saylng: "1o you,
SocraLes, whom l know Lo be Lhe noblesL and
genLlesL and besL of all who ever came Lo Lhls
place, l wlll noL lmpuLe Lhe angry feellngs of
oLher men, who rage and swear aL me, when, ln
obedlence Lo Lhe auLhorlLles, l bld Lhem drlnk
Lhe polson--lndeed, l am sure LhaL you wlll noL
be angry wlLh me, for oLhers, as you are aware,
and noL l, are Lo blame. And so fare you well,
and Lry Lo bear llghLly whaL musL needs be--you
know my errand." 1hen bursLlng lnLo Lears he
Lurned away and wenL ouL.
SocraLes looked aL hlm and sald: "l reLurn your
good wlshes, and wlll do as you bld." 1hen
Lurnlng Lo us, he sald, "Pow charmlng Lhe man
ls: slnce l have been ln prlson he has always
been comlng Lo see me, and aL Llmes he would
Lalk Lo me, and was as good Lo me as could be,
and now see how generously he sorrows on my
accounL. We musL do as he says, CrlLo, and
Lherefore leL Lhe cup be broughL, lf Lhe polson ls
prepared, lf noL, leL Lhe aLLendanL prepare
some."
"?eL," sald CrlLo, "Lhe sun ls sLlll upon Lhe
hlllLops, and l know LhaL many a one has Laken
Lhe draughL laLe, and afLer Lhe announcemenL
has been made Lo hlm, he has eaLen and drunk,
and en[oyed Lhe socleLy of hls beloved, do noL
hurry--Lhere ls Llme enough."
SocraLes sald: "?es, CrlLo, and Lhey of whom
you speak are rlghL ln so acLlng, for Lhey Lhlnk
LhaL Lhey wlll be galners by Lhe delay, 8uL l am
rlghL ln noL followlng Lhelr example, for l do noL
Lhlnk LhaL l should galn anyLhlng by drlnklng Lhe
polson a llLLle laLer, l should only be rldlculous
ln my own eyes for sparlng and savlng a llfe
whlch ls already forfelL. lease Lhen Lo do as l
say, and noL Lo refuse me."
CrlLo made a slgn Lo Lhe servanL, who was
sLandlng by, and he wenL ouL, and havlng been
absenL for some Llme, reLurned wlLh Lhe [aller
carrylng Lhe cup of polson. SocraLes sald: "?ou,
my good frlend, who are experlenced ln Lhese
maLLers, shall glve me dlrecLlons how l am Lo
proceed."
1he man answered: "you have only Lo walk
abouL unLll your legs are heavy, and Lhen Lo lle
down, and Lhe polson wlll acL."
AL Lhe same Llme he handed Lhe cup Lo
SocraLes, who ln Lhe easlesL and genLlesL
manner, wlLhouL Lhe leasL fear or change of
color or feaLure, looklng aL Lhe man wlLh all hls
eyes, . . . as hls manner was, Look Lhe cup and
sald: "WhaL do you say abouL maklng a llbaLlon
ouL of Lhls cup Lo any god? May l, or noL?"
1he man answered: "We only prepare, SocraLes,
[usL so much as we deem enough."
"l undersLand," he sald, "buL l may and musL ask
Lhe gods Lo prosper my [ourney from Lhls Lo Lhe
oLher world--even so--and so be lL accordlng Lo
my prayer.
1hen ralslng Lhe cup Lo hls llps, qulLe readlly and
cheerfully he drank off Lhe polson. And hlLherLo
mosL of us had been able Lo conLrol our sorrow,
buL now when we saw hlm drlnklng, and saw
Loo LhaL he had flnlshed Lhe draughL, we could
Ioundat|ons (8000 8.C.L. to 600 C.L.)

!"&'"!"

noL longer forbear, and ln splLe of myself my
own Lears were flowlng fasL, so LhaL l covered
my face and wepL, noL for hlm, buL aL Lhe
LhoughL of my own calamlLy ln havlng Lo parL
from such a frlend. nor was l Lhe flrsL, for CrlLo,
when he found hlmself unable Lo resLraln hls
Lears, had goL up, and l followed, and aL LhaL
momenL, Apollodorus, who had been weeplng
all Lhe Llme, broke ouL ln a loud and passlonaLe
cry whlch made cowards of us all.
SocraLes alone reLalned hls calmness: "WhaL ls
Lhls sLrange ouLcry?" he sald. "l senL away Lhe
women malnly ln order LhaL Lhey mlghL noL
mlsbehave ln Lhls way, for l have been Lold LhaL
a man should dle ln peace. 8e quleL Lhen, and
have paLlence."
When we heard hls words we were ashamed,
and refralned our Lears, and he walked abouL
unLll, as he sald, hls legs began Lo fall, and Lhen
he lay on hls back, accordlng Lo Lhe dlrecLlons,
and Lhe man who gave hlm Lhe polson now and
Lhen looked aL hls feeL and legs, and afLer a
whlle he pressed hls fooL hard, and asked hlm lf
he could feel, and he sald, "no," and Lhen hls
leg, and so upwards and upwards, and showed
us LhaL he was cold and sLlff. And he felL Lhem
hlmself, and sald: "When Lhe polson reaches
Lhe hearL, LhaL wlll be Lhe end."
Pe was beglnnlng Lo grow cold abouL Lhe groln,
when he uncovered hls face, for he had covered
hlmself up, and sald--Lhey were hls lasL words--
he sald: "CrlLo, l owe a cock Lo Ascleplus, (1) wlll
you remember Lo pay Lhe debL?
"1he debL shall be pald," sald CrlLo, "ls Lhere
anyLhlng else?"
1here was no answer Lo Lhls quesLlon, buL ln a
mlnuLe or Lwo a movemenL was heard, and Lhe
aLLendanLs uncovered hlm, hls eyes were seL,
and CrlLo closed hls eyes and mouLh.
Such was Lhe end . . . of our frlend, concernlng
whom l may Lruly say, LhaL of all Lhe men of hls
Llme whom l have known, he was Lhe wlsesL
and [usLesL and besL.
1ranslaLed by 8an[amln !oweLL (1892)

(1) 1he god of healLh and medlclne.
|ato: 1he A||egory of the Cave, from =:"(O"72G'$B(
lloto, tbe most cteotlve ooJ lofloeotlol of 5octotes' Jlsclples, wtote Jloloqoes, lo wblcb be ftepoeotly
oseJ tbe flqote of 5octotes to espoose bls owo (lloto's) foll-fleJqeJ pbllosopby. lo "1be kepobllc," lloto
soms op bls vlews lo oo lmoqe of lqootoot bomoolty, ttoppeJ lo tbe Jeptbs ooJ oot eveo owote of lts
owo llmlteJ petspectlve. 1be tote loJlvlJool escopes tbe llmltotloos of tbot cove ooJ, tbtooqb o looq,
tottooos lotellectool jootoey, Jlscovets o blqbet teolm, o ttoe teollty, wltb o flool, olmost mystlcol
owoteoess of CooJoess os tbe otlqlo of evetytbloq tbot exlsts. 5ocb o petsoo ls tbeo tbe best epolppeJ to
qoveto lo soclety, bovloq o koowleJqe of wbot ls oltlmotely most wottbwblle lo llfe ooJ oot jost o
koowleJqe of tecbolpoes, bot tbot petsoo wlll ftepoeotly be mlsooJetstooJ by tbose otJlooty folks bock
lo tbe cove wbo boveo't sboteJ lo tbe lotellectool loslqbt. lf be wete llvloq toJoy, lloto mlqbt teploce bls
totbet owkwotJ cove metopbot wltb o movle tbeotet, wltb tbe ptojectot teplocloq tbe flte, tbe fllm
teplocloq tbe objects wblcb cost sboJows, tbe sboJows oo tbe cove woll wltb tbe ptojecteJ movle oo tbe
scteeo, ooJ tbe ecbo wltb tbe looJspeokets bebloJ tbe scteeo. 1be esseotlol polot ls tbot tbe ptlsooets lo
tbe cove ote oot seeloq teollty, bot ooly o sboJowy tepteseototloo of lt. 1be lmpottooce of tbe olleqoty
lles lo lloto's bellef tbot tbete ote lovlslble ttotbs lyloq ooJet tbe oppoteot sotfoce of tbloqs wblcb ooly
tbe most eollqbteoeJ coo qtosp. useJ to tbe wotlJ of lllosloo lo tbe cove, tbe ptlsooets ot fltst teslst
eollqbteomeot, os stoJeots teslst eJocotloo. 8ot tbose wbo coo ocbleve eollqbteomeot Jesetve to be tbe
Ioundat|ons (8000 8.C.L. to 600 C.L.)

!"&("!"

leoJets ooJ tolets of oll tbe test. At tbe eoJ of tbe possoqe, lloto exptesses oootbet of bls fovotlte lJeos.
tbot eJocotloo ls oot o ptocess of pottloq koowleJqe loto empty mloJs, bot of mokloq people teollze tbot
wblcb tbey olteoJy koow. 1bls ootloo tbot ttotb ls somebow embeJJeJ lo oot mloJs wos olso powetfolly
lofloeotlol fot mooy ceototles.
IoJqloq by tbls possoqe, wby Jo yoo tblok mooy people lo tbe Jemoctocy of Atbeos mlqbt bove beeo
ootoqoolstlc to lloto's lJeos? wbot Joes tbe soo symbollze lo tbe olleqoty?

ls a resldenL of Lhe cave (a prlsoner, as lL were)
llkely Lo wanL Lo make Lhe ascenL Lo Lhe ouLer
world? Why or why noL? WhaL does Lhe sun
symbollze ln Lhe allegory? And now, l sald, leL
me show ln a flgure how far our naLure ls
enllghLened or unenllghLened:--8ehold! human
belngs llvlng ln an underground den, whlch has
a mouLh open Lowards Lhe llghL and reachlng all
along Lhe den, here Lhey have been from Lhelr
chlldhood, and have Lhelr legs and necks
chalned so LhaL Lhey cannoL move, and can only
see before Lhem, belng prevenLed by Lhe chalns
from Lurnlng round Lhelr heads. Above and
behlnd Lhem a flre ls blazlng aL a dlsLance, and
beLween Lhe flre and Lhe prlsoners Lhere ls a
ralsed way, and you wlll see, lf you look, a low
wall bullL along Lhe way, llke Lhe screen whlch
marloneLLe players have ln fronL of Lhem, over
whlch Lhey show Lhe puppeLs.
l see.
And do you see, l sald, men passlng along Lhe
wall carrylng all sorLs of vessels, and sLaLues and
flgures of anlmals made of wood and sLone and
varlous maLerlals, whlch appear over Lhe wall?
Some of Lhem are Lalklng, oLhers sllenL.
?ou have shown me a sLrange lmage, and Lhey
are sLrange prlsoners.
Llke ourselves, l replled, and Lhey see only Lhelr
own shadows, or Lhe shadows of one anoLher,
whlch Lhe flre Lhrows on Lhe opposlLe wall of
Lhe cave?
1rue, he sald, how could Lhey see anyLhlng buL
Lhe shadows lf Lhey were never allowed Lo
move Lhelr heads?
And of Lhe ob[ecLs whlch are belng carrled ln
llke manner Lhey would only see Lhe shadows?
?es, he sald.
And lf Lhey were able Lo converse wlLh one
anoLher, would Lhey noL suppose LhaL Lhey
were namlng whaL was acLually before Lhem?
very Lrue.
And suppose furLher LhaL Lhe prlson had an
echo whlch came from Lhe oLher slde, would
Lhey noL be sure Lo fancy when one of Lhe
passers-by spoke LhaL Lhe volce whlch Lhey
heard came from Lhe passlng shadow?
no quesLlon, he replled.
1o Lhem, l sald, Lhe LruLh would be llLerally
noLhlng buL Lhe shadows of Lhe lmages.
1haL ls cerLaln.
And now look agaln, and see whaL wlll naLurally
follow lf Lhe prlsoners are released and
dlsabused of Lhelr error. AL flrsL, when any of
Lhem ls llberaLed and compelled suddenly Lo
sLand up and Lurn hls neck round and walk and
look Lowards Lhe llghL, he wlll suffer sharp
palns, Lhe glare wlll dlsLress hlm, and he wlll be
unable Lo see Lhe reallLles of whlch ln hls
former sLaLe he had seen Lhe shadows, and
Lhen concelve some one saylng Lo hlm, LhaL
whaL he saw before was an llluslon, buL LhaL
now, when he ls approachlng nearer Lo belng
and hls eye ls Lurned Lowards more real
exlsLence, he has a clearer vlslon,--whaL wlll be
hls reply? And you may furLher lmaglne LhaL hls
Ioundat|ons (8000 8.C.L. to 600 C.L.)

!"&)"!"

lnsLrucLor ls polnLlng Lo Lhe ob[ecLs as Lhey pass
and requlrlng hlm Lo name Lhem,--wlll he noL be
perplexed? Wlll he noL fancy LhaL Lhe shadows
whlch he formerly saw are Lruer Lhan Lhe
ob[ecLs whlch are now shown Lo hlm?
lar Lruer.
And lf he ls compelled Lo look sLralghL aL Lhe
llghL, wlll he noL have a paln ln hls eyes whlch
wlll make hlm Lurn away Lo Lake refuge ln Lhe
ob[ecLs of vlslon whlch he can see, and whlch he
wlll concelve Lo be ln reallLy clearer Lhan Lhe
Lhlngs whlch are now belng shown Lo hlm?
1rue, he sald.
And suppose once more, LhaL he ls relucLanLly
dragged up a sLeep and rugged ascenL, and held
fasL unLll he ls forced lnLo Lhe presence of Lhe
sun hlmself, ls he noL llkely Lo be palned and
lrrlLaLed? When he approaches Lhe llghL hls
eyes wlll be dazzled, and he wlll noL be able Lo
see anyLhlng aL all of whaL are now called
reallLles.
noL all ln a momenL, he sald.
Pe wlll requlre Lo grow accusLomed Lo Lhe slghL
of Lhe upper world. And flrsL he wlll see Lhe
shadows besL, nexL Lhe reflecLlons of men and
oLher ob[ecLs ln Lhe waLer, and Lhen Lhe ob[ecLs
Lhemselves, Lhen he wlll gaze upon Lhe llghL of
Lhe moon and Lhe sLars and Lhe spangled
heaven, and he wlll see Lhe sky and Lhe sLars by
nlghL beLLer Lhan Lhe sun or Lhe llghL of Lhe sun
by day?
CerLalnly.
LasL of all he wlll be able Lo see Lhe sun, and noL
mere reflecLlons of hlm ln Lhe waLer, buL he wlll
see hlm ln hls own proper place, and noL ln
anoLher, and he wlll conLemplaLe hlm as he ls.
CerLalnly.
Pe wlll Lhen proceed Lo argue LhaL Lhls ls he
who glves Lhe season and Lhe years, and ls Lhe
guardlan of all LhaL ls ln Lhe vlslble world, and ln
a cerLaln way Lhe cause of all Lhlngs whlch he
and hls fellows have been accusLomed Lo
behold?
Clearly, he sald, he would flrsL see Lhe sun and
Lhen reason abouL hlm.
And when he remembered hls old hablLaLlon,
and Lhe wlsdom of Lhe den and hls fellow-
prlsoners, do you noL suppose LhaL he would
fellclLaLe hlmself on Lhe change, and plLy Lhem?
CerLalnly, he would.
And lf Lhey were ln Lhe hablL of conferrlng
honors among Lhemselves on Lhose who were
qulckesL Lo observe Lhe passlng shadows and Lo
remark whlch of Lhem wenL before, and whlch
followed afLer, and whlch were LogeLher, and
who were Lherefore besL able Lo draw
concluslons as Lo Lhe fuLure, do you Lhlnk LhaL
he would care for such honors and glorles, or
envy Lhe possessors of Lhem? Would he noL say
wlLh Pomer,
8eLLer Lo be Lhe poor servanL of a poor masLer,
and Lo endure anyLhlng, raLher Lhan Lhlnk as
Lhey do and llve afLer Lhelr manner? (1)
?es, he sald, l Lhlnk LhaL he would raLher suffer
anyLhlng Lhan enLerLaln Lhese false noLlons and
llve ln Lhls mlserable manner.
lmaglne once more, l sald, such a one comlng
suddenly ouL of Lhe sun Lo be replaced ln hls old
slLuaLlon, would he noL be cerLaln Lo have hls
eyes full of darkness?
1o be sure, he sald.
And lf Lhere were a conLesL, and he had Lo
compeLe ln measurlng Lhe shadows wlLh Lhe
prlsoners who had never moved ouL of Lhe den,
whlle hls slghL was sLlll weak, and before hls
Ioundat|ons (8000 8.C.L. to 600 C.L.)

!"&*"!"

eyes had become sLeady (and Lhe Llme whlch
would be needed Lo acqulre Lhls new hablL of
slghL mlghL be very conslderable), would he noL
be rldlculous? Men would say of hlm LhaL up he
wenL and down he came wlLhouL hls eyes,
(2)and LhaL lL was beLLer noL even Lo Lhlnk of
ascendlng, and lf any one Lrled Lo loose anoLher
and lead hlm up Lo Lhe llghL, leL Lhem only caLch
Lhe offender, and Lhey would puL hlm Lo deaLh.
(3)
no quesLlon, he sald.
1hls enLlre allegory, l sald, you may now
append, dear Claucon, Lo Lhe prevlous
argumenL, Lhe prlson-house ls Lhe world of
slghL, Lhe llghL of Lhe flre ls Lhe sun, and you wlll
noL mlsapprehend me lf you lnLerpreL Lhe
[ourney upwards Lo be Lhe ascenL of Lhe soul
lnLo Lhe lnLellecLual world accordlng Lo my poor
bellef, whlch, aL your deslre, l have expressed--
wheLher rlghLly or wrongly Cod knows. 8uL
wheLher Lrue or false, my oplnlon ls LhaL ln Lhe
world of knowledge Lhe ldea of good appears
lasL of all, and ls seen only wlLh an efforL, and,
when seen, ls also lnferred Lo be Lhe unlversal
auLhor of all Lhlngs beauLlful and rlghL, parenL
of llghL and of Lhe lord of llghL ln Lhls vlslble
world, Pere laLo descrlbes hls noLlon of Cod ln
a way LhaL was lnfluence profoundly ChrlsLlan
Lheologlans. and Lhe lmmedlaLe source of
reason and LruLh ln Lhe lnLellecLual, and LhaL
Lhls ls Lhe power upon whlch he would acL
raLlonally elLher ln publlc or prlvaLe llfe musL
have hls eye flxed.
l agree, he sald, as far as l am able Lo
undersLand you.
Moreover, l sald, you musL noL wonder LhaL
Lhose who aLLaln Lo Lhls beaLlflc vlslon are
unwllllng Lo descend Lo human affalrs, for Lhelr
souls are ever hasLenlng lnLo Lhe upper world
where Lhey deslre Lo dwell, whlch deslre of
Lhelrs ls very naLural, lf our allegory may be
LrusLed.
?es, very naLural.
And ls Lhere anyLhlng surprlslng ln one who
passes from dlvlne conLemplaLlons Lo Lhe evll
sLaLe of man, mlsbehavlng hlmself ln a
rldlculous manner, lf, whlle hls eyes are bllnklng
and before he has become accusLomed Lo Lhe
surroundlng darkness, he ls compelled Lo flghL
ln courLs of law, or ln oLher places, abouL Lhe
lmages or Lhe shadows of lmages of [usLlce, and
ls endeavorlng Lo meeL Lhe concepLlon of Lhose
who have never yeL seen absoluLe [usLlce?
AnyLhlng buL surprlslng, he replled.
Any one who has common sense wlll remember
LhaL Lhe bewlldermenLs of Lhe eyes are of Lwo
klnds, and arlse from Lwo causes, elLher from
comlng ouL of Lhe llghL or from golng lnLo Lhe
llghL, whlch ls Lrue of Lhe mlnd's eye, and he
who remembers Lhls when he sees any one
whose vlslon ls perplexed and weak, wlll noL be
Loo ready Lo laugh, he wlll flrsL ask wheLher LhaL
soul of man has come ouL of Lhe brlghLer llfe,
and ls unable Lo see because unaccusLomed Lo
Lhe dark, or havlng Lurned from darkness Lo Lhe
day ls dazzled by excess of llghL. And he wlll
counL Lhe one happy ln hls condlLlon and sLaLe
of belng, and he wlll plLy Lhe oLher, or, lf he
have a mlnd Lo laugh aL Lhe soul whlch comes
from below lnLo Lhe llghL, Lhere wlll be more
reason ln Lhls Lhan ln Lhe laugh whlch greeLs
hlm who reLurns from above ouL of Lhe llghL
lnLo Lhe den.
1haL, he sald, ls a very [usL dlsLlncLlon.
8uL Lhen, lf l am rlghL, cerLaln professors of
educaLlon musL be wrong when Lhey say LhaL
Lhey can puL a knowledge lnLo Lhe soul whlch
was noL Lhere before, llke slghL lnLo bllnd eyes.
1hey undoubLedly say Lhls, he replled.
Whereas our argumenL shows LhaL Lhe power
and capaclLy of learnlng exlsLs ln Lhe soul
already, and LhaL [usL as Lhe eye was unable Lo
Lurn from darkness Lo llghL wlLhouL Lhe whole
body, so Loo Lhe lnsLrumenL of knowledge can
only by Lhe movemenL of Lhe whole soul be
Ioundat|ons (8000 8.C.L. to 600 C.L.)

!"&+"!"

Lurned from Lhe world of becomlng lnLo LhaL of
belng, and learn by degrees Lo endure Lhe slghL
of belng and of Lhe brlghLesL and besL of belng,
or ln oLher words, of Lhe good.

(1) 1hls refers Lo a famous passage ln Pomer's
Cdyssey ln whlch Lhe ghosL of Lhe greaL hero
Achllles, when asked lf he ls noL proud of Lhe fame
hls deeds has spread LhroughouL Lhe world, answers
LhaL he would raLher be a slave on a worn-ouL farm
Lhan klng over all of Lhe famous dead. lnLeresLlngly,
laLo quoLes Lhe same passage elsewhere as
dlsapprovlngly as deplcLlng llfe afLer deaLh ln such a
negaLlve manner LhaL lL may undermlne Lhe
wllllngness of soldlers Lo dle ln war.
(2) 1he comlc playwrlghL ArlsLophanes had mocked
SocraLes by porLraylng laLo's masLer, SocraLes, as a
foollsh lnLellecLual wlLh hls head ln Lhe clouds.
(3) laLo undoubLedly has ln mlnd Lhe facL LhaL Lhe
ALhenlans had condemned Lo deaLh hls masLer
SocraLes, who laLo consldered supremely
enllghLened.
1toosloteJ by 8eojomlo Iowett

1ac|tus (c. SS -117 CL): Nero's persecut|on of the Chr|st|ans
1ocltos wos o fletce ctltlc of Neto, ooJ moJeto scbolots bove poestlooeJ tbe telloblllty of bls occooot of
tbls oototloos komoo mpetot, bot tbe followloq possoqe ftom bls Annals ls fomoos becoose lt ls ooe of
tbe fltst meotloos lo o ooo-cbtlstloo sootce of cbtlstloolty. lo 64 c kome ooJetweot o cotosttopblc flte,
wblcb some belleveJ boJ beeo set ot tbe otJets of tbe empetot blmself. 1ocltos clolms tbot Neto ttleJ to
sblft tbe blome to tbe oopopolot cbtlstloos, tbooqb otbet sootces loJlcote tbot tbelt petsecotloo moy
bove beeo oocoooecteJ to tbe flte. lt ls oot cleot exoctly wby mooy komoos so JetesteJ tbe oew
bellevets, tbooqb cbtlstloos wete ofteo coofoseJ wltb Iews, wbo wete occoseJ of beloq tebellloos (wltb
some teosoo, sloce tbe Iews of IoJoeo mote tboo ooce cteoteJ losottectloos oqolost tbe komoo
ptovloclol qovetomeot) ooJ lozy (sloce tbey testeJ oo tbe 5obbotb). 5cooJoloos tomots oboot obsceoe
cbtlstloo tltools cltcoloteJ ot oo eotly Jote, ooJ we koow tbot tbey wete occoseJ of Jlsloyolty becoose of
tbelt tefosol to petfotm tbe tokeo tltool ockoowleJqloq tbe Jlvloe stotos of tbe mpetot, vleweJ by most
cltlzeos os llttle Jlffeteot ftom o moJeto floq solote. lf 1ocltos sbows sympotby fot tbem, lt ls becoose be
Jetests Neto mote. wbotevet tbelt exoct coose tbls eotly petsecotloo ooJ lotet ooes moJe o ptofoooJ
lmpoct oo tbe cbtlstloo cbotcb, ooJ bepoeotbeJ o leqocy of colotfol toles of mottyteJ solots wbo wete
celebtoteJ lo stoty, sooq, ooJ ott fot tbe oext two mllleolo, looq oftet tbe cbotcb boJ ttlompbeJ ovet lts
oppooeots.
wbot wete tbe molo occosotloos btooqbt oqolost tbe cbtlstloos?

?eL no human efforL, no prlncely largess nor
offerlngs Lo Lhe gods could make LhaL lnfamous
rumor dlsappear LhaL nero had somehow
ordered Lhe flre. 1herefore, ln order Lo abollsh
LhaL rumor, nero falsely accused and execuLed
wlLh Lhe mosL exqulslLe punlshmenLs Lhose
people called ChrlsLlans, who were lnfamous for
Lhelr abomlnaLlons. 1he orlglnaLor of Lhe name,
ChrlsL, was execuLed as a crlmlnal by Lhe
procuraLor onLlus llaLe durlng Lhe relgn of
1lberlus, and Lhough repressed, Lhls desLrucLlve
supersLlLlon erupLed agaln, noL only Lhrough
!udea, whlch was Lhe orlgln of Lhls evll, buL also
Lhrough Lhe clLy of 8ome, Lo whlch all LhaL ls
horrlble and shameful floods LogeLher and ls
celebraLed. 1herefore, flrsL Lhose were selzed
who admlLLed Lhelr falLh, and Lhen, uslng Lhe
lnformaLlon Lhey provlded, a vasL mulLlLude
were convlcLed, noL so much for Lhe crlme of
burnlng Lhe clLy, buL for haLred of Lhe human
race. And perlshlng Lhey were addlLlonally
made lnLo sporLs: Lhey were kllled by dogs by
Ioundat|ons (8000 8.C.L. to 600 C.L.)

!"&,"!"

havlng Lhe hldes of beasLs aLLached Lo Lhem, or
Lhey were nalled Lo crosses or seL aflame, and,
when Lhe dayllghL passed away, Lhey were used
as nlghLLlme lamps. nero gave hls own gardens
for Lhls specLacle and performed a Clrcus game,
ln Lhe hablL of a charloLeer mlxlng wlLh Lhe
plebs or drlvlng abouL Lhe race-course. Lven
Lhough Lhey were clearly gullLy and merlLed
belng made Lhe mosL recenL example of Lhe
consequences of crlme, people began Lo plLy
Lhese sufferers, because Lhey were consumed
noL for Lhe publlc good buL on accounL of Lhe
flerceness of one man.
1toosloteJ by klcbotJ nooket

Sermon on the Mount

lo coottost to Motk, Mottbew cootolos fot fewet mltocles ooJ o qteot Jeol of teocbloq, locloJloq tbe
fomoos collectloo of soyloqs colleJ "1be 5etmoo oo tbe Mooot," some of tbem polte extteme. As we sow
eotllet, Iewlsb low tepolteJ tbe folt tteotmeot of eoemles, ooJ by oo meoos colleJ opoo oll ctlmes to be
poolsbeJ by "oo eye fot oo eye," bot lt JlJ oot tepolte fotqlveoess to exteoJ os fot os tbls.
lo yoot oploloo, wblcb of tbese ls tbe most extteme commooJmeot? wby?
?ou have heard LhaL lL was sald, "An eye for an
eye and a LooLh for a LooLh." (1) 8uL l say Lo
you, uo noL reslsL an evlldoer. (2) 8uL lf anyone
sLrlkes you on Lhe rlghL cheek, Lurn Lhe oLher
also, and lf anyone wanLs Lo sue you and Lake
your coaL, glve your cloak as well, and lf anyone
forces you Lo go one mlle, go also Lhe second
mlle. (3) Clve Lo everyone who begs from you,
and do noL refuse anyone who wanLs Lo borrow
from you.
?ou have heard LhaL lL was sald, " ?ou shall love
your nelghbor and haLe your enemy." (4) 8uL l
say Lo you, Love your enemles and pray for
Lhose who persecuLe you, so LhaL you may be
chlldren of your laLher ln heaven, for he makes
hls sun rlse on Lhe evll and on Lhe good, and
sends raln on Lhe rlghLeous and on Lhe
unrlghLeous. lor lf you love Lhose who love you,
whaL reward Lo you have? uo noL even Lhe Lax
collecLors do Lhe same? (3) And lf you greeL
only your brothers and sisters, what more are
you doing than others? Do not even the Gentiles
(6) do the same? Be perfect, therefore, as your
heavenly Father is perfect." (7)
(1) See Lxodus 21:23-23.
(2) 1hls sLaLemenL ls so sLrong, seemlng Lo leave no
room for pollce, [udges, or even self-defense, LhaL
some scholars have argued LhaL lL musL envlslon a
very near end of Lhe world. ln LhaL case, clvll socleLy
need noL be malnLalned because all wlll shorLly be
[udged by Cod. A more LradlLlonal vlew applles
aul's Lheory LhaL salvaLlon by works (good deeds) ls
llLerally lmposslble. 1hese commandmenLs would
Lhen be uLLered because Lhey are lmposslble Lo
obey, ln order Lo force Lhe hearer Lo accepL LhaL only
falLh can save.
(3) 1hls commandmenL has been explalned by some
as an exLenslon of Lhe much-resenLed 8oman law
whlch requlred sub[ecLs Lo carry Lhe spear and shleld
of a soldler for one mlle whenever requesLed. 1he
early church was anxlous Lo avold any appearance of
belng hosLlle Lo 8ome, unllke Lhe !ews who rebelled
agalnsL Lhe lmperlal governmenL. "Colng Lhe second
mlle" has come Lo be a popular expresslon for
maklng an exLra efforL.
(4) 1hls saylng occurs nowhere ln Lhe Pebrew 8lble.
lL may be slmply an expresslon of popular aLLlLudes.
(3) 1ax collecLors were haLed represenLaLlves of
8ome, all Lhe more so because Lhelr lncome
depended on charglng Laxpayers more Lhan was
acLually due Lhe cenLral governmenL.
Ioundat|ons (8000 8.C.L. to 600 C.L.)

!"'-"!"

(6) non-!ews.
(7) WlLh Lhe excepLlon of some salnLs, few ChrlsLlans
have Laken Lhls commandmenL llLerally, seelng ln lL
an lnconslsLency wlLh aul's docLrlne of orlglnal sln.
!ewlsh law, of course, expecLed perfecLlon ln LhaL
Lhe worshlpper was supposed Lo be able Lo observe
all of Cod's law wlLhouL superhuman efforLs.
New kevlseJ 5tooJotJ vetsloo

au| on marr|age vs. ce||bacy

1be meooloq of lool's teocbloqs oo womeo ooJ mottloqe bos beeo tbe sobject of eoJless coottovetsy,
pottlcolotly lo moJeto tlmes. 5ome bove otqoeJ tbot lool belleveJ tbot tbe wotlJ wos oboot to come to
oo eoJ ooJ tbot tbete wos tbetefote oo oeeJ to cootlooe mottyloq ooJ beqettloq cbllJteo. et elsewbete
lool seems to be ooxloos to ovolJ tbe extteme oscetlclsm of some cootempototy tellqloos tblokets. ne
bos beeo colleJ oo ootl-femlolst ooJ o ptoto-femlolst. 1be cotbollc cbotcb bos embtoceJ botb tbe
coocept of cellbocy (fot ptlests ooJ ooos) ooJ eocootoqeJ teptoJoctloo (omooq loy people).
wbot otqomeots Joes lool ose oqolost mottloqe? wbot Joes be soy ote teosoos ooe sboolJ qet
mottleJ?

1 Cor|nth|ans 7: 2S-31, 36-40)
now concernlng vlrglns, l have no command of
Lhe Lord, buL l glve my oplnlon as one who by
Lhe Lord's mercy ls LrusLworLhy. l Lhlnk LhaL, ln
vlew of Lhe lmpendlng crlsls, lL ls well for you Lo
remaln as you are. Are you bound Lo a wlfe? uo
noL seek Lo be free. Are you free from a wlfe?
uo noL seek a wlfe. 8uL lf you marry, you do noL
sln, and lf a vlrgln marrles, she does noL sln. ?eL
Lhose who marry wlll experlence dlsLress ln Lhls
llfe, and l would spare you LhaL. l mean,
broLhers and slsLers, Lhe appolnLed Llme has
grown shorL, from now on, leL even Lhose who
have wlves be as Lhough Lhey had none, and
Lhose who mourn as LhoughL Lhey were noL
mournlng, and Lhose who re[olce as Lhough
Lhey were noL re[olclng, and Lhose who buy as
Lhough Lhey had no possesslons, and Lhose who
deal wlLh Lhe world as LhoughL Lhey had no
deallngs wlLh lL. lor Lhe presenL form of Lhls
world ls passlng away. . . .
lf anyone Lhlnks LhaL he ls noL behavlng
properly Loward hls flancee, lf hls passlons are
sLrong, and so lL has Lo be, leL hlm marry as he
wlshes, lL ls no sln. LeL Lhem marry. 8uL lf
someone sLands flrm ln hls resolve, belng under
no necesslLy buL havlng hls own deslre under
conLrol, and has deLermlned ln hls own mlnd Lo
keep her as hls flancee, he wlll do well. So Lhen,
he who marrles hls flancee does well, and he
who refralns from marrlage wlll do beLLer.
A wlfe ls bound as long as her husband llves.
8uL lf Lhe husband dles, she ls free Lo marry
anyone she wlshes, only ln Lhe Lord. 8uL ln my
[udgmenL she ls more blessed lf she remalns as
she ls.
New kevlseJ 5tooJotJ vetsloo


ost ! C|ass|ca| (600 C.L. to 14S0 C.L.)
!"'$"!"

Ma[or Deve|opments
1) CuesLlons of perlodlzaLlon
A) naLure and causes of changes ln Lhe world hlsLory framework leadlng up Lo 600 C.L. - 1430 as a perlod
8) Lmergence of new emplres and pollLlcal sysLems
C) ConLlnulLles and breaks wlLhln Lhe perlod (e.g., Lhe lmpacL of Lhe Mongols on lnLernaLlonal conLacLs and on speclflc socleLles)
2) 1he lslamlc world
A) 1he rlse and role of uar al-lslam as a unlfylng culLural and economlc force ln Lurasla and Afrlca
8) lslamlc pollLlcal sLrucLures, noLably Lhe callphaLe
C) ArLs, sclences, and Lechnologles
3) lnLerreglonal neLworks and conLacLs
A) uevelopmenL and shlfLs ln lnLerreglonal Lrade, Lechnology, and culLural exchange
8) 1rans-Sahara Lrade
C) lndlan Ccean Lrade
u) Sllk rouLes
L) Mlsslonary ouLreach of ma[or rellglons
l) ConLacLs beLween ma[or rellglons, e.g., lslam and 8uddhlsm, ChrlsLlanlLy and lslam
C) lmpacL of Lhe Mongol emplres
4) ollLlcal sysLems and culLural paLLerns
A) LasL Asla
1) Chlna's expanslon
2) Chlnese lnfluence on surroundlng areas and lLs llmlLs
3) Changes and conLlnulLles ln Confuclanlsm
8) 1he Amerlcas
1) Apex and decllne of Lhe Maya
2) 8lse of Lhe AzLec
3) 8lse of Lhe lnca
C) 8esLrucLurlng of Lurope
1) uecenLrallzaLlon - Medleval socleLy
2) ulvlslon of ChrlsLlanlLy
3) 8evlval of ClLles
3) Afrlca
A) Sudanlc Lmplres (Mall, Chana, Songhay)
8) Swahlll coasL
6) SouLh Asla and SouLheasL Asla
A) uelhl SulLanaLe
8) vleLnam
7) ArLs, sclences, and Lechnologles
A) uemographlc and envlronmenLal changes
8) lmpacL of nomadlc mlgraLlons on Afro-Lurasla and Lhe Amerlcas (e.g., AzLecs, Mongols, 1urks, vlklngs, and Arabs)
C) Consequences of plague pandemlcs ln Lhe fourLeenLh cenLury
u) CrowLh and role of clLles
8) ulverse lnLerpreLaLlons
A) WhaL are Lhe lssues lnvolved ln uslng culLural areas raLher Lhan sLaLes as unlLs of analysls?
8) WhaL are Lhe sources of change: nomadlc mlgraLlons versus urban growLh?
C) Was Lhere a world economlc neLwork ln Lhls perlod?
u) Were Lhere common paLLerns ln Lhe new opporLunlLles avallable Lo and consLralnLs placed on ellLe women ln Lhls perlod?
L) 1o whaL exLenL was uar-al-lslam a unlfled culLural/pollLlcal enLlLy?
Ma[or Compar|sons and Snapshots
! Compare Lhe role and funcLlon of clLles ln ma[or socleLles
! Analyze gender sysLems and changes, such as Lhe effecLs of lslam
! Analyze Lhe lnLeracLlons beLween !ews, ChrlsLlans, and Musllms
! Compare Lhe developmenLs ln pollLlcal and soclal lnsLlLuLlons ln boLh easLern and wesLern Lurope
! Compare !apanese and Luropean feudallsm
! Compare Luropean and sub-Saharan Afrlcan conLacLs wlLh Lhe lslamlc World
! Analyze Lhe Chlnese clvll servlce exam sysLem and Lhe rlse of merlLocracy
ost ! C|ass|ca| (600 C.L. to 14S0 C.L.)

!"'%"!"

Sung (Song) Ch|na: Imper|a| Lxam|nat|on System
Ooe of tbe oolpoe feototes of tbe lmpetlol qovetomeot of cbloo wos tbe lmpetlol exomlootloo system.
1btooqb lt, tbe cbloese qovetomeot tectolteJ tbe membets of lts boteooctocy ftom tbe qeoetol
popoloce, totbet tboo leovloq tbe lmpetlol oJmlolsttotloo to tbe beteJltoty oobles. 1bls system evolveJ
qtoJoolly, stottloq lo tbe secooJ ceototy b.c. Jotloq tbe fotmet noo Jyoosty (206 b.c.-o.J. 8), becomloq
mote elobotote ooJ lostltotlooollzeJ Jotloq tbe eotly pott of tbe 5ooq j5ooq] Jyoosty (960-1279), ooJ
cootlooloq wltb ooly sllqbt moJlflcotloos Jowo to tbe eotly yeots of tbls ceototy. 1be lost lmpetlol
exomlootloos wete belJ lo 1905.
Mlllloos of yoooq meo lo cbloo Jotloq tbe lmpetlol petloJ lovesteJ tbelt tlme, eoetqy, mooey, ooJ
possloo lo oo effott to poss tbe exomlootloo, sloce tbls wos tbe tooJ to powet ooJ weoltb. Aspltoots fot
lmpetlol boteooctotlc posts osoolly speot teo ot mote yeots ptepotloq fot tbe exomlootloo, ptlmotlly by
teoJloq, ooolyzloq, ooJ memotlzloq tbe volomlooos coofocloo closslcs. uotloq tbe 5ooq petloJ,
ptospectlve cooJlJotes fot lmpetlol oJmlolsttotlve posts wete expecteJ to poss tbtee levels of blqbly
competltlve exomlootloos-ptefectotol, mettopolltoo, ooJ poloce-ooJ ottolo tbe lteseoteJ 5cbolot
(cblo-sblb jIlosbl]) Jeqtee, wblcb wos tbe most coveteJ Jeqtee, tooqbly compotoble to o lb.u. lo tbe
west. 1be cooJlJotes lo tbe poloce exomlootloo wete tookeJ lo otJet of tbelt ocblevemeots lo tbe
exomlootloo. 1be blqbet tbe took tbe cooJlJotes ocbleveJ, tbe bettet tbe cbooces wete tbot tbey woolJ
tecelve mote powetfol ooJ ptestlqloos lmpetlol oppolotmeots. 1be cooJlJote fot tbe cblo-sblb Jeqtee
wos tepolteJ to ptoJoce, omooq otbet tbloqs, poems lo votloos styles, o tbyme ptose plece, o pollcy
essoy, ooswets to flve pollcy poestloos, ooJ ooswets to teo wtltteo eloclJotloo poestloos oo coofocloo
closslcs socb os tbe 5ptloq ooJ Aotomo Aoools ooJ tbe 8ook of kltes. 1be followloq selectloo ls oo
exomple of oo essoy poestloo oo pollcy mottets.
R2"6%$+#6S(
1. wbot Jo yoo tblok ote tbe metlts ooJ Jemetlts of tbe cbloese lmpetlol exomlootloo system?
2. now Joes tbls system compote wltb tbe woy tbe Ottomoo mplte tectolteJ Ioolssotles?
1+2)B"S(copytlqbt 1985 1bomos n.c. lee. ltom Covetomeot Jocotloo ooJ xomlootloos lo 5ooq
cbloo by 1bomos n.c. lee, pp. 150-51. keptloteJ wltb petmlssloo of 5t. Mottlos ltess ooJ 1be cbloese
uolvetslty ltess.
lL ls sLaLed ln Lhe 8ook of kuan-Lzu [Cuan Zl]1:
Lhe meLhod by whlch a sage rules Lhe world ls
Lhls: he does noL leL Lhe four classes of people
llve LogeLher. 1herefore, Lhere are no
complalnLs, and Lhlngs run smooLhly. As a
resulL, scholars know how Lo spend Lhelr
lelsure, laborers ablde wlLh Lhe orders of
offlclals, merchanLs go Lo Lhe markeLplaces and
farmers go Lo Lhe flelds. Lveryone goes Lo hls
approprlaLe place and llves Lhere saLlsfacLorlly.
?oung chlldren are senL Lo sLudy, Lhelr wllls are
saLlsfled and Lhey do noL change Lhelr mlnds
when Lhey see sLrange Lhlngs." 1he kuan-Lzu
8ook furLher sLaLes: Chlldren of scholars and
farmers musL always be scholars and farmers
and chlldren of merchanLs and laborers musL
also always be merchanLs and laborers, so LhaL
a scholar can glve lnsLrucLlons and Lake care of
ost ! C|ass|ca| (600 C.L. to 14S0 C.L.)

!"'&"!"

hls proper sLaLus, and a farmer can work
aLLenLlvely ln culLlvaLlng hls crops Lo feed Lhe
people. Lveryone ls saLlsfled wlLh hls
occupaLlon and does noL seek Lo change. 1hls ls
Lruly good! CLherwlse, hundreds of laborers
mlghL all go Lo Lhe markeLplaces and Len
Lhousand merchanLs mlghL all Lry Lo work ln Lhe
same [mosL proflLable] buslness, Lhey would all
become cunnlng, decelLful, eager Lo play Lrlcks,
and Lhey would also become caprlclous, greedy
and seek only proflLs."
now, Lo flL people ln Lhelr occupaLlons ls noL Lo
lmprove morals. 1o see someLhlng beLLer and
change-whaL harm ls Lhere ln Lhls? 1ake Lhe
example of 1uan-mu [uuanmu] who became a
merchanL [afLer belng a dlsclple of Confuclus],
Chlao Ll [!lao Ll] who became a flsherman [afLer
belng an lmporLanL offlclal] and Wang Meng
who wenL Lo sell dusL-baskeLs [afLer belng a
prlme mlnlsLer], Lhese men responded Lo Lhelr
Llmes and changed ln myrlad ways, why should
Lhey have been resLrlcLed Lo Lhelr flxed
occupaLlons? Slmllarly, Puang Pslen [Puang
xlan] was orlglnally a lowly veLerlnarlan, Sang
Pung-yang [Sang Pongyang] a merchanL, Sun
Shu-ao a wood-cuLLer, and yeL Lhey all were
able Lo preserve Lhelr lnLelllgence and help
sLrengLhen Lhelr sLaLes. Pow can we accuse
Lhem of respondlng Lo Lhelr Llmes and of golng
Lo Lake up responslblllLles oLher Lhan Lhelr own
occupaLlons! We now have a regulaLlon keeplng
Lhe descendanLs of Lhose ln desplsed
occupaLlons from Laklng Lhe clvll servlce
examlnaLlons. AlLhough Lhls rule has been ln
force for some Llme, l conslder LhaL lL sLlll ls a
good Llme Lo examlne Lhls regulaLlon. ?ou
candldaLes have excelled yourselves ln
knowledge of Lhe pasL, and ln debaLlng varlous
problems, l would llke you Lo spend Llme
conslderlng Lhe lssue l have [usL ouLllned above.
1. kuan-Lzu or MasLer kuan [Cuan], who llved ln Lhe
mlddle of Lhe sevenLh cenLury b.c., ls regarded ln
Chlnese hlsLory as one of Lhe mosL lnnovaLlve
governmenL reformers ln anclenL Chlna. Pe was a
greaL supporLer of a cenLrallzed form of governmenL.




1he 1ang Dynasty (618!907): 1he Art of Government
lo tbe followloq Jocomeot, 1ooq uolzooq, o foooJet of tbe 1ooq Jyoosty, set tbe tooe fot bls oew
oJmlolsttotloo to bls cboseo offlclols. nls empbosls oo booesty ooJ opeo commoolcotloo coottosts tbe
sloqle-mloJeJ ooJ obsesslve tole of tbe fotmet 5ol Jyoosty.
R2"6%$+#6S(
1. wbot mlstokes JlJ 5ol weotl moke?
2. wbot wete tbe tespooslbllltles of 1ooq qovetomeot offlclols?
1+2)B"S(keptloteJ wltb tbe petmlssloo of 5ctlboet, o ulvlsloo of 5lmoo & 5cbostet, loc., ftom 1be
clvlllzotloo of cbloo, ttoosloteJ by uoo I. ll. copytlqbt 1975 by uoo I. ll.

ost ! C|ass|ca| (600 C.L. to 14S0 C.L.)
!"''"!"

1ANG DAI2CNG
ulfferenL people are bound Lo have dlfferenL
oplnlons, Lhe lmporLanL Lhlng ls LhaL dlfferences
ln oplnlon should noL degeneraLe lnLo personal
anLagonlsm. SomeLlmes Lo avold Lhe posslblllLy
of creaLlng personal grlevances or causlng
embarrassmenL Lo a colleague, an offlclal mlghL
declde Lo go ahead wlLh Lhe lmplemenLaLlon of
a pollcy even Lhough he knows LhaL Lhe pollcy ls
wrong. LeL us remember LhaL preservaLlon of a
colleague's presLlge, or Lhe avoldance of
embarrassmenL Lo hlm, cannoL be compared
wlLh Lhe welfare of Lhe naLlon ln lmporLance,
and Lo place personal conslderaLlon above Lhe
wellbelng of Lhe mulLlLude wlll lead Lo defeaL
for Lhe governmenL as a whole. l wanL all of you
Lo undersLand Lhls polnL and acL accordlngly.
uurlng Lhe Sul dynasLy, all offlclals, ln Lhe
cenLral as well as Lhe local governmenLs,
adopLed an aLLlLude of conformlLy Lo Lhe
general Lrend ln order Lo be amlable and
agreeable wlLh one anoLher. 1he resulL was
dlsasLer as all of you well know. MosL of Lhem
dld noL undersLand Lhe lmporLance of dlssenL
and comforLed Lhemselves by saylng LhaL as
long as Lhey dld noL dlsagree, Lhey could
foresLall harm Lo Lhemselves LhaL mlghL
oLherwlse cross Lhelr paLh. When Lhe
governmenL, as well as Lhelr famllles, flnally
collapsed ln a masslve upheaval, Lhey were
severely buL [usLlflably crlLlclzed by Lhelr
conLemporarles for Lhelr complacency and
lnerLla, even lf Lhey Lhemselves may have been
forLunaLe enough Lo escape deaLh Lhrough a
comblnaLlon of clrcumsLances. 1hls ls Lhe
reason LhaL l wanL all of you Lo place publlc
welfare above prlvaLe lnLeresL and hold
sLeadfasLly Lhe prlnclple of rlghLeousness, so
LhaL all problems, whaLever Lhey are, wlll be
resolved ln such a way as Lo brlng abouL a mosL
beneflclal resulL. under no clrcumsLances are
you allowed Lo agree wlLh one anoLher for Lhe
sake of agreemenL.
As for Sul WenLl, l would say LhaL he was
pollLlcally lnqulslLlve, buL menLally closed. 8elng
close-mlnded, he could noL see LruLh even lf lL
were spoLllghLed for hlm, belng over lnqulslLlve,
he was susplclous even when Lhere was no valld
reason for hls susplclon. Pe rose Lo power by
Lrampllng on Lhe rlghLs of orphans and wldows
and was consequenLly noL so sure LhaL he had
Lhe unanlmous supporL of hls own mlnlsLers.
8elng susplclous of hls own mlnlsLers, he
naLurally dld noL LrusL Lhem and had Lo make a
declslon on every maLLer hlmself. Pe became a
hard worker ouL of necesslLy and, havlng
overworked, could noL make Lhe rlghL declslon
every Llme. knowlng Lhe klnd of man he was, all
hls mlnlsLers, lncludlng Lhe prlme mlnlsLer, dld
noL speak as candldly as Lhey should have and
unanlmously uLLered ?es, slr" when Lhey
should have reglsLered sLrong dlssenL.
l wanL all of you Lo know LhaL l am dlfferenL.
1he emplre ls large and lLs populaLlon
enormous. 1here are Lhousands of maLLers Lo
be Laken care of, each of whlch has Lo be closely
coordlnaLed wlLh Lhe oLhers ln order Lo brlng
abouL maxlmum beneflL. Lach maLLer musL be
Lhoroughly lnvesLlgaLed and LhoughL ouL before
a recommendaLlon ls submlLLed Lo Lhe prlme
mlnlsLer, who, havlng consulLed all Lhe men
knowledgeable ln Lhls maLLer, wlll Lhen presenL
Lhe commendaLlon, modlfled lf necessary, Lo
Lhe emperor for approval and lmplemenLaLlon.
lL ls lmposslble for one person, however
lnLelllgenL and capable, Lo be able Lo make wlse
declslons by hlmself. . . .
l wanL all of you Lo know LhaL whenever an
lmperlal decree ls handed down you should
carefully sLudy lLs conLenL and declde for
ost ! C|ass|ca| (600 C.L. to 14S0 C.L.)

!"'("!"

yourselves wheLher all or parL of lL ls or ls noL
wlse or feaslble. lf you have any reservaLlons,
posLpone Lhe enforcemenL and peLlLlon me
lmmedlaLely. ?ou can do no less as my loyal
mlnlsLers.
Covernlng a counLry ls llke Laklng care of a
paLlenL. 1he beLLer Lhe paLlenL feels, Lhe more
he should be looked afLer, lesL ln a momenL of
complacency and neglecL one lrrevocably
reverse Lhe recovery process and send hlm Lo
deaLh. Llkewlse, when a counLry has only
recenLly recovered from chaos and war, Lhose
responslble for runnlng Lhe counLry should be
exLremely dlllgenL ln Lhelr work, for false prlde
and self-lndulgence wlll lnevlLably reLurn Lhe
counLry Lo where lL used Lo be and perhaps
make lL worse.
l reallze LhaL Lhe safeLy of Lhls naLlon relles Lo a
greaL exLenL on whaL l can or may do and
consequenLly l have noL relaxed for a momenL
ln dolng Lhe besL l can. 8uL l cannoL do lL alone.
?ou genLlemen are my eyes and ears, legs and
arms, and should do your besL Lo asslsL me. lf
anyLhlng goes wrong anywhere ln Lhe emplre,
you should leL me know lmmedlaLely. lf Lhere ls
less Lhan LoLal LrusL beLween you and me and
consequenLly you and l cannoL do Lhe besL we
can, Lhe naLlon wlll suffer enormous damage.

Iapanese Creat|on Myth (712 CL)
Irom Gen[| Sh|bukawa: =&'"6(@)+3(%:"(E+J$C$(
1be followloq ls o moJeto tetellloq of tbe cteotloo stoty ftom tbe ko[lkl, Iopoo's olJest cbtoolcle,
complleJ lo 712 c by O No osomoto. 1bls vetsloo ls eoslet fot tbe moJeto teoJet to ooJetstooJ tboo
tbe otlqlool, bot lts esseotlol feototes ote ptesetveJ. 1be poest fot lzoooml lo tbe ooJetwotlJ ls
temlolsceot of tbe Cteek JemlqoJ Otpbeos' poest lo noJes fot bls wlfe, otlJlce, ooJ eveo mote of tbe
5ometloo mytb of tbe Jesceot of looooo to tbe ooJetwotlJ.
now Joes tbls stoty teflect tbe seose of lts cteotots tbot Iopoo ls tbe most lmpottoot ploce lo tbe wotlJ?

1he 8eg|nn|ng of the Wor|d
8efore Lhe heavens and Lhe earLh came lnLo
exlsLence, all was a chaos, unlmaglnably
llmlLless and wlLhouL deflnlLe shape or form.
Lon followed eon: Lhen, lo! ouL of Lhls
boundless, shapeless mass someLhlng llghL and
LransparenL rose up and formed Lhe heaven.
1hls was Lhe laln of Plgh Peaven, ln whlch
maLerlallzed a delLy called Ame-no-Mlnaka-
nushl-no-MlkoLo (Lhe uelLy-of-Lhe-AugusL-
CenLer-of-Peaven). nexL Lhe heavens gave blrLh
Lo a delLy named 1akaml-Musubl-no-MlkoLo
(Lhe Plgh-AugusL-roduclng-Wondrous-uelLy),
followed by a Lhlrd called kamml-Musubl-no-
MlkoLo (Lhe ulvlne-roduclng-Wondrous-uelLy).
1hese Lhree dlvlne belngs are called Lhe 1hree
CreaLlng uelLles.
ln Lhe meanLlme whaL was heavy and opaque ln
Lhe vold gradually preclplLaLed and became Lhe
earLh, buL lL had Laken an lmmeasurably long
Llme before lL condensed sufflclenLly Lo form
solld ground. ln lLs earllesL sLages, for mllllons
and mllllons of years, Lhe earLh may be sald Lo
have resembled oll floaLlng, medusa-llke, upon
Lhe face of Lhe waLers. Suddenly llke Lhe
sprouLlng up of a reed, a palr of lmmorLals were
born from lLs bosom. 1hese were Lhe uelLy
umashl-Ashl-kahlbl-Plko[l-no-MlkoLo (Lhe
leasanL-8eed-ShooL-rlnce-Llder-uelLy) and
ost ! C|ass|ca| (600 C.L. to 14S0 C.L.)

!"')"!"

Lhe uelLy Ame-no-1okoLachl-no-MlkoLo (1he
Peavenly-LLernally-SLandlng-uelLy). . . .
Many gods were Lhus born ln successlon, and so
Lhey lncreased ln number, buL as long as Lhe
world remalned ln a chaoLlc sLaLe, Lhere was
noLhlng for Lhem Lo do. Whereupon, all Lhe
Peavenly delLles summoned Lhe Lwo dlvlne
belngs, lzanagl and lzanaml, and bade Lhem
descend Lo Lhe nebulous place, and by helplng
each oLher, Lo consolldaLe lL lnLo Lerra flrma.
"We besLow on you," Lhey sald, "Lhls preclous
Lreasure, wlLh whlch Lo rule Lhe land, Lhe
creaLlon of whlch we command you Lo
perform." So saylng Lhey handed Lhem a spear
called Ama-no-nuboko, embelllshed wlLh cosLly
gems. 1he dlvlne couple recelved respecLfully
and ceremonlously Lhe sacred weapon and Lhen
wlLhdrew from Lhe presence of Lhe uelLles,
ready Lo perform Lhelr augusL commlsslon.
roceedlng forLhwlLh Lo Lhe lloaLlng 8rldge of
Peaven, whlch lay beLween Lhe heaven and Lhe
earLh, Lhey sLood awhlle Lo gaze on LhaL whlch
lay below. WhaL Lhey beheld was a world noL
yeL condensed, buL looklng llke a sea of fllmy
fog floaLlng Lo and fro ln Lhe alr, exhallng Lhe
whlle an lnexpresslbly fragranL odor. 1hey were,
aL flrsL, perplexed [usL how and where Lo sLarL,
buL aL lengLh lzanagl suggesLed Lo hls
companlon LhaL Lhey should Lry Lhe effecL of
sLlrrlng up Lhe brlne wlLh Lhelr spear. So saylng
he pushed down Lhe [eweled shafL and found
LhaL lL Louched someLhlng. 1hen drawlng lL up,
he examlned lL and observed LhaL Lhe greaL
drops whlch fell from lL almosL lmmedlaLely
coagulaLed lnLo an lsland, whlch ls, Lo Lhls day,
Lhe lsland of Cnokoro. uellghLed aL Lhe resulL,
Lhe Lwo delLles descended forLhwlLh from Lhe
lloaLlng 8rldge Lo reach Lhe mlraculously
creaLed lsland. ln Lhls lsland Lhey LhenceforLh
dwelL and made lL Lhe basls of Lhelr subsequenL
Lask of creaLlng a counLry. 1hen wlshlng Lo
become espoused, Lhey erecLed ln Lhe cenLer
oound Lhe lsland a plllar, Lhe Peavenly AugusL
lllar, and bullL around lL a greaL palace called
Lhe Pall of LlghL laLhoms. 1hereupon Lhe male
uelLy Lurnlng Lo Lhe lefL and Lhe female uelLy Lo
Lhe rlghL, each wenL round Lhe plllar ln opposlLe
dlrecLlons. When Lhey agaln meL each oLher on
Lhe furLher slde of Lhe plllar, lzanaml, Lhe
female uelLy, speaklng flrsL, exclalmed: "Pow
dellghLful lL ls Lo meeL so handsome a youLh!"
1o whlch lzanagl, Lhe male uelLy, replled: "Pow
dellghLful l am Lo have fallen ln wlLh such a
lovely malden!" AfLer havlng spoken Lhus, Lhe
male uelLy sald LhaL lL was noL ln order LhaL
woman should anLlclpaLe man ln a greeLlng.
neverLheless, Lhey fell lnLo connublal
relaLlonshlp, havlng been lnsLrucLed by Lwo
wagLalls whlch flew Lo Lhe spoL. resenLly Lhe
Coddess bore her dlvlne consorL a son, buL Lhe
baby was weak and boneless as a leech.
ulsgusLed wlLh lL, Lhey abandoned lL on Lhe
waLers, puLLlng lL ln a boaL made of reeds. 1helr
second offsprlng was as dlsappolnLlng as Lhe
flrsL. 1he Lwo uelLles, now sorely dlsappolnLed
aL Lhelr fallure and full of mlsglvlngs, ascended
Lo Peaven Lo lnqulre of Lhe Peavenly uelLles Lhe
causes of Lhelr mlsforLunes. 1he laLLer
performed Lhe ceremony of dlvlnlng and sald Lo
Lhem: "lL ls Lhe woman's faulL. ln Lurnlng round
Lhe lllar, lL was noL rlghL and proper LhaL Lhe
female uelLy should ln speaklng have Laken
precedence of Lhe male. 1haL ls Lhe reason."
1he Lwo uelLles saw Lhe LruLh of Lhls dlvlne
suggesLlon, and made up Lhelr mlnds Lo recLlfy
Lhe error. So, reLurnlng Lo Lhe earLh agaln, Lhey
wenL once more around Lhe Peavenly lllar.
1hls Llme lzanagl spoke flrsL saylng: "Pow
dellghLful Lo meeL so beauLlful a malden!" "Pow
happy l am," responded lzanaml, "LhaL l should
meeL such a handsom youLh!" 1hls process was
more approprlaLe and ln accordance wlLh Lhe
law of naLure. AfLer Lhls, all Lhe chlldren born Lo
Lhem lefL noLhlng Lo be deslred. llrsL, Lhe lsland
of Awa[l was born, nexL, Shlkoku, Lhen, Lhe
lsland of Ckl, followed by kyushu, afLer LhaL, Lhe
lsland 1sushlma came lnLo belng, and lasLly,
Ponshu, Lhe maln lsland of !apan. 1he name of
Cyashl- ma-kunl (Lhe CounLry of Lhe LlghL CreaL
lslands) was glven Lo Lhese elghL lslands. AfLer
Lhls, Lhe Lwo uelLles became Lhe parenLs of
numerous smaller lslands desLlned Lo surround
Lhe larger ones.

ost ! C|ass|ca| (600 C.L. to 14S0 C.L.)

!"'*"!"

1he 8|rth of the De|t|es
Pavlng, Lhus, made a counLry from whaL had
formerly been no more Lhan a mere floaLlng
mass, Lhe Lwo uelLles, lzanagl and lzanaml,
abouL begeLLlng Lhose delLles desLlned Lo
preslde over Lhe land, sea, mounLalns, rlvers,
Lrees, and herbs. 1helr flrsL-born proved Lo be
Lhe sea-god, CwaLaLsuml-no-kaml. nexL Lhey
gave blrLh Lo Lhe paLron gods of harbors, Lhe
male delLy kamlhaya-aklLsu-hlko havlng conLrol
of Lhe land and Lhe goddess Paya-aklLsu-hlme
havlng conLrol of Lhe sea. 1hese Lwo laLLer
delLles subsequenLly gave blrLh Lo elghL oLher
gods.
nexL lzanagl and lzanaml gave blrLh Lo Lhe wlnd-
delLy, kaml-ShlnaLsuhlko-no-MlkoLo. AL Lhe
momenL of hls blrLh, hls breaLh was so poLenL
LhaL Lhe clouds and mlsLs, whlch had hung over
Lhe earLh from Lhe beglnnlng of Llme, were
lmmedlaLely dlspersed. ln consequence, every
corner of Lhe world was fllled wlLh brlghLness.
kukunochl-no-kaml, Lhe delLy of Lrees, was Lhe
nexL Lo be born, followed by CyamaLsuml-no-
kaml, Lhe delLy of mounLalns, and kayanuhlme-
no-kaml, Lhe goddess of Lhe plalns. . . .
1he process of procreaLlon had, so far, gone on
happlly, buL aL Lhe blrLh of kaguLsuchl-no-kaml,
Lhe delLy of flre, an unseen mlsforLune befell
Lhe dlvlne moLher, lzanaml. uurlng Lhe course
of her conflnemenL, Lhe goddess was so
severely burned by Lhe flamlng chlld LhaL she
swooned away. Per dlvlne consorL, deeply
alarmed, dld all ln hls power Lo resusclLaLe her,
buL alLhough he succeeded ln resLorlng her Lo
consclousness, her appeLlLe had compleLely
gone. lzanagl, Lhereupon and wlLh Lhe uLmosL
lovlng care, prepared for her delecLaLlon
varlous LasLy dlshes, buL all Lo no avall, because
whaLever she swallowed was almosL
lmmedlaLely re[ecLed. lL was ln Lhls wlse LhaL
occurred Lhe greaLesL mlracle of all. lrom her
mouLh sprang kanayama- blko and kanayama-
hlme, respecLlvely Lhe god and goddess of
meLals, whllsL from oLher parLs of her body
lssued forLh Panlyasu-hlko and Panlyasu-hlme,
respecLlvely Lhe god and goddess of earLh.
8efore maklng her "dlvlne reLlremenL," whlch
marks Lhe end of her earLhly career, ln a
manner almosL unspeakably mlraculous she
gave blrLh Lo her lasL-born, Lhe goddess
Mlzuhame-no-MlkoLo. Per demlse marks Lhe
lnLruslon of deaLh lnLo Lhe world. Slmllarly Lhe
corrupLlon of her body and Lhe grlef occasloned
by her deaLh were each Lhe flrsL of Lhelr klnd.
8y Lhe deaLh of hls falLhful spouse lzanagl was
now qulLe alone ln Lhe world. ln con[uncLlon
wlLh her, and ln accordance wlLh Lhe
lnsLrucLlons of Lhe Peavenly Cods, he had
creaLed and consolldaLed Lhe lsland Lmplre of
!apan. ln Lhe fulflllmenL of Lhelr dlvlne mlsslon,
he and hls heavenly spouse had llved an ldeal
llfe of muLual love and cooperaLlon. lL ls only
naLural, Lherefore, LhaL her deaLh should have
dealL hlm a Lruly morLal blow.
Pe Lhrew hlmself upon her prosLraLe form,
crylng: "Ch, my dearesL wlfe, why arL Lhou
gone, Lo leave me Lhus alone? Pow could l ever
exchange Lhee for even one chlld? Come back
for Lhe sake of Lhe world, ln whlch Lhere sLlll
remalns so much for boLh us Lwaln Lo do." ln a
flL of unconLrollable grlef, he sLood sobblng aL
Lhe head of Lhe bler. Pls hoL Lears fell llke
hallsLones, and lo! ouL of Lhe Lear-drops was
born a beauLeous babe, Lhe goddess
naklsawame-no-MlkoLo. ln deep asLonlshmenL
he sLayed hls Lears, a gazed ln wonder aL Lhe
new-born chlld, buL soon hls Lears reLurned only
Lo fall fasLer Lhan before. lL was Lhus LhaL a
sudden change came over hls sLaLe of mlnd.
WlLh blLLer wraLh, hls eyes fell upon Lhe lnfanL
god of flre, whose blrLh had proved so faLal Lo
hls moLher. Pe drew hls sword, 1oLsuka-no-
Lsurugl, and crylng ln hls wraLh, "1hou haLeful
maLrlclde," decaplLaLed hls flery offsprlng. up
shoL a crlmson spouL of blood. CuL of Lhe sword
and blood LogeLher arose elghL sLrong and
gallanL delLles. "WhaL! more chlldren?" crled
lzanagl, much asLounded aL Lhelr sudden
appearance, buL Lhe very nexL momenL, whaL
should he see buL elghL more delLles born from
ost ! C|ass|ca| (600 C.L. to 14S0 C.L.)

!"'+"!"

Lhe llfeless body of Lhe lnfanL flregod! 1hey
came ouL from Lhe varlous parLs of Lhe body,--
head, breasL, sLomach, hands, feeL, and navel,
and, Lo add Lo hls asLonlshmenL, all of Lhem
were glarlng flercely aL hlm. AlLogeLher
sLupefled he surveyed Lhe new arrlvals one
afLer anoLher.
Meanwhlle lzanaml, for whom her dlvlne
husband plned so blLLerly, had qulLLed Lhls
world for good and all and gone Lo Lhe Land of
Pades.

Izanag|'s V|s|t to the Land of nades
As for Lhe uelLy lzanagl, who had now become a
wldower, Lhe presence of so many offsprlng
mlghL have, Lo some exLenL, begulled and
solaced hlm, and yeL when he remembered
how falLhful hls deparLed spouse had been Lo
hlm, he would yearn for her agaln, hls hearL
swollen wlLh sorrow and hls eyes fllled wlLh
Lears. ln Lhls mood, slLLlng up alone aL mldnlghL,
he would call her name aloud agaln and agaln,
regardless of Lhe facL LhaL he could hope for no
response. Pls own plLeous crles merely echoed
back from Lhe walls of hls chamber.
unable any longer Lo bear hls grlef, he resolved
Lo go down Lo Lhe neLher 8eglons ln order Lo
seek for lzanaml and brlng her back, aL all cosLs,
Lo Lhe world. Pe sLarLed on hls long and dublous
[ourney. Many mllllons of mlles separaLed Lhe
earLh from Lhe Lower 8eglons and Lhere were
counLless sLeep and dangerous places Lo be
negoLlaLed, buL lzanagl's lndomlLable
deLermlnaLlon Lo recover hls wlfe enabled hlm
flnally Lo overcome all Lhese dlfflculLles. AL
lengLh he succeeded ln arrlvlng aL hls
desLlnaLlon. lar ahead of hlm, he espled a large
casLle. "1haL, no doubL," he mused ln dellghL,
"may be where she resldes."
Summonlng up all hls courage, he approached
Lhe maln enLrance of Lhe casLle. Pere he saw a
number of glganLlc demons, some red some
black, guardlng Lhe gaLes wlLh waLchful eyes. Pe
reLraced hls sLeps ln alarm, and sLole round Lo a
gaLe aL Lhe rear of Lhe casLle. Pe found, Lo hls
greaL [oy, LhaL lL was apparenLly lefL unwaLched.
Pe crepL warlly Lhrough Lhe gaLe and peered
lnLo Lhe lnLerlor of Lhe casLle, when he
lmmedlaLely caughL slghL of hls wlfe sLandlng aL
Lhe gaLe aL an lnner courL. 1he dellghLed uelLy
loudly called her name. "Why! 1here ls some
one calllng me," slghed lzanaml-no-MlkoLo, and
ralslng her beauLlful head, she looked around
her. WhaL was her amazemenL buL Lo see her
beloved husband sLandlng by Lhe gaLe and
gazlng aL her lnLenLly! Pe had, ln facL, been ln
her LhoughLs no less consLanLly Lhan she ln hls.
WlLh a hearL leaplng wlLh [oy, she approached
hlm. Pe grasped her hands Lenderly and
murmured ln deep and earnesL Lones: "My
darllng, l have come Lo Lake Lhee back Lo Lhe
world. Come back, l pray Lhee, and leL us
compleLe our work of creaLlon ln accordance
wlLh Lhe wlll of Lhe Peavenly Cods,--our work
whlch was lefL only half accompllshed by Lhy
deparLure. Pow can l do Lhls work wlLhouL
Lhee?1hy loss means Lo me Lhe loss of all." 1hls
appeal came from Lhe depLh of hls hearL. 1he
goddess sympaLhlzed wlLh hlm mosL deeply, buL
answered wlLh Lender grlef: "Alas! 1hou hasL
come Loo laLe. l have already eaLen of Lhe
furnace of Pades. Pavlng once eaLen Lhe Lhlngs
of Lhls land, lL ls lmposslble for me Lo come back
Lo Lhe world." So saylng, she lowered her head
ln deep despalr.
"nay, l musL enLreaL Lhee Lo come back. CansL
noL Lhou flnd some means by whlch Lhls can be
accompllshed?" exclalmed her husband,
drawlng nearer Lo her. AfLer some reflecLlon,
she replled: "1hou hasL come a very, very long
way for my sake. Pow much l appreclaLe Lhy
devoLlon! l wlsh, wlLh all my hearL, Lo go back
wlLh Lhee, buL before l can do so, l musL flrsL
obLaln Lhe permlsslon of Lhe delLles of Pades.
WalL here Llll my reLurn, buL remember LhaL
Lhou musL noL on any accounL look lnslde Lhe
casLle ln Lhe meanLlme. " l swear l wlll do as
Lhou blddesL," quoLh lzanagl, " buL Larry noL ln
Lhy quesL." WlLh lmpllclL confldence ln her
ost ! C|ass|ca| (600 C.L. to 14S0 C.L.)

!"',"!"

husband's pledge, Lhe goddess dlsappeared lnLo
Lhe casLle.
lzanagl observed sLrlcLly her ln[uncLlon. Pe
remalned where he sLood, and walLed
lmpaLlenLly for hls wlfe's reLurn. robably Lo hls
lmpaLlenL mlnd, a slngle hearL-beaL may have
seemed an age. Pe walLed and walLed, buL no
shadow of hls wlfe appeared. 1he day gradually
wore on and waned away, darkness was abouL
Lo fall, and a sLrange unearLhly wlnd began Lo
sLrlke hls face. 8rave as he was, he was selzed
wlLh an uncanny feellng of apprehenslon.
lorgeLLlng Lhe vow he had made Lo Lhe
goddess, he broke off one of Lhe LeeLh of Lhe
comb whlch he was wearlng ln Lhe lefL bunch of
hls halr, and havlng llghLed lL, he crepL ln sofLly
and- glanced around hlm. 1o hls horror he
found lzanagl lylng dead ln a room: and lo! a
ghasLly change had come over her. She, who
had been so dazzllngly beauLlful, was now
become naughL buL a roLLlng corpse, ln an
advanced sLage of decomposlLlon. now, an
even more horrlble slghL meL hls gaze, Lhe llre
1hunder dwelL ln her, head, Lhe 8lack 1hunder
ln her belly, Lhe 8endlng-1hunder ln her
abdomen, Lhe ?oung 1hunder ln her lefL hand,
Lhe LarLh-1hunder ln her rlghL hand, Lhe
8umbllng-1hunder ln her lefL fooL,-and Lhe
CouchanL 1hunder ln her rlghL fooL:--alLogeLher
elghL 1hunder-uelLles had been born and were
dwelllng Lhere, aLLached Lo her remalns and
belchlng forLh flames from Lhelr mouLhs.
lzanaglLno-MlkoLo was so Lhoroughly alarmed
aL Lhe slghL, LhaL he dropped Lhe llghL and Look
Lo hls heels. 1he sound he made awakened
lzanaml from her deaLh-llke slumber. lor
sooLh!" she crled: "he musL have seen me ln
Lhls revolLlng sLaLe. Pe has puL me Lo shame
and has broken hls solemn vow. unfalLhful
wreLch! l'll make hlm suffer, for hls perfldy."
1hen Lurnlng Lo Lhe Pags of Pades, who
aLLended her, she commanded Lhem Lo glve
chase Lo hlm. AL her word, an army of female
demons ran afLer Lhe uelLy.
1toosloteJ by olcblto lsobe

r|nce Ctsu (663-86) and Lady Ish|kawa

lo tbe closslcol oqe mocb of tbe vetse wos occosloool poetty, ooJ poetlc excbooqes wete o oecessoty pott
of coottsblp. lo tbls excbooqe tbe loJy lsblkowo bos tokeo ltloce Otso's poem ooJ clevetly teottooqeJ lt.
5be tepeots lo tbe fottb lloe wbot ltloce Otso bos tepeoteJ lo lloes two ooJ flve of bls poem.

now Joes loJy lsbokowo toto ltloce Otso's complolot ot bovloq beeo stooJ op loto o compllmeot wblcb
teossotes blm of bet cootlooloq love?
All poems ttoosloteJ by Ioo locote

oem sent by r|nce Ctsu to Lady Ish|kawa
CenLle fooLhllls, and
ln Lhe dew drops of Lhe mounLalns,
soaked, l walLed for you--
grew weL from sLandlng Lhere
ln Lhe dew drops of Lhe mounLalns.
oem by Lady Ish|kawa |n response
WalLlng for me,
you grew weL Lhere
ln genLle fooLhllls,
ln Lhe dew drops of Lhe mounLalns--
l wlsh l'd been such drops of dew.


ost ! C|ass|ca| (600 C.L. to 14S0 C.L.)

!"(-"!"

"#$%&'()*+,+-./0()'1'%,''%(2#,$&3'(4+%0,$,.,$+%
uotloq tbe telqo of tbe Iopooese mptess 5olko, tbe ttoe powet bebloJ tbe tbtooe ooJ cblef
oJmlolsttotot wos bet oepbew, ltloce 5botoko (574-622 8.c..). Iopoo wos jost tecovetloq ftom o blttet
ooJ sometlmes blooJy powet sttoqqle betweeo coott ttoJltlooollsts ooJ oobles llke 5botoko, wbo JeslteJ
to tefotm tbe qovetomeot olooq tbe lloes of cbloese oJmlolsttotlve metboJs motolly botttesseJ wltb
8oJJblst ptecepts. 1be molo potpose wos, of cootse, to ceottollze ooJ boteooctotlze ootbotlty olooq
cbloese coofocloo lloes, bot tbe lJeo of o motol tespooslblllty wos stoteJ expllcltly.
R2"6%$+#6S(
1. wblcb elemeot of tbe 5eveoteeo Attlcles ls tbe mote Jomlooot, tbe polltlcol ot tbe etblcol? wby?
2. wbot pottlcolot oteos of Jeflcleocy of tbe olJ system Joes 5botoko lmply ote lo oeeJ of tefotm?
J. Ate tbete possoqes tbot seem to exptess sympotby fot, ooJ o wlsb to ollevlote tbe botJeo of, otJlooty
people? xplolo.
1+2)B"S(kyosoko 1soooJo, eJ., 5ootces of tbe Iopooese 1toJltloo, vol.1 (N... colomblo uolvetslty ltess,
1964), pp. 49-51.

12Lh year [604], Summer, 4Lh monLh, 3rd day.
1he rlnce lmperlal ln person prepared for Lhe
flrsL Llme laws. 1here were sevenLeen clauses,
as follows:
l. Parmony ls Lo be valued and an avoldance of
wanLon opposlLlon Lo be honored. All men are
lnfluenced by parLlsanshlp, and Lhere are few
who are lnLelllgenL. Pence Lhere are some who
dlsobey Lhelr lords and faLhers, or who malnLaln
feuds wlLh Lhe nelghborlng vlllages. 8uL when
Lhose above are harmonlous and Lhose below
are frlendly, and Lhere ls concord ln Lhe
dlscusslon of buslness, rlghL vlews of Lhlngs
sponLaneously galn accepLance. 1hen whaL ls
Lhere whlch cannoL be accompllshed?
ll. Slncerely reverence Lhe Lhree Lreasures. 1he
Lhree Lreasures, vlz. 8uddha, Lhe Law, and Lhe
MonasLlc orders, are Lhe flnal refuge of Lhe four
generaLed belngs, and are Lhe supreme ob[ecLs
of falLh ln all counLrles. lew men are uLLerly
bad. 1hey may be LaughL Lo follow lL. 8uL lf Lhey
do noL beLake Lhem Lo Lhe Lhree Lreasures,
wherewlLhal shall Lhelr crookedness be made
sLralghL?
lll. When you recelve Lhe lmperlal commands,
fall noL scrupulously Lo obey Lhem. 1he lord ls
Peaven, Lhe vassal ls LarLh. Peaven
overspreads, and LarLh upbears. When Lhls ls
so, Lhe four seasons follow Lhelr due course,
and Lhe powers of naLure obLaln Lhelr efflcacy.
lf Lhe LarLh aLLempLed Lo overspread, Peaven
would slmply fall ln ruln. 1herefore ls lL LhaL
when Lhe lord speaks, Lhe vassal llsLens, when
Lhe superlor acLs, Lhe lnferlor ylelds compllance.
ConsequenLly when you recelve Lhe lmperlal
commands, fall noL Lo carry Lhem ouL
scrupulously. LeL Lhere be a wanL of care ln Lhls
maLLer, and ruln ls Lhe naLural consequence.
lv. 1he mlnlsLers and funcLlonarles should make
decorous behavlor Lhelr leadlng prlnclple, for
Lhe leadlng prlnclple of Lhe governmenL of Lhe
people conslsLs ln decorous behavlor. lf Lhe
ost ! C|ass|ca| (600 C.L. to 14S0 C.L.)

!"($"!"

superlors do noL behave wlLh decorum, Lhe
lnferlors are dlsorderly: lf lnferlors are wanLlng
ln proper behavlor, Lhere musL necessarlly be
offenses. 1herefore lL ls LhaL when lord and
vassal behave wlLh decorum, Lhe dlsLlncLlons of
rank are noL confused: when Lhe people behave
wlLh decorum, Lhe governmenL of Lhe
commonwealLh proceeds of lLself.
v. Ceaslng from gluLLony and abandonlng
coveLous deslres, deal lmparLlally wlLh Lhe sulLs
whlch are submlLLed Lo you. Cf complalnLs
broughL by Lhe people Lhere are a Lhousand ln
one day. lf ln one day Lhere are so many, how
many wlll Lhere be ln a serles of years? lf Lhe
man who ls Lo declde sulLs aL law makes galn hls
ordlnary moLlve, and hears cases wlLh a vlew Lo
recelvlng brlbes, Lhen wlll Lhe sulLs of Lhe rlch
man be llke a sLone flung lnLo waLer, whlle Lhe
plalnLs of Lhe poor wlll resemble waLer casL
upon a sLone. under Lhese clrcumsLances Lhe
poor man wlll noL know whlLher Lo beLake
hlmself. Pere Loo Lhere ls a deflclency ln Lhe
duLy of Lhe mlnlsLer.
vl. ChasLlse LhaL whlch ls evll and encourage
LhaL whlch ls good. 1hls was Lhe excellenL rule
of anLlqulLy. Conceal noL, Lherefore, Lhe good
quallLles of oLhers, and fall noL Lo correcL LhaL
whlch ls wrong when you see lL. llaLLerers and
decelvers are a sharp weapon for Lhe overLhrow
of Lhe SLaLe, and a polnLed sword for Lhe
desLrucLlon of Lhe people. SycophanLs are also
fond, when Lhey meeL, of dllaLlng Lo Lhelr
superlors on Lhe errors of Lhelr lnferlors, Lo
Lhelr lnferlors, Lhey censure Lhe faulLs of Lhelr
superlors. Men of Lhls klnd are all wanLlng ln
fldellLy Lo Lhelr lord, and ln benevolence
Lowards Lhe people. lrom such an orlgln greaL
clvll dlsLurbances arlse.
vll. LeL every man have hls own charge, and leL
noL Lhe spheres of duLy be confused. When
wlse men are enLrusLed wlLh offlce, Lhe sound
of pralse arlses. lf unprlnclpled men hold offlce,
dlsasLers and LumulLs are mulLlplled. ln Lhls
world, few are born wlLh knowledge: wlsdom ls
Lhe producL of earnesL medlLaLlon. ln all Lhlngs,
wheLher greaL or small, flnd Lhe rlghL man, and
Lhey wlll surely be well managed: on all
occaslons, be Lhey urgenL or Lhe reverse, meeL
buL wlLh a wlse man, and Lhey wlll of
Lhemselves be amenable. ln Lhls way wlll Lhe
SLaLe be lasLlng and Lhe 1emples of Lhe LarLh
and of Craln wlll be free from danger. 1herefore
dld Lhe wlse soverelgns of anLlqulLy seek Lhe
man Lo flll Lhe offlce, and noL Lhe offlce for Lhe
sake of Lhe man.
vlll. LeL Lhe mlnlsLers and funcLlonarles aLLend
Lhe courL early ln Lhe mornlng, and reLlre laLe.
1he buslness of Lhe SLaLe does noL admlL of
remlssness, and Lhe whole day ls hardly enough
for lLs accompllshmenL. lf, Lherefore, Lhe
aLLendance aL courL ls laLe, emergencles cannoL
be meL: lf offlclals reLlre soon, Lhe work cannoL
be compleLed.
lx. Cood falLh ls Lhe foundaLlon of rlghL. ln
everyLhlng leL Lhere be good falLh, for ln lL Lhere
surely conslsLs Lhe good and Lhe bad, success
and fallure. lf Lhe lord and Lhe vassal observe
good falLh one wlLh anoLher, whaL ls Lhere
whlch cannoL be accompllshed? lf Lhe lord and
Lhe vassal do noL observe good falLh Lowards
one anoLher, everyLhlng wlLhouL excepLlon ends
ln fallure.
x. LeL us cease from wraLh, and refraln from
angry looks. nor leL us be resenLful when oLhers
dlffer from us. lor all men have hearLs, and
each hearL has lLs own leanlngs. 1helr rlghL ls
our wrong, and our rlghL ls Lhelr wrong. We are
noL unquesLlonably sages, nor are Lhey
unquesLlonably fools. 8oLh of us are slmply
ordlnary men. Pow can any one lay down a rule
ost ! C|ass|ca| (600 C.L. to 14S0 C.L.)

!"(%"!"

by whlch Lo dlsLlngulsh rlghL from wrong? lor
we are all, one wlLh anoLher, wlse and foollsh,
llke a rlng whlch has no end. 1herefore,
alLhough oLhers glve way Lo anger, leL us on Lhe
conLrary dread our own faulLs, and Lhough we
alone may be ln Lhe rlghL, leL us follow Lhe
mulLlLude and acL llke Lhem.
xl. Clve clear appreclaLlon Lo merlL and demerlL,
and deal ouL Lo each lLs sure reward or
punlshmenL. ln Lhese days, reward does noL
aLLend upon merlL, nor punlshmenL upon crlme.
?e hlgh funcLlonarles who have charge of publlc
affalrs, leL lL be your Lask Lo make clear rewards
and punlshmenLs.
xll. LeL noL Lhe provlnclal auLhorlLles or Lhe kunl
no Mlyakko levy exacLlon on Lhe people. ln a
counLry Lhere are noL Lwo lords, Lhe people
have noL Lwo masLers. 1he soverelgn ls Lhe
masLer of Lhe people of Lhe whole counLry. 1he
offlclals Lo whom he glves charge are all hls
vassals. Pow can Lhey, as well as Lhe
CovernmenL, presume Lo levy Laxes on Lhe
people?
xlll. LeL all persons enLrusLed wlLh offlce aLLend
equally Lo Lhelr funcLlons. Cwlng Lo Lhelr lllness
or Lo Lhelr belng senL on mlsslons, Lhelr work
may someLlmes be neglecLed. 8uL whenever
Lhey become able Lo aLLend Lo buslness, leL
Lhem be as accommodaLlng as lf Lhey had had
cognlzance of lL from before, and noL hlnder
publlc affalrs on Lhe score of Lhelr noL havlng
had Lo do wlLh Lhem.
xlv. ?e mlnlsLers and funcLlonarles! 8e noL
envlous. lor lf we envy oLhers, Lhey ln Lurn wlll
envy us. 1he evlls of envy know no llmlL. lf
oLhers excel us ln lnLelllgence, lL glves us no
pleasure, lf Lhey surpass us ln ablllLy, we are
envlous. 1herefore lL ls noL unLll afLer a lapse of
flve hundred years LhaL we aL lasL meeL wlLh a
wlse man, and even ln a Lhousand years we
hardly obLaln one sage. 8uL lf we do noL flnd
wlse men and sages, wherewlLhal shall Lhe
counLry be governed?
xv. 1o Lurn away from LhaL whlch ls prlvaLe, and
Lo seL our faces Lowards LhaL whlch ls publlc-
Lhls ls Lhe paLh of a mlnlsLer. now lf a man ls
lnfluenced by prlvaLe moLlves, he wlll assuredly
eel resenLmenLs, and lf he ls lnfluenced by
resenLful feellngs, he wlll assuredly fall Lo acL
harmonlously wlLh oLhers. lf he falls Lo acL
harmonlously wlLh oLhers, he wlll assuredly
sacrlflce Lhe publlc lnLeresLs Lo hls prlvaLe
feellngs. When resenLmenL arlses, lL lnLerferes
wlLh order, and ls subverslve of law. 1herefore
ln Lhe flrsL clause lL was sald, LhaL superlors and
lnferlors should agree LogeLher. 1he purporL ls
Lhe same as Lhls.
xvl. LeL Lhe people be employed [ln forced
labor] aL seasonable Llmes. 1hls ls an anclenL
and excellenL rule. LeL Lhem be employed,
Lherefore, ln Lhe wlnLer monLhs, when Lhey are
aL lelsure. 8uL from Sprlng Lo AuLumn, when
Lhey are engaged ln agrlculLure or wlLh Lhe
mulberry Lrees, Lhe people should noL be so
employed. lor lf Lhey do noL aLLend Lo
agrlculLure, whaL wlll Lhey have Lo eaL? lf Lhey
do noL aLLend Lo Lhe mulberry Lrees, whaL wlll
Lhey do for cloLhlng?
xvll. ueclslons on lmporLanL maLLers should noL
be made by one person alone. 1hey should be
dlscussed wlLh many. 8uL small maLLers are of
less consequence. lL ls unnecessary Lo consulL a
number of people. lL ls only ln Lhe case of Lhe
dlscusslon of welghLy affalrs, when Lhere ls a
susplclon LhaL Lhey may mlscarry, LhaL one
should arrange maLLers ln concerL wlLh oLhers,
so as Lo arrlve aL Lhe rlghL concluslon.
ost ! C|ass|ca| (600 C.L. to 14S0 C.L.)

!"(&"!"

Lxamp|es of I|||a| |ety (14th Century CL)

AccotJloq to cbloese ttoJltloo, flllol plety (hslao) wos tbe ptlmoty Joty of oll cbloese. 8eloq o flllol soo
meoot complete obeJleoce to ooe's poteots Jotloq tbelt llfetlme ooJ--os tbey qtew olJet--tokloq tbe best
posslble cote of tbem. Aftet tbelt Jeotb tbe elJest soo wos tepolteJ to petfotm tltool soctlflces ot tbelt
qtove slte ot lo tbe oocesttol temple. A soo coolJ olso exptess bls Jevotloo to bls poteots by possloq tbe
clvll 5etvlce exomlootloos, wlooloq ptestlqe fot tbe wbole fomlly. Most lmpottoot of oll, o soo boJ to
moke sote tbot tbe fomlly lloe woolJ be cootlooeJ. uyloq wltboot o soo tbetefote wos ooe of tbe wotst
offeoses oqolost tbe coocept of flllol plety. lf o mottloqe temoloeJ botteo, lt wos o soo's Joty to toke o
secooJ wlfe ot oJopt o cbllJ lo otJet to cootlooe tbe fomlly. 5loce cbloese womeo become pott of tbelt
bosbooJ's fomlly tbtooqb mottloqe, flllol cooJoct fot o womoo meoot foltbfolly setvloq bet lo-lows, lo
pottlcolot bet motbet-lo-low, ooJ qlvloq blttb to o soo. 8y folflllloq tbese Jotles, sbe olso qoloeJ ptestlqe
fot bet owo fomlly. lf tbe motbet ooJ Jooqbtet-lo-low JlJ oot qet olooq, flllol plety JemooJeJ tbot o
moo sboolJ qet tlJ of bls wlfe lo otJet to pleose bls motbet. ne coolJ olwoys qet oootbet wlfe, bot be
woolJ ooly bove ooe motbet. wblle cootlooloq tbe fomlly lloe wos ptobobly tbe most lmpottoot lssoe fot
tbe vost mojotlty of tbe cbloese, 8oJJblst mooks ooJ ooos wete tepolteJ to temolo cellbote. 1belt
tefosol to folflll tbe obllqotloos of flllol plety moJe tbem sospect lo tbe eyes of otbet cbloese. Alooq wltb
tbe eooocbs ot tbe empetot's coott ooJ 1oolst ptlests tbey wete ofteo belleveJ to cooJoct tbemselves lo
oo lmmotol ot ctlmlool moooet.
5totles oboot exemploty flllol cooJoct oboooJ lo cbloese blstoty. 1he 1wenLy-lour Lxamples of llllal
leLy (Lr-shlh-ssu hslao) wete cboseo ooJ complleJ by koo cbo-cbloq Jotloq tbe ooo uyoosty (1280-
1J68 c) wblle be wos mootoloq tbe Jeotb of bls fotbet. Otbet collectloos followeJ. veo toJoy, tbese
stotles fotm oo lmpottoot pott of cbloese folklote. oo moy be sotptlseJ ot bow btlef tbese stotles ote
ooJ bow llttle bockqtoooJ ls qlveo. 1wo teosoos moy explolo tbls. Oo tbe ooe booJ, evetyooe wos so
fomlllot wltb tbe betoes of tbese exomples tbot lt wos oooecessoty to qlve ooy Jetolls oboot tbelt llves.
Oo tbe otbet booJ, btevlty ls cooslJeteJ to be qooJ style lo tbe closslc cbloese ttoJltloo.
cboose o westeto folty tole wblcb lovolves cbllJteo's telotloosblp to tbelt poteots ooJ compote tbe
ottltoJes lo tbot tole wltb tbe ottltoJes exptesseJ bete. wbot sttlkes yoo os fomlllot? wbete Jo yoo see
Jlffeteoces?

Ireez|ng |n a 1h|n Coat |n Cbed|ence to n|s
Stepmother
Mln 1zu-chlen had losL hls moLher aL a young
age. Pls faLher remarrled and had Lwo more
sons wlLh hls second wlfe. She always dressed
her own sons ln Lhlckly padded robes. 8uL Lo
her sLepson she gave only a Lhln coaL padded
wlLh caLLalls [lnsLead of coLLon]. Cne wlnLer
day, when Mln 1zu-chlen was Lold Lo hold Lhe
relns of hls faLher's carL, he was shlverlng so
badly LhaL he dropped Lhe relns. 1hls way hls
faLher found ouL LhaL hls wlfe dressed hls oldesL
son very poorly. ln hls rage he declded Lo
dlsmlss hls second wlfe. 8uL Mln 1zu-chlen sald:
"lf she sLays, one son wlll be freezlng. 8uL lf she
leaves, all Lhree sons wlll suffer from Lhe cold."
When hls sLepmoLher heard Lhls, she changed
her aLLlLude Lowards Mln 1zu-chlen.

A||ow|ng Mosqu|toes to Ieast on n|s 8|ood
uurlng Lhe Chln uynasLy (4Lh-3Lh CenLury CL), a
boy named Wu Meng (1) was already servlng
hls parenLs ln exemplary flllal pleLy alLhough he
was [usL elghL years old. 1he famlly was so poor
LhaL Lhey could noL even afford a gauze neL
agalnsL Lhe mosqulLoes. 1herefore every nlghL
ln Lhe summer swarms of mosqulLoes would
come and blLe Lhem. Wu Meng leL Lhem all
ost ! C|ass|ca| (600 C.L. to 14S0 C.L.)

!"('"!"

feasL on hls naked sLomach. Lven Lhough Lhere
were so many, he dld noL drlve Lhem away. Pe
feared LhaL Lhe mosqulLoes, havlng lefL hlm,
would lnsLead blLe hls parenLs. Pls hearL was
Lruly fllled wlLh love for hls parenLs.

Sacr|f|c|ng n|s Son for the Sake of n|s Mother
kuo Chl, who llved durlng Lhe Pan uynasLy (200
8CL-200 CL) and hls famlly were very poor. Pe
had a Lhree-year-old son. Lven Lhough Lhere
was llLLle food, kou Chl's moLher would always
glve parL of her share Lo her grandson so LhaL
he dld noL suffer hunger.
Cne day kuo Chl sald Lo hls wlfe, "We are so
poor and needy LhaL we cannoL glve moLher
enough Lo eaL, and on Lop of Lhls our son ls
eaLlng parL of moLher's share. lL were beLLer lf
we burled our son." (2) Pe sLarLed dlgglng a
grave. When he had dug a hole of abouL Lhree
cblb (3), he dlscovered a poL fllled wlLh gold and
Lhe lnscrlpLlon: "Cfflclals may noL Lake lL,
people may noL sLeal lL."

Wear|ng Ch||dren's C|othes to Amuse n|s
arents
uurlng Lhe Llme of Lhe Chou uynasLy (11Lh-3rd
CenLury 8CL), Lhere was a man named Lao Lal-
Lzu (4) who was by naLure exLremely flllal. Pe
Look care of boLh hls parenLs and provlded for
Lhem wlLh Lhe cholcesL dellcacles. AfLer he
hlmself Lurned sevenLy, he never spoke abouL
hls age. (3) Pe ofLen wore cloLhes sLrlped ln flve
colors and acLed llke an lnfanL ln fronL of hls
parenLs. Pe would carry a bowl of waLer Lo
Lhem, and Lhen sLumble on purpose. Lylng on
Lhe floor he would cry llke a llLLle chlld ln order
Lo make hls parenLs laugh.

Cry|ng |n the 8amboo-Grove and Mak|ng the
8amboo Sprout
uurlng Lhe era of Lhe 1hree klngdoms (3rd
CenLury CL) Lhere llved a man named Meng
Sung, also known as [Meng] Chlen-wu (6). Pe
had losL hls faLher durlng hls chlldhood. When
hls moLher was old and slck she craved fresh
bamboo-shooLs even Lhough lL was wlnLer.
Sung had no ldea how he could geL Lhem. ln
desperaLlon, he wenL lnLo a bamboo grove,
clasped a bamboo sLem and broke lnLo Lears.
Pls flllal devoLlon moved heaven and earLh and
Lhey forced Lhe earLh Lo crack open. numerous
shooLs of bamboo came ouL. Meng Sung carrled
Lhem home and made Lhem lnLo a soup for hls
moLher. As soon as she had eaLen she felL much
beLLer.

C|ean|ng h|s Mother's Chamberpot
Puang 1'lng-chlen (7) of Lhe Sung uynasLy, also
known as [Puang] Shan-gu, became a member
of Lhe Panlln academy (8) durlng Lhe ?uan-?u
relgn (1086-1094 CL) (9).
Pe was by naLure exLremely flllal. Lven Lhough
he was such an esLeemed and famous person,
he served hls moLher wlLh uLmosL devoLlon.
Lvery evenlng he would personally clean hls
moLher's chamber poL. noL a momenL passed
wlLhouL hls fulfllllng hls flllal duLles.

(1) Accordlng Lo Chlnese LradlLlon, Wu Meng
laLer ln llfe sLudled black maglc and could cross
a rlver wlLhouL a boaL, wavlng a fan of whlLe
feaLhers over Lhe waLer. Pls body dld noL
decompose afLer deaLh and flnally dlsappeared.
(2) Chlnese LexLs someLlmes conLlnue Lhls
conversaLlon: "We can always geL anoLher son,
buL lL ls lmposslble Lo geL anoLher moLher."
(3) Cne chlh ls approxlmaLely 11 lnches long.
(4) Lao Lal-Lzu llved durlng Lhe Sprlng and
AuLumn erlod (770-476 CL) of Lhe Chou
uynasLy and was a naLlve of Ch'u ln SouLh-WesL
Chlna. Accordlng Lo Chlnese LradlLlon, Lhe klng
of Ch'u evenLually heard of hls ablllLy Lo make
people laugh and gave hlm a posL ln hls courL.
(3) ln Chlna lL ls qulLe unusual even Loday for
boLh men and women above sevenLy noL Lo
menLlon Lhelr age wlLh prlde. ln some colloqulal
ost ! C|ass|ca| (600 C.L. to 14S0 C.L.)

!"(("!"

verslons of Lhls sLory lL ls sald LhaL he does noL
menLlon hls age so LhaL hls parenLs would noL
be sad and reallze LhaL boLh Lhelr son and Lhey
Lhemselves mlghL be near deaLh.
(6) Meng Sung evenLually became keeper of Lhe
lmperlal flsh ponds under Lhe flrsL emperor of
Lhe succeedlng Chln dynasLy.
(7) Puang 1'lng-chlen (1030-1110 CL) was a
well-known poeL and calllgrapher.
(8) 1he Panlln academy was Lhe cenLral
lnsLlLuLlon of learnlng ln lmperlal Chlna. 1hls
appolnLmenL was very presLlglous for any
scholar.
(9) upon hls ascenslon Lo Lhe Lhrone and
whenever he consldered lL beneflclal, a Chlnese
emperor proclalmed a new maxlm for hls relgn.
"?uan yu" means "greaL proLecLlon."
1toosloteJ by lyJlo Cetbet
nerodotus: 1he n|stor|es, 8ook III, c. 430 8CL

1he Arabs keep such pledges more rellglously
Lhan almosL any oLher people. 1hey pllghL falLh
wlLh Lhe forms followlng. When Lwo men would
swear a frlendshlp, Lhey sLand on each slde of a
Lhlrd: he wlLh a sharp sLone makes a cuL on Lhe
lnslde of Lhe hand of each near Lhe mlddle
flnger, and, Laklng a plece from Lhelr dress, dlps
lL ln Lhe blood of each, and molsLens LherewlLh
seven sLones lylng ln Lhe mldsL, calllng Lhe whlle
on 8acchus and uranla. AfLer Lhls, Lhe man who
makes Lhe pledge commends Lhe sLranger (or
Lhe clLlzen, lf clLlzen he be) Lo all hls frlends, and
Lhey deem Lhemselves bound Lo sLand Lo Lhe
engagemenL. 1hey have buL Lhese Lwo gods, Lo
wlL, 8acchus and uranla, and Lhey say LhaL ln
Lhelr mode of cuLLlng Lhe halr, Lhey follow
8acchus. now Lhelr pracLlce ls Lo cuL lL ln a rlng,
away from Lhe Lemples. 8acchus Lhey call ln
Lhelr language CroLal, and uranla, AlllaL. . .
.1here ls a greaL rlver ln Arabla, called Lhe
Corys, whlch empLles lLself lnLo Lhe LryLhraean
sea. 1he Arablan klng, Lhey say, made a plpe of
Lhe sklns of oxen and oLher beasLs, reachlng
from Lhls rlver all Lhe way Lo Lhe deserL, and so
broughL Lhe waLer Lo cerLaln clsLerns whlch he
had dug ln Lhe deserL Lo recelve lL. lL ls a Lwelve
days' [ourney from Lhe rlver Lo Lhls deserL LracL.
And Lhe waLer, Lhey say, was broughL Lhrough
Lhree dlfferenL plpes Lo Lhree separaLe places. .
. .1he Arabs broughL every year a Lhousand
LalenLs of franklncense. . . .
Arabla ls Lhe lasL of lnhablLed lands Lowards Lhe
souLh, and lL ls Lhe only counLry whlch produces
franklncense, myrrh, cassla, clnnamon, and
laudanum. 1he Arablans do noL geL any of
Lhese, excepL Lhe myrrh, wlLhouL Lrouble. 1he
franklncense Lhey procure by means of Lhe gum
sLyrax, whlch Lhe Creeks obLaln from Lhe
hoenlclans, Lhls Lhey burn, and Lhereby obLaln
Lhe splce. lor Lhe Lrees whlch bear Lhe
franklncense are guarded by wlnged serpenLs,
small ln slze, and of varled colors, whereof vasL
numbers hang abouL every Lree. 1hey are of Lhe
same klnd as Lhe serpenLs LhaL lnvade LgypL,
and Lhere ls noLhlng buL Lhe smoke of Lhe sLyrax
whlch wlll drlve Lhem from Lhe Lrees. 1he
Arablans say LhaL Lhe whole world would swarm
wlLh Lhese serpenLs, lf Lhey were noL kepL ln
check ln Lhe way ln whlch l know LhaL vlpers
Such, Lhen, ls Lhe way ln whlch Lhe Arablans
obLaln Lhelr franklncense, Lhelr manner of
collecLlng Lhe cassla ls Lhe followlng: 1hey cover
all Lhelr body and Lhelr face wlLh Lhe hldes of
oxen and oLher sklns, leavlng only holes for Lhe
eyes, and Lhus proLecLed go ln search of Lhe
cassla, whlch grows ln a lake of no greaL depLh.
All round Lhe shores and ln Lhe lake lLself Lhere
dwell a number of wlnged anlmals, much
resembllng baLs, whlch screech horrlbly, and
are very vallanL. 1hese creaLures Lhey musL
keep from Lhelr eyes all Lhe whlle LhaL Lhey
gaLher Lhe cassla.
SLlll more wonderful ls Lhe mode ln whlch Lhey
collecL Lhe clnnamon. Where Lhe wood grows,
and whaL counLry produces lL, Lhey cannoL Lell--
-only some, followlng probablllLy, relaLe LhaL lL
comes from Lhe counLry ln whlch 8acchus was
broughL up. CreaL blrds, Lhey say, brlng Lhe
ost ! C|ass|ca| (600 C.L. to 14S0 C.L.)

!"()"!"

sLlcks whlch we Creeks, Laklng Lhe word from
Lhe hoenlclans, call clnnamon, and carry Lhem
up lnLo Lhe alr Lo make Lhelr nesLs. 1hese are
fasLened wlLh a sorL of mud Lo a sheer face of
rock, where no fooL of man ls able Lo cllmb. So
Lhe Arablans, Lo geL Lhe clnnamon, use Lhe
followlng arLlflce. 1hey cuL all Lhe oxen and
asses and beasLs of burLhen LhaL dle ln Lhelr
land lnLo large pleces, whlch Lhey carry wlLh
Lhem lnLo Lhose reglons, and lace near Lhe
nesLs: Lhen Lhey wlLhdraw Lo a dlsLance, and
Lhe old blrds, swooplng down, selze Lhe pleces
of meaL and fly wlLh Lhem up Lo Lhelr nesLs,
whlch, noL belng able Lo supporL Lhe welghL,
break off and fall Lo Lhe ground. Pereupon Lhe
Arablans reLurn and collecL Lhe clnnamon,
whlch ls afLerwards carrled from Arabla lnLo
oLher counLrles.
Concernlng Lhe splces of Arabla leL no more be
sald. 1he whole counLry ls scenLed wlLh Lhem,
and exhales an odor marvelously sweeL. 1here
are also ln Arabla Lwo klnds of sheep worLhy of
admlraLlon, Lhe llke of whlch ls nowhere else Lo
be seen, Lhe one klnd has long Lalls, noL less
Lhan Lhree cublLs ln lengLh, whlch, lf Lhey were
allowed Lo Lrall on Lhe ground, would be
brulsed and fall lnLo sores. As lL ls, all Lhe
shepherds know enough of carpenLerlng Lo
make llLLle Lrucks for Lhelr sheep's Lalls. 1he
Lrucks are placed under Lhe Lalls, each sheep
havlng one Lo hlmself, and Lhe Lalls are Lhen
Lled down upon Lhem. 1he oLher klnd has a
broad Lall, whlch ls a cublL across someLlmes.
are. . . .1he Arablans wore Lhe zelra, or long
cloak, fasLened abouL Lhem wlLh a glrdle, and
carrled aL Lhelr rlghL slde long bows, whlch
when unsLrung benL backwards.

akut: 8aghdad under the Abbas|ds, c. 1000 CL
[Introduct|on (adapted from Dav|s)]
8oqbJoJ "tbe clty of tbe Atobloo olqbts" wos foooJeJ lo 764 c. by tbe AbboslJ collpb Al-Moosot. lt wos
lo lts ptlme oboot 800 c., Jotloq tbe telqo of tbe fomoos collpb notoo-ol-kosblJ. wbot tbls clty - wblcb
tepteseoteJ tbe ctowo of MeJlevol Mosllm clvlllzotloo - tesembleJ, ls tolJ by oo ootbot wbo sow
8oqbJoJ lo lts qloty.

akut: ."+>)&7:$B&'(,#B*B'+7"/$&:
1he clLy of 8aghdad formed Lwo vasL seml-
clrcles on Lhe rlghL and lefL banks of Lhe 1lgrls,
Lwelve mlles ln dlameLer. 1he numerous
suburbs, covered wlLh parks, gardens, vlllas and
beauLlful promenades, and plenLlfully supplled
wlLh rlch bazaars, and flnely bullL mosques and
baLhs, sLreLched for a conslderable dlsLance on
boLh sldes of Lhe rlver. ln Lhe days of lLs
prosperlLy Lhe populaLlon of 8aghdad and lLs
suburbs amounLed Lo over Lwo mllllons! 1he
palace of Lhe Callph sLood ln Lhe mldsL of a vasL
park several hours ln clrcumference whlch
beslde a menagerle and avlary comprlsed an
lnclosure for wlld anlmals reserved for Lhe
chase. 1he palace grounds were lald ouL wlLh
gardens, and adorned wlLh exqulslLe LasLe wlLh
planLs, flowers, and Lrees, reservolrs and
founLalns, surrounded by sculpLured flgures. Cn
Lhls slde of Lhe rlver sLood Lhe palaces of Lhe
greaL nobles. lmmense sLreeLs, none less Lhan
forLy cublLs wlde, Lraversed Lhe clLy from one
end Lo Lhe oLher, dlvldlng lL lnLo blocks or
quarLers, each under Lhe conLrol of an overseer
or supervlsor, who looked afLer Lhe cleanllness,
sanlLaLlon and Lhe comforL of Lhe lnhablLanLs.
1he waLer exlLs boLh on Lhe norLh and Lhe souLh
were llke Lhe clLy gaLes, guarded nlghL and day
by relays of soldlers sLaLloned on Lhe waLch
Lowers on boLh sldes of Lhe rlver. Lvery
ost ! C|ass|ca| (600 C.L. to 14S0 C.L.)

!"(*"!"

household was plenLlfully supplled wlLh waLer
aL all seasons by Lhe numerous aqueducLs
whlch lnLersecLed Lhe Lown, and Lhe sLreeLs,
gardens and parks were regularly swepL and
waLered, and no refuse was allowed Lo remaln
wlLhln Lhe walls. An lmmense square ln fronL of
Lhe lmperlal palace was used for revlews,
mlllLary lnspecLlons, LournamenLs and races, aL
nlghL Lhe square and Lhe sLreeLs were llghLed by
lamps.
1here was also a vasL open space where Lhe
Lroops whose barracks lay on Lhe lefL bank of
Lhe rlver were paraded dally. 1he long wlde
esLrades aL Lhe dlfferenL gaLes of Lhe clLy were
used by Lhe clLlzens for gosslp and recreaLlon or
for waLchlng Lhe flow of Lravelers and counLry
folk lnLo Lhe caplLal. 1he dlfferenL naLlonallLles
ln Lhe caplLal had each a head offlcer Lo
represenL Lhelr lnLeresLs wlLh Lhe governmenL,
and Lo whom Lhe sLranger could appeal for
counsel or help.
8aghdad was a verlLable ClLy of alaces, noL
made of sLucco and morLar, buL of marble. 1he
bulldlngs were usually of several sLorles. 1he
palaces and manslons were lavlshly gllded and
decoraLed, and hung wlLh beauLlful LapesLry
and hanglngs of brocade or sllk. 1he rooms
were llghLly and LasLefully furnlshed wlLh
luxurlous dlvans, cosLly Lables, unlque Chlnese
vases and gold and sllver ornamenLs.
8oLh sldes of Lhe rlver were for mlles fronLed by
Lhe palaces, klosks, gardens and parks of Lhe
grandees and nobles, marble sLeps led down Lo
Lhe waLer's edge, and Lhe scene on Lhe rlver
was anlmaLed by Lhousands of gondolas,
decked wlLh llLLle flags, danclng llke sunbeams
on Lhe waLer,
and carrylng Lhe pleasure-seeklng 8aghdad
clLlzens from one parL of Lhe clLy Lo Lhe oLher.
Along Lhe wlde-sLreLchlng quays lay whole
fleeLs aL anchor, sea and rlver crafL of all klnds,
from Lhe Chlnese [unk Lo Lhe old Assyrlan rafL
resLlng on lnflaLed sklns.
1he mosques of Lhe clLy were aL once vasL ln
slze and remarkably beauLlful. 1here were also
ln 8aghdad numerous colleges of learnlng,
hosplLals, lnflrmarles for boLh sexes, and lunaLlc
asylums.
lrom: Wllllam SLearns uavls, ed., keoJloqs lo
Aocleot nlstoty. lllosttotlve xttocts ftom tbe
5ootces, 2 vols. (8osLon: Allyn and 8acon, 1912-
13), vol. ll: kome ooJ tbe west, pp. 363-367
Scanned ln and modernlzed by ur. !erome S.
Arkenberg, uepL. of PlsLory, Cal. SLaLe lullerLon.

5*'(6+%7+3(8*9%/0(:3,$;9,.;(,+(,*'(<9,$+%0(+=(>.#+?'
cootoct betweeo tbe Mooqol mplte of Ceoqbls kboo ooJ bls soccessots ooJ westeto otopeoos wos
sllqbt, oltbooqb Jetocbmeots of tbe Mooqol fotces boJ stotlooeJ tbemselves lo kosslo ot tbe Jootstep of
osteto otopeoo stotes ooJ boJ qooe so fot os to tolJ ooJ Jevostote potts of lolooJ ooJ nooqoty.
1bese 1ottots (os tbe Mooqols wete ofteo colleJ) woolJ molotolo o leoqtby pteseoce lo kosslo ooJet tbe
Jeslqootloo of 1be ColJeo notJe. ltom tlme to tlme popes woolJ Jlspotcb emlssotles wltb lettets to
tbe kboo. 1bot tbe kboo wos oot pottlcolotly lmptesseJ ls moJe cleot lo bls lmpetloos teply.
R2"6%$+#6S(
1. wbot ls tbe kboos tespoose to tepoests tbot be be boptlzeJ?
2. now Joes tbe kboo jostlfy tbe sloyloq ooJ selzote of tbe looJ of osteto otopeoo cbtlstloos?
ost ! C|ass|ca| (600 C.L. to 14S0 C.L.)

!"(+"!"

J. wbot ls tbe lettets qeoetol tooe? wbot Joes tbe kboo commooJ ooJ wbot coosepoeoces Joes be
stote coolJ otlse ftom ooocompllooce?
1+2)B"S(cbtlstopbet uowsoo, eJ., Mlssloo to Aslo (1otooto. uolvetslty of 1otooto ltess, fot tbe MeJlevol
AcoJemy of Ametlco, 1980), pp. 8J-84. (lltst pobllsbeJ by 5beeJ & wotJ, looJoo, 1955, os 1be Mooqol
Mlssloo, teptloteJ by notpet & kow 1966).
1he Strength of God, the Lmperor of a|| men,
to the Great ope, Authent|c and 1rue Letters
Pavlng Laken counsel for maklng peace wlLh us,
?ou ope and all ChrlsLlans have senL an envoy
Lo us, as we have heard from hlm and as your
leLLers declare. Wherefore, lf you wlsh Lo have
peace wlLh us, ?ou ope and all klngs and
poLenLaLes, ln no way delay Lo come Lo me Lo
make Lerms of peace and Lhen you shall hear
allke our answer and our wlll. 1he conLenLs of
your leLLers sLaLed LhaL we oughL Lo be bapLlzed
and become ChrlsLlans. 1o Lhls we answer
brlefly LhaL we do noL undersLand ln whaL way
we oughL Lo do Lhls. 1o Lhe resL of Lhe conLenLs
of your leLLers, vlz: LhaL you wonder aL so greaL
a slaughLer of men, especlally of ChrlsLlans and
ln parLlcular oles, Moravlans and Pungarlans,
we reply llkewlse LhaL Lhls also we do noL
undersLand. Powever, lesL we may seem Lo
pass lL over ln sllence alLogeLher, we glve you
Lhls for our answer.
8ecause Lhey dld noL obey Lhe word of Cod and
Lhe command of Chlngls Chan and Lhe Chan, buL
Look councll Lo slay our envoys, Lherefore Cod
ordered us Lo desLroy Lhem and gave Lhem up
lnLo our hands. lor oLherwlse lf Cod had noL
done Lhls, whaL could man do Lo man? 8uL you
men of Lhe WesL belleve LhaL you alone are
ChrlsLlans and desplse oLhers. 8uL how can you
know Lo whom Cod delgns Lo confer Pls grace?
8uL we worshlpplng Cod have desLroyed Lhe
whole earLh from Lhe LasL Lo Lhe WesL ln Lhe
power of Cod. And lf Lhls were noL Lhe power of
Cod, whaL could men have done? 1herefore lf
you accepL peace and are wllllng Lo surrender
your forLresses Lo us, ?ou ope and ChrlsLlan
prlnces, ln no way delay comlng Lo me Lo
conclude peace and Lhen we shall know LhaL
you wlsh Lo have peace wlLh us. 8uL lf you
should noL belleve our leLLers and Lhe command
of Cod nor hearken Lo our counsel Lhen we shall
know for cerLaln LhaL you wlsh Lo have war.
AfLer LhaL we do noL know whaL wlll happen,
Cod alone knows.
Chlngls Chan, flrsL Lmperor, second Cchoday
Chan, Lhlrd Culuch Chan.

Sa'd|: A story about wea|th vs. v|rtue (ear|y 13th Century CL)
5o'Jl's CullsLan (8ose-Carden) ls ooe of tbe most popolot books lo tbe lslomlc wotlJ. A collectloo
of poems ooJ stotles, lt ls wlJely pooteJ os o sootce of wlsJom. A ootlve of 5bltoz, be wos olso
tbe fotbet-lo-low of oootbet qteot letsloo wtltet, noflz.

l saw Lhe son of a rlch man seaLed aL Lhe
head of hls faLher's sepulcher, and engaged
ln a dlspuLe wlLh Lhe son of a poor man, and
saylng, "My faLher's sarcophagus ls of
ost ! C|ass|ca| (600 C.L. to 14S0 C.L.)

!"(,"!"

sLone, and Lhe lnscrlpLlon colored wlLh a
pavemenL of alabasLer and Lurquolse brlcks.
WhaL resemblance has lL Lo LhaL of Lhy
faLher? whlch conslsLs of a brlck or Lwo
huddled LogeLher, wlLh a few handfuls of
dusL sprlnkled over lL." 1he son of Lhe poor
man heard hlm, and answered, "eace! for
before Lhy faLher can have moved hlmself
under Lhls heavy sLone, my slre wlll have
arrlved ln paradlse. 1hls ls a saylng of Lhe
ropheL: '1he deaLh of Lhe poor ls repose.''"
1toosloteJ by Notboo noskell uole ooJ 8elle
M. wolket

1he ur'an: Ca|| for I|had

Introduct|on
xlleJ ftom tbelt bome clty of Mecco, MobommeJ ooJ tbe fltst Mosllms foooJ sooctooty lo MeJloo lo
622. uetetmloeJ to qet teveoqe, MobommeJ ooJ bls soppottets leJ o setles of tolJs to Jlstopt cotovoo
ttoJe to Mecco. 1bese tolJs qtoJoolly escoloteJ loto foll-scole wotfote betweeo tbe two cltles tbot eoJeJ
lo Mosllm coopoest of Mecco lo 6J0. MobommoJ JleJ two yeots lotet wltb bls tellqloo fltmly estobllsbeJ
lo Atoblo. 1be coll fot jlboJ, totbet tboo beloq lotetpteteJ os "boly wot," mote occototely tefets to osloq
tbls ttoJltloool ptoctlce of tolJloq eoemles to JefeoJ tbe oew foltb. 1be lote seveotb ooJ eotly elqbtb
ceototles sow ttemeoJoos expoosloo fot lslom. Atob otmles bollt oo locteJlble emplte oot of tbe tolos of
tbe sootbeto ooJ eosteto komoo wotlJ ooJ exteoJeJ tbelt boooJotles fottbet eost tboo tbe komoos
evet JlJ. 1bls expoosloo oJJeJ tboosooJs to tbe tooks of Mosllm foltbfol, bot qeoetolly oot tbtooqb
fotceJ coovetsloo.

uest|ons to Cons|der
! Accordlng Lo Lhe Cur'an, whaL condlLlons [usLlfy Lhe use of force Lo defend Lhe falLh? WhaL
resLrlcLlons apply?
! Pow does Lhls selecLlon flL lnLo a broader dlscusslon of Lhe connecLlons beLween rellglous and
mlllLary expanslon durlng Lhe early medleval perlod?

llghL ln Lhe paLh of Cod agalnsL Lhose who flghL
you, buL do noL Lransgress, for Cod does noL
love Lransgressors.

klll Lhem wherever you encounLer Lhem, and
expel Lhem from whence Lhey have expelled
you, for dlssenslon [flLna] ls worse Lhan kllllng.
8uL do noL flghL Lhem by Lhe Sacred Mosque
unless Lhey flghL you flrsL, and lf Lhey do flghL
you, Lhen klll Lhem. Such ls Lhe recompense of
Lhe unbellevers.

8uL lf Lhey deslsL, Lhen Cod ls forglvlng and
merclful.

llghL Lhem unLll Lhere ls no more dlssenslon,
and rellglon ls Cod's. lf Lhey deslsL, Lhere ls no
enmlLy, save agalnsL Lhe un[usL.

When you meeL Lhose who are lnfldels, sLrlke
Lhelr necks unLll you have overwhelmed Lhem,
LlghLen Lhelr bonds, and Lhen release Lhem,
elLher freely or for ransom, when war lays down
lLs burdens. 1hus lL ls, and lf Cod wlshed, Pe
would crush Lhem Plmself, buL Pe LesLs you
agalnsL one anoLher. 1hose who are kllled ln Lhe
paLh of Cod, Pe does noL leL Lhelr good deeds
go for noLhlng.

Source: 8ernard Lewls, ed., lslam: lrom Lhe ropheL
Muhammed Lo Lhe CapLure of ConsLanLlnople (new
?ork: Walker, 1987), 1:209-210.
ost ! C|ass|ca| (600 C.L. to 14S0 C.L.)
!")-"!"

Crdea| of 8o|||ng Water, 12th or 13th Century

ICkMULA ICk CCNDUC1ING 1nL CkDLAL CI
8CILING WA1Lk
LeL Lhe prlesL go Lo Lhe church wlLh Lhe
prosecuLors and wlLh hlm who ls abouL Lo be
Lrled. And whlle Lhe resL walL ln Lhe vesLlbule of
Lhe church leL Lhe prlesL enLer and puL on Lhe
sacred garmenLs excepL Lhe chasuble and,
Laklng Lhe Cospel and Lhe chrlsmarlum and Lhe
rellcs of Lhe salnLs and Lhe challce, leL hlm go Lo
Lhe alLar and speak Lhus Lo all Lhe people
sLandlng near: 8ehold, breLhren, Lhe offlces of
Lhe ChrlsLlan rellglon. 8ehold Lhe law ln whlch ls
hope and remlsslon of slns, Lhe holy oll of Lhe
chrlsma, Lhe consecraLlon of Lhe body and
blood of our Lord. Look LhaL ye be noL deprlved
of Lhe herlLage of such greaL blesslng and of
parLlclpaLlon ln lL by lmpllcaLlng yourselves ln
Lhe crlme of anoLher, for lL ls wrlLLen, noL only
are Lhey worLhy of deaLh who do Lhese Lhlngs,
buL Lhey LhaL have pleasure ln Lhem LhaL do
Lhem.
1hen leL hlm Lhus address Lhe one who ls Lo
underLake Lhe ordeal: l command Lhee, n., ln
Lhe presence of all, by Lhe laLher, Lhe Son, and
Lhe Poly ChosL, by Lhe Lremendous day of
[udgmenL, by Lhe mlnlsLry of bapLlsm, by Lhy
veneraLlon for Lhe salnLs, LhaL, lf Lhou arL gullLy
of Lhls maLLer charged agalnsL Lhee, lf Lhou hasL
done lL, or consenLed Lo lL, or hasL knowlngly
seen Lhe perpeLraLors of Lhls crlme, Lhou enLer
noL lnLo Lhe church nor mlngle ln Lhe company
of ChrlsLlans unless Lhou wllL confess and admlL
Lhy gullL before Lhou are examlned ln publlc
[udgmenL.
1hen he shall deslgnaLe a spoL ln Lhe vesLlbule
where Lhe flre ls Lo be made for Lhe waLer, and
shall flrsL sprlnkle Lhe place wlLh holy waLer,
and shall also sprlnkle Lhe keLLle when lL ls
ready Lo be hung and Lhe waLer ln lL, Lo guard
agalnsL Lhe llluslons of Lhe devll. 1hen, enLerlng
Lhe church wlLh Lhe oLhers, he shall celebraLe
Lhe ordeal mass. AfLer Lhe celebraLlon leL Lhe
prlesL go wlLh Lhe people Lo Lhe place of Lhe
ordeal, Lhe Cospel ln hls lefL hand, Lhe cross,
censer and rellcs of Lhe salnLs belng carrled
ahead, and leL hlm chanL seven penlLenLlal
psalms wlLh a llLany.
rayer over Lhe bolllng waLer: C Cod, [usL [udge,
flrm and paLlenL, who arL Lhe AuLhor of peace,
and [udgesL Lruly, deLermlne whaL ls rlghL, C
Lord, and make known 1hy rlghLeous [udgmenL.
C CmnlpoLenL Cod, 1hou LhaL lookesL upon Lhe
earLh and makesL lL Lo Lremble, 1hou LhaL by
Lhe glfL of 1hy Son, our Lord !esus ChrlsL, dldsL
save Lhe world and by Pls mosL holy passlon
dldsL redeem Lhe human race, sancLlfy, C Lord,
Lhls waLer belng heaLed by flre. 1hou LhaL dldsL
save Lhe Lhree youLhs, Sldrac, Mlsac, and
Abednago, casL lnLo Lhe flery furnace aL Lhe
command of nebuchadnezzar, and dldsL lead
Lhem forLh unharmed by Lhe hand of 1hy angle,
do 1hou C clemenL and mosL holy 8uler, glve
ald lf he shall plunge hls hand lnLo Lhe bolllng
waLer, belng lnnocenL, and, as 1hou dldsL
llberaLe Lhe Lhree youLhs from Lhe flery furnace
and dldsL free Susanna from Lhe false charge,
so, C Lord, brlng forLh hls hand safe and
unharmed from Lhls waLer. 8uL lf he be gullLy
and presume Lo plunge ln hls hand, Lhe devll
hardenlng hls hearL, leL 1hy holy [usLlce delgn Lo
declare lL, LhaL 1hy vlrLue may be manlfesL ln hls
body and hls soul be saved by penlLence and
confesslon. And lf Lhe gullLy man shall Lry Lo
hlde hls slns by Lhe use of herbs or any maglc,
leL 1hy rlghL hand delgn Lo brlng lL Lo no
accounL. 1hrough 1hy only begoLLen Son, our
Lord !esus ChrlsL, who dwelleLh wlLh 1hee.
8enedlcLlon of Lhe waLer: l bless Lhee, C
creaLure of waLer, bolllng above Lhe flre, ln Lhe
name of Lhe laLher, and of Lhe Son, and of Lhe
Poly ChosL, from whom all Lhlngs proceed, l
ad[ure Lhee by Plm who ordered Lhee Lo waLer
Lhe whole earLh from Lhe four rlvers, and who
summoned Lhee forLh from Lhe rock, and who
ost ! C|ass|ca| (600 C.L. to 14S0 C.L.)

!")$"!"

changed Lhee lnLo wlne, LhaL no wlles of Lhe
devll or maglc of men be able Lo separaLe Lhee
from Lhy vlrLues as a medlum of [udgmenL, buL
mayesL Lhou punlsh Lhe vlle and Lhe wlcked,
and purlfy Lhe lnnocenL. 1hrough Plm whom
hldden Lhlngs do noL escape and who senL Lhee
ln Lhe flood over Lhe whole earLh Lo desLroy Lhe
wlcked and who wlll yeL come Lo [udge Lhe
qulck and Lhe dead and Lhe world by flre. Amen.
rayer: CmnlpoLenL, LLernal Cod, we humbly
beseech 1hee ln behalf of Lhls lnvesLlgaLlon
whlch we are abouL Lo underLake here amongsL
us LhaL lnlqulLy may noL overcome [usLlce buL
LhaL falsehood may be sub[ecLed Lo LruLh. And lf
any one seek Lo hlnder or obscure Lhls
examlnaLlon by any maglc or by herbs of Lhe
earLh, delgn Lo rlng lL Lo naughL by 1hy rlghL
hand, C uprlghL [udge.
1hen leL Lhe man who ls Lo be Lrled, as well as
Lhe keLLle or poL ln whlch ls Lhe bolllng waLer,
be fumed wlLh Lhe lncense of myrrh, and leL Lhls
prayer be spoken: C Cod, 1hou who wlLhln Lhls
subsLance of waLer hasL hldden 1hy mosL
solemn sacramenLs, be graclously presenL wlLh
us who lnvoke 1hee, and upon Lhls elemenL
made ready by much purlflcaLlon pour down
Lhe vlrLue of 1hy benedlcLlon LhaL Lhls creaLure,
obedlenL Lo 1hy mysLerles, may be endued wlLh
1hy grace Lo deLecL dlabollcal and human
fallacles, Lo confuLe Lhelr lnvenLlons and
argumenLs, and Lo overcome Lhelr mulLlform
arLs. May all Lhe wlles of Lhe hldden enemy be
broughL Lo naughL LhaL we may clearly percelve
Lhe LruLh regardlng Lhose Lhlngs whlch we wlLh
flnlLe senses and slmple hearLs are seeklng from
1hy [udgmenL Lhrough lnvocaLlon of 1hy holy
name. LeL noL Lhe lnnocenL, we beseech 1hee,
be un[usLly condemned, or Lhe gullLy be able Lo
delude wlLh safeLy Lhose who seek Lhe LruLh
from 1hee, who arL Lhe Lrue LlghL, who seesL ln
Lhe shadowy darkness, and who makesL our
darkness llghL. C 1hou who percelvesL hldden
Lhlngs and knowesL whaL ls secreL, show and
declare Lhls by 1hy grace and make Lhe
knowledge of Lhe LruLh manlfesL Lo us who
belleve ln Lhee
1hen leL Lhe hand LhaL ls Lo be placed ln waLer
be washed wlLh soap and leL lL be carefully
examlned wheLher lL be sound, and before lL ls
LhrusL ln leL Lhe prlesL say: l ad[ure Lhee, C
vessel, by Lhe laLher and Lhe Son and Lhe Poly
ChosL, and by Lhe holy resurecLlon and by Lhe
Lremendous day of [udgemenL, and by Lhe four
evangellsLs, LhaL ls Lhls man ls gullLy of Lhls
crlme, elLher by deed or by consenL, leL Lhe
waLer boll vlolenLly, and do Lhou C vessel, Luen
and swlng.
AfLer Lhls leL Lhe man who ls Lo be Lrled plunge
ln hls hand and afLerwards leL lL be lmmedlaLely
sealed up. AfLer Lhe ordeal leL hlm Lake a drlnk
of holy waLer. up Lo Lhe Llme of Lhe declslon
regardlng Lhe ordeal [a perlod of Lhree days was
allowed Lo elapse before Lhe hand was
examlned] lL ls good Lhlng Lo mlx salL and holy
waLer wlLh all hls food and drlnk

1he Convers|on of C|ov|s: 1wo Accounts, 496

uovls lottoJoctloo. lo 496 A.u. cbloJovocot (clovls, ot lools), tbe foooJet of tbe ltooklsb powet wblcb
wos to Jevelop loto moJeto ltooce ooJ Cetmooy, wos coovetteJ to cotbollc cbtlstloolty ftom
beotbeolsm. 1bls wos oo eveot of blqb blstotlcol lmpottooce. lf, llke otbet Cetmoolc kloqs, be boJ
become oo Atloo betetlc, be woolJ bove beeo bopelessly esttooqeJ ftom bls sobject komoo popolotloo.
As lt wos, tbe ltooks ooJ tbe ptovloclols coolesceJ os lo oooe otbet of tbe oew botbotloo kloqJoms. 1be
stoty of cbloJovocot's coovetsloo, of cootse, qove tbe ploos cbtoolclets oo opeoloq fot mooy eJlfyloq
ooecJotes.

ost ! C|ass|ca| (600 C.L. to 14S0 C.L.)
!")%"!"

Irom =:"(<:)+#$B'"(+@(1%L(D"#$6, I.18-19, 23:
AL Lhls Llme Lhe klng was yeL ln Lhe errors of hls
ldolaLry and wenL Lo war wlLh Lhe Alemannl,
slnce he wlshed Lo render Lhem LrlbuLary. Long
was Lhe baLLle, many were slaln on one slde or
Lhe oLher, for Lhe lranks foughL Lo wln glory
and renown, Lhe Alemannl Lo save llfe and
freedom. When Lhe klng aL lengLh saw Lhe
slaughLer of hls people and Lhe boldness of hls
foes, he had greaLer expecLaLlon of dlsasLer
Lhan of vlcLory. Pe looked up Lo heaven humbly,
and spoke Lhus: "MosL mlghLy Cod, whom my
queen CloLhllde worshlps and adores wlLh hearL
and soul, l pledge you perpeLual servlce unLo
your falLh, lf only you glve me now Lhe vlcLory
over my enemles."
lnsLanLly when he had sald Lhls, hls men were
fllled wlLh burnlng valor, and a greaL fear smoLe
hls enemles, so LhaL Lhey Lurned Lhelr backs and
fled Lhe baLLle, and vlcLory remalned wlLh Lhe
klng and wlLh Lhe lranks. 1he klng of Lhe
Alemannl were slaln, and as for Lhe Alemannl,
seelng Lhemselves dlscomflLed, and LhaL Lhelr
klng had fallen, Lhey ylelded Lhemselves Lo
Chlodovocar and hls lranks and became hls
LrlbuLarles.
1he klng reLurned afLer Lhls vlcLory lnLo
lrankland. Pe wenL Lo 8helms, and Lold Lhe
Cueen whaL had befallen, and Lhey LogeLher
gave Lhanks unLo Cur Lord. 1he klng made hls
confesslon of falLh from hls hearL, and wlLh
rlghL good wlll. 1he Cueen, who was
wondrously over[oyed aL Lhe converslon of her
lord, wenL aL once Lo SL. 8eml, aL LhaL Llme
archblshop of Lhe clLy. SLralghLway he hasLened
Lo Lhe palace Lo Leach Lhe klng Lhe way by
whlch he could come unLo Cod, for hls mlnd
was sLlll ln doubL abouL lL. Pe presenLed hlmself
boldly before hls face, alLhough a llLLle whlle
before he [Lhe blshop] had noL dared Lo come
before hlm.
When SL. 8eml had preached Lo Lhe klng Lhe
ChrlsLlan falLh and LaughL hlm Lhe way of Lhe
Cross, and when Lhe klng had known whaL Lhe
falLh was, Chlodovocar promlsed fervenLly LhaL
he would henceforLh never serve any save Lhe
all-powerful Cod. AfLer LhaL he sald he would
puL Lo Lhe LesL and Lry Lhe hearLs and wllls of hls
chlefLalns and lesser people: for he would
converL Lhem more easlly lf Lhey were
converLed by pleasanL means and by mlld
words, Lhan lf Lhey were drlven Lo lL by force,
and Lhls meLhod seemed besL Lo SL. 8eml. 1he
folk and Lhe chlefLalns were assembled by Lhe
command of Lhe klng. Pe arose ln Lhe mldsL of
Lhem, and spoke Lo Lhls effecL: "Lords of Lhe
lranks, lL seems Lo me hlghly proflLable LhaL you
should know flrsL of all whaL are Lhose gods
whlch you worshlp. lor we are cerLaln of Lhelr
falslLy: and we come rlghL freely lnLo Lhe
knowledge of Plm who ls Lhe Lrue Cod. know of
a sureLy LhaL Lhls same Cod whlch l preach Lo
you has glven vlcLory over your enemles ln Lhe
recenL baLLle agalnsL Lhe Alemannl. LlfL,
Lherefore, your hearLs ln [usL hope, and ask Lhe
Soverelgn uefender, LhaL Pe glve Lo you all, LhaL
whlch you deslre---LhaL Pe save our souls and
glve us vlcLory over our enemles." When Lhe
klng full of falLh had Lhus preached Lo and
admonlshed hls people, one and all banlshed
from Lhelr hearLs all unbellef, and recognlzed
Lhelr CreaLor.
When shorLly afLerward Chlodovocar seL ouL for
Lhe church for bapLlsm, SL. 8eml prepared a
greaL processlon. 1he sLreeLs of 8helms were
hung wlLh banners and LapesLry. 1he church
was decoraLed. 1he bapLlsLry was covered wlLh
balsams and all sorLs of perfumes. 1he people
belleved Lhey were already breaLhlng Lhe
dellghLs of paradlse. 1he corLege seL ouL from
Lhe palace, Lhe clergy led Lhe way bearlng Lhe
holy Cospels, Lhe cross and banners, chanLlng
hymns and psalms. 1hen came Lhe blshop
leadlng Lhe klng by Lhe hand, nexL Lhe Cueen
wlLh Lhe mulLlLude. WhllsL on Lhe way Lhe klng
asked of Lhe blshop, "lf Lhls was Lhe klngdom of
Peaven whlch he had promlsed hlm." "noL so,"
replled Lhe prelaLe, "lL ls Lhe road LhaL leads Lo
lL."
ost ! C|ass|ca| (600 C.L. to 14S0 C.L.)

!")&"!"

When ln Lhe church, ln Lhe acL of besLowlng
bapLlsm Lhe holy ponLlff llfLed hls eyes Lo
heaven ln sllenL prayer and wepL. SLralghLway a
dove, whlLe as snow, descended bearlng ln hls
beak a vlal of holy oll. A dellclous odor exhaled
from lL: whlch lnLoxlcaLed Lhose near by wlLh an
lnexpresslble dellghL. 1he holy blshop Look Lhe
vlal, and suddenly Lhe dove vanlshed.
1ransporLed wlLh [oy aL Lhe slghL of Lhls noLable
mlracle, Lhe klng renounced SaLan, hls pomps
and hls works, and demanded wlLh earnesLness
Lhe bapLlsm, aL Lhe momenL when he benL hls
head over Lhe founLaln of llfe, Lhe eloquenL
ponLlff crled, "8ow Jowo tbloe beoJ, fletce
5lcombtloo! AJote tbot wblcb ooce tboo bost
botoeJ. boto tbot wblcb tboo bost oJoteJ!"
AfLer havlng made hls professlon of Lhe
orLhodox falLh, Lhe klng ls plunged Lhrlce ln Lhe
waLers of bapLlsm. 1hen ln Lhe name of Lhe holy
and lndlvlslble 1rlnlLy---laLher, Son, and Poly
ChosL---Lhe prelaLe consecraLed hlm wlLh Lhe
dlvlne uncLlon. 1wo slsLers of Lhe klng and 3000
flghLlng men of Lhe lranks and a greaL number
of women and chlldren were llkewlse bapLlzed.
1hus we many well belleve LhaL day was a day
of [oy ln heaven for Lhe holy angels, llkewlse of
re[olclng on earLh for devouL and falLhful men!
1he klng showed vasL zeal for hls new falLh. Pe
bullL a splendld church aL arls, called SL.
Cenevleve, where laLer he and CloLhllde were
burled. lalLh and rellglon and zeal for [usLlce
were pursued by hlm all Lhe days of hls llfe.
CerLaln lranks sLlll held Lo paganlsm, and found
a leader ln rlnce 8agnachalrus buL he was
presenLly dellvered up ln feLLers Lo Chlodovocar
who puL hlm Lo deaLh. 1hus all Lhe lranklsh
people were converLed and bapLlzed by Lhe
merlLs of SL. 8eml....
AL Lhls Llme Lhere came Lo Chlodovocar
messengers from AnasLaslus, Lhe Lmperor of
ConsLanLlnople, who broughL hlm presenLs
from Lhelr masLer, and leLLers whereof Lhe
effecL was, LhaL lL pleased Lhe Lmperor and Lhe
SenaLors LhaL he [Chlodovocar] be made a
"lrlend of Lhe Lmperor," and a "aLrlclan" and
"Councllor" of Lhe 8omans. When Lhe klng had
read Lhese leLLers, he arrayed hlmself ln Lhe
robe of a senaLor, whlch Lhe Lmperor had senL
Lo hlm. Pe mounLed upon hls charger, and Lhus
he wenL Lo Lhe publlc square before Lhe church
of SL. MarLln, and Lhen he gave greaL glfLs Lo Lhe
people. lrom Lhls day he was always called
"Councllor" and "AugusLus."
Gregory of 1ours:
I$6%+)*(+@(%:"(T)&#C6, II.40
Whlle klng Chlodovocar dwelL aL arls he senL
secreLly Lo Cloderlc, son of SlglberL, klng of
Cologne, and sald unLo hlm: "8ehold, your
faLher ls old and lame. lf he should dle, hls
klngdom would be yours on Lhe sLrengLh of our
frlendshlp LogeLher." 1hen lL came Lo pass LhaL
SlgeberL qulLLed Lhe clLy of Cologne and crossed
Lhe 8hlne Lo en[oy hlmself ln Lhe foresL of
8uconla. And as he slepL ln hls LenL abouL noon
Llme, hls son senL assasslns agalnsL hlm, and
caused hlm Lo perlsh, ln order Lo galn hls
klngdom. 1he murderer senL messengers Lo
Chlodovocar saylng: "My faLher ls dead, even as
was en[olned, and l have ln my possesslon boLh
hls wealLh and hls klngdom. Send, Lherefore,
some of your people, and l wlll freely commlL Lo
Lhem whaLever you wlsh of hls Lreasures."
When Chlodovocar's messengers came, Cloderlc
opened before Lhem Lhe Lreasures of hls faLher,
buL as he LhrusL hls hand deep down ln Lhe
chesL, one of Lhe messengers ralsed hls
"lranclska" [Lhe lranklsh baLLle axe] and clefL
hls skull. 1hen Chlodovocar sLralghLway
presenLed hlmself aL Cologne, assembled Lhe
folk Lhere and spoke Lo Lhem: "Pear whaL has
befallen. Whlle l salled upon Lhe rlver ScheldL,
Cloderlc, Lhe son of my klnsman, pursued hls
faLher, preLendlng LhaL l deslred hlm Lo klll hlm,
and whlle SlgeberL fled across Lhe foresL of
8uconla, Cloderlc compassed hls deaLh by
brlgands. 1hen he hlmself---aL Lhe momenL he
was openlng Lhe Lreasures of hls faLher---was
smlLLen and slaln!---l know noL by whom. l am
ln no way an accompllce ln Lhese deeds, for l
cannoL shed Lhe blood of my klnsfolk---
ost ! C|ass|ca| (600 C.L. to 14S0 C.L.)

!")'"!"

someLhlng uLLerly unlawful! 8uL slnce Lhe Lhlng
ls done, l glve you councll, lf you are wllllng,
recelve me as your klng. Pave recourse Lo me
and puL yourselves under my proLecLlon.
1he 8lpuarlan lranks of Cologne welcomed
Lhese words wlLh loud applause, and wlLh Lhe
clashlng of Lhelr shlelds. 1hey llfLed Chlodovocar
upon a shleld, and proclalmed hlm klng over
Lhem.....
ually dld Cod cause Chlodovocar's enemles Lo
fall lnLo hls hand, and lncreased hls klngdom,
seelng LhaL he wenL abouL wltb bls beott tlqbt
befote tbe lotJ, and dld LhaL whlch was
pleaslng ln Pls eyes.
lrom: Wllllam SLearns uavls, ed., keoJloqs lo Aocleot
nlstoty. lllosttotlve xttocts ftom tbe 5ootces, 2
vols., (8osLon: Allyn and 8acon, 1912-1913), pp. 331-
337
Scanned by !erome S. Arkenberg, Cal. SLaLe
lullerLon. 1he LexL may have been modernlzed by
rof. Arkenberg.

Ibn 8attuta |n Ma||

8oto lo Alqlets, lbo 8ottoto (1J04-1J68) wos tbe ptemlet wotlJ ttovelet of tbe MlJJle Aqes. Altbooqb
Motco lolos oJveototes ote bettet koowo lo tbe west, oevet JlJ lolo ttovel os fot ot see os mooy
Jlffeteot cooottles os tbls loJefotlqoble 8etbet JlJ. lo 1J25, lbo 8ottoto moJe tbe fltst of foot vlslts to
tbe noly clty of Mecco, tbeteby beqlooloq oo ltloetoty of 75,000 mlles. lotet lo llfe, tbls Jevoot Mosllm
woolJ Jlctote to o Motoccoo sctlbe oo occooot of bls jootoeys.
lot oeotly tbltty yeots, lbo 8ottoto ttoveleJ cootloooosly tbtooqboot Aftlco, tbe MlJJle ost, letslo,
kosslo, loJlo, cbloo, ooJ 5polo. ne moJe lt o tole, lf posslble, oevet to ttovel tbe some tooJ twlce, ooJ be
ftepoeotly polJ tbe ptlce of tokloq tbe less-ttoveleJ tooJ. ne ofteo wos sttooJeJ ot ovetcome by Jlseose.
nls Aftlcoo eJltots oote. ne seems to bove expetleoceJ most ttovellets Jlseoses ftom lobote sote to
uelbl belly. Ooly tbe foct tbot tbe New wotlJ boJ oot beeo JlscoveteJ soveJ blm ftom Mootezomos
teveoqe.1
1be followloq selectloo lllosttotes tbe tooqe of lbo 8ottotos ttovels ooJ olso soqqests tbot, by tbe
footteeotb ceototy, lslomlc clvlllzotloo, spoooloq foot cootloeots, wos ttoly tbe wotlJ clvlllzotloo. lo
1J44, lbo 8ottoto left tbe Molobot coost of loJlo ooJ solleJ sootb to tbe MolJlve lslooJs, wbete fot
elqbteeo mootbs be setveJ os o joJqe of lslomlc socteJ low.
lotet, oftet jootoeys to ceyloo, cbloo, ooJ 5ytlo, be tetotoeJ to Alqlets. lo 1J52, oo bls lost jootoey, be
set off oo foot octoss tbe 5oboto to vlslt tbe Aftlcoo kloqJoms of tbe Nlqet boslo. nls occooot of tbls
expetleoce ls ooe of tbe ptlmoty tecotJs of tbe soclol costoms lo tbe kloqJom of Moll, pottlcolotly tbe
clty of lwolotoo (woloto).
lo tepottloq oo 8lock Aftlco, lbo 8ottotos occooots ote boslcolly fovotoble, bot bls eotboslosm ovet tbe
Jevoot occeptooce of lslom ls offset by tesetvotloos oboot ooo-lslomlc elemeots lo llvloq costoms.
R2"6%$+#6S(
1. wby wos lbo 8ottoto so ttoobleJ by bls Aftlcoo bosts metboJs of ttocloq qeoeoloqy? Ate bete
polltlcol lmpllcotloos of tbls qeoeoloqlcol system?
2. now woolJ yoo compote lbo 8ottotos obsetvotloos of Aftlco wltb tbose of Comes oooes Je Azototo?
ost ! C|ass|ca| (600 C.L. to 14S0 C.L.)

!")("!"

1+2)B"S(ltom lbo 8ottoto, voyoqes ulbo 8otootob, ttoos. ftom tbe Atoblc by c. ueftmety ooJ 8.k.
5ooqolottl (lotls. lmptlmetle lmptlole, 1858), lv, J87-90, 421-24. 1toos. lblllp l. klley.
1he condlLlon of Lhese people [of lwalaLan] ls
sLrange and Lhelr manners are blzarre. As for
Lhelr men, Lhere ls no sexual [ealousy abouL
Lhem. none of Lhem ls named afLer hls faLher,
buL each Lraces hls genealogy from hls maLernal
uncle. A man's lnherlLance ls noL passed Lo hls
own sons buL Lo Lhe sons of hls slsLer. l have
never seen such a Lhlng ln any oLher parL of Lhe
world excepL among Lhe lnfldels who llve on Lhe
Malabar coasL of lndla. 1hese people are
Musllms who follow exacLly Lhe prescrlbed laws
for prayer, sLudy Lhe laws of lslam, and know
Lhe koran by hearL. 1helr women are noL
modesL ln Lhe presence of men, desplLe reclLlng
Lhelr prayers puncLually, Lhey do noL vell Lhelr
faces. Any male who wlshes Lo marry one of
Lhem can do so very easlly, buL Lhe women do
noL Lravel wlLh Lhelr husbands for her famlly
would noL allow lL. ln Lhls counLry, Lhe women
are permlLLed Lo have male frlends and
companlons among men who are noL members
of her famlly. So Loo for men, Lhey are
permlLLed Lo have female companlons among
women who are noL members of hls famlly. lL
happens qulLe ofLen LhaL a man would enLer hls
own house and flnd hls wlfe wlLh one of her
own frlends and would noL rebuke her.
ANLCDC1L
Cne day l enLered Lhe home of a [udge ln
lwalaLan afLer he had glven hls permlsslon, and
l found hlm wlLh a very young and beauLlful
woman. lmmedlaLely l LhoughL lL besL Lo leave,
buL she laughed aL me and was noL aL all
embarrassed. 1he [udge asked me Why would
you wanL Lo leave? She ls my frlend." l was
asLonlshed aL Lhe conducL of Lhese Lwo. Pe was
a [udge and had made a pllgrlmage Lo Mecca.
LaLer l learned LhaL he has asked permlsslon of
Lhe SulLan Lo go on a pllgrlmage Lo Mecca LhaL
year wlLh hls female frlend. WheLher lL was Lhls
one or anoLher l do noL know, buL Lhe SulLan
refused Lo leL hlm go.
A SIMILAk ANLCDC1L
Cne day l enLered Lhe home of Abo
Mohammed ?andecn, a man of Lhe Mesofah
Lrlbe. Pe was slLLlng on a rug whlle ln Lhe
mlddle of hls house was a bed covered wlLh a
canopy. Cn lL was hls wlfe ln conversaLlon wlLh
anoLher man slLLlng aL her slde. l sald Lo Abo
Mohammed Who ls Lhls woman?"-"She ls my
wlfe," he responded-"And who ls Lhe man
wlLh her?" l asked. Pe ls her frlend," replled
Lhe [udge. l asked how he, who knew Lhe dlvlne
law on such maLLers, could permlL such a Lhlng.
Pe replled LhaL 1he companlonshlp of women
wlLh men ln Lhls counLry ls proper and
honorable: lL does noL lnsplre susplclon. Cur
women are noL llke Lhe women of your
counLry." l was shocked aL hls sLupld answer
and lmmedlaLely lefL hls home and never
reLurned. . . .
GCCD AND 8AD UALI1ILS
Among Lhelr good quallLles we can clLe Lhe
followlng:
1. 1here ls a small amounL of crlme, for Lhese
people obey Lhe law. 1helr sulLan does noL
pardon crlmlnals.
2. 1ravelers and naLlves allke are safe from
brlgands, robbers, and Lhleves.
3. 1he naLlves do noL conflscaLe Lhe properLy of
whlLe men who dle ln Lhls counLry, even lf Lhey
are very wealLhy, lnsLead Lhey enLrusL lL Lo
anoLher, respecLed whlLe man Lo dlspose of lL
properly.
4. 1he prayers are offered puncLually and wlLh
fervor. Chlldren who neglecL Lhelr prayers are
beaLen. lf you do noL come Lo Lhe mosque early
on a lrlday you cannoL flnd a place Lo pray
because Lhe crowds are so large. CulLe ofLen
Lhey send Lhelr slaves Lo Lhe mosque wlLh a
ost ! C|ass|ca| (600 C.L. to 14S0 C.L.)

!"))"!"

prayer rug Lo flnd and hold a place for Lhelr
masLers. 1hese prayer rugs are made from Lhe
leaves of Lrees slmllar Lo palm Lrees, buL one
LhaL bears no frulL.
3. WhlLe garmenLs are worn on lrldays. lf by
chance one does noL have a proper whlLe
garmenL, regular cloLhlng ls washed and
cleaned Lo wear for publlc prayer.
6. 1hey are commlLLed Lo learn by hearL Lhe
subllme koran. Chlldren who fall Lo learn Lhe
koran by hearL have Lhelr feeL shackled and
Lhese shackles are noL removed unLll Lhey
memorlze Lhe koran. Cn a feasL day l vlslLed a
[udge who had hls chlldren ln chalns. l sald Lo
hlm, Why don'L you release Lhem?" Pe sald,"l
wlll noL do so unLll Lhey know Lhe koran by
hearL." AnoLher day l passed a handsome young
black man dressed superbly, buL shackled by a
heavy chaln on hls feeL. l asked my companlon,
WhaL has Lhls young man done? ls he a
murderer?" 1he handsome young black man
laughed and my companlon Lold me, Pe has
been chalned so LhaL he wlll learn Lhe koran by
hearL."
Among Lhelr bad quallLles we can clLe Lhe
followlng:
1. 1helr female servanLs, slave women and
small daughLers appear before men compleLely
naked, exposlng Lhelr prlvaLe parLs. Lven durlng
Lhe monLh of 8amadan [a perlod of fasL],
mlllLary commanders broke Lhelr fasL ln Lhe
palace of Lhe SulLan. 1wenLy or more naked
servanL glrls served Lhem food.
2. nude women wlLhouL vells on Lhelr faces
enLer Lhe palace of Lhe SulLan. Cn Lhe LwenLy-
sevenLh nlghL of 8amadan, l saw abouL a
hundred naked female slaves comlng ouL of Lhe
palace of Lhe SulLan wlLh food. 1wo of Lhe
SulLan's daughLers, who have large breasLs,
were wlLh Lhem and Lhey were naked.
3. 1hese naLlves puL dusL and ashes on Lhelr
head Lo show Lhelr educaLlon and as a slgn of
respecL.
4. 1hey laugh when poeLs reclLe Lhelr verse
before Lhe SulLan.
3. llnally, Lhey eaL lmpure meaL such as dogs
and donkeys.

k|ngdom of Ghana
!
1be followloq Jesctlptloo of tbe kloqJom of Cbooo wos wtltteo by Al-8oktl, o membet of o ptomloeot
5poolsb Atob fomlly wbo llveJ Jotloq tbe 11
tb
ceototy.

Ooestloos.
wbot coo yoo tell oboot tellqloo lo Cbooo?
wbot wos tbe bosls of Cbooos weoltb?
ls tbete ooy exomple of etbooceottlsm lo tbls occooot?
"



1he clLy of Chana conslsLs of Lwo Lowns
slLuaLed on a plaln. Cne of Lhese Lowns, whlch
ls lnhablLed by Musllms, ls large and possesses
Lwelve mosques, ln whlch Lhey assemble for Lhe
lrlday prayer. 1here are salarled lmams and
muezzlns, as well as [urlsLs and scholars. ln Lhe
envlrons are wells wlLh sweeL waLer, from
whlch Lhey drlnk and wlLh whlch Lhey grow
vegeLables. 1he klng's Lown ls slx mlles dlsLanL
from Lhls one..
8eLween Lhese Lwo Lowns are conLlnuous
hablLaLlons. .ln Lhe klng's Lown, and noL far
from hls courL of [usLlce, ls a mosque where Lhe
Musllms who arrlve aL hls courL pray. Around
Lhe klng's Lown are domed bulldlngs and groves
and LhlckeLs where Lhe sorcerers of Lhese
ost ! C|ass|ca| (600 C.L. to 14S0 C.L.)

!")*"!"

people, men ln charge of Lhe rellglous culL, llve.
ln Lhem Loo are Lhelr ldols and Lhe Lombs of
Lhelr klngs. 1hese woods are guarded and none
may enLer Lhem and know whaL ls Lhere.. 1he
klng's lnLerpreLers, Lhe offlclal ln charge of hls
Lreasury and Lhe ma[orlLy of hls mlnlsLers are
Musllms. Among Lhe people who follow Lhe
klng's rellglon only he and hls helr apparenL
(who ls Lhe son of hls slsLer) may wear sewn
cloLhes. All oLher people wear robes of coLLon,
sllk, or brocade, accordlng o Lhelr means. All of
Lhem shave Lhelr beards, and women shave
Lhelr heads. 1he klng adorns hlmself llke a
woman (wearlng necklaces) round hls neck and
(braceleLs) on hls forearms, and he puLs on a
hlgh cap decoraLed wlLh gold and wrapped ln a
Lurban of flne coLLon. Pe slLs ln audlence or Lo
hear grlevances agalnsL offlclals ln a domed
pavlllon around whlch sLand Len horses covered
wlLh gold-embroldered maLerlals. 8ehlnd Lhe
klng sLand Len pages holdlng shlelds and swords
decoraLed wlLh gold, and on hls rlghL are Lhe
sons of Lhe (vassel) klngs of hls counLry wearlng
splendld garmenLs and Lhelr halr plalLed wlLh
gold. 1he governor of Lhe clLy slLs on Lhe
ground before Lhe klng and around hlm are
mlnlsLers seaLed llkewlse. AL Lhe door of Lhe
pavlllon are dogs of excellenL pedlgree who
hardly ever leave Lhe place where Lhe klng ls,
guardlng hlm. 8ound Lhelr necks Lhey wear
collars of gold and sllver sLudded wlLh a number
of balls of Lhe same meLals. 1he audlence ls
announced by Lhe beaLlng of a drum whlch Lhey
call Jobo made from a long hollow log. When
Lhe people who profess Lhe same rellglon as Lhe
klng approach hlm Lhey fall on Lhelr knees and
sprlnkle dusL on Lhelr head, for Lhls ls Lhelr way
of greeLlng hlm. As for Lhe Musllms, Lhey greeL
hlm only by clapplng Lhelr hands..
1helr rellglon ls paganlsm and Lhe
worshlp of ldols..
Cn every donkey-load of salL when lL ls
broughL lnLo Lhe counLry Lhelr klng levles one
golden dlnar and Lwo dlnars when lL ls senL ouL.
. 1he besL gold ls found ln hls land comes from
Lhe Lown of Chlyaru, whlch ls elghLeen days'
Lravellng dlsLance from Lhe klng's Lown over a
counLry lnhablLed by Lrlbes of Lhe Sudan whose
dwelllngs are conLlnuous.
1he klng of Chana when he calls up hls
army, can puL 200,000 men lnLo Lhe fleld, more
Lhan 40,000 of Lhem archers.

8y Iohn 8arbot: "kLCSSLSSLD CI 1nL CINICN...1nA1 LUkCLANS
AkL ICND CI 1nLIk ILLSn"
Iobo 8otbot, oo oqeot fot tbe lteocb koyol Aftlcoo compooy, moJe ot leost two voyoqes to tbe west
coost of Aftlco, lo 1678 ooJ 1682.
5ootce. Iobo 8otbot, "A uesctlptloo of tbe coosts of Nottb ooJ 5ootb Coloeo," lo 1bomos Astley ooJ Iobo
cbotcblll, eJs., collectloo of voyoqes ooJ 1tovels (looJoo, 17J2).

1hose sold by Lhe 8lacks are for Lhe mosL parL
prlsoners of war, Laken elLher ln flghL, or
pursulL, or ln Lhe lncurslons Lhey make lnLo
Lhelr enemles LerrlLorles, oLhers sLolen away by
Lhelr own counLrymen, and some Lhere are,
who wlll sell Lhelr own chlldren, klndred, or
nelghbours. 1hls has been ofLen seen, and Lo
compass lL, Lhey deslre Lhe person Lhey lnLend
Lo sell, Lo help Lhem ln carrylng someLhlng Lo
Lhe facLory by way of Lrade, and when Lhere,
Lhe person so deluded, noL undersLandlng Lhe
language, ls old and dellver'd up as a slave,
noLwlLhsLandlng all hls reslsLance, and
exclalmlng agalnsL Lhe Lreachery....
1he klngs are so absoluLe, LhaL upon any sllghL
preLense of offences commlLLed by Lhelr
ost ! C|ass|ca| (600 C.L. to 14S0 C.L.)

!")+"!"

sub[ecLs, Lhey order Lhem Lo be sold for slaves,
wlLhouL regard Lo rank, or possesslon....
Abundance of llLLle 8lacks of boLh sexes are also
sLolen away by Lhelr nelghbours, when found
abroad on Lhe roads, or ln Lhe woods, or else ln
Lhe Cougans, or corn- flelds, aL Lhe Llme of Lhe
year, when Lhelr parenLs keep Lhem Lhere all
day, Lo scare away Lhe devourlng small blrds,
LhaL come Lo feed on Lhe mllleL, ln swarms, as
has been sald above.
ln Llmes of dearLh and famlne, abundance of
Lhose people wlll sell Lhemselves, for a
malnLenance, and Lo prevenL sLarvlng. When l
flrsL arrlv'd aL Coerree, ln uecember, 1681, l
could have boughL a greaL number, aL very easy
raLes, lf l could have found provlslons Lo subslsL
Lhem, so greaL was Lhe dearLh Lhen, ln LhaL parL
of nlgrlLla.
1o conclude, some slaves are also broughL Lo
Lhese 8lacks, from very remoLe lnland
counLrles, by way of Lrade, and sold for Lhlngs
of very lnconslderable value, buL Lhese slaves
are generally poor and weak, by reason of Lhe
barbarous usage Lhey have had ln Lravellng so
far, belng conLlnually beaLen, and almosL
famlsh'd, so lnhuman are Lhe 8lacks Lo one
anoLher....
1he Lrade of slaves ls ln a more pecullar manner
Lhe buslness of klngs, rlch men, and prlme
merchanLs, excluslve of Lhe lnferlor sorL of
8lacks.
1hese slaves are severely and barbarously
LreaLed by Lhelr masLers, who subslsL Lhem
poorly, and beaL Lhem lnhumanly, as may be
seen by Lhe scabs and wounds on Lhe bodles of
many of Lhem when sold Lo us. 1hey scarce
allow Lhem Lhe leasL rag Lo cover Lhelr
nakedness, whlch Lhey also Lake off from Lhem
when sold Lo Luropeans, and Lhey always go
bare- headed. 1he wlves and chlldren of slaves,
are also slaves Lo Lhe masLer under whom Lhey
are marrled, and when dead, Lhey never bury
Lhem, buL casL ouL Lhe bodles lnLo some by
place, Lo be devoured by blrds, or beasLs of
prey.
1hls barbarous usage of Lhose unforLunaLe
wreLches, makes lL appear, LhaL Lhe faLe of such
as are boughL and LransporLed from Lhe coasL
Lo Amerlca, or oLher parLs of Lhe world, by
Luropeans, ls less deplorable, Lhan LhaL of Lhose
who end Lhelr days ln Lhelr naLlve counLry, for
aboard shlps all posslble care ls Laken Lo
preserve and subslsL Lhem for Lhe lnLeresL of
Lhe owners, and when sold ln Amerlca, Lhe
same moLlve oughL Lo prevall wlLh Lhelr masLers
Lo use Lhem well, LhaL Lhey may llve Lhe longer,
and do Lhem more servlce. noL Lo menLlon Lhe
lnesLlmable advanLage Lhey may reap, of
becomlng chrlsLlans, and savlng Lhelr souls, lf
Lhey make a Lrue use of Lhelr condlLlon....
Many of Lhose slaves we LransporL from Culnea
Lo Amerlca are prepossessed wlLh Lhe oplnlon,
LhaL Lhey are carrled llke sheep Lo Lhe slaughLer,
and LhaL Lhe Luropeans are fond of Lhelr flesh,
whlch noLlon so far prevalls wlLh some, as Lo
make Lhem fall lnLo a deep melancholy and
despalr, and Lo refuse all susLenance, Lho' never
so much compelled and even beaLen Lo obllge
Lhem Lo Lake some nourlshmenL:
noLwlLhsLandlng all whlch, Lhey wlll sLarve Lo
deaLh, whereof l have had several lnsLances ln
my own slaves boLh aboard and aL Cuadalupe.
And Lho' l musL say l am naLurally
compasslonaLe, yeL have l been necesslLaLed
someLlmes Lo cause Lhe LeeLh of Lhose wreLches
Lo be broken, because Lhey would noL open
Lhelr mouLhs, or be prevalled upon by any
enLreaLles Lo feed Lhemselves, and Lhus have
forced some susLenance lnLo Lhelr LhroaLs....
As Lhe slaves come down Lo llda from Lhe
lnland counLry, Lhey are puL lnLo a booLh, or
prlson, bullL for LhaL purpose, near Lhe beach,
all of Lhem LogeLher, and when Lhe Luropeans
are Lo recelve Lhem, every parL of every one of
Lhem, Lo Lhe smallesL member, men and
women belng all sLark naked. Such as are
allowed good and sound, are seL on one slde,
and Lhe oLhers by Lhemselves, whlch slaves so
ost ! C|ass|ca| (600 C.L. to 14S0 C.L.)

!"),"!"

re[ecLed are Lhere called Mackrons, belng above
LhlrLy flve years of age, or defecLlve ln Lhelr
llmbs, eyes or LeeLh, or grown grey, or LhaL have
Lhe venereal dlsease, or any oLher lmperfecLlon.
1hese belng seL aslde, each of Lhe oLhers, whlch
have passed as good, ls marked on Lhe breasL,
wlLh a red- hoL lron, lmprlnLlng Lhe mark of Lhe
lrench, Lngllsh, or uuLch companles, LhaL so
each naLlon may dlsLlngulsh Lhelr own, and Lo
prevenL Lhelr belng chang'd by Lhe naLlves for
worse, as Lhey are apL enough Lo do. ln Lhls
parLlcular, care ls Laken LhaL Lhe women, as
LenderesL, be noL burnL Loo hard.
1he branded slaves, afLer Lhls, are reLurned Lo
Lhelr former booLh, where Lhe facLor ls Lo
subslsL Lhem aL hls own charge, whlch amounLs
Lo abouL Lwo- pence a day for each of Lhem,
wlLh bread and waLer, whlch ls all Lhelr
allowance. 1here Lhey conLlnue someLlmes Len
or flfLeen days, Llll Lhe sea ls sLlll enough Lo send
Lhem aboard, for very ofLen lL conLlnues Loo
bolsLerous for so long a Llme, unless ln !anuary,
lebruary and March, whlch ls commonly Lhe
calmesL season: and when lL ls so, Lhe slaves are
carrled off by parcels, ln bar- canoes, and puL
aboard Lhe shlps ln Lhe road. 8efore Lhey enLer
Lhe canoes, or come ouL of Lhe booLh, Lhelr
former 8lack masLers sLrlp Lhem of every rag
Lhey have, wlLhouL dlsLlncLlon of men or
women, Lo supply whlch, ln orderly shlps, each
of Lhem as Lhey come aboard ls allowed a plece
of canvas, Lo wrap around Lhelr walsL, whlch ls
very accepLable Lo Lhose poor wreLches....
lf Lhere happens Lo be no sLock of slaves aL llda,
Lhe facLor musL LrusL Lhe 8lacks wlLh hls goods,
Lo Lhe value of a hundred and flfLy, or Lwo
hundred slaves, whlch goods Lhey carry up lnLo
Lhe lnland, Lo buy slaves, aL all Lhe markeLs, for
above Lwo hundred leagues up Lhe counLry,
where Lhey are kepL llke caLLle ln Lurope, Lhe
slaves sold Lhere belng generally prlsoners of
war, Laken from Lhelr enemles, llke oLher booLy,
and perhaps some few sold by Lhelr own
counLrymen, ln exLreme wanL, or upon a
famlne, as also some as a punlshmenL of
helnous crlmes: Lho' many Luropeans belleve
LhaL parenLs sell Lhelr own chlldren, men Lhelr
wlves and relaLlons, whlch, lf lL ever happens, ls
so seldom, LhaL lL cannoL [usLly be charged upon
a whole naLlon, as a cusLom and common
pracLlce....
Cne Lhlng ls Lo be Laken noLlce of by sea- farlng
men, LhaL Lhls llda and Ardra slaves are of all
Lhe oLhers, Lhe mosL apL Lo revolL aboard shlps,
by a consplracy carrled on amongsL Lhemselves,
especlally such as are broughL down Lo llda,
from very remoLe lnland counLrles, who easlly
draw oLhers lnLo Lhelr ploL: for belng used Lo
see mens flesh eaLen ln Lhelr own counLry, and
publlck markeLs held for Lhe purpose, Lhey are
very full of Lhe noLlon, LhaL we buy and
LransporL Lhem Lo Lhe same purpose, and wlll
Lherefore waLch all opporLunlLles Lo dellver
Lhemselves, by assaulLlng a shlp's crew, and
murderlng Lhem all, lf posslble: whereof, we
have almosL every year some lnsLances, ln one
Luropean shlp or oLher, LhaL ls fllled wlLh slaves.

14S0 C.L. to 17S0 C.L.
!"*-"!"

Ma[or Deve|opments
1) CuesLlons of perlodlzaLlon
A) ConLlnulLles and breaks, causes of changes from Lhe prevlous perlod and wlLhln Lhls perlod
2) Changes ln global commerce, communlcaLlons, and Lechnology
A) lndusLrlal 8evoluLlon (LransformaLlve effecLs on and dlfferenLlal Llmlng ln dlfferenL socleLles, muLual relaLlon of lndusLrlal and
sclenLlflc developmenLs, commonallLles)
8) Changes ln paLLerns of world Lrade
3) uemographlc and envlronmenLal changes (mlgraLlons, end of Lhe ALlanLlc slave Lrade, new blrLhraLe paLLerns, food supply)
4) Changes ln soclal and gender sLrucLure (lndusLrlal 8evoluLlon, commerclal and demographlc developmenLs, emanclpaLlon of serfs/slaves,
and Lenslon beLween work paLLerns and ldeas abouL gender)
A) ollLlcal revoluLlons and lndependence movemenLs, new pollLlcal ldeas
8) unlLed SLaLes and LaLln Amerlcan lndependence movemenLs
C) 8evoluLlons (unlLed SLaLes, lrance, PalLl, Mexlco, Chlna)
u) 8lse of naLlonallsm, naLlon-sLaLes, and movemenLs of pollLlcal reform
3) 8lse of democracy and lLs llmlLaLlons: reform, women, raclsm
6) 8lse of WesLern domlnance (economlc, pollLlcal, soclal, culLural and arLlsLlc, paLLerns of expanslon, lmperlallsm and colonlallsm) and
dlfferenL culLural and pollLlcal reacLlons (reform, reslsLance, rebelllon, raclsm, naLlonallsm)
7) ulverse lnLerpreLaLlons
A) WhaL are Lhe debaLes over Lhe uLlllLy of modernlzaLlon Lheory as a framework for lnLerpreLlng evenLs ln Lhls perlod and Lhe nexL?
8) WhaL are Lhe debaLes abouL Lhe causes of serf and slave emanclpaLlon ln Lhls perlod and how do Lhese debaLes flL lnLo broader
comparlsons of labor sysLems?
C) WhaL are Lhe debaLes over Lhe naLure of women's roles ln Lhls perlod and how do Lhese debaLes apply Lo lndusLrlallzed areas and
how do Lhey apply ln colonlal socleLles?
Ma[or Compar|sons and Snapshots
! Compare Lhe causes and early phases of Lhe lndusLrlal revoluLlon ln wesLern Lurope and !apan
! ComparaLlve revoluLlons (compare Lhe PalLlan and lrench 8evoluLlons)
! Compare reacLlon Lo forelgn lnLerference ln: Lhe CLLoman Lmplre, Chlna, lndla, and !apan
! Compare naLlonallsm
! Lxplaln forms of WesLern lnLervenLlon ln LaLln Amerlca, Afrlca, and SouLheasL Asla
! Compare Lhe roles and condlLlons of women ln Lhe upper/mlddle classes wlLh peasanLry/worklng class ln wesLern Lurope
Lxamp|es of What ou Need to know
8elow are examples of Lhe Lypes of lnformaLlon you are expecLed Lo know conLrasLed wlLh examples of Lhose Lhlngs you are noL expecLed Lo
know for Lhe mulLlple-cholce secLlon.
! Causes of LaLln Amerlcan lndependence movemenLs, buL noL speclflc proLagonlsLs.
! 1he lrench 8evoluLlon of 1789, buL noL Lhe 8evoluLlon of 1830
! Mel[l 8esLoraLlon, buL noL lranlan ConsLlLuLlonal 8evoluLlon
! Causes of LaLln Amerlcan lndependence movemenLs, buL noL speclflc proLagonlsLs
! 8oxer 8ebelllon, buL noL Lhe Crlmean War
! Suez Canal, buL noL Lhe Lrle Canal
! Muhammad All, buL noL lsma'll
! Marxlsm, buL noL uLoplan soclallsm
! Soclal uarwlnlsm, buL noL PerberL Spencer

14S0 C.L. to 17S0 C.L.
!"*$"!"

Accounts of the "otato kevo|ut|on," 169S - 184S

W||||am Sa|mon, =:"(T&3$'*(D$B%$+#&)*0(+)(
I+26":+'/(<+37&#$+#0(169S
1he Leaves of oLaLo are manlfesLly hoL and dry
ln Lhe beglnnlng of Lhe second degree, as
manlfesLly appear by Lhelr LasLe. 8uL Lhe rooLs
are LemperaLe ln respecL Lo heaL or cold,
dryness and molsLure: 1hey AsLrlnge, are
moderaLely ulureLlc, SLomaLlc, Chyllslc,
AnalepLlc, and SpermaLogeneLlc. 1hey nourlsh
Lhe whole body, resLore ln consumpLlons, and
provoke lusL. 1he preparaLlons of Lhe poLaLo
are: (1) bolled, baked or roasLed rooLs, (2) Lhe
broLh, (3) Lhe blood. 1be ltepoteJ koots. 1hey
sLop fluxes of Lhe bowels, nourlsh much, and
resLore ln a plnlng consumpLlon, belng bolled,
baked or roasLed, Lhey are eaLen wlLh good
buLLer, salL, [ulce of oranges or lemons, and
double reflned sugar, as common food: Lhey
lncrease seed and provoke lusL, causlng
frulLfulness ln boLh sexes: and sLop all sorLs of
fluxes of Lhe belly. 1be 8totb of tbe koots. 1hey
are flrsL bolled sofL ln falr waLer, Lhen Laken ouL
and peeled, afLerwards puL lnLo Lhe same waLer
agaln, and bolled Llll Lhe broLh becomes as
Lhlck, as very Lhlck cream, or Lhln PasLy
uddlng: some mlx an equal quanLlLy of mllk
wlLh lL, and so make broLh, oLhers afLer Lhey are
peeled, lnsLead of puLLlng Lhem lnLo Lhe waLers
Lhey were bolled ln, boll Lhem only ln mllk, Llll
Lhey are dlssolved as aforesald, and Lhe broLh ls
made pleasanL wlLh sweeL buLLer, a llLLle salL
and double reflned sugar, and so eaLen. lL has
all Lhe vlrLues of Lhe rooLs eaLen ln subsLance,
nourlshes more, and resLores noL only ln an
aLrophy, or plnlng consumpLlon, buL also ln an
ulceraLlon of Lhe lungs. 1be 8looJ of tbe lototo.
lL ls made as Lhe 8lood of SaLyrlon, arsnlps,
Lddo's Comfrey, and oLher llke rooLs. lL may be
Laken Lo a spoonful or Lwo, mornlng, noon, and
nlghL, ln a glass of cholce Canary, 1enL, AllcanL,
old Malaga, or oLher good Wlnes. lL resLores ln
deep consumpLlon of all klnds, nourlshes Lo
admlraLlon, ls good agalnsL lmpoLency ln men
and barrenness ln women, and has all Lhe oLher
vlrLues of boLh Lhe prepared rooLs and broLh.
W||||am Somerv|||e, T&G'"(+@(%:"(=H+(17)$#>6,
172S
ln Lhe course of a very few years, Lhe
consumpLlon of poLaLoes ln Lhls klngdom wlll be
almosL as general and unlversal as LhaL of
wheaL.
Dav|d nenry, =:"(<+37'"%"(,#>'$6:(T&)3"),
1771
CerLalnly, poLaLoes mlghL be used lnsLead of rye
as a subsLlLuLe for bread, and of Lhls dlscovery
Lhe poor may avall Lhemselves ln Llme of
dearLh.
Adam Sm|th, =:"(U"&'%:(+@(?&%$+#6, 1776
1he vegeLable food of Lhe orlglnal lnhablLanLs of
Lhe Amerlcas, Lhough from Lhelr wanL of
lndusLry noL very abundanL, was noL alLogeLher
so scanLy. lL conslsLed ln corn, yams, poLaLoes,
bananas, LomaLoes, eLc., planLs whlch were
Lhen alLogeLher unknown ln Lurope, and whlch
have never slnce been very much esLeemed ln
lL, or supposed Lo yleld a susLenance equal Lo
whaL ls drawn from Lhe common sorLs of graln
and pulse, whlch have been culLlvaLed ln Lhls
parL of Lhe world Llme ouL of mlnd.
1he food produced by a fleld of poLaLoes ls noL
lnferlor ln quanLlLy Lo LhaL produced by a fleld
of rlce, and much superlor Lo whaL ls produced
by a fleld of wheaL. 1welve Lhousand welghL of
poLaLoes from an acre of land ls noL a greaLer
produce Lhan Lwo Lhousand welghL of wheaL.
1he food or solld nourlshmenL, lndeed, whlch
can be drawn from each of Lhose Lwo planLs, ls
noL alLogeLher ln proporLlon Lo Lhelr welghL, on
accounL of Lhe waLery naLure of poLaLoes.
Allowlng, however, half Lhe welghL of Lhls rooL
Lo go Lo waLer, a very large allowance, such an
14S0 C.L. to 17S0 C.L.

!"*%"!"

acre of poLaLoes wlll sLlll produce slx Lhousand
welghL of solld nourlshmenL, Lhree Llmes Lhe
quanLlLy produced by Lhe acre of wheaL. An
acre of poLaLoes ls culLlvaLed wlLh less expense
Lhan an acre of wheaL, Lhe fallow, whlch
generally precedes Lhe sowlng of wheaL, more
Lhan compensaLlng Lhe hoelng and oLher
exLraordlnary culLure whlch ls always glven Lo
poLaLoes. Should Lhls rooL ever become ln any
parL of Lurope, llke rlce ln some rlce counLrles,
Lhe common and favorlLe vegeLable food of Lhe
people, so as Lo occupy Lhe same proporLlon of
Lhe lands ln Llllage whlch wheaL and oLher sorLs
of graln for human food do aL presenL, Lhe same
quanLlLy of culLlvaLed land would malnLaln a
much greaLer number of people, and Lhe
laborers belng generally fed wlLh poLaLoes, a
greaLer surplus would remaln afLer replaclng all
Lhe sLock and malnLalnlng all Lhe labor
employed ln culLlvaLlon. A greaLer share of Lhls
surplus, Loo, would belong Lo Lhe landlord.
opulaLlon would lncrease, and renLs would rlse
much beyond whaL Lhey are aL presenL.
ln some parLs of Lancashlre lL ls preLended, l
have been Lold, LhaL bread of oaLmeal ls a
hearLler food for laborlng people Lhan wheaLen
bread, and l have frequenLly heard Lhe same
docLrlne held ln ScoLland. l am, however,
somewhaL doubLful of Lhe LruLh of lL. 1he
common people ln ScoLland, who are fed wlLh
oaLmeal, are ln general nelLher so sLrong, nor so
handsome as Lhe same rank of people ln
Lngland who are fed wlLh wheaLen bread. 1hey
nelLher work so well, nor look so well, and as
Lhere ls noL Lhe same dlfference beLween Lhe
people of fashlon ln Lhe Lwo counLrles,
experlence would seem Lo show LhaL Lhe food
of Lhe common people ln ScoLland ls noL so
sulLable Lo Lhe human consLlLuLlon as LhaL of
Lhelr nelghbors of Lhe same rank ln Lngland. 8uL
lL seems Lo be oLherwlse wlLh poLaLoes. 1he
chalrmen, porLers, and coalheavers ln London,
and Lhose unforLunaLe women who llve by
prosLlLuLlon, Lhe sLrongesL men and Lhe mosL
beauLlful women perhaps ln Lhe 8rlLlsh
domlnlons, are sald Lo be Lhe greaLer parL of
Lhem from Lhe lowesL rank of people ln lreland,
who are generally fed wlLh Lhls rooL. no food
can afford a more declslve proof of lLs
nourlshlng quallLy, or of lLs belng pecullarly
sulLable Lo Lhe healLh of Lhe human
consLlLuLlon.
lL ls dlfflculL Lo preserve poLaLoes Lhrough Lhe
year, and lmposslble Lo sLore Lhem llke corn, for
Lwo or Lhree years LogeLher. 1he fear of noL
belng able Lo sell Lhem before Lhey roL
dlscourages Lhelr culLlvaLlon, and ls, perhaps,
Lhe chlef obsLacle Lo Lhelr ever becomlng ln any
greaL counLry, llke bread, Lhe prlnclpal
vegeLable food of all Lhe dlfferenL ranks of Lhe
people.... 1he clrcumsLances of Lhe poor
Lhrough a greaL parL of Lngland cannoL surely
be so much dlsLressed by any rlse ln Lhe prlce of
poulLry, flsh, wlld-fowl, or venlson, as Lhey musL
be relleved by Lhe fall ln LhaL of poLaLoes.
1homas kugg|es, N##&'6(+@(N>)$B2'%2)", 1792
Lverybody knows LhaL bread covers aL leasL
Lwo-Lhlrds of Lhe expendlLure on food. A
laborer's wage musL be aL leasL sufflclenL Lo
malnLaln hlmself and hls famlly, and musL allow
for someLhlng over. Were Lhe wages noL Lo do
so, Lhen Lhe race of such workers would noL lasL
beyond Lhe flrsL generaLlon. ln CreaL 8rlLaln,
Lherefore, Lhe wages of Lhe laborer musL be
evldenLly more Lhan whaL ls preclsely necessary
Lo brlng up a famlly, and Lhe prlce of graln musL
deLermlne everyLhlng ln regard Lo Lhe
economlcs of labor. Powever, fallure Lo
lmplemenL Lhls level of wages may, perhaps, be
mlLlgaLed by Lhe adopLlon by Lhe poor of Lhe
poLaLo, a nuLrlLlous and cheap subsLlLuLe.
noneLheless, Lhe poor wlll noL eaL poLaLoes lf
Lhey can geL anyLhlng else, for Lhe dalnLlness
and lgnorance of Lhe poor ln regard Lo Lhe
wondermenLs of Lhls rooL has been Lhe chlef
obsLacle Lo lLs adopLlon.
Dav|d Dav|es0(=:"(<&6"(+@(%:"(Q&G+)")6($#(
I26G&#/)*, 179S
1oday Lhe whole laborlng people have nelLher
meaL nor cheese nor mllk nor beer ln sufflclenL
14S0 C.L. to 17S0 C.L.

!"*&"!"

quanLlLles, Lhey eaL whlLe bread where
everybody else eaLs lL. 1hough Lhe poLaLo ls an
excellenL rooL, deservlng Lo be broughL lnLo
general use, yeL lL seems noL llkely LhaL Lhe use
of lL should ever be general ln Lhls counLry
[Lngland]. 1here are Lhree reasons for Lhls.
llrsL, ln rlcher counLles Lhe poor have nelLher
Lhe garden Lo grow Lhe poLaLo, nor mllk Lo eaL lL
wlLh. 1hls ls due Lo engrosslng, Lhe llLLle scrap of
garden lefL Lo hlm he uses for a varleLy of
vegeLables (buL where buLLermllk can be goL,
poLaLoes are eaLen). Second, Lhe poor allege
LhaL Lhey cannoL perform Lhelr Lasks wlLhouL
whlLe bread, and Lhey musL have lL of Lhe mosL
nourlshlng klnd. 1hlrd, Lhe appearance of Lhe
poLaLo, full of eyes, resembles Lhose affllcLed
wlLh leprosy, and Lhe poor lrraLlonally belleve
LhaL Lhe poLaLo ls Lhus Lhe cause of so many
lepers.
=:"(=$3"6, Iu|y 11, 179S
1he soluLlon Lo Lhe lack of graln for our rlslng
populaLlon ls slmple. 1he poor should adopL Lhe
dleL of Lancashlre, wlLh lLs abundanL poLaLoes
and oaLmeal porrldge. Also, Lhe poor can eaL a
soup of waLer and poLaLoes. lf a bread ls
requlred, one of corn and poLaLoes ls boLh
pleasanL and nuLrlLlous.
S|r Ireder|ck M. Lden, =:"(1%&%"(+@(%:"(!++),
1797
1he naLurallsLs of Cueen Anne's Llme would
probably have been asLonlshed Lo hear, whaL
Lhe 8oard of AgrlculLure menLlons as a facL of
Lhe greaLesL lmporLance, LhaL poLaLoes and
waLer alone, wlLh common salL, can nourlsh
men compleLely.
ka|ph Leycester0(N##&'6(+@(N>)$B2'%2)", Vo|. 29,
1798
lL ls wlLh greaL saLlsfacLlon LhaL l can reporL LhaL
wages are now 8s. per week, havlng only
lncreased 1s. ln LwenLy-flve years, and LhaL,
conslderlng Lhe use of poLaLoes and Lurnlps, Lhe
laborer ls beLLer off Lhan before. oLaLoes are ln
greaL use here, whlch necessarlly lessens Lhe
consumpLlon of bread.
I. C. Curwen0(=:"(O2)&'(,B+#+3*(+@(V)"'&#/,
1818
1he flrsL and mosL lmporLanL ob[ecL ln Lhe rural
economlcs of lreland ls Lhe crop of poLaLoes, for
on Lhese excluslvely depends Lhe exlsLence of
all Lhe lower orders noL resldenL ln Lowns. 1he
poLaLo, whlch ln some polnLs of vlew, may [usLly
be regarded as one of Lhe greaLesL blesslngs Lo
our specles, ls capable of operaLlng Lhe greaLesL
calamlLles, when lL excluslvely furnlshes Lhe
food on whlch a communlLy ls conLenL Lo exlsL,
for as Lhe culLlvaLlon of a slngle sLaLuLe acre
may successfully and easlly be aLLended by one
lndlvldual and as lLs produce on an average
would glve food for aL leasL Len persons Lhe
year round, aL 7 lb. each day, whlch may be
consldered as an abundanL allowance, whaL
chance ls Lhere for manual exerLlon ln such a
socleLy among whom a paLrlmonlal averslon Lo
labor and an hablLual aLLachmenL Lo ldleness
are paramounL Lo every oLher conslderaLlon.
S|r George N|cho||s, =:"(T&)3")W6(.2$/"0(1841
1he dleL of Lhe poor conslsLs chlefly of mllk,
oaLmeal, poLaLoes and vegeLables. 1he poLaLo ls
Lhe all-lmporLanL food, oaLmeal a qulLe
secondary one, and bacon a rare luxury.
kev. Iames Mu|||gan, D"6B)$7%$+#(+@(
<&))$BC3&B)+66, <+L(5+#&>:&#0 184S
1he small farmers llve on poLaLoes and mllk. lL ls
consldered LhaL he ls a very forLunaLe man lf he
has mllk for hls famlly. Pe sells hls buLLer and
never uses oaLmeal ln hls house. lL ls Lhus
obvlous LhaL oaLmeal plays a qulLe secondary
role ln Lhe household economy of Lhe poorer
classes, and LhaL Lhe prlmary meal conslsLs of
poLaLoes.

14S0 C.L. to 17S0 C.L.

!"*'"!"

O"7+)%(+@(%:"(D"-+#(<+33$66$+#(@+)(V)"'&#/,
184S
1he poLaLo enabled a large famlly Lo llve on
food produced ln greaL quanLlLles aL a Lrlfllng
cosL, and, as Lhe resulL, Lhe lncrease of Lhe
people has been glganLlc.

|co De||a M|rando|a: K)&%$+#(K#(%:"(D$>#$%*(K@(5&# (1Sth C. CL)
lf tbete ls socb o tbloq os o "moolfesto" of tbe ltolloo keoolssooce, llco Jello MltooJolo's "Ototloo oo tbe
ulqolty of Moo" ls lt, oo otbet wotk mote fotcefolly, elopoeotly, ot tbotooqbly temops tbe bomoo
looJscope to ceotet oll otteotloo oo bomoo copoclty ooJ tbe bomoo petspectlve. llco blmself boJ o
mosslve lotellect ooJ lltetolly stoJleJ evetytbloq tbete wos to be stoJleJ lo tbe oolvetslty cottlcolom of
tbe keoolssooce, tbe "Ototloo" lo pott ls meoot to be o ptefoce to o mosslve compeoJlom of oll tbe
lotellectool ocblevemeots of bomoolty, o compeoJlom tbot oevet oppeoteJ becoose of llco's eotly
Jeotb. llco wos o "bomoolst," followloq o woy of tblokloq tbot otlqlooteJ os fot bock os tbe footteeotb
ceototy. lote MeJlevol ooJ keoolssooce bomoolsm wos o tespoose to tbe Jty coocetos fot loqlc ooJ
lloqolstlcs tbot oolmoteJ tbe otbet qteot lote MeJlevol cbtlstloo pbllosopby, 5cbolostlclsm. 1be
nomoolsts, totbet tboo focossloq oo wbot tbey cooslJeteJ fotlle poestloos of loqlc ooJ semootlcs,
focosseJ oo tbe telotloo of tbe bomoo to tbe Jlvloe, seeloq lo bomoo beloqs tbe sommlt ooJ potpose of
CoJ's cteotloo. 1belt cooceto wos to Jefloe tbe bomoo ploce lo CoJ's ploo ooJ tbe telotloo of tbe bomoo
to tbe Jlvloe, tbetefote, tbey ceoteteJ oll tbelt tbooqbt oo tbe "bomoo" telotloo to tbe Jlvloe, ooJ beoce
colleJ tbemselves "bomoolsts." At oo polot Jo tbey lqoote tbelt tellqloo, bomoolsm ls fltst ooJ fotemost
o tellqloos movemeot, oot o secolot ooe (wbot we coll "secolot bomoolsm" lo moJeto polltlcol Jlscootse
ls o wotlJ vlew tbot otlses lo pott ftom "bomoolsm" bot ls, oevettbeless, esseotlolly coocelveJ lo
opposltloo to "bomoolsm").
wbete ls bomoolty's ploce oo tbe "cbolo of beloq?" wbot cbolces Jo bomoo beloqs bove? now mlqbt
tbese vlews bove otlseo ftom tbe vlews exptesseJ lo 8occocclo's stoty of 5et cloppelletto?

l once read LhaL Abdala Lhe Musllm, when asked
whaL was mosL worLhy of awe and wonder ln
Lhls LheaLer of Lhe world, answered, "1here ls
noLhlng Lo see more wonderful Lhan man!"
Permes 1rlsmeglsLus (1) concurs wlLh Lhls
oplnlon: "A greaL mlracle, Ascleplus, ls man!"
Powever, when l began Lo conslder Lhe reasons
for Lhese oplnlons, all Lhese reasons glven for
Lhe magnlflcence of human naLure falled Lo
convlnce me: LhaL man ls Lhe lnLermedlary
beLween creaLures, close Lo Lhe gods, masLer of
all Lhe lower creaLures, wlLh Lhe sharpness of
hls senses, Lhe aculLy of hls reason, and Lhe
brllllance of hls lnLelllgence Lhe lnLerpreLer of
naLure, Lhe nodal polnL beLween eLernlLy and
Llme, and, as Lhe erslans say, Lhe lnLlmaLe
bond or marrlage song of Lhe world, [usL a llLLle
lower Lhan angels as uavld Lells us. (2) l concede
Lhese are magnlflcenL reasons, buL Lhey do noL
seem Lo go Lo Lhe hearL of Lhe maLLer, LhaL ls,
Lhose reasons whlch Lruly clalm admlraLlon. lor,
lf Lhese are all Lhe reasons we can come up
wlLh, why should we noL admlre angels more
Lhan we do ourselves? AfLer Lhlnklng a long
Llme, l have flgured ouL why man ls Lhe mosL
forLunaLe of all creaLures and as a resulL worLhy
of Lhe hlghesL admlraLlon and earnlng hls rank
on Lhe chaln of belng, a rank Lo be envled noL
merely by Lhe beasLs buL by Lhe sLars
Lhemselves and by Lhe splrlLual naLures beyond
and above Lhls world. 1hls mlracle goes pasL
falLh and wonder. And why noL? lL ls for Lhls
reason LhaL man ls rlghLfully named a
magnlflcenL mlracle and a wondrous creaLlon.
WhaL ls Lhls rank on Lhe chaln of belng? Cod Lhe
laLher, Supreme ArchlLecL of Lhe unlverse, bullL
Lhls home, Lhls unlverse we see all around us, a
14S0 C.L. to 17S0 C.L.

!"*("!"

venerable Lemple of hls godhead, Lhrough Lhe
subllme laws of hls lneffable Mlnd. 1he expanse
above Lhe heavens he decoraLed wlLh
lnLelllgences, Lhe spheres of heaven wlLh llvlng,
eLernal souls. 1he scabrous and dlrLy lower
worlds he fllled wlLh anlmals of every klnd.
Powever, when Lhe work was flnlshed, Lhe
CreaL ArLlsan deslred LhaL Lhere be some
creaLure Lo Lhlnk on Lhe plan of hls greaL work,
and love lLs lnflnlLe beauLy, and sLand ln awe aL
lLs lmmenseness. 1herefore, when all was
flnlshed, as Moses and 1lmaeus Lell us, Pe
began Lo Lhlnk abouL Lhe creaLlon of man. 8uL
he had no ArcheLype from whlch Lo fashlon
some new chlld, nor could he flnd ln hls vasL
Lreasure-houses anyLhlng whlch Pe mlghL glve
Lo Pls new son, nor dld Lhe unlverse conLaln a
slngle place from whlch Lhe whole of creaLlon
mlghL be surveyed. All was perfecLed, all
creaLed Lhlngs sLood ln Lhelr proper place, Lhe
hlghesL Lhlngs ln Lhe hlghesL places, Lhe
mldmosL Lhlngs ln Lhe mldmosL places, and Lhe
lowesL Lhlngs ln Lhe lowesL places. 8uL Cod Lhe
laLher would noL fall, exhausLed and defeaLed,
ln Lhls lasL creaLlve acL. Cod's wlsdom would noL
falLer for lack of counsel ln Lhls need. Cod's love
would noL permlL LhaL he whose duLy lL was Lo
pralse Cod's creaLlon should be forced Lo
condemn hlmself as a creaLlon of Cod.
llnally, Lhe CreaL ArLlsan mandaLed LhaL Lhls
creaLure who would recelve noLhlng proper Lo
hlmself shall have [olnL possesslon of whaLever
naLure had been glven Lo any oLher creaLure.
Pe made man a creaLure of lndeLermlnaLe and
lndlfferenL naLure, and, placlng hlm ln Lhe
mlddle of Lhe world, sald Lo hlm "Adam, we glve
you no flxed place Lo llve, no form LhaL ls
pecullar Lo you, nor any funcLlon LhaL ls yours
alone. Accordlng Lo your deslres and [udgmenL,
you wlll have and possess whaLever place Lo
llve, whaLever form, and whaLever funcLlons
you yourself choose. All oLher Lhlngs have a
llmlLed and flxed naLure prescrlbed and
bounded by our laws. ?ou, wlLh no llmlL or no
bound, may choose for yourself Lhe llmlLs and
bounds of your naLure. We have placed you aL
Lhe world's cenLer so LhaL you may survey
everyLhlng else ln Lhe world. We have made you
nelLher of heavenly nor of earLhly sLuff, nelLher
morLal nor lmmorLal, so LhaL wlLh free cholce
and dlgnlLy, you may fashlon yourself lnLo
whaLever form you choose. 1o you ls granLed
Lhe power of degradlng yourself lnLo Lhe lower
forms of llfe, Lhe beasLs, and Lo you ls granLed
Lhe power, conLalned ln your lnLellecL and
[udgmenL, Lo be reborn lnLo Lhe hlgher forms,
Lhe dlvlne."
lmaglne! 1he greaL generoslLy of Cod! 1he
happlness of man! 1o man lL ls allowed Lo be
whaLever he chooses Lo be! As soon as an
anlmal ls born, lL brlngs ouL of lLs moLher's
womb all LhaL lL wlll ever possess. SplrlLual
belngs from Lhe beglnnlng become whaL Lhey
are Lo be for all eLernlLy. Man, when he enLered
llfe, Lhe laLher gave Lhe seeds of every klnd and
every way of llfe posslble. WhaLever seeds each
man sows and culLlvaLes wlll grow and bear hlm
Lhelr proper frulL. lf Lhese seeds are vegeLaLlve,
he wlll be llke a planL. lf Lhese seeds are
senslLlve, he wlll be llke an anlmal. lf Lhese
seeds are lnLellecLual, he wlll be an angel and
Lhe son of Cod. And lf, saLlsfled wlLh no creaLed
Lhlng, he removes hlmself Lo Lhe cenLer of hls
own unlLy, hls splrlLual soul, unlLed wlLh Cod,
alone ln Lhe darkness of Cod, who ls above all
Lhlngs, he wlll surpass every creaLed Lhlng. Who
could noL help buL admlre Lhls greaL shape-
shlfLer? ln facL, how could one admlre anyLhlng
else? . . .
lor Lhe mysLlc phllosophy of Lhe Pebrews
Lransforms Lnoch lnLo an angel called "Mal'akh
Adonay ShebaoLh," and someLlmes Lransforms
oLher humans lnLo dlfferenL sorLs of dlvlne
belngs. 1he yLhagoreans abuse vlllalnous men
by havlng Lhem reborn as anlmals and,
accordlng Lo Lmpedocles, even planLs.
Muhammed also sald frequenLly, "1hose who
devlaLe from Lhe heavenly law become
anlmals." 8ark does noL make a planL a planL,
raLher lLs senseless and mlndless naLure does.
1he hlde does noL make an anlmal an anlmal,
buL raLher lLs lrraLlonal buL senslLlve soul. 1he
spherlcal form does noL make Lhe heavens Lhe
14S0 C.L. to 17S0 C.L.

!"*)"!"

heavens, raLher Lhelr unchanglng order. lL ls noL
a lack of body LhaL makes an angel an angel,
raLher lL ls hls splrlLual lnLelllgence. lf you see a
person LoLally sub[ecL Lo hls appeLlLes, crawllng
mlserably on Lhe ground, you are looklng aL a
planL, noL a man. lf you see a person bllnded by
empLy llluslons and lmages, and made sofL by
Lhelr Lender begullemenLs, compleLely sub[ecL
Lo hls senses, you are looklng aL an anlmal, noL
a man. lf you see a phllosopher [udglng Lhlngs
Lhrough hls reason, admlre and follow hlm: he
ls from heaven, noL Lhe earLh. lf you see a
person llvlng ln deep conLemplaLlon, unaware
of hls body and dwelllng ln Lhe lnmosL reaches
of hls mlnd, he ls nelLher from heaven nor
earLh, he ls dlvlnlLy cloLhed ln flesh.
Who would noL admlre man, who ls called by
Moses (3) and Lhe Cospels "all flesh" and "every
creaLure," because he fashlons and Lransforms
hlmself lnLo any fleshly form and assumes Lhe
characLer of any creaLure whaLsoever? lor Lhls
reason, LuanLhes Lhe erslan ln hls descrlpLlon
of Chaldaean Lheology, wrlLes LhaL man has no
lnborn, proper form, buL LhaL many Lhlngs LhaL
humans resemble are ouLslde and forelgn Lo
Lhem, from whlch arlses Lhe Chaldaean saylng:
"noootlsb tbotob sbotloos". "Man ls
mulLlLudlnous, varled, and ever changlng." Why
do l emphaslze Lhls? Conslderlng LhaL we are
born wlLh Lhls condlLlon, LhaL ls, LhaL we can
become whaLever we choose Lo become, we
need Lo undersLand LhaL we musL Lake earnesL
care abouL Lhls, so LhaL lL wlll never be sald Lo
our dlsadvanLage LhaL we were born Lo a
prlvlleged poslLlon buL falled Lo reallze lL and
became anlmals and senseless beasLs. lnsLead,
Lhe saylng of Asaph Lhe propheL should be sald
of us, "?ou are all angels of Lhe MosL Plgh."
Above all, we should noL make LhaL freedom of
cholce Cod gave us lnLo someLhlng harmful, for
lL was lnLended Lo be Lo our advanLage. LeL a
holy amblLlon enLer lnLo our souls, leL us noL be
conLenL wlLh medlocrlLy, buL raLher sLrlve afLer
Lhe hlghesL and expend all our sLrengLh ln
achlevlng lL.
LeL us dlsdaln earLhly Lhlngs, and desplse Lhe
Lhlngs of heaven, and, [udglng llLLle of whaL ls ln
Lhe world, fly Lo Lhe courL beyond Lhe world
and nexL Lo Cod. ln LhaL courL, as Lhe mysLlc
wrlLlngs Lell us, are Lhe Seraphlm, Cherublm,
and 1hrones (4) ln Lhe foremosL places, leL us
noL even yleld place Lo Lhem, Lhe hlghesL of Lhe
angellc orders, and noL be conLenL wlLh a lower
place, lmlLaLe Lhem ln all Lhelr glory and dlgnlLy.
lf we choose Lo, we wlll noL be second Lo Lhem
ln anyLhlng.
1toosloteJ by klcbotJ nooket
(1) 1hls mysLlcal LgypLlan wrlLer, much quoLed by
8enalssance alchemlsLs, probably llved ln Lhe 2nd-
3rd cenLury.
(2) salms 8:3.
(3) Moses was repuLed Lo have wrlLLen Lhe flrsL flve
books of Lhe 8lble.
(4) 1hese are Lhe Lhree hlghesL orders of angels ln
Lhe medleval and 8enalssance Lheory of angellc
hlerarchy whlch ls, ln descendlng order, Seraphlm,
Cherublm, 1hrones, uomlnaLlons, owers, Angels,
Archangels.

N|cco| Mach|ave|||: =:"(!)$#B" (1S32 CL)

Mocblovelll's tteotlse oo qovetomeot wos tejecteJ wltb bottot by olmost oll eotly teoJets, bot lt
occototely Jesctlbes tbe meoos wblcb tolets bove olwoys oseJ to temolo lo powet. As o plooeetloq stoJy
of ptoctlcol polltlcs lt bos ofteo beeo compoteJ wltb kootllyo's ArLhasasLra ooJ tbe Jocttloes of tbe
cbloese leqollsts, socb os noo lel 1zo. 8ot wbot mokes 1he rlnce botb mote tevolotloooty ooJ mote
coottovetslol tboo eltbet of tbese ls tbe Jellqbt Mocblovelll seems to toke lo scotoloq cooveotloool
14S0 C.L. to 17S0 C.L.

!"**"!"

motollty. loJeeJ so cyolcol ote socb possoqes os tbe followloq tbot some teoJets bove lmoqloeJ tbot be
most bove beeo sotltlzloq totbet tboo oJvocotloq tbese lJeos. nls wotk coooot be solJ to bove boJ ooy
qteot lmpoct oo tbe wotlJ, bot lt sttlkloqly motks tbe eoJ of oo eto Jotloq wblcb wtltets felt obllqeJ to
clook tbelt tecommeoJotloos oo qovetomeot lo o ploos qolse. bls voloes ote eotltely secolot. lo
Jesctlbloq tbe bebovlot of tbe soccessfol polltlcloo Mocblovelll bos lo mloJ o speclflc moJel, tbe totbless
cesote 8otqlo (1476-1507).
wbot qooJ poolltles Joes Mocblovelll soy o ptloce sboolJ seem to bove?

1he Way r|nces Shou|d keep 1he|r Word
Lveryone undersLands how pralseworLhy lL ls
for a prlnce Lo remaln Lrue Lo hls word and Lo
llve wlLh compleLe lnLegrlLy wlLhouL any
schemlng. Powever, we've seen Lhrough
experlence how many prlnces ln our Llme have
achleved greaL Lhlngs who have llLLle cared
abouL keeplng Lhelr word and have shrewdly
known Lhe sklll of Lrlcklng Lhe mlnds of men,
Lhese prlnces have overcome Lhose whose
acLlons were founded on honesLy and lnLegrlLy.
lL should be undersLood LhaL Lhere are Lwo
Lypes of flghLlng: one wlLh laws and Lhe oLher
wlLh force. 1he flrsL ls mosL sulLable for men,
Lhe second ls mosL sulLable for beasLs, buL lL
ofLen happens LhaL Lhe flrsL ls noL enough,
whlch requlres LhaL we have recourse Lo Lhe
second. 1herefore, lL ls necessary for a prlnce Lo
know how Lo acL boLh as a man and as a beasL.
1hls was slgnlfled allegorlcally Lo prlnces by Lhe
anclenL wrlLers: Lhey wroLe LhaL Achllles and
many oLher anclenL prlnces were glven Lo be
ralsed and LuLored by Lhe cenLaur Chlron, who
Look cusLody of Lhem and dlsclpllned Lhem. 1hls
can only mean, Lhls Lralner who was half beasL
and half man, LhaL a prlnce needs Lo know how
Lo use elLher one or Lhe oLher naLure, and Lhe
one wlLhouL Lhe oLher wlll never lasL.
Slnce lL ls necessary for Lhe prlnce Lo use Lhe
ways of beasLs, he should lmlLaLe Lhe fox and
Lhe llon, because Lhe llon cannoL defend hlmself
from snares and Lhe fox cannoL defend hlmself
from wolves. 1herefore, lL ls lmporLanL Lo be a
fox ln order Lo undersLand Lhe snares and a llon
ln order Lo Lerrlfy Lhe wolves. 1hose who
choose only Lo be a llon do noL really
undersLand. 1herefore, a prudenL leader wlll
noL and should noL observe hls promlses, when
such observance wlll work agalnsL hlm and
when Lhe reasons for maklng Lhe promlse are
no longer valld. lf all men were good, Lhls
precepL would noL be good, buL slnce men are
evll and wlll noL keep Lhelr word wlLh you, you
shouldn'L keep yours Lo Lhem. never has a
prlnce lacked leglLlmaLe reasons Lo break falLh. l
could glve you an lnflnlLe number of examples
from modern Llmes, and show you numerous
peace LreaLles and promlses LhaL have been
broken and made compleLely empLy by Lhe
falLhlessness of prlnces: Lhese knew well how Lo
use Lhe ways of Lhe fox, and Lhey are Lhe ones
who succeed. 8uL lL ls necessary Lo know how
Lo hlde Lhls naLure and Lo slmulaLe a good
characLer and Lo dlsslmulaLe: for Lhe ma[orlLy of
men are slmple and wlll only follow Lhe needs
of Lhe presenL, so LhaL Lhe decelver can always
flnd someone he can decelve.
l'm noL golng Lo pass up a speclflc example from
recenL hlsLory. Alexander vl (1) never dld or
LhoughL abouL anyLhlng else excepL decelvlng
people and always found some reason or oLher
Lo do lL. 1here was never a man who was beLLer
aL maklng assurances, or more eager Lo offer
solemn promlses, or who kepL Lhem less, yeL he
always succeeded ln hls decepLlons beyond hls
wlldesL dreams, because he played hls role ln
Lhe world so well.
1herefore, a prlnce doesn'L need Lo have all Lhe
quallLles menLloned earller, buL lL ls necessary
LhaL he appear Lo have Lhem. l'll even add Lo
Lhls: havlng good quallLles and always pracLlclng
14S0 C.L. to 17S0 C.L.

!"*+"!"

Lhem ls harmful, whlle appearlng Lo pracLlce
Lhem ls useful. lL's good Lo appear Lo be plous,
falLhful, humane, honesL, and rellglous, and lL's
good Lo be all Lhose Lhlngs, buL as long as one
keeps ln mlnd LhaL when Lhe need arlses you
can and wlll change lnLo Lhe opposlLe. lL needs
Lo be undersLood LhaL a prlnce, and especlally a
prlnce recenLly lnsLalled, cannoL observe all
Lhose quallLles whlch make men good, and lL ls
ofLen necessary ln order Lo preserve Lhe sLaLe
Lo acL conLrary Lo falLy, conLrary Lo mercy,
conLrary Lo humaneness, and conLrary Lo
rellglon. And Lherefore he needs a sprlrlL
dlsposed Lo follow wherever Lhe wlnds of
forLune and Lhe varlablllLy of affalrs leads hlm.
As l sald above, lL's necessary LhaL he noL deparL
from rlghL buL LhaL he follow evll.
A prlnce musL Lake greaL care never Lo leL
anyLhlng come from hls mouLh LhaL ls noL full of
Lhe above-menLloned flve quallLles, and he
musL appear Lo all who see and hear hlm Lo be
compleLely plous, compleLely falLhful,
compleLely honesL, compleLely humane, and
compleLely rellglous. And noLhlng ls more
lmporLanL Lhan Lo appear Lo have LhaL lasL
quallLy. Men [udge more by Lhelr eyes Lhan by
Lhelr hands, because everyone can see buL few
can feel. Lveryone can see how you appear, few
can feel whaL you are, and Lhese few wlll noL
dare Lo oppose Lhe oplnlon of Lhe mulLlLude
when lL ls defended by Lhe ma[esLy of Lhe sLaLe.
ln acLlons of all men, especlally prlnces, where
Lhere ls no recourse Lo [usLlce, Lhe end ls all LhaL
counLs. A prlnce should only be concerned wlLh
conquerlng or malnLalnlng a sLaLe, for Lhe
means wlll always be [udged Lo be honorable
and pralseworLhy by each and every person,
because Lhe masses always follow appearances
and Lhe ouLcomes of affalrs, and Lhe world ls
noLhlng oLher Lhan Lhe masses. 1he few do noL
flnd a place wherever Lhe masses are
supporLed. 1here ls a cerLaln prlnce of our own
Llme, (2) whom lL would noL be wlse Lo name,
who preaches noLhlng excepL peace and falLh,
and yeL ls Lhe greaLesL enemy of boLh, and lf he
had observed one or Lhe oLher, he already
would have losL boLh hls repuLaLlon and hls
sLaLe many Llmes over.
1toosloteJ by klcbotJ nooket
1 1he worldly pope who llleglLlmaLely faLhered
Machlavelll's hero, Cesare 8orgla.
2 lerdlnand of Spaln.

ken Descartes: D$6B+2)6"(+#(5"%:+/ (1637)

keo uescottes, tbe celebtoteJ motbemotlcloo ooJ pbyslclst, ls olso ofteo cooslJeteJ o foooJet of
moJeto pbllosopby, os be sooqbt oew woys to move beyooJ MeJlevol Atlstoteleoolsm ooJ jostlfy tbe
scleoce of bls Joy. lo bls ulscourse on MeLhod be exptesses bls Jlsoppolotmeot wltb ttoJltloool
pbllosopby ooJ wltb tbe llmltotloos of tbeoloqy, ooly loqlc, qeometty ooJ olqebto bolJ bls tespect,
becoose of tbe ottet cettoloty wblcb tbey coo offet os. uofottoootely, becoose tbey JepeoJ oo
bypotbeses, tbey coooot tell os wbot ls teol (l.e., wbot tbe wotlJ ls teolly llke). 1betefote uescottes
ptoposes o metboJ of tbooqbt locotpototloq tbe tlqot of motbemotlcs bot boseJ oo lotoltlve ttotbs
oboot wbot ls teol, boslc koowleJqe wblcb coolJ oot be wtooq (llke tbe oxloms of qeometty). ne colls
loto poestloo evetytbloq tbot be tbloks be bos leotoeJ tbtooqb bls seoses bot tests bls wbole system oo
tbe ooe ttotb tbot be coooot Joobt, oomely, tbe teollty of bls owo mloJ ooJ tbe toJlcol Jlffeteoce
betweeo tbe meotol ooJ tbe pbyslcol ospects of tbe wotlJ.
uescottes (lote lo oot excetpt) soqqests tbot seose expetleoce mlqbt be llke Jteomloq, l.e., vlvlJ bot oot
motcbloq tbe woy tbloqs teolly ote. 8ot wbot Joes be teollze most be tbe cose eveo lf bls seoses coooot
14S0 C.L. to 17S0 C.L.

!"*,"!"

be ttosteJ?

art 1:
Cood sense ls Lhe mosL evenly dlsLrlbuLed Lhlng
ln Lhe world, for all people suppose Lhemselves
so well provlded wlLh lL LhaL even Lhose who
are Lhe mosL dlfflculL Lo saLlsfy ln every oLher
respecL never seem Lo deslre more Lhan Lhey
have. lL ls noL llkely LhaL everyone ls mlsLaken,
raLher Lhls aLLlLude reveals LhaL Lhe ablllLy Lo
[udge and dlsLlngulsh Lhe Lrue from Lhe false,
whlch ls properly whaL one calls good sense or
reason, ls ln facL naLurally equally dlsLrlbuLed
among all people. 1hus Lhe dlverslLy of our
oplnlons does noL resulL from some of us belng
more reasonable Lhan oLhers, buL solely from
Lhe facL LhaL we conducL our LhoughLs along
dlfferenL paLhs, and conslder dlfferenL Lhlngs. . .
As far as reason--or good sense--ls concerned,
slnce lL ls Lhe only Lhlng LhaL makes us human
and dlfferenLlaLes us from Lhe anlmals, l should
llke Lo belleve LhaL lL ls enLlrely presenL ln each
of us. . . .
l was nourlshed by sLudy from my earllesL
chlldhood, and slnce l was convlnced LhaL Lhls
was Lhe means Lo acqulre a clear and cerLaln
knowledge of all LhaL ls useful ln llfe, l had an
exLreme deslre Lo learn. 8uL as soon as l had
flnlshed a course of sLudles whlch usually
culmlnaLes ln one belng accepLed as one of Lhe
learned, l changed my oplnlon compleLely, for l
found myself Lroubled by so many doubLs and
errors LhaL Lhe only proflL l had galned ln
seeklng Lo educaLe myself was Lo dlscover more
and more clearly Lhe exLenL of my lgnorance.
neverLheless l had been aL one of Lhe mosL
famous schools ln Lurope, where l LhoughL
Lhere musL be wlse men lf such exlsLed
anywhere on earLh. 1here l had learned all LhaL
Lhe oLhers learned, and besldes, noL saLlsfled
wlLh Lhe knowledge LhaL we were LaughL, l had
poured over all Lhe unusual and sLrange books
LhaL l could lay my hands on. ln addlLlon, l knew
how oLhers evaluaLed me, and l dld noL wanL Lo
be consldered lnferlor Lo my fellow-sLudenLs,
even Lhough some among Lhem were already
desLlned Lo Lake Lhe places of my Leachers.
llnally, our cenLury seemed Lo me Lo abound ln
as many wlse splrlLs as any precedlng one,
whlch led me Lo suppose LhaL l could [udge Lhe
experlence of oLhers by my own, and Lo Lhlnk
LhaL Lhere was no such knowledge ln Lhe world
such as l had been led Lo hope for. . . .
l was especlally pleased wlLh maLhemaLlcs
because of Lhe cerLalnLy and clarlLy of lLs
proofs, buL l dld noL as yeL reallze lLs Lrue
usefulness, and, Lhlnklng LhaL lL was only useful
ln Lhe mechanlcal arLs, l was asLonlshed LhaL,
slnce lLs foundaLlons were so flrm and solld, no
one had bullL someLhlng hlgher upon lL. 1o Lhe
conLrary, l felL LhaL Lhe wrlLlngs of Lhe anclenL
pagans (1) who had dlscussed morallLy were llke
superb, magnlflcenL palaces whlch were bullL
on mere sand and mud: Lhey greaLly pralsed Lhe
vlrLues and made Lhem appear more exalLed
Lhan anyLhlng else ln Lhe world, buL Lhey dld
Lhey dld noL sufflclenLly Leach how Lo know
Lhem. CfLen LhaL whlch Lhey called by Lhe flne
name of "vlrLue" was noLhlng buL apaLhy, or
prlde, or despalr, or parrlclde.
l revered our Lheology, and hoped as much as
anyone else Lo geL Lo heaven, buL havlng
learned, as lf lL were cerLaln, LhaL Lhe road Lo
heaven ls as open Lo Lhe mosL lgnoranL as Lo Lhe
mosL learned, and LhaL Lhe revealed LruLhs
whlch lead one Lhere are beyond our
comprehenslon, l dld noL dare Lo submlL Lhem
Lo my feeble reasonlngs, and l LhoughL LhaL Lo
underLake successfully Lo examlne Lhem one
would need some exLraordlnary heavenly ald
and beyond human ablllLy.
Cf phllosophy l wlll say noLhlng excepL LhaL,
seelng LhaL lL had been developed by Lhe flnesL
mlnds LhaL had llved over many cenLurles and
LhaL neverLheless Lhere was no polnL ln lL whlch
was noL sLlll under dlspuLe, and consequenLly
doubLful, l lacked Lhe presumpLlon Lo hope LhaL
l would succeed any beLLer Lhan Lhe oLhers.
14S0 C.L. to 17S0 C.L.

!"+-"!"

When l consldered how many dlfferenL oplnlons
Lhere had been abouL Lhe same sub[ecL puL
forward by learned men, whereas only one of
Lhem could have been correcL, l consldered LhaL
anyLhlng whlch was only probable was as good
as false. . . .
lL ls Lrue LhaL whlle l consldered only Lhe
cusLoms of oLher ordlnary men, l found noLhlng
ln Lhem Lo reassure me, and l noLlced as much
dlverslLy among Lhem as l had earller done
among Lhe oplnlons of phllosophers. 1he
greaLesL beneflL l recelved from Lhls sLudy was
LhaL, havlng observed many Lhlngs whlch, whlle
Lhey seemed qulLe exLravaganL and rldlculous,
were neverLheless commonly accepLed as Lrue
and approved by greaL peoples, l learned noL Lo
belleve Loo flrmly ln anyLhlng of whlch l had
been persuaded only by example and cusLom.
1hus l freed myself llLLle by llLLle from many
errors whlch can dlm our naLural llghL and even
make us less able Lo llsLen Lo reason. 8uL afLer l
had spenL several years Lhus sLudylng Lhe book
of Lhe world and Lrylng Lo geL some experlence,
l one day resolved Lo sLudy my own self, and Lo
use all Lhe powers of my mlnd Lo choose Lhe
paLh l should follow, whlch was much more
successful, lL seems Lo me, Lhan lf l had never
lefL my counLry or my books.

art 2:
When l was younger l had sLudled a llLLle among
oLher branches of phllosophy, loglc, and among
Lypes of maLhemaLlcs, geomeLrlcal analysls and
algebra: Lhree arLs or sclences whlch seemed as
lf Lhey oughL Lo conLrlbuLe someLhlng Lo my
goal. 8uL when l examlned Lhem, l reallzed LhaL
as far as loglc was concerned, lLs sylloglsms and
mosL of lLs oLher meLhods serve only Lo explaln
Lo someone else LhaL whlch one already knows,
or even, llke Lully's arL, Lo speak foollshly of
Lhlngs one does noL know, raLher Lhan Lo
acLually learn anyLhlng. Lven Lhough loglc
conLalns, ln facL, many very Lrue and good
precepLs, Lhey are neverLheless mlngled wlLh so
many oLhers whlch are harmful or superfluous
LhaL lL ls almosL as hard Lo separaLe Lhem ouL as
Lo carve a ulana or a Mlnerva from an as yeL
unLouched block of marble. 8esldes, as far as
Lhe analysls of Lhe anclenLs or modern algebra
ls concerned, and besldes Lhe facL LhaL Lhey can
deal only wlLh very absLracL maLLers whlch
seem uLLerly useless, Lhe former ls always so
resLrlcLed Lo Lhe sLudy of geomeLrlcal flgures
LhaL lL cannoL exerclse Lhe undersLandlng
wlLhouL greaLly Llrlng Lhe lmaglnaLlon, and Lhe
laLLer ls so resLrlcLed Lo cerLaln rules and flgures
LhaL lL has become a confused, obscure arL
whlch perplexes Lhe mlnd lnsLead of belng a
sclence whlch culLlvaLes lL. So l LhoughL LhaL l
had Lo look for some oLher meLhod whlch,
havlng Lhe advanLages of Lhese Lhree, would be
free of Lhelr defecLs. !usL as a mulLlLude of laws
ofLen creaLes excuses for vlces, so LhaL Lhe besL
regulaLed sLaLe ls LhaL whlch, havlng very few
laws, makes Lhose few sLrlcLly observed, lnsLead
of Lhe greaL number or precepLs whlch make up
loglc, l LhoughL LhaL Lhe four followlng precepLs
would sufflce, provlded LhaL l could make a
flrm, sLeadfasL resoluLlon noL Lo vlolaLe Lhem
even once.
1he flrsL was Lo never accepL anyLhlng as Lrue
whlch l could noL accepL as obvlously Lrue, LhaL
ls Lo say, Lo carefully avold lmpulslveness and
pre[udlce, and Lo lnclude noLhlng ln my
concluslons buL whaLever was so clearly
presenLed Lo my mlnd LhaL l could have no
reason Lo doubL lL.
1he second was Lo dlvlde each of Lhe problems l
was examlnlng ln as many parLs as l could, as
many as should be necessary Lo solve Lhem.
1he Lhlrd, Lo develop my LhoughLs ln order,
beglnnlng wlLh Lhe slmplesL and easlesL Lo
undersLand maLLers, ln order Lo reach by
degrees, llLLle by llLLle, Lo Lhe mosL complex
knowledge, assumlng an orderllness among
Lhem whlch dld noL aL all naLurally seem Lo
follow one from Lhe oLher.
And Lhe lasL resoluLlon was Lo make my
enumeraLlons so compleLe and my revlews so
14S0 C.L. to 17S0 C.L.

!"+$"!"

general LhaL l could be assured LhaL l had noL
omlLLed anyLhlng.
1hese long chalns of reasonlng, so slmple and
easy, whlch geomeLers cusLomarlly use Lo make
Lhelr mosL dlfflculL demonsLraLlons, caused me
Lo lmaglne LhaL everyLhlng whlch could be
known by human belngs could be deduced one
from Lhe oLher ln Lhe same way, and LhaL,
provlded only LhaL one refralned from accepLlng
anyLhlng as Lrue whlch was noL, and always
preservlng Lhe order by whlch one deduced one
from anoLher, Lhere could noL be any LruLh so
absLruse LhaL one could noL flnally aLLaln lL, nor
so hldden LhaL lL could noL be dlscovered. And l
had llLLle Lrouble flndlng whlch proposlLlons l
needed Lo begln wlLh, for l already knew LhaL
Lhey would be Lhe slmplesL and Lhe easlesL Lo
know. . . .
l Look Lhe besL feaLures of geomeLrlcal analysls
and of algebra, and correcLed all Lhe defecLs of
one by Lhe oLher. (2)

art 4:
l had noLlced for a long Llme LhaL lL was
necessary someLlmes Lo agree wlLh oplnlons
abouL eLhlcs whlch l knew Lo be qulLe uncerLaln,
even Lhough Lhey were lndublLable, as l sald
earller, buL slnce l wanLed Lo devoLe myself
solely Lo Lhe search for LruLh, l LhoughL LhaL l
should acL ln Lhe opposlLe manner, and re[ecL as
absoluLely false anyLhlng abouL whlch l could
lmaglne Lhe sllghLesL doubL, so LhaL l could see
lf Lhere would noL remaln afLer all LhaL
someLhlng ln my bellef whlch could be called
absoluLely cerLaln. So, because our senses
someLlmes Lrlck us, l Lrled Lo lmaglne LhaL Lhere
was noLhlng whlch ls Lhe way LhaL we lmaglne
lL, and slnce Lhere are people who are mlsLaken
abouL Lhe slmplesL maLLers of geomeLry,
maklng mlsLakes ln loglc, and supposlng LhaL l
was as llkely Lo make mlsLakes as anyone else, l
re[ecLed as false all Lhe reasonlngs LhaL l had
consldered as valld demonsLraLlons. llnally,
conslderlng LhaL all our LhoughLs whlch we have
when we are awake can also come Lo us when
we are sleeplng wlLhouL a slngle one of Lhem
belng Lrue, l resolved Lo preLend LhaL everyLhlng
l had ever LhoughL was no more Lrue LhaL Lhe
llluslons ln my dreams. 8uL l lmmedlaLely
reallzed LhaL, Lhough l wanLed Lo Lhlnk LhaL
everyLhlng was false, lL was necessary LhaL Lhe
"me" who was dolng Lhe Lhlnklng was
someLhlng, and noLlclng LhaL Lhls LruLh--l Lhlnk,
Lherefore l am--was so cerLaln and sure LhaL all
Lhe wlldesL supposlLlons of skepLlcs could noL
shake lL, l [udged LhaL l could unheslLaLlngly
accepL lL as Lhe flrsL prlnclple of Lhe phllosophy
for whlch l was seeklng.
1hen, examlnlng closely whaL l was, and seelng
LhaL l could lmaglne LhaL l had no body and LhaL
Lhere was no world or place where l was, l could
noL lmaglne LhaL l dld noL exlsL aL all. Cn Lhe
conLrary, preclsely because l doubLed Lhe
exlsLence of oLher Lhlngs lL followed qulLe
obvlously and cerLalnly LhaL l dld exlsL. lf, on Lhe
oLher hand, l had only ceased Lo Lhlnk whlle
everyLhlng else LhaL l had lmaglned remalned
Lrue, l would have had no reason Lo belleve LhaL
l exlsLed, Lherefore l reallzed LhaL l was a
subsLance whose essence, or naLure, ls noLhlng
buL LhoughL, and whlch, ln order Lo exlsL, needs
no place Lo exlsL nor any oLher maLerlal Lhlng.
So Lhls self, LhaL ls Lo say Lhe soul, Lhrough
whlch l am whaL l am, ls enLlrely separaLe from
Lhe body, and ls even more easlly known Lhan
Lhe laLLer, so LhaL even lf l dld noL have a body,
my soul would conLlnue Lo be all LhaL lL ls.
1toosloteJ by lool 8tloos
(1) uescarLes means Lo lnclude here Lhe Creek
phllosophers, "pagan" covers anyone who was noL a
parL of ChrlsLendom.
(2) lL was uescarLes who flgured ouL how Lo comblne
algebra and geomeLry such LhaL, on a palr of
lnLersecLlng axes, we can geomeLrlcally map any
algebralc funcLlon. 1hose axes are sLlll called
"CarLeslan co-ordlnaLes."
14S0 C.L. to 17S0 C.L.
!"+%"!"

M|che| de Monta|gne: K#(<&##$G&'6 (1S80)
1be Jlscovety of so mooy oew looJs lo tbe keoolssooce boJ less lmpoct oo most otopeoos tboo ooe
mlqbt soppose. 1bey wete lotqely obsotbeJ lo tecovetloq (ooJ competloq wltb) tbelt owo closslcol post
ooJ eoqoqloq lo vloleot tbeoloqlcol ooJ polltlcol Jlspotes omooq tbemselves. et some otopeoos wete
ptofoooJly sbokeo by tbe oew Jlscovetles loto teollzloq tbot mocb of tbe wotlJ tbooqbt ooJ llveJ vety
Jlffeteotly ftom wbot wos tbeo koowo os "cbtlsteoJom." No wtltet wos mote sttooqly moveJ to vlew bls
owo soclety ftom o oew petspectlve lo tbe llqbt of tepotts btooqbt bock of tbe boblts of tbe ootlves of tbe
"New wotlJ" tboo Mlcbel Je Mootolqoe. ne beqoo o looq ttoJltloo of osloq ooo-otopeoo peoples os o
bosls fot eoqoqloq lo o ctltlpoe of bls owo coltote, ooJoobteJly lo tbe ptocess tomootlclzloq wbot Ieoo-
Iocpoes koosseoo woolJ lotet coll "tbe ooble sovoqe." lt ls o tbeme wblcb stlll oppeols to mooy
westetoets.
wbot teosoo Joes Mootolqoe qlve fot joJqloq cooolbollstlc Notlve Ametlcoos to be ptefetoble to
otopeoos?

When klng yrrhus lnvaded lLaly, afLer he had
reconnolLered Lhe armed forces LhaL Lhe
8omans had senL ouL agalnsL hlm, he sald, "l
don'L know who Lhese barbarlans are"--for Lhe
Creeks called all forelgn peoples barbarlans--
"buL Lhe organlzaLlon of Lhe army l see before
me ls noL aL all barbarlc." 1he Creeks sald Lhe
same when llamlnlus lnvaded Lhelr counLry, as
dld hlllp, when he saw from a hlll Lhe orderly
layouL of Lhe 8oman camp whlch had been seL
up ln hls klngdom under ubllus Sulplclus Calba.
1hese examples lllusLraLe how one musL avold
accepLlng common pre[udlces: oplnlons musL
be [udged by means of reason, and noL by
adopLlng common oplnlon.
l had wlLh me for a long Llme a man who had
llved for Len or Lwelve years ln Lhls oLher world
whlch has been dlscovered ln our Llme, ln Lhe
place where vlllegalgnon landed, whlch he
named AnLarcLlc lrance (1). 1hls dlscover of an
enormous land seems Lo me Lo be worLh
conLemplaLlng. l doubL LhaL l could afflrm LhaL
anoLher such may noL be dlscovered ln Lhe
fuLure, slnce so many greaLer people Lhan l
were mlsLaken abouL Lhls one. l'm afrald LhaL
our eyes are blgger Lhan our sLomachs, and LhaL
we have more curloslLy Lhan comprehenslon.
We Lry Lo embrace everyLhlng buL succeed only
ln grasplng Lhe wlnd.
. . . l do noL flnd LhaL Lhere ls anyLhlng barbarlc
or savage abouL Lhls naLlon, accordlng Lo whaL
l've been Lold, unless we are Lo call barbarlsm
whaLever dlffers from our own cusLoms.
lndeed, we seem Lo have no oLher sLandard of
LruLh and reason Lhan Lhe oplnlons and cusLoms
of our own counLry. 1here aL home ls always
Lhe perfecL rellglon, Lhe perfecL legal sysLem--
Lhe perfecL and mosL accompllshed way of
dolng everyLhlng. 1hese people are wlld ln Lhe
same sense LhaL frulLs are, produced by naLure,
alone, ln her ordlnary way. lndeed, ln LhaL land,
lL ls we who refuse Lo alLer our arLlflclal ways
and re[ecL Lhe common order LhaL oughL raLher
Lo be called wlld, or savage, (2) ln Lhem Lhe
mosL naLural vlrLues and ablllLles are allve and
vlgorous, whereas we have basLardlzed Lhem
and adopLed Lhem solely Lo our corrupL LasLe.
Lven so, Lhe flavor and dellcacy of some of Lhe
wlld frulLs from Lhose counLrles ls excellenL,
even Lo our LasLe, beLLer Lhan our culLlvaLed
ones. AfLer all, lL would hardly be reasonable
LhaL arLlflclal breedlng should be able Lo ouLdo
our greaL and powerful moLher, naLure. We
have so burdened Lhe beauLy and rlchness of
her works by our lnnovaLlons LhaL we have
enLlrely sLlfled her. ?eL whenever she shlnes
forLh ln her purlLy she puLs our valn and
frlvolous enLerprlses amazlngly Lo shame.
14S0 C.L. to 17S0 C.L.

!"+&"!"

LL venlunL eder sponLe sua mellus,
surglL eL ln solls formoslor arbuLus anLrls,
eL volucres nulla dulclus arLe canunL. (3)
All our efforLs cannoL creaLe Lhe nesL of Lhe
LlnlesL blrd: lLs sLrucLure, lLs beauLy, or Lhe
usefulness of lLs form, nor can we creaLe Lhe
web of Lhe lowly splder. All Lhlngs, sald laLo
are produced by naLure, chance, or human sklll,
Lhe greaLesL and mosL beauLlful Lhlngs by one of
Lhe flrsL Lwo, Lhe lesser and mosL lmperfecL, by
Lhe laLLer.
1hese naLlons seem Lo me, Lhen, barbarlc ln
LhaL Lhey have been llLLle refashloned by Lhe
human mlnd and are sLlll qulLe close Lo Lhelr
orlglnal nalveLe. 1hey are sLlll ruled by naLural
laws, only sllghLly corrupLed by ours. 1hey are ln
such a sLaLe of purlLy LhaL l am someLlmes
saddened by Lhe LhoughL LhaL we dld noL
dlscover Lhem earller, when Lhere were people
who would have known how Lo [udge Lhem
beLLer Lhan we. lL dlspleases me LhaL Lycurgus
or laLo dldn'L know Lhem, for lL seems Lo me
LhaL Lhese peoples surpass noL only Lhe
porLralLs whlch poeLry has made of Lhe Colden
Age and all Lhe lnvenLed, lmaglnary noLlons of
Lhe ldeal sLaLe of humanlLy, buL even Lhe
concepLlons and Lhe very alms of phllosophers
Lhemselves. 1hey could noL lmaglne such a pure
and slmple nalveLe as we encounLer ln Lhem,
nor would Lhey have been able Lo belleve LhaL
our socleLy mlghL be malnLalned wlLh so llLLle
arLlflce and soclal sLrucLure.
1hls ls a people, l would say Lo laLo, among
whom Lhere ls no commerce aL all, no
knowledge of leLLers, no knowledge of
numbers, nor any [udges, or pollLlcal
superlorlLy, no hablL of servlce, rlches, or
poverLy, no conLracLs, no lnherlLance, no
dlvlslons of properLy, no occupaLlons buL easy
ones, no respecL for any relaLlonshlp excepL
ordlnary famlly ones, no cloLhes, no agrlculLure,
no meLal, no use of wlne or wheaL. 1he very
words whlch mean "lle," "Lreason,"
"decepLlon," "greed," "envy," "slander" and
"forglveness" are unknown. Pow far hls
lmaglnary 8epubllc would be from such
perfecLlon:
vltl o Jlls teceotes (4)
nos oototo moJos ptlmom JeJlt. . . . (3)
1hey have Lhelr wars agalnsL peoples who llve
beyond Lhelr mounLalns, furLher lnland, Lo
whlch Lhey go enLlrely naked, bearlng no oLher
arms LhaL bows and sharpened sLakes llke our
hunLlng spears. 1he courage wlLh whlch Lhey
flghL ls amazlng: Lhelr baLLles never end excepL
Lhrough deaLh of bloodshed, for Lhey do noL
even undersLand whaL fear ls. Lach one carrles
back as a Lrophy Lhe head of Lhe enemy LhaL he
has skllled, and hangs lL up aL Lhe enLrance Lo
hls home. AfLer havlng LreaLed Lhelr prlsoners
well for a long Llme, glvlng Lhem all Lhe
provlslons LhaL Lhey could one, he who ls Lhe
chlef calls a greaL assembly of hls
acqualnLances. Pe Lles a rope Lo one of Lhe
arms of Lhe prlsoner and on Lhe oLher end,
several feeL away, ouL of harm's way, and glves
Lo hls besL frlend Lhe arm Lo hold, and Lhe Lwo
of Lhem, ln Lhe presence of Lhe assembled
group, slash hlm Lo deaLh wlLh Lhelr swords.
1haL done, Lhey roasL hlm and eaL hlm LogeLher,
sendlng porLlons Lo Lhelr absenL frlends. 1hey
do Lhls, noL as ls supposed, for nourlshmenL as
dld Lhe anclenL ScyLhlans, lL represenLs lnsLead
an exLreme form of vengeance. 1he proof of
Lhls ls LhaL when Lhey saw LhaL Lhe orLuguese,
who had allled Lhemselves wlLh Lhelr
adversarles, when Lhey execuLed Lhelr capLlves
dlfferenLly, burylng Lhem up Lo Lhe walsL and
flrlng numerous arrows lnLo Lhe remalnder of
Lhe body, hanglng Lhem afLerward, Lhey vlewed
Lhese people from anoLher world, who had
spread Lhe knowledge of many vlces among
Lhelr nelghbors, and who were much more
masLerly Lhan Lhey ln every sorL of evll, musL
have chosen Lhls sorL of revenge for a reason.
1hlnklng LhaL lL musL be more blLLer Lhan Lhelr
own, Lhey abandoned Lhelr anclenL way Lo
lmlLaLe Lhls one.
14S0 C.L. to 17S0 C.L.

!"+'"!"

l am noL so concerned LhaL we should remark
on Lhe barbarlc horror of such a deed, buL LhaL,
whlle we qulLe rlghLly [udge Lhelr faulLs, we are
bllnd Lo our own. l Lhlnk lL ls more barbarlc Lo
eaL a man allve Lhan Lo eaL hlm dead, Lo Lear
aparL Lhrough LorLure and paln a llvlng body
whlch can sLlll feel, or Lo burn lL allve by blLs, Lo
leL lL be gnawed and chewed by dogs or plgs (as
we have no only read, buL seen, ln recenL Llmes,
noL agalnsL old enemles buL among nelghbors
and fellow-clLlzens, and--whaL ls worse--under
Lhe preLexL of pleLy and rellglon. (6) 8eLLer Lo
roasL and eaL hlm afLer he ls dead.
1toosloteJ by lool 8tloos
(1) 8razll.
(2) Sauvage ln lrench means boLh wlld and
savage.
(3) 1he lvy grows besL when lL grows wlld, and
Lhe arbuLus ls mosL lovely when lL grows ln
sollLude, unLaughL blrds slng mosL sweeLly .
roperLlus, l, ll, 10.
(4) Men freshly molded from Lhe hands of Lhe
gods. (Seneca: plstles, 90.)
(3) 1hese are Lhe flrsL laws lald down by naLure.
(vlrgll: Ceotqlcs, ll, 20.)
(6) MonLalgne ls descrlblng Lhe LorLures
frequenLly carrled ouL by Lhe Poly lnqulslLlon
agalnsL hereLlcs.

Ionathon Sw|ft: A Modest roposa|
5wlft wos ltlsb, ooJ tbooqb be mocb ptefetteJ llvloq lo oqlooJ, be teseoteJ 8tltlsb pollcles towotJ tbe
ltlsb. lo o lettet to lope of 1729, be wtote, "lmoqloe o ootloo tbe two-tbltJs of wbose teveooes ote speot
oot of lt, ooJ wbo ote oot petmltteJ to ttoJe wltb tbe otbet tbltJ, ooJ wbete tbe ptlJe of tbe womeo wlll
oot soffet jollow] tbem to weot tbelt owo mooofoctotes eveo wbete tbey excel wbot come ftom obtooJ.
1bls ls tbe ttoe stote of ltelooJ lo o vety few wotJs." nls soppott fot ltlsb cooses bos moJe blm o
teoowoeJ flqote lo moJeto ltelooJ. 1be potoqtopb oombets bove beeo oJJeJ fot tbls eJltloo.
Ior revent|ng the Ch||dren of oor eop|e |n
Ire|and, from 8e|ng a 8urden on 1he|r arents
or Country, and for Mak|ng 1hem 8enef|c|a| to
the ub||ck.

lL ls a melancholly Cb[ecL Lo Lhose, who walk
Lhrough Lhls greaL 1own,
1
or Lravel ln Lhe
CounLry, when Lhey see Lhe 5tteets, Lhe kooJs,
and cobblo-uoots, crowded wlLh 8eqqots of Lhe
female Sex, followed by Lhree, four, or slx
Chlldren, oll lo koqs, and lmporLunlng every
assenger for an Alms. 1hese Motbets lnsLead
of belng able Lo work for Lhelr honesL
llvelyhood, are forced Lo employ all Lhelr Llme ln
SLrollng, Lo beg SusLenance for Lhelr belpless
lofoots, who, as Lhey grow up elLher
Lurn 1bleves for wanL of work, or leave
Lhelr Jeot ootlve coootty to flqbt fot tbe
lteteoJet lo 5polo,
2
or sell Lhemselves Lo
Lhe 8otboJoes.
3


l Lhlnk lL ls agreed by all arLles, LhaL Lhls
prodlglous number of Chlldren, ln Lhe Arms, or
on Lhe 8acks, or aL Lhe beels of Lhelr Motbets,
and frequenLly of Lhelr laLhers, ls lo tbe pteseot
Jeplotoble stote of tbe kloqJom, a very greaL
addlLlonal grlevance, and Lherefore whoever
could flnd ouL a falr, cheap and easy meLhod of
maklng Lhese Chlldren sound and useful
Members of Lhe common-wealLh would
deserve so well of Lhe publlck, as Lo have hls
SLaLue seL up for a preserver of Lhe naLlon.

8uL my lnLenLlon ls very far from belng
conflned Lo provlde only for Lhe Chlldren
of ptofesseJ beqqots, lL ls of a much greaLer
exLenL, and shall Lake ln Lhe whole number of
14S0 C.L. to 17S0 C.L.

!"+("!"

lnfanLs aL a cerLaln Age, who are born of
arenLs ln effecL as llLLle able Lo supporL Lhem,
as Lhose who demand our CharlLy ln Lhe SLreeLs.
As Lo my own parL, havlng Lurned my LhoughLs
for many ?ears, upon Lhls lmporLanL Sub[ecL,
and maLurely welghed Lhe several 5cbemes of
otbet ltojectots,
4
l have always found Lhem
grossly mlsLaken ln Lhelr compuLaLlon. lL ls Lrue
a Chlld, jost Jtopt ftom lt's uom,
S
may be
supporLed by her Mllk, for a Solar year wlLh
llLLle oLher nourlshmenL, aL mosL noL above Lhe
value of Lwo Shllllngs, whlch Lhe MoLher may
cerLalnly geL, or Lhe value ln 5ctops, by her
lawful CccupaLlon of begglng, and lL ls exacLly aL
one year Cld LhaL l propose Lo provlde for Lhem,
ln such a manner, as, lnsLead of belng a Charge
upon Lhelr loteots, or Lhe lotlsb,
6
or
wootloq
(X(
looJ ooJ kolmeot for Lhe resL of Lhelr
Llves, Lhey shall, on Lhe ConLrary, conLrlbuLe Lo
Lhe leedlng and parLly Lo Lhe CloaLhlng of many
1housands.

1here ls llkewlse anoLher greaL AdvanLage ln my
Scheme, LhaL lL wlll prevenL Lhose voloototy
Abottloos, and LhaL horrld pracLlce of womeo
motJetloq tbelt 8ostotJ cbllJteo, alas! Loo
frequenL among us, Sacrlflclng Lhe poot
loooceot 8obes, l doubL,
8
more Lo avold Lhe
Lxpence, Lhan Lhe Shame, whlch would move
1ears and lLy ln Lhe mosL Savage and lnhuman
breasL.

1he number of Souls ln Lhls klngdom belng
usually reckoned one Mllllon and a half, Cf
Lhese l calculaLe Lhere may be abouL Lwo
hundred Lhousand Couple whose Wlves are
breeders, from whlch number l SubsLracL LhlrLy
1housand Couples, who are able Lo malnLaln
Lhelr own Chlldren, alLhough l
apprehend
9
Lhere cannoL be so many,
under tbe pteseot Jlsttesses of tbe kloqJom,
buL Lhls belng granLed, Lhere wlll remaln an
hundred and sevenLy Lhousand 8reeders. l
agaln SubLracL flfLy 1housand for Lhose Women
who mlscarry, or whose Chlldren dye by
accldenL, or dlsease wlLhln Lhe ?ear. 1here only
remaln an hundred and LwenLy Lhousand
Chlldren of poor arenLs annually born: 1he
quesLlon Lherefore ls, Pow Lhls number shall be
reared, and provlded for, whlch, as l have
already sald, under Lhe presenL SlLuaLlon of
Affalrs, ls uLLerly lmposslble by all Lhe meLhods
hlLherLo proposed, for we can oeltbet employ
tbem lo nooJlctoft, or Aqtlcoltote, we nelLher
bulld Pouses, (l mean ln Lhe CounLry) nor
culLlvaLe Land:
10
Lhey can very seldom plck up a
Llvelyhood by 5teolloq unLll Lhey arrlve aL slx
years Cld, excepL where Lhey are of Lowardly
parLs,
11
alLhough, l confess Lhey learn Lhe
8udlmenLs much earller, durlng whlch Llme Lhey
can however be properly looked upon only
as ltobotlooets, as l have been lnformed by a
prlnclpal CenLleman ln Lhe CounLy of covoo,
who proLesLed Lo me, LhaL he never knew
above one or Lwo lnsLances under Lhe Age of
slx, even ln a parL of Lhe klngdom so teoowoeJ
fot tbe polckest ptoflcleocy lo tbot Att.

l am assured by our MerchanLs, LhaL a 8oy or
Clrl, before Lwelve years Cld, ls no saleable
CommodlLy, and even when Lhey come Lo Lhls
Age, Lhey wlll noL yleld above Lhree ounds, or
Lhree ounds and half a Crown aL mosL on Lhe
Lxchange, whlch cannoL Lurn Lo AccounL elLher
Lo Lhe arenLs or Lhe klngdom, Lhe Charge of
nuLrlmenLs and 8ags havlng been aL leasL four
Llmes LhaL value.

l shall now Lherefore humbly propose my own
LhoughLs, whlch l hope wlll noL be lyable Lo Lhe
leasL Cb[ecLlon.

l have been assured by a very
knowlng Ametlcoo of my acqualnLance
ln looJoo, LhaL a young healLhy Chlld well
nursed ls aL a year Cld, a mosL dellclous,
nourlshlng, and wholesome lood,
wheLher 5teweJ, koosteJ, 8okeJ, or 8oyleJ,
and l make no doubL LhaL lL wlll equally serve ln
a ltlcosle, or koqoost.
12


l do Lherefore humbly offer lL Lo pobllck
cooslJetotloo, LhaL of Lhe hundred and LwenLy
Lhousand Chlldren, already compuLed, LwenLy
Lhousand may be reserved for 8reed, whereof
only one fourLh parL Lo be Males, whlch ls more
14S0 C.L. to 17S0 C.L.

!"+)"!"

Lhan we allow Lo 5beep, block cottle, or 5wloe,
and my reason ls, LhaL Lhese Chlldren are
seldom Lhe lrulLs of Marrlage, o cltcomstooce
oot mocb teqotJeJ by oot 5ovoqes,
Lherefore, ooe Mole wlll be sufflclenL Lo
serve foot lemoles. 1haL Lhe remalnlng hundred
Lhousand may aL a year Cld be offered ln Sale Lo
Lhe petsoos of Ooollty,
13
and lottooe, Lhrough
Lhe klngdom, always advlslng Lhe MoLher Lo leL
Lhem Suck plenLlfully ln Lhe lasL MonLh, so as Lo
render Lhem lump, and laL for a good 1able. A
Chlld wlll make Lwo ulshes aL an LnLerLalnmenL
for lrlends, and when Lhe lamlly dlnes alone,
Lhe fore or hlnd CuarLer wlll make a reasonable
ulsh, and seasoned wlLh a llLLle epper or SalL
wlll be very good 8olled on Lhe fourLh uay,
especlally ln wlotet.

l have reckoned upon a Medlum, LhaL a Chlld
[usL born wlll welgh 12 pounds, and ln a solar
?ear lf Lollerably nursed encreaseLh Lo 28
ounds.

l granL Lhls food wlll be somewhaL dear,
14
and
Lherefore very ptopet fot looJlotJs,
1S
who, as
Lhey have already devoured mosL of Lhe
arenLs, seem Lo have Lhe besL 1lLle Lo Lhe
Chlldren.

lnfanL's flesh wlll be ln Season LhroughouL Lhe
?ear, buL more plenLlful ln Motcb, and a llLLle
before and afLer, for we are Lold by a grave
AuLhor
16
an emlnenL lteocb physlLlan, LhaL llsb
beloq o ptollflck uyet, Lhere are more Chlldren
born ln komoo cotbollck cooottles abouL nlne
MonLhs afLer leot, Lhan aL any oLher Season,
Lherefore reckonlng a ?ear afLer leot, Lhe
MarkeLs wlll be more gluLLed Lhan usual,
because Lhe number of loplsb lofoots, ls aL
leasL Lhree Lo one ln Lhls klngdom, and
Lherefore lL wlll have one oLher CollaLeral
advanLage by lessenlng Lhe number
of loplsts among us.

l have already compuLed Lhe Charge of nurslng
a 8eggars Chlld (ln whlch llsL l reckon
all cottoqets, lobootets, and four flfLhs of
Lhe lotmets) Lo be abouL Lwo Shllllngs pet
Aooom, 8ags lncluded, and l belleve no
CenLleman would replne Lo glve 1en Shllllngs
for Lhe cotcoss of o qooJ fot cbllJ, whlch, as l
have sald wlll make four ulshes of excellenL
nuLrlLlve MeaL, when he haLh only some
parLlcular frlend, or hls own lamlly Lo ulne wlLh
hlm. 1hus Lhe Squlre wlll learn Lo be a good
Landlord, and grow popular among hls 1enanLs,
Lhe MoLher wlll have LlghL Shllllngs neaL proflL,
and be flL for Work Llll she produceLh anoLher
Chlld.

1hose who are more LhrlfLy (os l most coofess
tbe 1lmes tepolte) may flay Lhe Carcass, Lhe Skln
of whlch, ArLlflclally
17
dressed, wlll make
admlrable Cloves fot loJles, and 5ommet 8oots
fot floe Ceotlemeo.

As Lo our ClLy of uobllo, Shambles
18
may be
appolnLed for Lhls purpose, ln Lhe mosL
convenlenL parLs of lL, and 8uLchers we may be
assured wlll noL be wanLlng, alLhough l raLher
recommend buylng Lhe Chlldren allve, and
dresslng Lhem hoL from Lhe knlfe, as we
do toostloq llqs.
A very worLhy erson, a ttoe lovet of bls
coootty, and whose vlrLues l hlghly esLeem,
was laLely pleased, ln dlscourslng on Lhls
maLLer, Lo offer a reflnemenL upon my Scheme.
Pe sald, LhaL many CenLlemen of Lhls klngdom,
havlng of laLe desLroyed Lhelr ueer, he
concelved LhaL Lhe wanL of venlson mlghL be
well supplyed by Lhe 8odles of young Lads and
Maldens, noL exceedlng fourLeen ?ears of Age,
nor under Lwelve, so greaL a number of boLh
Sexes ln every CounLy belng now ready Lo
SLarve, for wanL of Work and Servlce: And Lhese
Lo be dlsposed of by Lhelr arenLs lf allve, or
oLherwlse by Lhelr nearesL 8elaLlons. 8uL wlLh
due deference Lo so excellenL a frlend, and so
deservlng a aLrloL, l cannoL be alLogeLher ln hls
SenLlmenLs, for as Lo Lhe Males,
my Ametlcoo acqualnLance assured me from
frequenL Lxperlence, LhaL Lhelr flesh was
generally 1ough and Lean, llke LhaL of our
School-boys, by conLlnual exerclse, and Lhelr
1asLe dlsagreeable, and Lo laLLen Lhem would
noL answer Lhe Charge. 1hen as Lo Lhe lemales,
14S0 C.L. to 17S0 C.L.

!"+*"!"

lL would, l Lhlnk, wlLh humble Submlsslon, be o
loss to tbe lobllck, because Lhey soon would
become 8reeders Lhemselves: And besldes lL ls
noL lmprobable LhaL some scrupulous eople
mlghL be apL Lo Censure such a racLlce,
(alLhough lndeed very un[usLly) as a llLLle
borderlng upon CruelLy, whlch, l confess, haLh
always been wlLh me Lhe sLrongesL ob[ecLlon
agalnsL any ro[ecL, how well soever lnLended.

8uL ln order Lo [usLlfy my frlend, he confessed,
LhaL Lhls expedlenL was puL lnLo hls head by Lhe
famous 5ollmoooozot,
19
a naLlve of Lhe
lsland lotmoso, who came from Lhence
LolooJoo, above LwenLy ?ears ago, and ln
ConversaLlon Lold my frlend, LhaL ln hls CounLry
when any young erson happened Lo be puL Lo
ueaLh, Lhe LxecuLloner sold Lhe Carcass
Lo letsoos of Ooollty, as a prlme ualnLy, and
LhaL, ln hls 1lme, Lhe 8ody of a plump Clrl of
flfLeen, who was cruclfyed for an aLLempL Lo
olson Lhe Lmperor, was sold Lo hls
lmperlal Mojesty's ptlme Mlolstet of 5tote, and
oLher greaL MooJotlos
20
of Lhe CourL, lo Iolots
ftom tbe Clbbet,
21
aL four hundred Crowns.
nelLher lndeed can l deny, LhaL lf Lhe same use
were made of several plump young Clrls ln Lhls
1own, who, wlLhouL one slngle CroaL
22
Lo Lhelr
lorLunes, cannoL sLlr abroad wlLhouL a
Chalr,
23
and appear aL a lloy-noose,
and Assemblles ln lorelgn flnerles, whlch Lhey
never wlll ay for, Lhe klngdom would noL be
Lhe worse.

Some ersons of a despondlng SplrlL are ln
greaL concern abouL LhaL vasL number of poor
eople, who are aged, dlseased, or malmed,
and l have been deslred Lo lmploy my LhoughLs
whaL Course may be Laken, Lo ease Lhe naLlon
of so grlevous an lncumbrance. 8uL l am noL ln
Lhe leasL paln upon LhaL maLLer, because lL ls
very well known, LhaL Lhey are every uay Jyloq,
and tottloq, by colJ, and fomloe, and flltb,
and vetmlo, as fasL as can be reasonably
expecLed. And as Lo Lhe younger Labourers Lhey
are now ln almosL as hopeful a CondlLlon. 1hey
cannoL geL Work, and consequenLly plne away
from wanL of nourlshmenL, Lo a degree, LhaL lf
aL any Llme Lhey are accldenLally hlred Lo
common Labour, Lhey have noL sLrengLh Lo
perform lL, and Lhus Lhe CounLry and
Lhemselves are happlly dellvered from Lhe Lvlls
Lo come.

l have Loo long dlgressed, and Lherefore shall
reLurn Lo my sub[ecL. l Lhlnk Lhe advanLages by
Lhe roposal whlch l have made are obvlous
and many, as well as of Lhe hlghesL lmporLance.

lor flrsL, as l have already observed, lL would
greaLly lessen tbe Nombet of loplsts, wlLh
whom we are ?early over-run, belng Lhe
prlnclpal 8reeders of Lhe naLlon, as well as our
mosL dangerous Lnemles, and who sLay aL
home on purpose wlLh a deslgn to Jellvet tbe
kloqJom to tbe lteteoJet, hoplng Lo Lake Lhelr
AdvanLage by Lhe absence of so mooy qooJ
ltotestoots,
24
who have chosen raLher Lo leave
Lhelr CounLry, Lhan sLay aL home, and pay
1yLhes agalnsL Lhelr cooscleoce, Lo an
ldolaLrous plscopol cotote.

5ecooJly, Lhe poorer 1enanLs wlll have
someLhlng valuable of Lhelr own, whlch by Law
may be made lyable Lo ulsLress,
2S
and help Lo
pay Lhelr Landlord's 8enL, Lhelr Corn and CaLLle
belng already seazed, and Mooey o tbloq
ookoowo.

1bltJly, Whereas Lhe MalnLalnance of an
hundred Lhousand Chlldren, from Lwo ?ears old,
and upwards, cannoL be compuLed aL less Lhan
1en Shllllngs a plece pet Aooom, Lhe naLlon's
SLock wlll be Lhereby encreased flfLy Lhousand
pounds pet Aooom, besldes Lhe proflL of a new
ulsh, lnLroduced Lo Lhe 1ables of all Ceotlemeo
of lottooe ln Lhe klngdom, who have any
reflnemenL ln 1asLe, and Lhe Money wlll
clrculaLe among our selves, Lhe Coods belng
enLlrely of our own CrowLh and ManufacLure.

loottbly, 1he consLanL 8reeders, besldes Lhe
galn of LlghL Shllllngs 5tetlloq pet Aooom, by Lhe
Sale of Lhelr Chlldren, wlll be rld of Lhe Charge
of malnLalnlng Lhem afLer Lhe flrsL ?ear.

14S0 C.L. to 17S0 C.L.

!"++"!"

llftbly, Lhls food would llkewlse brlng
greaL costom to 1ovetos, where Lhe vlnLners
wlll cerLalnly be so prudenL as Lo procure Lhe
besL recelpLs
26
for dresslng lL Lo perfecLlon, and
consequenLly have Lhelr Pouses frequenLed by
all Lhe floe Ceotlemeo, who [usLly value
Lhemselves upon Lhelr knowledge ln good
LaLlng, and a sklllful Cook, who undersLands
how Lo obllge hls CuesLs wlll conLrlve Lo make lL
as expenslve as Lhey please.

5lxtbly, 1hls would be a greaL lnducemenL Lo
Marrlage, whlch all wlse naLlons have elLher
encouraged by 8ewards, or enforced by Laws
and enalLles. lL would encrease Lhe care and
Lenderness of MoLhers Lowards Lhelr Chlldren,
when Lhey were sure of a SeLLlemenL for Llfe, Lo
Lhe poor 8abes, provlded ln some sorL by Lhe
ubllck Lo Lhelr Annual proflL lnsLead of
Lxpence, we should soon see an honesL
LmulaLlon among Lhe marrled women, wblcb of
tbem coolJ btloq tbe fottest cbllJ to tbe
Motket, Men would become as fond of
Lhelr wlves, durlng Lhe 1lme of Lhelr regnancy,
as Lhey are now of Lhelr Motes ln loal,
Lhelr cows ln Calf, or 5ows when Lhey are ready
Lo larrow, nor offer Lo 8eaL or klck Lhem (as ls
Loo frequenL a pracLlce) for fear of a
Mlscarrlage.

Many oLher advanLages mlghL be enumeraLed:
lor lnsLance, Lhe addlLlon of some Lhousand
Carcases ln our exporLaLlon of 8arreled 8eef.
1he ropagaLlon of 5wloes llesb, and
lmprovemenL ln Lhe ArL of maklng good 8ocoo,
so much wanLed among us by Lhe greaL
desLrucLlon of llqs, Loo frequenL aL our 1ables,
whlch are no way comparable ln 1asLe, or
Magnlflcence Lo a well grown, faL ?earllng Chlld,
whlch 8oasLed whole wlll make a conslderable
llgure aL a lotJ Moyot's leost, or any oLher
ubllck LnLerLalnmenL. 8uL Lhls, and many
oLhers l omlL belng sLudlous of 8revlLy.

Supposlng LhaL one Lhousand lamllles ln Lhls
ClLy, would be consLanL CusLomers for lnfanLs
llesh, besldes oLhers who mlghL have lL
aL Metty-meetloqs, parLlcularly
aL weJJloqs andcbtlsteoloqs, l compuLe
LhaL uobllo would Lake off Annually abouL
LwenLy Lhousand Carcases, and Lhe resL of Lhe
klngdom (where probably Lhey wlll be Sold
somewhaL Cheaper) Lhe remalnlng elghLy
Lhousand.

l can Lhlnk of no one Cb[ecLlon, LhaL wlll
posslbly be ralsed agalnsL Lhls roposal, unless
lL should be urged, LhaL Lhe number of eople
wlll be Lhereby much lessened ln Lhe klngdom.
1hls l freely own,
27
and lL was lndeed one
rlnclpal deslgn ln offerlng lL Lo Lhe World. l
deslre Lhe 8eader wlll observe, LhaL l CalculaLe
my 8emedy fot tbls ooe loJlvlJool kloqJom of
lklANu, ooJ fot oo otbet tbot evet wos, ls, ot, l
tblok, evet coo be opoo ottb. 1herefore leL no
man Lalk Lo me of oLher expedlenLs:
28
Of toxloq
oot Abseotees ot flve 5blllloqs o poooJ.
(FY(
Of
osloq oeltbet clootbs, oot boosebolJ lotoltote,
except wbot ls of oot owo Ctowtb ooJ
Mooofoctote. Of ottetly tejectloq tbe Motetlols
ooJ losttomeots tbot ptomote lotelqo loxoty.
Of cotloq tbe xpeoclveoess of ltlJe, voolty,
lJleoess, ooJ Comloq lo oot womeo. Of
lottoJocloq o velo of lotclmooy, ltoJeoce ooJ
1empetooce. Of leotoloq to love oot coootty,
wbetelo we Jlffet eveo ftom lAllANuk5, ooJ
tbe lobobltoots of 1OllNAM8OO.
(Z[(
Of polttloq
oot Aolmosltles, ooJ loctloos, oot Act ooy
looqet llke tbe Iews, wbo wete MotJetloq ooe
oootbet ot tbe vety momeot tbelt clty wos
tokeo.
(Z\(
Of beloq o llttle cootloos oot to 5ell oot
coootty ooJ cooscleoces fot ootbloq. Of
teocbloq looJlotJs to bove ot leost ooe Jeqtee
of Metcy towotJs tbelt 1eooots. lostly of
pottloq o 5pltlt of nooesty, loJostty ooJ 5klll
loto oot 5bop-keepets, wbo, lf o kesolotloo
coolJ oow be tokeo to 8oy ooly oot Notlve
CooJs, woolJ lmmeJlotely oolte to cbeot ooJ
xoct
(ZF(
opoo os lo tbe ltlce, tbe Meosote, ooJ
tbe CooJoess, oot coolJ evet yet be btooqbt to
moke ooe folt ltoposol of jost Jeolloq, tbooqb
ofteo ooJ eotoestly lovlteJ to lt.

1herefore l repeaL, leL no Man Lalk Lo me of
Lhese and Lhe llke LxpedlenLs, Llll he haLh aL
leasL a Cllmpse of Pope, LhaL Lhere wlll ever be
14S0 C.L. to 17S0 C.L.

!"+,"!"

some hearLy and slncere aLLempL Lo puL Lhem
lnLo racLlce.

8uL as Lo my self, havlng been wearled ouL for
many ?ears wlLh offerlng valn, ldle, vlslonary
LhoughLs, and aL lengLh uLLerly despalrlng of
Success, l forLunaLely fell upon Lhls roposal,
whlch as lL ls wholly new, so lL haLh someLhlng
Solld and 8eal, of no Lxpence and llLLle 1rouble,
full ln our own ower, and whereby we can
lncur no uanger ln Jlsobllqloq oqlooJ. lor Lhls
klnd of CommodlLy wlll noL bear LxporLaLlon,
Lhe llesh belng of Loo Lender a ConslsLance, Lo
admlL a long conLlnuance ln SalL, oltbooqb
petbops l coolJ oome o coootty, wblcb woolJ be
qloJ to ot op oot wbole Notloo wltboot lt.
(ZZ(


AfLer all l am noL so vlolenLly benL upon my own
Cplnlon, as Lo re[ecL any Cffer, proposed by
wlse Men, whlch shall be found equally
lnnocenL, Cheap, Lasy and LffecLual. 8uL before
someLhlng of LhaL klnd shall be advanced ln
ConLradlcLlon Lo my Scheme, and offerlng a
beLLer, l deslre Lhe AuLhor, or AuLhors wlll be
pleased maLurely Lo conslder Lwo polnLs. lltst,
As Lhlngs now sLand, how Lhey wlll be able Lo
flnd lood and 8almenL for a hundred Lhousand
useless MouLhs and 8acks. And 5ecooJly, Lhere
belng a round Mllllon of CreaLures ln humane
llgure, LhroughouL Lhls klngdom, whose whole
SubslsLence puL lnLo a common SLock, would
leave Lhem ln uebL Lwo Mllllons of
ounds 5tetlloq addlng Lhose, who are 8eggars
by rofesslon, Lo Lhe 8ulk of larmers, CoLLagers
and Labourers wlLh Lhelr Wlves and Chlldren,
who are 8eggars ln LffecL, l deslre
Lhose lolltlcloos, who dlsllke my CverLure, and
may perhaps be so bold Lo aLLempL an Answer,
LhaL Lhey wlll flrsL ask Lhe arenLs of Lhese
MorLals, wheLher Lhey would noL aL Lhls uay
Lhlnk lL a greaL Papplness Lo have been sold for
lood aL a year Cld, ln Lhe manner l prescrlbe,
and Lhereby have avolded such a perpeLual
Scene of MlsforLunes, as Lhey have slnce gone
Lhrough, by Lhe opptessloo of looJlotJs, Lhe
lmposslblllLy of paylng 8enL wlLhouL Money or
1rade, Lhe wanL of common SusLenance, wlLh
nelLher Pouse nor CloaLhs Lo cover Lhem from
lnclemencles of WeaLher, and Lhe mosL
lnevlLable rospecL of lnLalllng Lhe llke, or
greaLer Mlserles upon Lhelr 8reed for ever.

l rofess ln Lhe slncerlLy of my PearL LhaL l have
noL Lhe leasL personal lnLeresL ln endeavourlng
Lo promoLe Lhls necessary Work havlng no
oLher MoLlve Lhan Lhe pobllck CooJ of my
coootty, by oJvoocloq oot 1toJe, ptovlJloq fot
lofoots, tellevloq tbe loot, ooJ qlvloq some
lleosote to tbe klcb. l have no Chlldren, by
whlch l can propose Lo geL a slngle enny, Lhe
youngesL belng nlne ?ears old, and my Wlfe
pasL Chlld-bearlng.

LdlLed and annoLaLed by !ack Lynch

1. uublln.

2. 1he lteteoJet was Lhe descendanL of klng
!ames ll of Lhe Pouse of SLuarL, expelled from
8rlLaln ln 1689. !ames and hls descendanLs
were CaLhollc, so Lhey Look refuge ln CaLhollc
counLrles.

3. Many poor lrlsh were forced Lo seek a llvlng
ln Lhe new World.

4. ltojectot, "Cne who forms schemes or
deslgns" (!ohnson).

3. uom, "1he moLher: used of beasLs, or oLher
anlmals noL human," or "A human moLher: ln
conLempL or deLesLaLlon" (!ohnson).

6. arlshes were responslble for Lhe supporL of
Lhose unable Lo work.
7. wootloq, "lacklng."

8. uoobt, "suspecL" or "lmaglne."

9. ApptebeoJ, "fear."

10. 8rlLaln lmposed sLrlcL regulaLlons on lrlsh
agrlculLure.

11. 1owotJly potts, "ready ablllLles."
14S0 C.L. to 17S0 C.L.

!",-"!"

12. ltlcosee, "A dlsh made by cuLLlng chlckens
or oLher small Lhlngs ln pleces, and dresslng
Lhem wlLh sLrong sauce" (!ohnson), toqoot,
"MeaL sLewed and hlghly seasoned" (!ohnson).

13. Ooollty, "8ank, superlorlLy of blrLh or
sLaLlon" (!ohnson).

14. ueot, "expenslve."

13. 8rlLlsh landlords Look much of Lhe blame for
lreland's condlLlon, and generally wlLh good
reason.

16. SwlfL's noLe: "8abelals."

17. Attlflclolly, "sklllfully."

18. 5bombles, "meaL markeLs."

19. Ceorge salmanazar, an lmposLor who
clalmed Lo be from lormosa (modern 1alwan).
Pls nlstotlcol ooJ Ceoqtopblcol uesctlptloo of
lotmoso (1704) descrlbed Lhelr rellglous
pracLlces: every year 18,000 young boys were
sacrlflced Lo Lhe gods, and Lhe parlshloners aLe
Lhelr raw hearLs.

20. MooJotlo, "A Chlnese nobleman or
maglsLraLe" (!ohnson).

21. Clbbet, "A gallows, Lhe posL on whlch
malefacLors are hanged, or on whlch Lhelr
carcases are exposed" (!ohnson).
22. A qtoot ls worLh four pence, proverblally,
any small amounL.
23. cbolt, "A vehlcle born by men, a sedan"
(!ohnson).

24. ulssenLers or nonconformlsLs, whose
prlnclples SwlfL re[ecLed.

23. ulsttess, "arresL for debL."

26. kecelpts, "[lrom teclpe.] rescrlpLlon of
lngredlenLs for any composlLlon" (!ohnson).

27. Owo, "admlL."

28. 1hese "expedlenLs" are serlous proposals,
several of whlch SwlfL advocaLed ln hls oLher
publlcaLlons.

29. llve sblllloqs o poooJ ls a LwenLy-flve
percenL Lax.

30. 1oploomboo, a dlsLrlcL ln 8razll.

31. 1lLus sacked Lhe Second 1emple ln
!erusalem ln A.u. 70.

32. xoct, "lmpose."

33. SwlfL ls maklng a coy reference Lo Lngland.

1he Lady and ner I|ve Su|tors, from =:"(=:+26&#/(&#/(K#"(?$>:%6

1be sptowlloq, ootlJy collectloo of stotles koowo tbtooqboot tbe Atob-speokloq wotlJ os tbe1housand
and Cne nlghLs (ooJ lo oqllsb looq colleJ 1he Arablan nlghLs) evolveJ ovet o looq petloJ of tlme, ooJ lt
ls lmposslble to soy jost wbeo o pottlcolot stoty wos wtltteo. 8ecoose tbe collectloo teocbeJ lts mote ot
less Jefloltlve fotm lo tbe 16tb ceototy we bove cboseo to ploce tbls exomple bete. 5ocb toles of moqlc os
"AloJJlo ooJ tbe wooJetfol lomp" ooJ "All 8obo ooJ tbe lotty 1bleves" ote octoolly polte
ootepteseototlve of tbe bolk of tbe Nlqbts. Most ote JeclJeJly oJolt toles of scooJol ooJ tteocbety, ofteo
lovolvloq foltbless womeo. lt ls oo ltooy tbot coltotes wblcb Jeplct womeo os ltteptesslbly sexool
(locloJloq otopeoo coltote, wltb lts uecometoo ooJ otbet stoty collectloos), slmoltooeoosly teoJ to
potttoy tbem os blqbly lotelllqeot, fot lo o teptesslve pottlotcbol soclety lt tokes o qooJ Jeol of clevetoess
to bteok tbe toles soccessfolly. 1bls stoty stooJs oot lo Jeplctloq sympotbetlcolly o betoloe wbo moooqes
14S0 C.L. to 17S0 C.L.

!",$"!"

to clevetly moke fools of bet woolJ-be lovets by Jeveloploq bet owo oolpoe Jefeose oqolost sexool
botossmeot.
lo wbot seose coo tbls oJoltetoos womoo be colleJ foltbfol?

A woman of Lhe merchanL class was marrled Lo
a man who was a greaL Lraveler. Cnce he seL
ouL for a far counLry and was absenL so long
LhaL hls wlfe, ouL of sheer boredom, fell ln love
wlLh a handsome young man, and Lhey loved
each oLher exceedlngly. Cne day, Lhe youLh
quarreled wlLh anoLher man, who lodged a
complalnL agalnsL hlm wlLh Lhe Chlef of ollce,
and he casL hlm lnLo prlson. When Lhe news
came Lo Lhe merchanL's wlfe, she nearly losL her
mlnd. 1hen she arose and--puLLlng on her
rlchesL cloLhes--wenL Lo Lhe house of Lhe Chlef
of ollce. She CreeLed hlm and presenLed hlm
wlLh a peLlLlon whlch read, "1he man you have
lmprlsoned ls my broLher So-and-So, who had a
flghL wlLh someone, buL Lhose who LesLlfled
agalnsL hlm lled. Pe has been wrongfully
lmprlsoned, and l have no one else Lo llve wlLh
or Lo supporL me, Lherefore l beg you graclously
Lo release hlm."
When Lhe Chlef had read Lhe peLlLlon, he
looked aL her and lmmedlaLely fell ln love wlLh
her, so he sald Lo her, "Co lnLo my house, Llll l
brlng hlm ouL, Lhen l wlll send for you and you
may Lake hlm away."
"C, my lord," she replled, "l have no one Lo
proLecL me excepL almlghLy Cod. l cannoL enLer
any sLrange man's home."
1he Chlef sald, "l wlll noL leL hlm go unless you
come Lo my home and leL me do whaL l wlll
wlLh you."
She answered, "lf lL musL be, you musL come Lo
my home and sleep Lhrough Lhe afLernoon and
evenlng Lhere."
"And where ls your home?" he asked, and she
answered, "AL such-and-such a place," and
arranged a Llme for hlm Lo come.
1hen she lefL hlm, who had enLlrely fallen ln
love wlLh her, and wenL Lo Lhe Cadl of Lhe clLy,
Lo whom she sald, "C, our lord Lhe Cadl!"
Pe sald, "?es?" and she conLlnued, "Lxamlne my
case and you wlll be rewarded Cod."
Pe sald, "Who has wronged you?" and she
replled, "C my lord, l have a broLher, my only
broLher, and lL ls on hls behalf LhaL l come Lo
you, because Lhe Chlef has lmprlsoned hlm as a
crlmlnal and men have borne false wlLness
agalnsL hlm, clalmlng LhaL he ls an evll man, and
l beg you Lo lnLercede for hlm wlLh Lhe Chlef of
ollce."
When Lhe Cadl gazed aL her, he lmmedlaLely fell
ln love wlLh her and sald, "Co lnLo Lhe house
and resL awhlle wlLh Lhe women ln my harm
whlle l send Lo Lhe Chlef Lo release your
broLher. lf l knew how much hls flne was, l
would pay lL myself ouL of my own purse soL
LhaL l could en[oy you, for your sweeL speech
greaLly pleases me.:
She sald, "lf you, C my lord, are Lo behave ln
Lhls way, we would noL be able Lo blame
oLhers."
Sald he, "lf you wlll noL come ln, go away."
1hen she sald, "lf you lnslsL, C our lord, lL wlll be
beLLer and more prlvaLe aL my place Lhan ln
yours, for here Lhere are slave-glrls and eunuchs
and people comlng and golng, and lndeed l am
noL Lhls sorL of woman, buL l see LhaL l musL
glve ln."
1he Cadl asked, "And where ls your house?" and
she answered, "ln such-and-such a place, and
seL for hlm Lhe same day and Llme as Lhe Chlef
of ollce.
14S0 C.L. to 17S0 C.L.

!",%"!"

1hen she wenL from hlm Lo Lhe vlzler, Lo whom
she offered her peLlLlon for Lhe release from
prlson of her broLher, who was absoluLely
necessary Lo her, buL he also demanded she
glve herself Lo hlm, saylng "Allow me Lo do
whaL l wlll wlLh you and l wlll seL your broLher
free."
She sald, "lf you lnslsL, leL lL be ln my house, for
Lhere we shall boLh have more prlvacy. lL ls noL
far away, and you l wlll wash and dress myself
properly for you.
Pe asked, "Where ls your house."
"ln such-and-such a place," she answered, and
seL Lhe same Llme for as for Lhe Lwo oLhers.
1hen she lefL hlm Lo go Lo Lhe klng and Lold hlm
her sLory and soughL her broLher's release.
"Who lmprlsoned hlm?" he asked, and she
replled, "lL was Lhe Chlef of ollce." When Lhe
klng heard her speech, lL plerced hls hearL wlLh
arrows of love, and he asked her Lo enLer Lhls
prlvaLe chamber wlLh hlm so LhaL he mlghL send
Lo Lhe Cadl Lo have her broLher released.
8uL she sald, "C klng, everyLhlng ls easy for you,
wheLher l agree or noL, and lf Lhe klng lndeed
wanLs me, l am forLunaLe, buL lf he wlll come Lo
my house he wlll do me more honor by enLerlng
lL, as Lhe poeL says: "C my frlends, have you
seen or have you heard of hls vlslL whose
vlrLues l hold so hlgh?"
1he klng sald, "l do noL dlsagree." So she seL for
hlm Lhe same Llme as Lhe Lhree oLhers and Lold
hlm where her house was.
1hen she lefL hlm and soughL ouL a carpenLer,
and Lold hlm "l wanL you Lo make me a cablneL
wlLh four comparLmenLs, one above Lhe oLher,
each wlLh a door LhaL can be locked. LeL me
know how much lL wlll cosL and l wlll pay lL."
Pe replled, "My prlce ls four dlnars, buL, sweeL
lady, lf you wlll granL me your favors, l wlll
charge you noLhlng."
She answered, "lf lL ls absoluLely necessary, l
wlll agree, buL ln LhaL case make flve
comparLmenLs wlLh Lhelr padlocks," and she
Lold hlm Lo brlng lL exacLly on Lhe day requlred.
Pe sald, "1hls ls well, slL down, C my lady, and l
wlll make lL for you lmmedlaLely, and Lhen wlll
come wlLh you." So she saL down by hlm whlle
he began worklng on Lhe cablneL, and when he
had flnlshed lL she asked Lo have lL carrled
home aL once and seL up ln her slLLlng-room.
1hen she Look four gowns and carrled Lhem Lo
Lhe dyer, who dyed each of Lhem a dlfferenL
color, afLer whlch she prepared meaL and drlnk,
frulLs, flowers, and perfumes.
now when Lhe appolnLed day came, she puL on
her cosLllesL dress and adorned herself and
scenLed herself, Lhen spread Lhe slLLlng-room
wlLh varlous klnds of rlch carpeLs and saL down
Lo awalL who should come.
1he Cadl was Lhe flrsL Lo appear, and when she
saw hlm, she rose Lo her feeL and klssed Lhe
ground before hlm. 1hen, Laklng hlm by Lhe
hand, made hlm slL down by her on Lhe couch
and lay wlLh hlm and fell Lo [oklng and Loylng
wlLh hlm. Soon he wanLed Lo fulflll hls deslres
wlLh her, buL she sald, "C my lord, Lake off your
cloLhes and Lurban and puL on Lhls yellow robe
and bonneL(1), whlle l brlng you food and drlnk,
and Lhen you shall do whaL you wlll." So saylng,
she Look hls cloLhes and Lurban and dressed
hlm ln Lhe robe and bonneL, buL hardly had she
done Lhls when Lhere was a knocklng aL Lhe
door.
Pe asked, "Who ls LhaL knocklng aL Lhe door?"
and she answered, "My husband!"
"WhaL shall l do? Where shall l go?" Lhe Cadl
sald.
14S0 C.L. to 17S0 C.L.

!",&"!"

"Pave no fear," she replled," l wlll hlde you ln
Lhls cablneL," and he answered, "uo whaLever
you Lhlnk necessary." So she Look hlm by Lhe
hand, and pushlng hlm lnLo Lhe lowesL
comparLmenL, locked he door on hlm. 1hen she
wenL Lo Lhe door of Lhe house, where she found
Lhe Chlef, so she klssed Lhe ground before hlm,
and Laklng hls hand, broughL hlm lnLo Lhe
slLLlng-room and sald Lo hlm, "C my lord, make
Lhls house your own, Lhls place you place, and l
wlll be your servanL. ?ou shall spend all days
wlLh me, so Lake off your cloLhes and puL on
Lhls red sleeplng gown." So she Look away hls
cloLhes and made hlm puL on Lhe red gown and
seL on hls head an old paLched rag she
happened Lo have, afLer whlch she saL by hlm
on Lhe dlvan and Lhey Loyed wlLh each oLher
unLll he reached Lo Louch her lnLlmaLely,
whereupon she sald Lo hlm, "C our lord, Lhls ls
your day, and no one wlll share lL wlLh us, buL
flrsL, lf you wlll be so klnd and generous, wrlLe
me an order for my broLher's release from [all
so LhaL my hearL can resL easy."
Pe sald, "l hear and obey, by my head and
eyes!" and wroLe a leLLer Lo hls Lreasurer saylng,
"As soon as Lhls communlcaLlon reaches you,
seL So-and-so free, wlLhouL delay. uo noL even
walL Lo glve Lhe messenger an answer." 1hen he
sealed lL and she Look lL from hlm, afLer whlch
she began Lo Loy wlLh hlm on Lhe dlvan agaln
when someone suddenly knocked aL Lhe door.
"Who ls LhaL?" he asked, and she answered,
"My husband." "WhaL shall l do?" he asked, and
she replled, "LnLer Lhls cablneL, Llll ls end hlm
away and reLurn Lo you."
So she seL hlm up ln Lhe second comparLmenL
from Lhe boLLom and padlocked Lhe door, and
meanwhlle Lhe Cadl heard everyLhlng Lhey sald.
1hen she wenL Lo Lhe house door and opened lL,
and ln enLered Lhe vlzler. She klssed Lhe ground
before hlm and recelved hlm wlLh all honor,
saylng "C my lord, you flaLLer us by comlng Lo
our house, may Cod never deprlve us of Lhe
llghL of your counLenance!"
1hen she seaLed hlm on Lhe dlvan and sald Lo
hlm, "C my lord, Lake off your heavy cloLhes
and Lurban and puL on Lhese llghLer garmenLs."
So he Look off hls cloLhes and Lurban and she
dressed hlm ln a blue shlrL and a Lall red
bonneL, and sald Lo hlm, "1hose were your
offlclal robes, so leave Lhem be for Lhelr own
Llme and puL on Lhls llghL gown whlch ls more
sulLable for carouslng and maklng merry and
sleep." 1hen Lhey began Lo play wlLh each
oLher, and he was [usL abouL Lo Lake her when
she puL hlm off by saylng, "We wlll geL Lo LhaL."
As Lhey were Lalklng Lhere came a knock aL Lhe
door, and Lhe vlzler asked her, "Who ls LhaL?"
Lo whlch she replled, "My husband." "WhaL ls Lo
be done?" he sald, and she answered, "Plde ln
Lhls cablneL unLll l can geL rld of hlm and come
back Lo you, don'L be afrald." So she puL hlm ln
Lhe Lhlrd comparLmenL and locked Lhe door on
hlm, afLer whlch she wenL ouL and opened Lhe
house door, and ln came Lhe klng.
As soon as she saw hlm she klssed Lhe ground
before hlm, and Laklng hlm by Lhe hand, led hlm
lnLo Lhe slLLlng-room and seaLed hlm on Lhe
dlvan aL Lhe far end. 1hen she sald Lo hlm,
"1ruly, C klng, you honor us hlghly, and
whaLever we mlghL glve you of all Lhe world
conLalns would noL be worLh a slngle one of
your sLeps Loward us." And when he had saL
down on Lhe dlvan she sald, "ermlL me Lo say
one Lhlng."
"WhaLever you wlsh," he answered, and she
sald, "C my lord, relax and Lake off your robe
and Lurban." Pls cloLhes were worLh a Lhousand
dlnars, buL when he Look Lhem off she dressed
hlm ln a paLched gown worLh Len dlrhams aL
Lhe very mosL, and began Lalklng and [oklng
wlLh hlm. All Lhls Llme Lhe men ln Lhe cablneL
heard everyLhlng LhaL wenL on buL dld noL dare
Lo say a word. Soon Lhe klng placed hls hand on
her breasL and soughL Lo fulflll hls deslre for
her, buL she sald "We wlll do Lhls soon, buL flrsL
l promlsed myself LhaL l would enLerLaln you
properly ln Lhls room, and l have someLhlng Lo
please you."
14S0 C.L. to 17S0 C.L.

!",'"!"

As Lhey were speaklng, someone knocked aL Lhe
door and he asked her, "Who ls LhaL? "My
husband," she answered, and he sald, "Make
hlm go away volunLarlly, or l wlll go ouL and
force hlm Lo go away."
She replled, "no, C my lord, be paLlenL whlle l
send hlm away uslng my cleverness." "And whaL
shall l do?" asked Lhe klng, whereupon she Look
hlm by Lhe hand and, maklng hlm enLer Lhe
fourLh comparLmenL of Lhe cablneL, locked lL
upon hlm.
1hen she wenL ouL and opened Lhe house door
Lo Lhe carpenLer, who enLered and greeLed her.
She sald, "WhaL klnd of a cablneL ls Lhls you've
made me?" "WhaL's wrong wlLh lL, C my lady?"
he asked, and she answered, "1he Lop
comparLmenL ls Loo narrow." Pe replled, "no lL
lsn'L," and she answered, "CeL ln yourself and
see, you cannoL flL ln lL."
Pe answered, "lL ls wlse enough for four," and
enLered Lhe flfLh comparLmenL, whereupon she
locked Lhe door on hlm.
1hen she Look Lhe leLLer of Lhe Chlef of ollce
and carrled lL Lo Lhe Lreasurer who, havlng read
and undersLood lL, klssed lL and dellvered her
lover Lo her. She Lold hlm all she had done and
he sald, "8uL whaL shall we do now?" She
answered, "We wlll move away Lo anoLher clLy,
for afLer all Lhls we cannoL remaln here." So Lhe
Lwo of Lhem packed up whaL possesslons Lhey
had and, loadlng Lhem on camels, seL ouL
lmmedlaLely for anoLher clLy.
Meanwhlle, Lhe flve men remalned each ln hls
comparLmenL of Lhe cablneL wlLhouL eaLlng or
drlnklng for Lhree whole days, durlng whlch
Llme Lhey held Lhelr waLer, unLll aL lasL Lhe
carpenLer couldn'L hold back any longer, so he
plssed on Lhe klng's head, and Lhe klng plssed
on Lhe vlzler's head, and Lhe vlzler plssed on
Lhe Chlef, and Lhe Chlef plssed on Lhe Cadl,
whereupon Lhe Cadl shouLed, "WhaL fllLh ls
Lhls? lsn'L lL bad enough LhaL we are Lrapped
llke Lhls LhaL you have Lo plss all over us?"
1he Chlef of ollce recognlzed Lhe Cadl's volce
and answered, "May Cod reward you, C Cadl!"
And when Lhe Cadl heard hlm, he knew lL was
Lhe Chlef. 1hen Lhe Chlef shouLed, "WhaL's Lhe
meanlng of Lhls fllLh?" and Lhe vlzler replled,
"May Cod reward you, C Chlef!" so LhaL he
recognlzed hlm as Lhe vlzler. 1hen Lhe vlzler
shouLed "WhaL ls Lhls nasLlness?" 8uL when Lhe
klng heard hls vlzler's volce he recognlzed lL, so
he kepL sllenL Lo conceal hls pllghL.
1hen Lhe vlzler sald, "May Cod curse Lhls
woman for Lhe way she has dealL wlLh us. She
has broughL LogeLher here all Lhe chlef offlclals
of Lhe sLaLe, excepL Lhe klng. Sald Lhe klng,
"Sllence! lor l was Lhe flrsL one Lo be enLrapped
by Lhls shameless whore."
AL Lhls Lhe carpenLer crled ouL, "And whaL have
l done? l made her a cablneL for four gold
pleces, and when l came Lo geL my pay, she
Lrlcked me lnLo enLerlng Lhls comparLmenL and
locked Lhe door on me." And Lhey began Lalklng
wlLh each oLher, dlverLlng Lhe klng and reduclng
hls shame.
Soon, however, Lhe nelghbors came by Lhe
house and noLlced lL was deserLed. 1hey sald Lo
one anoLher, "Cnly yesLerday, our nelghbor Lhe
wlfe of So-and-so was home, buL no we cannoL
hear or see anyone. LeL's break down Lhe doors
and see whaL ls Lhe maLLer, or news of Lhe case
may come Lo Lhe Chlef of Lhe klng, and we wlll
be Lhrown lnLo prlson Lo regreL LhaL we had noL
Laken acLlon earller."
So Lhey broke down Lhe doors and enLered Lhe
slLLlng room, where Lhey saw a large wooden
cablneL and heard Lhe men ln lL groanlng wlLh
hunger and LhlrsL. 1hen one of Lhem sald, "ls
Lhere a Cenle (2) ln Lhls cablneL?" and anoLher
sald, "LeL's plle fuel around lL and burn lL up."
When Lhe Cadl heard Lhls, he crled ouL, "uon'L!"
and Lhey sald Lo each oLher, "1he Cenles
preLend Lhey are morLals and speak wlLh Lhe
volces of men." 1hereupon Lhe Cadl reclLed a
14S0 C.L. to 17S0 C.L.

!",("!"

passage from Lhe 8lessed Cur'an, and sald Lo
Lhe nelghbors, "Come closer Lo Lhe cablneL."
So Lhey came closer, and he Lold hlm, "l am So-
and-so Lhe Cadl, and you are so and so, and
here we are all LogeLher." 1he nelghbors sald,
"Who puL you ln here?" And he Lold Lhem Lhe
whole sLory from beglnnlng Lo end. 1hey
broughL a carpenLer Lo open Lhe flve doors and
leL ouL Lhe Cadl, Lhe vlzler, Lhe Chlef, Lhe klng
and Lhe carpenLer ln Lhelr blzarre robes, and
each one, when he saw how Lhe oLhers were
dressed, began laughlng aL Lhem. She had Laken
away all Lhelr cloLhes, so all of Lhem senL Lo
Lhelr homes for fresh cloLhlng and puL lL on and
wenL ouL, shleldlng Lhemselves from people's
eyes.
(1) lL was cusLomary for parLy guesLs Lo puL on
speclal garmenLs supplled by Lhe hosL.
(2) Maglc splrlL.
1toosloteJ by klcbotJ 8ottoo, tevlseJ by lool
8tloos

).%%$(1'#0.0()*$/$,'@(AB'(>C*+#,(D+.(,+(>;E#9&'(,*'(5#.'(F9$,*GH
1bls selectloo ls o lettet ftom tbe Ottomoo tolet, 5ellm l to bls letsloo tlvol, lsmoll l, leoJet of tbe 5bllte
5ofovlJ stote. lsmoll boJ eoteteJ Ottomoo tettltoty ooJ boJ JemooJeJ tbot Ottomoo sobjects occept
5bllsm. 1bls tespoose by 5ellm l, o commltteJ 5oool, teveols tbe Jlvlslve competltloo omooq lslomlc
tellqloos sects ooJ polltlcol leoJets. 5ellm l woo tbe bottle of cbolJltoo lo 1514 ooJ ptotecteJ bls
tettltoty ftom 5bllte eoctoocbmeot.
R2"6%$+#6S(
1. wbot ls tbe potpose of tbls wotoloq to Amlt lsmoll ftom 5oltoo 5ellm l.
2. now Joes 5ellm ose tbe Ootoo to jostlfy bls octloos?

1+2)B"S(5oool vetsos 5bllte ls ftom c. 1. lostet ooJ l. n. 8lockbotoe uoolell, 1be llfe ooJ lettets of
Oqlet Cblsello Je 8osbecp, vol. 1 (looJoo. nokloyt 5oclety, 1881), pp. 152-156, 219-221.
keep lo MloJ . . .
- wbot ls tbe potpose of tbls wotoloq to Amlt lsmoll ftom 5oltoo 5ellm l?
- now Joes 5ellm ose tbe Ootoo to jostlfy bls octloos?
cooslJet 1bls.
- Ateot 5oools ooJ 5blltes botb Mosllms? wbot wos tbe teosoo fot tbls cooftoototloo?
- wby wos 5ellm l so sote tbot be emboJleJ tbe ttoe tellqloo ooJ tbot tbls jostlfleJ bls mllltoty tbteot?

SUL1AN SLLIM I
1he Supreme 8elng who ls aL once Lhe
soverelgn arblLer of Lhe desLlnles of men and
Lhe source of all llghL and knowledge, declares
ln Lhe Cur'an LhaL Lhe Lrue falLh ls LhaL of Lhe
Musllms, and LhaL whoever professes anoLher
rellglon, far from belng hearkened Lo and saved,
wlll on Lhe conLrary be casL ouL among Lhe
re[ecLed on Lhe greaL day of Lhe LasL !udgmenL,
Pe says furLher, Lhls Cod of LruLh, LhaL Pls
deslgns and decrees are unalLerable, LhaL all
human acLs are perforce reporLed Lo Plm, and
LhaL he who abandons Lhe good way wlll be
14S0 C.L. to 17S0 C.L.

!",)"!"

condemned Lo hell-flre and eLernal LormenLs.
lace yourself, C rlnce, among Lhe Lrue
bellevers, Lhose who walk ln Lhe paLh of
salvaLlon, and who Lurn aslde wlLh care from
vlce and lnfldellLy. May Lhe puresL and hollesL
blesslngs be upon Muhammad, Lhe masLer of
Lhe Lwo worlds, Lhe prlnce of propheLs, as well
as upon hls descendanLs and all who follow hls
Law!
l, soverelgn chlef of Lhe CLLomans, masLer of
Lhe heroes of Lhe age . . . l, Lhe exLermlnaLor of
ldolaLers, desLroyer of Lhe enemles of Lhe Lrue
falLh, Lhe Lerror of Lhe LyranLs and pharaohs of
Lhe age, l, before whom proud and un[usL klngs
have humbled Lhemselves . . . and whose hand
breaks Lhe sLrongesL scepLers, . . . l address
myself graclously Lo you, Amlr lsma'll, chlef of
Lhe Lroops of ersla . . . and predesLlned Lo
perlsh . . . ln order Lo make known Lo you LhaL
Lhe works emanaLlng from Lhe AlmlghLy are noL
Lhe fraglle producLs of caprlce or folly, buL make
up an lnflnlLy of mysLerles lmpeneLrable Lo Lhe
human mlnd. 1he Lord Plmself says ln Pls holy
book: We have noL creaLed Lhe heavens and
Lhe earLh ln order Lo play a game" [Cur'an,
21:16]. Man, who ls Lhe noblesL of Lhe creaLures
and Lhe summary of Lhe marvels of Cod, ls ln
consequence on earLh Lhe llvlng lmage of Lhe
CreaLor. lL ls Pe who has seL up Callphs on
earLh, because, [olnlng faculLles of soul wlLh
perfecLlon of body, man ls Lhe only belng who
can comprehend Lhe aLLrlbuLes of Lhe dlvlnlLy
and adore lLs subllme beauLles, buL because he
possesses Lhls rare lnLelllgence, he aLLalns Lhls
dlvlne knowledge only ln our rellglon, and by
observlng Lhe precepLs of Lhe prlnce of
propheLs, Lhe Callph of Callphs, Lhe rlghL are of
Lhe Cod of Mercy, lL ls Lhen only by pracLlclng
Lhe Lrue rellglon LhaL man wlll prosper ln Lhls
world and merlL eLernal llfe ln Lhe oLher. As Lo
you, Amlr lsma'll, such a recompense wlll noL be
your loL, because you have denled Lhe sancLlLy
of Lhe dlvlne laws, because you have deserLed
Lhe paLh of salvaLlon and Lhe sacred
commandmenLs, because you have lmpalred
Lhe purlLy of Lhe dogmas of lslam, because you
have dlshonored, solled, and desLroyed Lhe
alLars of Lhe Lord, usurped Lhe scepLer of Lhe
LasL by unlawful and Lyrannlcal means, because
comlng forLh from Lhe dusL, you have ralsed
yourself by odlous devlces Lo a place shlnlng
wlLh splendor and magnlflcence, because you
have opened Lo Musllms Lhe gaLes of Lyranny
and oppresslon, because you have [olned
lnlqulLy, per[ury, and blasphemy Lo your
secLarlan lmpleLy, because under Lhe cloak of
Lhe hypocrlLe, you have sowed everywhere
Lrouble and sedlLlon, because you have ralsed
Lhe sLandard of lrrellglon and heresy, because
yleldlng Lo Lhe lmpulse of your evll passlons,
and glvlng yourself up wlLhouL reln Lo Lhe mosL
lnfamous dlsorders, you have dared Lo Lhrow
off Lhe conLrol of Musllm laws and Lo permlL
lusL and rape, Lhe massacre of Lhe mosL
vlrLuous and respecLable men, Lhe desLrucLlon
of pulplLs and Lemples . . . Lhe repudlaLlon of
Lhe Cur'an, Lhe curslng of Lhe leglLlmaLe
Callphs. now as Lhe flrsL duLy of a Musllm and
above all of a plous prlnce ls Lo obey Lhe
commandmenL, C, you falLhful who belleve, be
Lhe execuLors of Lhe decrees of Cod!" Lhe
ulama [rellglous leadershlp] and our docLors
have pronounced senLence of deaLh agalnsL
you, per[urer and blasphemer, and have
lmposed on every Musllm Lhe sacred obllgaLlon
Lo arm ln defense of rellglon and desLroy heresy
and lmpleLy ln your person and LhaL of all your
parLlsans.
AnlmaLed by Lhls [rellglous decree], conformlng
Lo Lhe Cur'an, Lhe code of dlvlne laws, and
wlshlng on one slde Lo sLrengLhen lslam, on Lhe
oLher Lo llberaLe Lhe lands and peoples who
14S0 C.L. to 17S0 C.L.

!",*"!"

wrlLhe under your yoke, we have resolved Lo lay
aslde our lmperlal robes ln order Lo puL on Lhe
shelf and coaL of mall, Lo ralse our ever
vlcLorlous banner, Lo assemble our lnvlnclble
armles, Lo Lake up Lhe gaunLleL of Lhe avenger,
Lo march wlLh our soldlers, whose sword sLrlkes
morLal blows. . . . ln pursulL of Lhls noble
resoluLlon, we have enLered upon Lhe
campalgn, and gulded by Lhe hand of Lhe
AlmlghLy, we hope soon Lo sLrlke down your
Lyrannous arm, blow away Lhe clouds of glory
and grandeur whlch Lrouble your head and
cause your faLal bllndness, release from your
despoLlsm your Lrembllng sub[ecLs, smoLher
you ln Lhe end ln Lhe very mass of flames whlch
your lnfernal [splrlL] ralses everywhere along
your passage, accompllshlng ln Lhls way on you
Lhe maxlm whlch says: Pe who sows dlscord
can only reap evlls and affllcLlons." Powever,
anxlous Lo conform Lo Lhe splrlL of Lhe law of
Lhe ropheL, we come, before commenclng
war, Lo seL ouL before you Lhe words of Lhe
Cur'an, ln place of Lhe word, and Lo exhorL you
Lo embrace Lhe Lrue falLh, Lhls ls why we
address Lhls leLLer Lo you. . . .
8uL lf, Lo your mlsforLune, you perslsL ln your
pasL conducL, lf, puffed up wlLh Lhe ldea of your
power and your foollsh bravado, you wlsh Lo
pursue Lhe course of your lnlqulLles, you wlll
see ln a few days your plalns covered wlLh our
LenLs and lnundaLed wlLh our baLLallons. 1hen
prodlgles of valor wlll be done, and we shall see
Lhe decrees of Lhe AlmlghLy, Who ls Lhe Cod of
Armles, and soverelgn [udge of Lhe acLlons of
men, accompllshed. lor Lhe resL, vlcLory Lo hlm
who follows Lhe paLh of salvaLlon!

Women |n Cttoman Soc|ety: C|g|er de 8usbecq
1be eoetqy of tbe Ottomoo mplte petbops teocbeJ lts zeoltb ooJet tbe Jltectloo of 5oltoo 5oleymoo
tbe lowqlvet (t. 1520-1566). Ooe of tbe most lmpottoot ossessmeots of 5oleymoos lofloeoce come
ftom Oqlet Cblsello Je 8osbecp, tbe ombossoJot ftom Aosttlo to 5oleymoos coott ot lstoobol ftom
1554-1562. 8osbecp boJ beeo JlspotcbeJ lo tbe teceot woke of tbe oosoccessfol Ottomoo sleqe of
vleooo lo 1529. nls mlssloo wos to ose bls Jlplomotlc skllls to pteveot oootbet posslble ottock oo tbe clty.
8osbecps lettets teveol mocb oboot 5oleymoo, bls coott, copltol, lslomlc ttoJltloos, ooJ tteotmeot of
womeo.
R2"6%$+#S(
1. wbot ls tbe tole of womeo lo Ottomoo soclety?
cooslJet 1bls.
- wby ote womeo completely coveteJ lo Ottomoo soclety? wbot wete tbe expectotloos fot womeo ot
tbls tlme ooJ wbot Jlstloctloos wete moJe betweeo wlves ooJ coocobloes?
1he 1urks are Lhe mosL careful people ln Lhe
world of Lhe modesLy of Lhelr wlves, and
Lherefore keep Lhem shuL up aL home and hlde
Lhem away, so LhaL Lhey scarce see Lhe llghL of
day. 8uL lf Lhey have Lo go lnLo Lhe sLreeLs, Lhey
are senL ouL so covered and wrapped up ln vells
LhaL Lhey seem Lo Lhose who meeL Lhem mere
glldlng ghosLs. 1hey have Lhe means of seelng
14S0 C.L. to 17S0 C.L.

!",+"!"

men Lhrough Lhelr llnen or sllken vells, whlle no
parL of Lhelr own body ls exposed Lo men's
vlew. lor lL ls a recelved oplnlon among Lhem,
LhaL no woman who ls dlsLlngulshed ln Lhe very
smallesL degree by her flgure or youLh, can be
seen by a man wlLhouL hls deslrlng her, and
Lherefore wlLhouL her recelvlng some
conLamlnaLlon, and so lL ls Lhe unlversal
pracLlce Lo conflne Lhe women Lo Lhe harem.
1helr broLhers are allowed Lo see Lhem, buL noL
Lhelr broLhers-ln-law. Men of Lhe rlcher classes,
or of hlgher rank, make lL a condlLlon when Lhey
marry, LhaL Lhelr wlves shall never seL fooL
ouLslde Lhe Lhreshold, and LhaL no man or
woman shall be admlLLed Lo see Lhem for any
reason whaLever, noL even Lhelr nearesL
relaLlons, excepL Lhelr faLhers and moLhers,
who are allowed Lo pay a vlslL Lo Lhelr
daughLers aL Lhe [fesLlval of 8alram].
Cn Lhe oLher hand, lf Lhe wlfe has a raLher hlgh
rank, or has broughL a larger dowry Lhan usual,
Lhe husband promlses on hls parL LhaL he wlll
Lake no concublne, buL wlll keep Lo her alone.
CLherwlse, Lhe 1urks are noL forbldden by any
law Lo have as many concublnes as Lhey please
ln addlLlon Lo Lhelr lawful wlves. 8eLween Lhe
chlldren of wlves and Lhose of concublnes Lhere
ls no dlsLlncLlon, and Lhey are consldered Lo
have equal rlghLs. As for concublnes, Lhey elLher
buy Lhem for Lhemselves or wln Lhem ln war,
when Lhey are Llred of Lhem Lhere ls noLhlng Lo
prevenL Lhelr brlnglng Lhem Lo markeL and
selllng Lhem, buL Lhey are enLlLled Lo Lhelr
freedom lf Lhey have borne chlldren Lo Lhelr
masLer. . . . 1he only dlsLlncLlon beLween Lhe
lawful wlfe and Lhe concublne, ls LhaL Lhe
former has a dowry, whlle Lhe slaves have none.
A wlfe who has a porLlon seLLled on her [a
dowry] ls mlsLress of her husband's house, and
all Lhe oLher women have Lo obey her orders.
1he husband, however, may choose whlch of
Lhem shall spend Lhe nlghL wlLh hlm. Pe makes
known hls wlshes Lo Lhe wlfe, and she sends Lo
hlm Lhe slave he has selecLed. . . . Cnly lrlday
nlghL . . . ls supposed Lo belong Lo Lhe wlfe, and
she grumbles lf her husband deprlves her of lL.
Cn all Lhe oLher nlghLs he may do so as he
pleases. ulvorces are granLed among Lhem for
many reasons whlch lL ls easy for Lhe husbands
Lo lnvenL. 1he dlvorced wlfe recelves back her
dowry, unless Lhe dlvorce has been caused by
some faulL on her parL. 1here ls more dlfflculLy
ln a woman's geLLlng a dlvorce from her
husband.

=:"(V#%")"6%$#>(?&))&%$-"(+@(%:"(Q$@"(+@(K'&2/&:(,]2$&#+(41789)

8oto lo 8eolo lo tbe lote 18tb ceototy, polooo wos eosloveJ os o yoooq boy ooJ posseJ tbtooqb o
votlety of expetleoces, mooy of tbem bottlble, bot be moooqeJ to ocpolte eoooqb leotoloq ooJ
loJepeoJeoce to become o mojot volce oJvocotloq oo eoJ to slovety. nls Nottotlve, wtltteo lo oqllsb lo
1789, lmmeJlotely become o seosotloo, ooJ bos temoloeJ o closslc sootce fot oot koowleJqe oboot tbe
otopeoo slove ttoJe ftom tbe polot of vlew of tbe slove.
lo wbot woys Joes polooo coottost slovety wltblo Aftlco wltb tbe sott of slovety be eocoooteteJ lo tbe
westeto bemlspbete? wbot soffetloqs Joes be Jesctlbe oo tbe slove sblp ctossloq tbe Atlootlc Oceoo to
tbe cotlbbeoo? lo wbot woys wete sloves cbeoteJ by wbltes?





14S0 C.L. to 17S0 C.L.

!",,"!"

Descr|pt|on of h|s ear|y ||fe.
Cur Llllage ls exerclsed ln a large plaln or
common, some hours walk from our dwelllngs,
and all Lhe nelghbors resorL LhlLher ln a body.
1hey use no beasLs or husbandry, and Lhelr only
lnsLrumenLs are hoes, axes, shovels, and beaks,
or polnLed lron Lo dlg wlLh. SomeLlmes we are
vlslLed by locusLs, whlch come ln large clouds so
as Lo darken Lhe alr and desLroy our harvesL.
1hls however happens rarely, buL when lL does
a famlne ls produced by lL. l remember an
lnsLance or Lwo whereln Lhls happened. 1hls
common ls ofLen Lhe LheaLer of war and
Lherefore when our people go ouL Lo Llll Lhelr
land Lhey noL only go ln a body buL generally
Lake Lhelr arms wlLh Lhem for fear of a surprlse,
and when Lhey apprehend an lnvaslon Lhey
guard Lhe avenues Lo Lhelr dwelllngs by drlvlng
sLlcks lnLo Lhe ground, whlch are so sharp aL
one end as Lo plerce Lhe fooL and are generally
dlpped ln polson. lrom whaL l can recollecL of
Lhese baLLles, Lhey appear Lo have been
lrrupLlons of one llLLle sLaLe or dlsLrlcL on Lhe
oLher Lo obLaln prlsoners or booLy. erhaps
Lhey were lnclLed Lo Lhls by Lhose Lraders who
broughL Lhe Luropean goods l menLloned
amongsL us. Such a mode of obLalnlng slaves ln
Afrlca ls common, and l belleve morc are
procured Lhls way and by kldnapplng Lhan any
oLher. When a Lrader wanLs slaves he applles Lo
a chlef for Lhem and LempLs hlm wlLh hls wares.
lL ls noL exLraordlnary lf on Lhls occaslon he
ylelds Lo Lhe LempLaLlon wlLh as llLLle flrmness,
and accepLs Lhe prlce of hls fellow creaLure's
llberLy wlLh as llLLle relucLance as Lhe
enllghLened merchanL. Accordlngly he falls on
hls nelghbours and a desperaLe baLLle ensues. lf
he prevalls and Lakes prlsoners, he graLlfles hls
avarlce by selllng Lhem, buL lf hls parLy be
vanqulshed and he falls lnLo Lhe hands of Lhe
enemy, he ls puL Lo deaLh: for as he has been
known Lo fomenL Lhelr quarrels lL ls LhoughL
dangerous Lo leL hlm survlve, and no ransom
can save hlm, Lhough all oLher prlsoners may be
redeemed. We have flre-arms, bows and
arrows, broad Lwo-edged swords and [avellns:
we have shlelds also whlch cover a man from
head Lo fooL. All are LaughL Lhe use of Lhese
weapons, even our women are warrlors and
march boldly ouL Lo flghL along wlLh Lhe men.
Cur whole dlsLrlcL ls a klnd of mlllLla: on a
cerLaln slgnal glven, such as Lhe flrlng of a gun
aL nlghL, Lhey all rlse ln arms and rush upon
Lhelr enemy. lL ls perhaps someLhlng
remarkable LhaL when our people march Lo Lhe
fleld a red flag or banner ls borne before Lhem. l
was once a wlLness Lo a baLLle ln our common.
We had been all aL work ln lL one day as usual,
when our people were suddenly aLLacked. l
cllmbed a Lree aL some dlsLance, from whlch l
beheld Lhe flghL. 1here were many women as
well as men on boLh sldes, among oLhers my
moLher was Lhere, and armed wlLh a broad
sword. AfLer flghLlng for a conslderable Llme
wlLh greaL fury and afLer many had been kllled,
our people obLalned Lhe vlcLory and Look Lhelr
enemy's Chlef prlsoner. Pc was carrled off ln
greaL Lrlumph, and Lhough he offered a large
ransom for hls llfe he was puL Lo deaLh. A vlrgln
of noLe among our enemles had been slaln ln
Lhe baLLle, and her arm was exposed ln our
markeL-place where our Lrophles were always
exhlblLed. 1he spolls were dlvlded accordlng Lo
Lhe merlL of Lhe warrlors. 1hose prlsoners whlch
were noL sold or redeemed we kepL as slaves:
buL how dlfferenL was Lhelr condlLlon from LhaL
of Lhe slaves ln Lhe WesL lndles! WlLh us Lhey do
no more work Lhan oLher members of Lhe
communlLy, even Lhelr masLer, Lhelr food,
cloLhlng and lodglng were nearly Lhe same as
Lhelrs, (excepL LhaL Lhey were noL permlLLed Lo
eaL wlLh Lhose who were freeborn), and Lhere
was scarce any oLher dlfference beLween Lhem
Lhan a superlor degree of lmporLance whlch Lhe
head of a famlly possesses ln our sLaLe, and LhaL
auLhorlLy whlch, as such, he exerclses over
every parL of hls household. Some of Lhcse
slaves have even slaves under Lhem as Lhelr
own properLy and for Lhelr own use.

Lns|avement
My faLher, besldes many slaves, had a
numerous famlly of whlch seven llved Lo grow
14S0 C.L. to 17S0 C.L.

!"$--"!"

up, lncludlng myself and a slsLer who was Lhe
only daughLer. As l was Lhe youngesL of Lhe
sons l became, of course, Lhe greaLesL favourlLe
wlLh my moLher and was always wlLh her, and
she used Lo Lake parLlcular palns Lo form my
mlnd. l was Lralned up from my earllesL years ln
Lhe arL of war, my dally exerclse was shooLlng
and Lhrowlng [avellns, and my moLher adorned
me wlLh emblems afLer Lhe manner of our
greaLesL warrlors. ln Lhls way l grew up Llll l was
Lurned Lhe age of 11, when an end was puL Lo
my happlness ln Lhe followlng manner.
Cenerally when Lhe grown people ln Lhe
nelghbourhood were gone far ln Lhe flelds Lo
labour, Lhe chlldren assembled LogeLher ln
some of Lhe nelghbours' premlses Lo play, and
commonly some of us used Lo geL up a Lree Lo
look ouL for any assallanL or kldnapper LhaL
mlghL come upon us, for Lhey someLlmes Look
Lhose opporLunlLles of our parenLs' absence Lo
aLLack and carry off as many as Lhey could selze.
Cne day, as l was waLchlng aL Lhe Lop of a Lree
ln our yard, l saw one of Lhose people come lnLo
Lhe yard of our nexL nelghbour buL one Lo
kldnap, Lhere belng many sLouL young people ln
lL. lmmedlaLely on Lhls l gave Lhe alarm of Lhe
rogue and he was surrounded by Lhe sLouLesL of
Lhem, who enLangled hlm wlLh cords so LhaL he
could noL escape Llll some of Lhe grown people
came and secured hlm. 8uL alas! ere long lL was
my faLe Lo be Lhus aLLacked and Lo be carrled
off when none of Lhe grown people were nlgh.
Cne day, when all our people were gone ouL Lo
Lhelr works as usual and only l and my dear
slsLer were lefL Lo mlnd Lhe house, Lwo men and
a woman goL over our walls, and ln a momenL
selzed us boLh, and wlLhouL glvlng us Llme Lo cry
ouL or make reslsLance Lhey sLopped our
mouLhs and ran off wlLh us lnLo Lhe nearesL
wood. Pere Lhey Lled our hands and conLlnued
Lo carry us as far as Lhey could Llll nlghL came
on, when we reached a small house where Lhe
robbers halLed for refreshmenL and spenL Lhe
nlghL. We were Lhen unbound buL were unable
Lo Lake any food, and belng qulLe overpowered
by faLlgue and grlef, our only rellef was some
sleep, whlch allayed our mlsforLune for a shorL
Llme. 1he nexL mornlng we lefL Lhe house and
conLlnued Lravelllng all Lhe day. lor a long Llme
we had kepL Lo Lhe woods, buL aL lasL we came
lnLo a road whlch l belleved l knew. l had now
some hopes of belng dellvered, for we had
advanced buL a llLLle way before l dlscovered
some people aL a dlsLance, on whlch l began Lo
cry ouL for Lhelr asslsLance: buL my crles had no
oLher effecL Lhan Lo make Lhem Lle me fasLer
and sLop my mouLh, and Lhen Lhey puL me lnLo
a large sack. 1hey also sLopped my slsLer's
mouLh and Lled her hands and ln Lhls manner
we proceeded Llll we were ouL of Lhe slghL of
Lhese people. When we wenL Lo resL Lhe
followlng nlghL Lhey offered us some vlcLuals,
buL we refused lL, and Lhe only comforL we had
was ln belng ln one anoLher's arms all LhaL nlghL
and baLhlng each oLher wlLh our Lears. 8uL alas!
we were soon deprlved of even Lhe small
comforL of weeplng LogeLher. 1he nexL day
proved a day of greaLer sorrow Lhan l had yeL
experlenced, for my slsLer and l were Lhen
separaLed whlle we lay clasped ln each oLher's
arms. lL was ln valn LhaL we besoughL Lhem noL
Lo parL us, she was Lorn from me and
lmmedlaLely carrled away, whlle l was lefL ln a
sLaLe of dlsLracLlon noL Lo be descrlbed. l crled
and grleved conLlnually, and for several days l
dld noL eaL anyLhlng buL whaL Lhey forced lnLo
my mouLh.

Cn the s|ave sh|p
l now saw myself deprlved of all chance of
reLurnlng Lo my naLlve counLry or even Lhe leasL
gllmpse of hope of galnlng Lhe shore, whlch l
now consldered as frlendly, and l even wlshed
for my former slavery ln preference Lo my
presenL slLuaLlon, whlch was fllled wlLh horrors
of every klnd, sLlll helghLened by my lgnorance
of whaL l was Lo undergo. l was noL long
suffered Lo lndulge my grlef, l was soon puL
down under Lhe decks, and Lhere l recelved
such a saluLaLlon ln my nosLrlls as l had never
experlenced ln my llfe: so LhaL wlLh Lhe
loaLhsomeness of Lhe sLench and crylng
LogeLher, l became so slck and low LhaL l was
noL able Lo eaL, nor had l Lhe leasL deslre Lo
14S0 C.L. to 17S0 C.L.

!"$-$"!"

LasLe anyLhlng. l now wlshed for Lhe lasL frlend,
deaLh, Lo relleve me, buL soon, Lo my grlef, Lwo
of Lhe whlLe men offered me eaLables, and on
my refuslng Lo eaL, one of Lhem held me fasL by
Lhe hands and lald me across l Lhlnk Lhe
wlndlass, and Lled my feeL whlle Lhe oLher
flogged me severely. l had never experlenced
anyLhlng of Lhls klnd before, and alLhough, noL
belng used Lo Lhe waLer, l naLurally feared LhaL
elemenL Lhe flrsL Llme l saw lL, yeL neverLheless
could l have goL over Lhe neLLlngs l would have
[umped over Lhe slde, buL l could noL, and
besldes, Lhe crew used Lo waLch us very closely
who were noL chalned down Lo Lhe decks, lesL
we should leap lnLo Lhe waLer: and l have seen
some of Lhese poor Afrlcan prlsoners mosL
severely cuL for aLLempLlng Lo do so, and hourly
whlpped for noL eaLlng. 1hls lndeed was ofLen
Lhe case wlLh myself. ln a llLLle Llme afLer,
amongsL Lhe poor chalned men l found some of
my own naLlon, whlch ln a small degree gave
ease Lo my mlnd. l lnqulred of Lhese whaL was
Lo be done wlLh us, Lhey gave me Lo undersLand
we were Lo be carrled Lo Lhese whlLe people's
counLry Lo work for Lhem. l Lhen was a llLLle
revlved, and LhoughL lf lL were no worse Lhan
worklng, my slLuaLlon was noL so desperaLe: buL
sLlll l feared l should be puL Lo deaLh, Lhe whlLe
people looked and acLed, as l LhoughL, ln so
savage a manner, for l had never seen among
my people such lnsLances of bruLal cruelLy, and
Lhls noL only shewn Lowards us blacks buL also
Lo some of Lhe whlLes Lhemselves. Cne whlLe
man ln parLlcular l saw, when we were
permlLLed Lo be on deck, flogged so
unmerclfully wlLh a large rope near Lhe
foremasL LhaL he dled ln consequence of lL, and
Lhey Lossed hlm over Lhe slde as Lhey would
have done a bruLe. 1hls made me fear Lhese
people Lhe more, and l expecLed noLhlng less
Lhan Lo be LreaLed ln Lhe same manner. . . .
1he sLench of Lhe hold whlle we were on Lhe
coasL was so lnLolerably loaLhsome LhaL lL was
dangerous Lo remaln Lhere for any Llme, and
some of us had been permlLLed Lo sLay on Lhe
deck for Lhe fresh alr, buL now LhaL Lhe whole
shlp's cargo were conflned LogeLher lL became
absoluLely pesLllenLlal. 1he closeness of Lhe
place and Lhe heaL of Lhe cllmaLe, added Lo Lhe
number ln Lhe shlp, whlch was so crowded LhaL
each had scarcely room Lo Lurn hlmself, almosL
suffocaLed us. 1hls produced coplous
persplraLlons, so LhaL Lhe alr soon became unflL
for resplraLlon from a varleLy of loaLhsome
smells, and broughL on a slckness among Lhe
slaves, of whlch many dled, Lhus falllng vlcLlms
Lo Lhe lmprovldenL avarlce, as l may call lL, of
Lhelr purchasers. 1hls wreLched slLuaLlon was
agaln aggravaLed by Lhe galllng of Lhe chalns,
now become lnsupporLable and Lhe fllLh of Lhe
necessary Lubs, lnLo whlch Lhe chlldren ofLen
fell and were almosL suffocaLed. 1he shrleks of
Lhe women and Lhe groans of Lhe dylng
rendered Lhe whole a scene of horror almosL
lnconcelvable. Papplly perhaps for myself l was
soon reduced so low here LhaL lL was LhoughL
necessary Lo keep me almosL always on deck,
and from my exLreme youLh l was noL puL ln
feLLers. ln Lhls slLuaLlon l expecLed every hour Lo
share Lhe faLe of my companlons, some of
whom were almosL dally broughL upon deck aL
Lhe polnL of deaLh, whlch l began Lo hope would
soon puL an end Lo my mlserles. CfLen dld l
Lhlnk many of Lhe lnhablLanLs of Lhe deep much
more happy Lhan myself. l envled Lhem Lhe
freedom Lhey en[oyed, and as ofLen wlshed l
could change my condlLlon for Lhelrs. Lvery
clrcumsLance l meL wlLh served only Lo render
my sLaLe more palnful, and helghLen my
apprehenslons and my oplnlon of Lhe cruelLy of
Lhe whlLes. Cne day Lhey had Laken a number
of flshes, and when Lhey had kllled and saLlsfled
Lhemselves wlLh as many as Lhey LhoughL flL, Lo
our asLonlshmenL who were on Lhe deck, raLher
Lhan glve any of Lhem Lo us Lo eaL as we
expecLed, Lhey Lossed Lhe remalnlng flsh lnLo
Lhe sea agaln, alLhough we begged and prayed
for some as well as we could, buL ln valn, and
some of my counLrymen, belng pressed by
hunger, Look an opporLunlLy when Lhey LhoughL
no one saw Lhem of Lrylng Lo geL a llLLle
prlvaLely, buL Lhey were dlscovered, and Lhe
aLLempL procured Lhem some very severe
flogglngs. Cne day, when we had a smooLh sea
and moderaLe wlnd, Lwo of my wearled
14S0 C.L. to 17S0 C.L.

!"$-%"!"

counLrymen who were chalned LogeLher (l was
near Lhem aL Lhe Llme), preferrlng deaLh Lo such
a llfe of mlsery, somehow made Lhrough Lhe
neLLlngs and [umped lnLo Lhe sea: lmmedlaLely
anoLher qulLe de[ecLed fellow, who on accounL
of hls lllness was suffered Lo be ouL of lrons,
also followed Lhelr example, and l belleve many
more would very soon have done Lhe same lf
Lhey had noL been prevenLed by Lhe shlp's
crew, who were lnsLanLly alarmed. 1hose of us
LhaL were Lhe mosL acLlve were ln a momenL
puL down under Lhe deck, and Lhere was such a
nolse and confuslon amongsL Lhe people of Lhe
shlp as l never heard before, Lo sLop her and geL
Lhe boaL ouL Lo go afLer Lhe slaves. Powever
Lwo of Lhe wreLches were drowned, buL Lhey
goL Lhe oLher and afLerwards flogged hlm
unmerclfully for Lhus aLLempLlng Lo prefer
deaLh Lo slavery. ln Lhls manner we conLlnued
Lo undergo more hardshlps Lhan l can now
relaLe, hardshlps whlch are lnseparable from
Lhls accursed Lrade.

L|fe |n s|avery
lL was very common ln several of Lhe lslands,
parLlcularly ln SL klLL's, for Lhe slaves Lo be
branded wlLh Lhe lnlLlal leLLers of Lhelr masLer's
name, and a load of heavy lron hooks hung
abouL Lhelr necks. lndeed on Lhe mosL Lrlfllng
occaslons Lhey were loaded wlLh chalns, and
ofLen lnsLrumenLs of LorLure were added. 1he
lron muzzle, Lhumbscrews, eLc. are so well
known as noL Lo need a descrlpLlon, and were
someLlmes applled for Lhe sllghLesL faulLs. l
have seen a negro beaLen Llll some of hls bones
were broken for even leLLlng a poL boll over. lL
ls surprlslng LhaL usage llke Lhls should drlve Lhe
poor creaLures Lo despalr and make Lhem seek
refuge ln deaLh from Lhose evlls whlch render
Lhelr llves lnLolerable whlle,
"WlLh shudd'rlng horror pale, and eyes aghasL,
1hey vlew Lhelr lamenLable loL, and flnd
no resL !" (1)
1hls Lhey frequenLly do. A negro-man on board
a vessel of my masLer, whlle l belonged Lo her,
havlng been puL ln lrons for some Lrlfllng
mlsdemeanour and kepL ln LhaL sLaLe for some
days, belng weary of llfe, Look an opporLunlLy of
[umplng overboard lnLo Lhe sea, however, he
was plcked up wlLhouL belng drowned. AnoLher
whose llfe was also a burden Lo hlm resolved Lo
sLarve hlmself Lo deaLh, and refused Lo eaL any
vlcLuals, Lhls procured hlm a severe flogglng,
and he also, on Lhe flrsL occaslon whlch offered,
[umped overboard aL CharlesLon, buL was
saved.
nor ls Lhere any greaLer regard shown Lo Lhe
llLLle properLy, Lhan Lhere ls Lo Lhe persons and
llves of Lhe negroes. l have already relaLed an
lnsLance or Lwo of parLlcular oppresslon ouL of
many whlch l have wlLnessed, buL Lhe followlng
ls frequenL ln all Lhe lslands. 1he wreLched fleld-
slaves, afLer Lolllng all Lhe day for an unfeellng
owner who glves Lhem buL llLLle vlcLuals, sLeal
someLlmes a few momenLs from resL or
refreshmenL Lo gaLher some small porLlon of
grass, accordlng as Lhelr Llme wlll admlL. 1hls
Lhey commonly Lle up ln a parcel, (elLher a blL,
worLh slx pence, or half a blL's-worLh) and brlng
lL Lo Lown or Lo Lhe markeL Lo sell. noLhlng ls
more common Lhan for Lhe whlLe people on Lhls
occaslon Lo Lake Lhe grass from Lhem wlLhouL
paylng for lL, and noL only so, buL Loo ofLen also
Lo my knowledge our clerks and many oLhers aL
Lhe same Llme have commlLLed acLs of vlolence
on Lhe poor, wreLched, and helpless females,
whom l have seen for hours sLand crylng Lo no
purpose and geL no redress or pay of any klnd.
ls noL Lhls one common and crylng sln enough
Lo brlng down Cod's [udgemenL on Lhe lslands?
Pe Lells us Lhe oppressor and Lhe oppressed are
boLh ln hls hands, and lf Lhese are noL Lhe poor,
Lhe broken-hearLed, Lhe bllnd, Lhe capLlve, Lhe
brulsed, whlch our Savlour speaks of, who are
Lhey? Cne of Lhese depredaLors once ln SL
LusLaLla came on board our vessel and boughL
some fowls and plgs of me, and a whole day
afLer hls deparLure wlLh Lhe Lhlngs he reLurned
agaln and wanLed hls money back: l refused Lo
glve lL and noL seelng my capLaln on board, he
14S0 C.L. to 17S0 C.L.

!"$-&"!"

began Lhe common pranks wlLh me, and swore
he would even break open my chesL and Lake
my money. l Lherefore expecLed, as my capLaln
was absenL, LhaL he would be as good as hls
word, and he was [usL proceedlng Lo sLrlke me,
when forLunaLely a 8rlLlsh seaman on board,
whose hearL had noL been debauched by a
WesL lndla cllmaLe, lnLerposed and prevenLed
hlm. 8uL had Lhe cruel man sLruck me l cerLalnly
should have defended myself aL Lhe hazard of
my llfe, for whaL ls llfe Lo a man Lhus
oppressed? Pe wenL away, however, swearlng,
and LhreaLened LhaL whenever he caughL me on
shore he would shooL me, and pay for me
afLerwards.
1he small accounL ln whlch Lhe llfe of a negro ls
held ln Lhe WesL lndles ls so unlversally known
LhaL lL mlghL seem lmperLlnenL Lo quoLe Lhe
followlng exLracL, lf some people had noL been
hardy enough of laLe Lo asserL LhaL negroes are
on Lhe same fooLlng ln LhaL respecL as
Luropeans. 8y Lhe 329Lh AcL, page 123, of Lhe
assembly of 8arbadoes lL ls enacLed "1haL lf any
negro, or oLher slave, under punlshmenL by hls
masLer, or hls order, for runnlng away, or any
oLher crlme or mlsdemeanour Lowards hls sald
masLer, unforLunaLely shall suffer ln llfe or
member, no person whaLsoever shall be llable
Lo a flne, buL lf any man shall ouL of
wanLonness, or only of bloody-mlndedness, or
cruel lnLenLlon, wllfully klll a negro, or oLher
slave, of hls own, he shall pay lnLo Lhe publlc
Lreasury flfLeen pounds sLerllng." And lL ls Lhe
same ln mosL, lf noL all, of Lhe WesL lndla
lslands.
(1) 1hese llnes descrlbe Lhe pllghL of Lhe
damned ln MllLon's lotoJlse lost.
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.
!"$-'"!"

Ma[or Deve|opments
8) CuesLlons of perlodlzaLlon
A) ConLlnulLles and breaks, causes of changes from Lhe prevlous perlod and wlLhln Lhls perlod
9) Changes ln global commerce, communlcaLlons, and Lechnology
A) lndusLrlal 8evoluLlon (LransformaLlve effecLs on and dlfferenLlal Llmlng ln dlfferenL socleLles, muLual relaLlon of lndusLrlal and
sclenLlflc developmenLs, commonallLles)
8) Changes ln paLLerns of world Lrade
10) uemographlc and envlronmenLal changes (mlgraLlons, end of Lhe ALlanLlc slave Lrade, new blrLhraLe paLLerns, food supply)
11) Changes ln soclal and gender sLrucLure (lndusLrlal 8evoluLlon, commerclal and demographlc developmenLs, emanclpaLlon of serfs/slaves,
and Lenslon beLween work paLLerns and ldeas abouL gender)
A) ollLlcal revoluLlons and lndependence movemenLs, new pollLlcal ldeas
8) unlLed SLaLes and LaLln Amerlcan lndependence movemenLs
C) 8evoluLlons (unlLed SLaLes, lrance, PalLl, Mexlco, Chlna)
u) 8lse of naLlonallsm, naLlon-sLaLes, and movemenLs of pollLlcal reform
12) 8lse of democracy and lLs llmlLaLlons: reform, women, raclsm
13) 8lse of WesLern domlnance (economlc, pollLlcal, soclal, culLural and arLlsLlc, paLLerns of expanslon, lmperlallsm and colonlallsm) and
dlfferenL culLural and pollLlcal reacLlons (reform, reslsLance, rebelllon, raclsm, naLlonallsm)
14) ulverse lnLerpreLaLlons
A) WhaL are Lhe debaLes over Lhe uLlllLy of modernlzaLlon Lheory as a framework for lnLerpreLlng evenLs ln Lhls perlod and Lhe nexL?
8) WhaL are Lhe debaLes abouL Lhe causes of serf and slave emanclpaLlon ln Lhls perlod and how do Lhese debaLes flL lnLo broader
comparlsons of labor sysLems?
C) WhaL are Lhe debaLes over Lhe naLure of women's roles ln Lhls perlod and how do Lhese debaLes apply Lo lndusLrlallzed areas and
how do Lhey apply ln colonlal socleLles?
Ma[or Compar|sons and Snapshots
! Compare Lhe causes and early phases of Lhe lndusLrlal revoluLlon ln wesLern Lurope and !apan
! ComparaLlve revoluLlons (compare Lhe PalLlan and lrench 8evoluLlons)
! Compare reacLlon Lo forelgn lnLerference ln: Lhe CLLoman Lmplre, Chlna, lndla, and !apan
! Compare naLlonallsm
! Lxplaln forms of WesLern lnLervenLlon ln LaLln Amerlca, Afrlca, and SouLheasL Asla
! Compare Lhe roles and condlLlons of women ln Lhe upper/mlddle classes wlLh peasanLry/worklng class ln wesLern Lurope
Lxamp|es of What ou Need to know
8elow are examples of Lhe Lypes of lnformaLlon you are expecLed Lo know conLrasLed wlLh examples of Lhose Lhlngs you are noL expecLed Lo
know for Lhe mulLlple-cholce secLlon.
! Causes of LaLln Amerlcan lndependence movemenLs, buL noL speclflc proLagonlsLs.
! 1he lrench 8evoluLlon of 1789, buL noL Lhe 8evoluLlon of 1830
! Mel[l 8esLoraLlon, buL noL lranlan ConsLlLuLlonal 8evoluLlon
! Causes of LaLln Amerlcan lndependence movemenLs, buL noL speclflc proLagonlsLs
! 8oxer 8ebelllon, buL noL Lhe Crlmean War
! Suez Canal, buL noL Lhe Lrle Canal
! Muhammad All, buL noL lsma'll
! Marxlsm, buL noL uLoplan soclallsm
! Soclal uarwlnlsm, buL noL PerberL Spencer


14S0 C.L. to 17S0 C.L.

!"$-("!"

ka|bara Lkken: Greater Learn|ng for Women (1762)

1bls tteotlse oo ptopet toles fot womeo wos wlJely lofloeotlol lo tbe lotet Jo letloJ (1600-1868), ooJ
JeooooceJ os tettoqtoJe Jotloq tbe ptoqtesslve petloJ tbot followeJ tbe Meljl kestototloo of 1868. lt ls
commooly otttlboteJ to tbe coofocloo scbolot kolboto kkeo (16J0-1714), boseJ oo lts slmllotltles to ooe
of bls wotks, bot lt bos olso beeo soqqesteJ tbot lt moy be oo oJoptotloo of bls lJeos by bls wlfe, kolboto
1okeo (1652-171J), olso o scbolot.
wbot poolltles ote cooslJeteJ ooJesltoble lo womeo lo tbls possoqe?

Seelng LhaL lL ls a glrl's desLlny, on reachlng
womanhood, Lo go Lo a new home, and llve ln
submlsslon Lo her faLher-ln-law and moLher-ln-
law, lL ls even more lncumbenL upon her Lhan lL
ls on a boy Lo recelve wlLh all reverence her
parenLs' lnsLrucLlons. Should her parenLs,
Lhrough excess of Lenderness, allow her Lo grow
up self-wllled, she wlll lnfalllbly show herself
caprlclous ln her husband's house, and Lhus
allenaLe hls affecLlon, whlle, lf her faLher-ln-law
be a man of correcL prlnclples, Lhe glrl wlll flnd
Lhe yoke of Lhese prlnclples lnLolerable. . . .
More preclous ln a woman ls a vlrLuous hearL
Lhan a face of beauLy. 1he vlclous woman's
hearL ls ever exclLed, she glares wlldly around
her, she venLs her anger on oLhers, her words
are harsh and her accenL vulgar. When she
speaks lL ls Lo seL herself above oLhers, Lo
upbrald oLhers, Lo envy oLhers, Lo be puffed up
wlLh lndlvldual prlde, Lo [eer aL oLhers, Lo ouLdo
oLhers,--all Lhlngs aL varlance wlLh Lhe "way" ln
whlch a woman should walk. 1he only quallLles
LhaL beflL a woman are genLle obedlence,
chasLlLy, mercy, and quleLness.
lrom her earllesL youLh, a glrl should observe
Lhe llne of demarcaLlon separaLlng women from
men, and never, even for an lnsLanL, should she
be allowed Lo see or hear Lhe sllghLesL
lmproprleLy. 1he cusLoms of anLlqulLy dld noL
allow men and women Lo slL ln Lhe same
aparLmenL, Lo keep Lhelr wearlng-apparel ln Lhe
same place, Lo baLhe ln Lhe same place or Lo
LransmlL Lo each oLher anyLhlng dlrecLly from
hand Lo hand. . . .
LeL her never even dream of [ealousy. lf her
husband be dlssoluLe, she musL exposLulaLe
wlLh hlm, buL never elLher nurse or venL her
anger. lf her [ealousy be exLreme, lL wlll render
her counLenance frlghLful and her accenLs
repulslve, and can only resulL ln compleLely
allenaLlng her husband from her, and maklng
her lnLolerable ln hls eyes. Should her husband
acL lll (1) and unreasonably, she musL compose
her counLenance and sofLen her volce Lo
remonsLraLe wlLh hlm, and lf he be angry and
llsLen noL Lo Lhe remonsLrance, she musL walL
over a season, and Lhen exposLulaLe wlLh hlm
agaln when hls hearL ls sofLened. never seL
Lhyself up agalnsL Lhy husband wlLh harsh
feaLures and a bolsLerous volce! . . .
1he flve worsL maladles LhaL affllcL Lhe female
mlnd are: lndoclllLy, (2) dlsconLenL, slander,
[ealousy, and sllllness. WlLhouL any doubL, Lhese
flve maladles lnfesL seven or elghL ouL of every
Len women, and lL ls from Lhese LhaL arlses Lhe
lnferlorlLy of women Lo men. A woman should
cure Lhem by self-lnspecLlon and self-reproach.
1he worsL of Lhem all, and Lhe parenL of Lhe
oLher four, ls sllllness.
Woman's naLure ls passlve. 1hls passlveness,
belng of Lhe naLure of Lhe nlghL, ls dark. Pence,
as vlewed from Lhe sLandard of man's naLure,
Lhe foollshness of woman falls Lo undersLand
Lhe duLles LhaL lle before her very eyes,
percelves noL Lhe acLlons LhaL wlll brlng down
blame upon her own head, and comprehends
noL even Lhe Lhlngs LhaL wlll brlng down
calamlLles on Lhe heads of her husband and
chlldren. nelLher when she blames and accuses
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$-)"!"

and curses lnnocenL persons, nor when, ln her
[ealousy of oLhers, she Lhlnks Lo seL up herself
alone, does she see LhaL she ls her own enemy. .
. . Agaln, ln Lhe educaLlon of her chlldren, her
bllnd affecLlon lnduces an erroneous sysLem.
Such ls Lhe sLupldlLy of her characLer LhaL lL ls
lncumbenL on her, ln every parLlcular, Lo
dlsLrusL herself and Lo obey her husband.
1toosloteJ by 8osll noll cbombetlolo (1878)
(1) 8adly.
(2) Lacklng submlsslveness.

Look|ng at Ch|na
1be commeots of 1bomos MeoJows, o l9tb ceototy 8tltlsb obsetvet of cbloese coltote, ptovlJe o wloJow
ooto 8tltlsb ottltoJes towotJs cbloo.
lrom 1. 1. Meadows, 1be cbloese ooJ 1belt kebellloos (SmlLh, Llder, London, 1836), pp. 23, 24, 401-403.
D$6B266$+#(R2"6%$+#6(
1. now Joes MeoJows Jesctlbe cbloese qovetomeot? wbot cbecks ooJ bolooces exlsteJ?
2. wos tebellloo o leqltlmote ooJ occepteJ pott of cbloese soclety? lf so, wbot tole JlJ lt ploy? uoes
MeoJows vlew tbls lo o posltlve llqbt?
J. Mlqbt MeoJows olso be osloq bls evolootloo of cbloo os o meoos to commeot oo tbe stote of offolts lo
8tltolo? lf so, wbot Joes bls ottlcle tell yoo oboot 19
tb
ceototy 8tltolo?

1he real causes of Lhe unequalled duraLlon and
consLanL lncrease of Lhe Chlnese people, as one
and Lhe same naLlon . . . conslsLs of Lhree
docLrlnes, LogeLher wlLh an lnsLlLuLlon. . . . 1he
docLrlnes are:
l. 1haL Lhe naLlon musL be governed by moral
agency ln preference Lo physlcal force.
ll. 1haL Lhe servlces of Lhe wlsesL and ablesL
men ln Lhe naLlon are lndlspensable Lo lLs good
governmenL.
lll. 1haL Lhe people have Lhe rlghL Lo depose a
soverelgn who, elLher from acLlve wlckedness
or vlclous lndulgence, glves cause Lo oppresslve
and Lyrannlcal rule.
1he lnsLlLuLlon ls . . .
1he sysLem of publlc servlce compeLlLlve
examlnaLlons. . . .
1he lnsLlLuLlon of ubllc Servlce LxamlnaLlons
(whlch have long been sLrlcLly compeLlLlve) ls
Lhe cause of Lhe conLlnued duraLlon of Lhe
Chlnese naLlon: lL ls LhaL whlch preserves Lhe
oLher causes and glves efflcacy Lo Lhelr
operaLlon. 8y lL all parenLs LhroughouL Lhe
counLry, who can compass Lhe means, are
lnduced Lo lmparL Lo Lhelr sons an lnLlmaLe
knowledge of Lhe llLeraLure whlch conLalns Lhe
Lhree docLrlnes above clLed, LogeLher wlLh
many oLhers conduclve Lo a hlgh menLal
culLlvaLlon. 8y lL all Lhe ablllLy of Lhe counLry ls
enllsLed on Lhe slde of LhaL CovernmenL whlch
Lakes care Lo preserve lL ln purlLy. 8y lL, wlLh lLs
lmparLlallLy, Lhe, pooresL man ln Lhe counLry ls
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$-*"!"

consLralned Lo LhaL lf hls loL ln llfe ls a low one lL
ls so ln vlrLue of Lhe wlll of Peaven," and LhaL
no un[usL barrlers creaLed by hls fellow men
prevenL hlm from elevaLlng hlmself. . . .
1he normal Chlnese governmenL ls essenLlally
based on moral force: lL ls noL a despoLlsm. A
mlllLary and pollce ls malnLalned sufflclenL Lo
crush merely facLlous rlslngs, buL LoLally
lnadequaLe boLh ln numbers and ln naLure, Lo
puL down a dlsgusLed and lndlgnanL people. 8uL
Lhough no despoLlsm, Lhls same governmenL ls
ln form and machlnery a pure auLocracy. ln hls
dlsLrlcL Lhe maglsLraLe ls absoluLe, ln hls
provlnce, Lhe governor, ln Lhe emplre, Lhe
Lmperor. 1he Chlnese people have no rlghL of
leglslaLlon, Lhey have no rlghL of self-LaxaLlon,
Lhey have noL Lhe power of voLlng ouL Lhelr
rulers or of llmlLlng or sLopplng supplles. 1hey
have Lherefore Lhe rlghL of rebelllon. 8ebelllon
ls ln Chlna Lhe old, ofLen exerclsed, leglLlmaLe,
and consLlLuLlonal means of sLopplng arblLrary
and vlclous leglslaLlon and admlnlsLraLlon.

5*'(A)'3=-),#'%7,*'%$%7H(6+1';'%,($%(4*$%9I(JKLK
A ctltlcol lssoe fot tbe cbloese sloce tbelt Jefeot lo tbe Oplom wot lo 1842, wos bow to teqolo tbelt loss
of sovetelqoty. wblle most of tbose tespooslble fot leoJloq cbloo ptefetteJ to cootlooe tbe pollcles of tbe
post, tbete wete some offlclols wbo, lo tbe 1870s, oJvocoteJ tefotm lo tbe fotm of o self-
stteoqtbeoloq movemeot. wltb tbe sloqoo, leoto tbe sopetlot tecbooloqy of tbe botbotloo, lo otJet to
coottol blm, tbe 1ooqzbl (1ooq-cblb) kestototloo leJ to oew ploos fot o moJeto otmy ooJ oovy,
loJosttlollzotloo ooJ cbooqes wltblo tbe Jlplomotlc cotps, bot tbe cbooqes wete slow fot lock of
qovetomeot soppott. 1be nooJteJ uoys of kefotm woolJ sptoot lo 1898, oftet cbloos sbockloq Jefeot
lo tbe 5loo-Iopooese wot (1894-1895), wltb Jectees lssoeJ by tbe Jozeos. 1be followloq selectloo
pteseots o cose fot cbooqe lo tbe fotm of o memotlol wtltteo by 2booq 2blJooq (cbooq cblb-tooq, 18J7-
1909) to mpetot Coooqxo (koooq-bso, telqoeJ 1875-1908), wbo ossomeJ tbe posltloo of empetot ot
tbe oqe of tbtee ooJ sttoqqleJ tbtooqboot bls telqo to bteok owoy ftom tbe powet of bls ooot, tbe
mptess uowoqet clxl (18J5-1908). 2booqs essoy wos ttoosloteJ ooJ pobllsbeJ lo oqllsb os cbloos
Ooly nope.
D$6B266$+#(R2"6%$+#6(
1. lo ooe of bls stotemeots, tbe wtltet soqqests, koow wbot ls lmpottoot. wbot JlJ be meoo by tbls?
wbot oJJltloool ptoposols woolJ yoo bove moJe?
2. wbeo 2booq tefets to tbe potoble of coofoclos, wbot Jo yoo tblok bls potpose ooJ bls loteoJeJ
ooJleoce wete?
J. wbot ospects of westeto voloes ooJ lostltotloos Joes tbe wtltet oJmlte ooJ bow Joes be soqqest
cbloo moke ose of tbem? wbot ls bls oploloo of cbloo? Of lts voloes?
ln no perlod of Chlna's hlsLory has Lhere arlsen
an emergency llke Lhe presenL. lL ls a Llme of
change, and Pls lmperlal Plghness, Lhe Lmperor
of Chlna, has accepLed Lhe slLuaLlon by alLerlng
somewhaL Lhe sysLem of clvll and mlllLary
examlnaLlons and by esLabllshlng schools. . . .
1he ConservaLlves are evldenLly off Lhelr food
from lnablllLy Lo swallow, whllsL Llberals are llke
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$-+"!"

a flock of sheep who have arrlved aL a road of
many forks and do noL know whlch Lo follow.
1he former do noL undersLand whaL
lnLernaLlonal lnLercourse means, Lhe laLLer are
lgnoranL of whaL ls radlcal ln Chlnese affalrs.
1he ConservaLlves fall Lo see Lhe uLlllLy of
modern mlllLary meLhods and Lhe beneflLs of
successful change, whlle Lhe rogresslonlsLs,
zealous wlLhouL knowledge, look wlLh conLempL
upon our wldespread docLrlnes of Confuclus.
1hus Lhose who cllng Lo Lhe order of Lhlngs
hearLlly desplse Lhose who even propose any
lnnovaLlon, and Lhey ln Lurn
cordlally deLesL Lhe ConservaLlves wlLh all Lhe
ardor of Lhelr llberal convlcLlons. lL Lhus falls ouL
LhaL Lhose who really wlsh Lo learn are ln doubL
as Lo whlch course Lo pursue, and ln Lhe
meanLlme error creeps ln, Lhe enemy lnvades
our coasL, and, consequenLly, Lhere ls no
defence and no peace.
1he presenL condlLlon of Lhlngs ls noL due Lo
ouLslde naLlons, buL Lo Chlna herself. lL has ever
been Lrue LhaL Lhe number of our able men has
been proporLloned Lo Lhe good quallLles of Lhe
governmenL, and LhaL morals are gauged by Lhe
conducL of Lhe schools. ln vlew of many facLs,
and wlLh Lhe hope of rellevlng our counLry from
her presenL embarrassmenLs, We, Lhe vlceroy
of Lhe Llang Pu, have prepared Lhls work
especlally for Lhe Chlnese under our
[urlsdlcLlon, and generally for our counLrymen
ln Lhe oLher provlnces. . . .
1he corollarles of Lhese 1wenLy ChapLers may
be brlefly Comprehended ln llve Cb[ecLs of
knowledge.
1. know Lhe shame of noL belng llke !apan,
1urkey, Slam, and Cuba.
2. know Lhe fear LhaL we wlll become lndla,
Annam, 8urmah, korea, LgypL, and oland.
3. know LhaL lf we do noL change our cusLoms
we cannoL reform our meLhods, and lf we do
noL reform our meLhods we cannoL uLlllze Lhe
modern lmplemenLs of war, eLc.
4. know whaL ls lmporLanL. 1he sLudy of Lhe old
ls noL urgenL, Lhe call for men of aLLalnmenLs ln
useful knowledge ls presslng. lorelgn educaLlon
ls of dlfferenL klnds. WesLern handlcrafL ls noL ln
demand, buL a knowledge of Lhe meLhods of
forelgn governmenLs ls a consummaLlon
devouLly Lo be wlshed.
3. know whaL ls radlcal. When abroad, do noL
forgeL your own naLlve counLry, when you see
sLrange cusLoms, do noL forgeL your parenLs,
and leL noL much wlsdom and lngenulLy make
you forgoL Lhe holy sages.
lL wlll be seen Lhen LhaL Lhe purporL of whaL we
have wrlLLen accords well wlLh Lhe uocLrlne of
Lhe Mean. Long ago, when Lhe klngdom of Lu
was ln a weak condlLlon, uuke Al (8. C. 330)
lnqulred of Confuclus abouL governmenL. Pe
replled: 1o he fond of learnlng ls Lhe nexL Lhlng
Lo knowledge. 1o be up and dolng comes near
Lo perfecLlon. know whaL shame ls, and you wlll
noL be far from herolsm." llnally Lhe sage sald:
lf Lhese prlnclples can be carrled ouL, alLhough
one may be sLupld, yeL he wlll become clever,
alLhough weak, he wlll aLLaln Lo sLrengLh."
1hese maxlms were spoken ln Lhe Llme of Lu.
Pow much more urgenL are Lhey now when
Chlna has become greaL, wlLh her almosL
llmlLless LerrlLory and her Leemlng populaLlon of
four hundred mllllons!. . . .
ChapLer 1. unlLed PearLs
Pow clrcumscrlbed would be Lhe responslblllLy
of one graduaLe, Lhe alLrulsm of one offlclal, or
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$-,"!"

Lhe duLy of a slngle lndlvldual! 8uL lf by one
deLermlned purpose Lhe hearL's of oll Lhe
graduaLes, Lhe offlclals, and Lhe men of Chlna
were unlLed, our counLry world resL upon a
greaL rock and we could defy Lhe world Lo
overLhrow us. 1o aLLaln Lhls ob[ecL lL ls
necessary flrsL LhaL every man should fulflll hls
duLy Lo hls parenLs and elders.
1he counLry would Lhen be aL peace. And lf
every Chlnese would buL exerclse hls wlsdom
and courage Lhe Lmplre would become sLrong .
. . .
We would here sLaLe LhaL Lhere are now Lhree
Lhlngs necessary Lo be done ln order Lo save
Chlna from revoluLlon. 1he flrsL ls Lo molotolo
tbe telqoloq Jyoosty, Lhe second ls Lo coosetve
tbe noly kellqloo, and Lhe Lhlrd ls Lo ptotect tbe
cbloese toce. 1hese are lnseparably connecLed,
ln facL Lhey consLlLuLe one. . . .
under Lhe presenL clrcumsLances Lhere ls
noLhlng for lL buL Lo arouse ourselves Lo Lhe
slLuaLlon. LeL us dlsplay our loyalLy and love and
embrace every opporLunlLy Lo become wealLhy
and sLrong, leL our flrsL ob[ecL be Lhe veneraLlon
of Lhe lmperlal CourL whlch vouchsafes lLs
proLecLlon Lo Lhe CommonwealLh, and leL Lhose
who hold Lhe relns of governmenL conslder Lhe
general good. . . .
ChapLer lll. 1he 1hree Moral CbllgaLlons
1he Soverelgn ls Lhe head of Lhe Sub[ecL, Lhe
laLher ls Lhe head of Lhe Son, and Lhe Pusband
ls Lhe head of Lhe Wlfe. 1hese LeneLs have been
handed down from Lhe sages, and as Peaven
does noL change, so Lhey never change. 1hey
consLlLuLe Lhe flrsL of Lhe llve 8elaLlons and Lhe
malnsprlng of every acL. . . . know Lhen, LhaL Lhe
obllgaLlon of sub[ecL Lo soverelgn ls
lncompaLlble wlLh republlcanlsm . . .
now, we have examlned somewhaL lnLo Lhe
meLhods of WesLern CovernmenLs. 1hey have
Lhelr Lords and Commons, Lhelr SenaLes and
8epresenLaLlves, whlch hold Lhelr prerogaLlves
ln SLaLe maLLers. 8uL we have noLlced LhaL Lhe
Soverelgn, or Lhe resldenL, reLalns Lhe power
of dlssolvlng Lhese assemblles, and ln case one
assembly does noL sulL hlm he exerclses Lhls
power, dlsmlsses Lhe obnoxlous body and
convenes anoLher. A ConsLlLuLlonal
CovernmenL wlLh a Soverelgn, and a 8epubllc
are abouL Lhe same. ln Lhe WesL Lhe lnLercourse
of Soverelgn, MlnlsLers, and eople ls easy, Lhe
rules of deporLmenL meagre, and Lhe needs of
Lhe people are communlcaLed Lo Lhe soverelgn
wlLh rapld faclllLy, buL Lhe bearlng or dlgnlLy of
Lhe WesLern rlnce ls noL Lo be compared wlLh
LhaL of Lhe Chlnese Lmperor. WesLern people,
however, love Lhelr soverelgns more Lhan Lhe
Chlnese do Lhelrs, and, alLhough Lhey may leave
home and llve abroad Lhousands of mlles from
Lhelr naLlve land Lhey do noL dlsobey Lhelr
counLry's laws or defraud Lhelr rulers. . . . lL ls a
mlsLake, Lhen, Lo suppose LhaL WesLern
counLrles do noL malnLaln Lhe docLrlne of Lhe
8elaLlon of Sub[ecL Lo Soverelgn. . . .
ChapLer lv. 1he 8ecognlLlon of Class
1he hlghesL degree of culLure was reached ln
Lhe Chow (8. C. 1122-233) uynasLy. 1hen began
Lhe decllne abouL whlch Confuclus grleved. 1he
uynasLles followlng had no powerful nelghbors
Lo sLrlve agalnsL, buL heaped up large Lreasures
of llLerary lore aL Lhe expense of power. 1hls
accumulaLlon produced Lhe hollowness of
forms, and Lhls, ln Lurn begaL weakness. noL so
all Lhe counLrles of Lurope. 1hese were opened
up aL a laLe perlod ln hlsLory, fresh and
vlgorous. Surrounded by sLrong nelghbors, Lhey
were always ln clrcumsLances of desperaLe
compeLlLlon, sLrlpped for a flghL and ever
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$$-"!"

sLrlvlng Lo escape desLrucLlon. ConLlnual
apprehenslon produced deLermlnaLlon, and
deLermlnaLlon begaL sLrengLh. Cf all counLrles
Chlna alone has for Lhese flfLy years proved
herself almosL lrreclalmably sLupld and noL
awake. Many of Lhe offlclals and people are
proud and lndolenL. 1hey conLenLedly resL ln
Lhe bellef LhaL Lhe old order of Lhlngs wlll sufflce
for Lhose dangerous Llmes, and ln Lhe end
become Lhe easy prey of ouLslders. . . .
ChapLer lx. CasL CuL Lhe olson
1he CusLom's 8eLurns for Lhe pasL few years
glve Lhe value of our lmporLs aL 80,000,000
1aels, and Lhe exporLs aL 30,000,000 1aels. 1he
balance of tbltty mlllloo 1oels represenLs whaL
has been consumed ln smoklng Lhe pernlclous
oplum plpe! Assuredly lL ls noL forelgn
lnLercourse LhaL ls rulnlng Chlna, buL hls
dreadful polson. Ch, Lhe grlef and desolaLlon lL
has wroughL Lo our people! . . . Cplum has
spread wlLh frlghLful rapldlLy and hearL-rendlng
resulLs Lhrough Lhe provlnces. Mllllons upon
mllllons have
been sLruck down by Lhe plague. 1o-day lL ls
runnlng llke wlldflre. ln lLs swlfL, deadly course
lL ls spreadlng devasLaLlon everywhere,
wrecklng Lhe mlnds and eaLlng away Lhe
sLrengLh of lLs vlcLlms. 1he ruln of Lhe mlnd ls
Lhe mosL woeful of lLs many deleLerlous effecLs.
. . .
1herefore we say, brlng learnlng Lo Lhe fronL ln
order Lo remedy Lhe oplum evll! . .. All Lhe
counLrles of Lhe world recoll wlLh dlsgusL aL Lhe
ldea of smoklng Lhls vlle, lllsmelllng, polsonous
sLuff. Cnly our Chlnese people love Lo sleep and
eaL wlLh Lhe deadly drug, and ln Lhe deadly drug
we are selfsLeeped, seeklng poverLy, lmbeclllLy,
deaLh, desLrucLlon. . . .

ao Chen-uan: My Adventures Dur|ng the 8oxer War, 1900

WPLn Lhe leLLers of Lhe varlous mlnlsLers had
been commlLLed Lo my care, l reLurned Lo Su
Wang lu, saylng Lo myself, "Pow shall l ever be
able Lo Lake Lhese leLLers Lo 1lenLsln?" l
breaLhed a slmple prayer Lo Cod Lo glve me
some meLhod by whlch l mlghL reach my
desLlnaLlon ln safeLy. 1he words had scarcely
lefL my llps when l noLlced on Lhe wall a large
sLraw haL, such as ls commonly used by coolles
ln Lhe summer-Llme, and as lL was composed of
Lwo layers of sLraw, l weL lL, rlpped lL aparL, and
concealed my leLLers beLween Lhe Lwo secLlons,
afLer whlch l carefully sewed lL LogeLher as
before, wlLh Lhe prayer upon my llps, "Lord,
when do you wlsh me Lo sLarL?"
When l lefL Lhe LegaLlon, l crossed Lhe brldge
and cllmbed over a wall of barrlcades lnLo Su
Wang lu, where Lwo !apanese soldlers sald Lo
me: "WhaL are you dolng here?" "l am golng Lo
1lenLsln wlLh leLLers," l replled. "WhaL ls your
name?" lnqulred one of Lhem. When l Lold hlm,
he sald ln a klnd buL warnlng Lone "?ou musL be
careful or you wlll be kllled before you are well
sLarLed on your way." Pe Look me Lo a small
lane aL Lhe ouLsklrLs of Lhe barrlcades, where he
lefL me Lo go on alone, buL l had noL gone far
when l dlscovered LhaL a 8oxer waLchman was
sLaLloned aL Lhe oLher end of Lhe sLreeL and my
hearL almosL sLood sLlll. l had gone Loo far,
however, Lo Lurn back, so l puL on a bold fronL,
prayed Lhe Lord for guldance, and walked boldly
onward. "Clve me Len cenLs, and l wlll leL you
pass," was all he sald, whlch l was qulLe ready
Lo do.
My way Lhrough Lhe LasL CaLe was wlLhouL
lncldenL, buL when halfway Lo 1ung Chou l
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$$$"!"

overLook some Lhree hundred of 1ung
luhslang's soldlers Lo whom l [olned myself and
conLlnued on my way. 1he canal had
overflowed lLs banks aL Lhe LlghL Ll 8rldge, and
aL Lhelr suggesLlon we had our dlnner, for whlch
Lhey pald, afLer whlch one of Lhem offered Lo
swlm across wlLh me on hls back, whlch
klndness l was glad Lo accepL, as l saw no oLher
way of geLLlng Lo Lhe opposlLe slde. l conLlnued
wlLh Lhe soldlers, sLopplng wlLh Lhem LhaL nlghL
aL a Mohammedan lnn, Lhe proprleLor of whlch
was very klnd Lo me. Pe refused Lo accepL
paymenL for my enLerLalnmenL and asked me Lo
Lake vows of frlendshlp before l lefL.
uurlng Lhe nlghL, a crowd passed by, led by a
woman 8oxer---a member of Lhe SocleLy of Lhe
8ed LanLern---who asked me my name, my
buslness, and where l was golng. As l seemed Lo
saLlsfy Lhem wlLh my answer, Lhey wenL abouL
Lhelr buslness, whlch was Lhe desLrucLlon of a
CaLhollc vlllage, and Lhe murder of Lhe
ChrlsLlans. 1he nexL mornlng l conLlnued on my
way, belng early [olned by a 8oxer who lnvlLed
me Lo dlne wlLh hlm, afLer whlch we separaLed.
1haL nlghL l heard Lhe keeper of Lhe lnn aL
whlch l sLopped say Lo a 8oxer, "We have no
ChrlsLlans here," and l spenL Lhe nlghL ln peace.
1he followlng day a chlld warned me noL Lo go
Lhrough a cerLaln vlllage, saylng LhaL Lhe 8oxers
were Laklng every one Lhey suspecLed, and l
saw Lhe flre klndled aL whlch Lhey burnL LwenLy
ChrlsLlans, whlle l aL Lhe same Llme Lhanked Lhe
Lord for puLLlng lL lnLo Lhe mlnd of a chlld Lo
warn me, and Lhus save me, and perhaps Lhe
people of Lhe LegaLlon, from a llke horrlble faLe.
1he counLry was flooded. l was compelled Lo
wade Lhrough waLer Lhe depLh of whlch l knew
noLhlng abouL, and l was weL and dlscouraged. l
had [usL emerged from Lhe waLer when a man
wlLh a gun on hls shoulder called ouL Lo me ln a
loud volce "Where are you golng?" "l am golng
Lo 1lenLsln," l answered. "WhaL for?" "1o flnd
Lhe head of a flower esLabllshmenL ln whlch l
was employed before Lhls Lrouble broke ouL."
1he readlness of my answer seemed Lo saLlsfy
hlm, and he allowed me Lo conLlnue on my way.
AL Lhe nexL vlllage a shoemaker lnformed me
LhaL Lhe road was dangerous, belng crowded
wlLh Chlnese Lroops, a Lhlng whlch l soon found
Lo be Lrue by belng made prlsoner and havlng
my money Laken from me. My money belng all
Lhey wanLed, Lhe soldlers aL once seL me free,
and l ln Lurn complalned Lo Lhe offlcer LhaL l had
been robbed by hls Lroops. "WalL," sald he,
"unLll l see who dld lL." "no, no," sald l, "do noL
leL me Lrouble you Lo LhaL exLenL, Lhe day ls far
spenL, and l should llke Lo spend Lhe nlghL ln
your camp." "WlLh pleasure," sald he. So l spenL
Lhe nlghL ln Lhe proLecLlon of my enemles.
"lease search me," sald l ln Lhe mornlng, "Lo
see LhaL l have Laken noLhlng, and l wlll proceed
on my way." Pe reLurned my money, warnlng
me noL Lo go on Lhe CreaL 8oad lesL l fall lnLo
Lhe hands of Lhe forelgn Lroops and suffer aL
Lhelr hands. "l undersLand," sald l, wlLh a
meanlng whlch he dld noL comprehend, and l
lefL. When l came Lo Lhe rlver, l noLlced a
boaLman and accosLed hlm as follows "Wlll you
Lake me Lo Lhe 8ed 8rldge ln 1lenLsln?" "We do
noL dare Lo go as far as Lhe 8ed 8rldge," he
answered, "Lhe !apanese soldlers are Lhere, and
Lhey wlll shooL us." "?ou need noL be afrald,"
sald l, "l can proLecL you from !apanese
soldlers."
Cn hearlng Lhls he readlly consenLed, buL he puL
me off some dlsLance from Lhe brldge. l saw Lhe
soldlers ln Lhe dlsLance, buL waved my
handkerchlef as a Loken LhaL l was a messenger,
and Lhus encounLered no danger. 1hey escorLed
me Lo Lhe lorelgn SeLLlemenL and Lhen lefL me
Lo go alone, buL Lhe 8usslans refused Lo allow
me Lo pass and l was compelled Lo reLurn Lo Lhe
8ed 8rldge. l Look one of Lhe leLLers ouL of Lhe
haL and showed lL Lo Lhree !apanese offlcers
who happened Lo be passlng. "Where do you
come from?" Lhey asked. "lrom eklng." "Were
you noL afrald of Lhe 8oxers?" "no."
"?ou are a good man, walL Llll l glve you a pass."
Whlle he was wrlLlng, lL began Lo raln, and Lhey
Look me Lo Lhelr headquarLers, where l saw a
hlgh offlclal, dlned wlLh hlm, and relaLed all my
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$$%"!"

advenLures by Lhe way as well as Lhe condlLlon
of affalrs ln eklng, all of whlch he wroLe down,
and Lhen senL four of hls soldlers Lo accompany
me Lo Lhe 8rlLlsh and Amerlcan ConsulaLes.
When l saw Lhe Amerlcan Consul, l bursL lnLo
Lears and Lold hlm of all LhaL Lhe people ln
eklng were sufferlng, how Lhe 8oxers were
flrlng on Lhem from all sldes and Lrylng Lo burn
Lhem ouL, how each man was llmlLed Lo a small
cup of graln a day, whlle aL Lhe same Llme Lhey
were compelled Lo labor llke coolles, under a
burnlng sun, ln employmenLs Lo whlch Lhey
were noL accusLomed, and l urged hlm Lo send
soldlers aL once Lo relleve Lhem.
Pe senL a man Lo Lake me Lo my room, and l
found among Lhe servanLs one of my old
acqualnLances, wlLh whom l spenL a pleasanL
evenlng, and Lhen had a good nlghL's resL. 1he
followlng day l wenL Lo Lhe MeLhodlsL Mlsslon,
where l meL Lhose who had passed Lhrough a
slege slmllar Lo Lhe one l had lefL. When ur.
8enn saw how sore my feeL were, she washed
and bandaged Lhem wlLh her own hands. AfLer
a resL of Lwo days l secured Lhe leLLers of Lhe
varlous consuls, LogeLher wlLh oLhers from
frlends of some of Lhe besleged, and sLarLed on
my reLurn [ourney, dependlng upon Lhe Lord for
hls proLecLlon. l had noL gone a mlle from Lhe
clLy when l was arresLed by Lwo forelgn soldlers,
robbed of all my money, and Laken Lo Lhe LenL
of Lhelr offlcer, who, when he saw my pass,
recognlzed lL as LhaL of a messenger from
eklng and resLored boLh my money and my
llberLy. 1wo mlles from Lhe clLy l came Lo a
sLream l was unable Lo cross, and found myself
compelled Lo reLurn and leave by way of Lhe
norLh CaLe of Lhe clLy.
Seven mlles from Lhe clLy l fell lnLo a nesL of
8oxers, Lhe head of whom asked me "Where
have you been?" "1o 1lenLsln," l replled. "WhaL
for?" "1o see Lhe head of Lhe flower
esLabllshmenL wlLh whlch l was connecLed
before Lhls Lrouble broke ouL," l answered.
"Pow old ls he?" "SevenLy-slx years," l replled,
wlLhouL heslLaLlon. Pe sald no more, and l
asked lf l could dlne wlLh Lhem. AfLer dlnner l
sald Lo Lhe head 8oxer "l wlsh Lo go Lo eklng,
can you Lell me Lhe safesL rouLe for me Lo
Lake?" Pe Lold me, and afLer wlshlng hlm good-
bye l lefL, Laklng Lhe dlrecLlon he suggesLed. 1he
followlng day, when passlng a melon-paLch
waLched by 8oxers, l walked up Lo Lhem and
asked Lhem Lo glve me a melon, Lhlnklng LhaL
Lhey would be less llkely Lo dlsLurb me lf l flrsL
addressed Lhem.
"Where are you golng?" Lhey asked. "1o
eklng," l answered, "can you Lell me whlch
road lL would be safesL for me Lo Lake?" 1hey
Lold me, and, as ln Lhe former case, l followed
Lhelr dlrecLlons, reachlng Lhe clLy wlLhouL
furLher advenLure oLher Lhan LhaL of avoldlng
several crowds of 8oxers and Chlnese soldlers.
CuLslde Lhe LasL CaLe l aLe Lwo bowls of
vermlcelll, whlle l waLched Lhe soldlers and
8oxers on Lop of Lhe clLy wall. l wenL wesL Lo
Lhe Ssu 'al Lou, Lhence souLh Lo Lhe 1an 'al
Lou, where l Lurned wesL Loward Lhe 8rlLlsh
LegaLlon. All Lhe way Lhrough Lhe clLy l was
compelled Lo saunLer slowly, as Lhough l was
merely looklng abouL and noL golng anywhere,
so LhaL lL Look me from noon Llll evenlng Lo go
from Lhe LasL CaLe Lo Lhe LegaLlon. 1he soldlers
ln Lhe llnes beLween Lhe Chlnese and forelgn
quarLers were gambllng as l passed and pald no
aLLenLlon Lo me. ln Lhe AusLrlan LegaLlon
grounds l noLlced a Chlnese soldler dlgglng as
Lhough for Lreasure. Walklng up Lo hlm l
addressed hlm Lhus: "Pello! CapLaln. WhaL are
you dolng?" "WhaL are you dolng here?" sald
he, sLarlng aL me and speaklng ln a loud volce.
"lease do noL speak so loud," sald l ln an
underLone, as Lhough Lo enLer lnLo a secreL
alllance wlLh hlm, "l was orlglnally a coolle ln
Lhls place. My home ls ln Lhe counLry, and l
have [usL been Lo see lf my famlly were kllled,
and flndlng Lhem safe, l have reLurned Lo geL
some Lreasure l have ln Lhe Su Wang lu." "Pow
much have you?" he lnqulred. "AbouL one
Lhousand dollars." "WhaL ls your name?" he
lnqulred furLher. "?ao Chen-yuan. WhaL ls your
honorable name?" "Wu Llen-L'al," he
replled."now you go and geL your sllver and we
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$$&"!"

Lwo wlll open an oplum shop." "very well," l
replled. "Pave you any sllver wlLh you?" he
asked. "Cnly abouL four or flve ounces." "Well,
you glve LhaL Lo me. noL LhaL l wanL Lhe sllver,
buL lL wlll cemenL our frlendshlp, and l wlll
reLurn lL Lo you when you come back." "very
well," sald l, glvlng hlm whaL sllver l had.
Whlle we were Lalklng, an offlcer wlLh forLy or
flfLy soldlers came up and wanLed Lo have me
kllled.
"uo noL klll hlm," sald Lhe soldler Lo whom l had
been Lalklng, "he ls an old frlend of mlne from
Lhe counLry, here Lo make money ouL of Lhe
forelgners." "lf he ls a frlend of yours, whaL ls
hls name?"
"?ao Chen-yuan," he replled. "WhaL ls Lhls
soldler's name?" asked Lhe offlcer, Lurnlng Lo
me. "Wu Llen-L'al," l answered wlLhouL
heslLaLlon. "CulLe rlghL," he sald, and passed on
Lo Lhe CreaL SLreeL.
!usL Lhen a crowd of 8oxers came up, and Lhe
leader asked "WhaL ls Lhls fellow dolng here?"
"uo noL meddle wlLh my affalrs," sald Lhe
soldler, "he ls my frlend." And wlLh Lhls Lhey
passed on, leavlng us alone. "now you go lnLo
Su Wang lu," sald Lhe soldler, "and geL your
money, and lf you cannoL come ouL Lomorrow,
sLand behlnd Lhe wall and hold your hand alofL
LhaL l may know you are safe."
"very well," l replled, "buL how am l Lo geL ln?"
"l wlll Lake you Lo Lhe end of LhaL alley, where
you
wlll be safe," he sald, aL whlch place l bade hlm
good afLernoon. ln a few momenLs Lhe
!apanese soldlers, who had observed and
recognlzed me, pulled me up over Lhe wall, and
l was once more safe.
l was aL once Laken Lo Lhe offlcer and meL Mr.
Squlers, Lo whom l dellvered Lhe leLLers. When
he saw me rlpplng open Lhe haL and Laklng
Lhem ouL, one afLer anoLher unLll l had glven
hlm eleven, he could noL refraln from laughlng.
Pe Look me wlLh hlm Lo Lhe Amerlcan LegaLlon,
where as we enLered he held alofL Lhe leLLers.
1he people clapped Lhelr hands and cheered,
and many of Lhem wanLed Lo Lalk wlLh me, buL l
was led ouL Lhrough Lhe 8usslan lnLo Lhe 8rlLlsh
LegaLlon. Pere l meL Mr. klng, who afLer a shorL
conversaLlon asked me for my haL. "lL ls all
rlpped aparL," l replled. "l can sew lL LogeLher
agaln," he answered. "WhaL do you wanL Lo do
wlLh lL?" l lnqulred. "1ake lL back Lo Amerlca as
a rellc of your Lrlp," sald he.

lrm: Lva March 1appan, ed., 1be wotlJ's 5toty. A
nlstoty of tbe wotlJ lo 5toty, 5ooq, ooJ Att, volume
l: cbloo, Iopoo, ooJ tbe lslooJs of tbe loclflc,
(8osLon: PoughLon Mlfflln, 1914), pp. 239-247.
Scanned by !erome S. Arkenberg, Cal. SLaLe
lullerLon. 1he LexL has been modernlzed by rof.
Arkenberg.

L|n 2exu (L|n1se-hsu) wr|t|ng to 8r|ta|n's ueen V|ctor|a
to rotest the Cp|um 1rade, 1839

1bls selectloo ls ftom wollbook, et ol, clvlllzotloos lost AoJ lteseot, 1992. Most scbolots Jo oot belleve
tbot tbe lettet evet teocbeJ tbe Ooeeo.

17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.
!"$$'"!"

[Wallbank lnLroducLlon] llo 1se-bso sow tbot
tbe oplom ttoJe, wblcb qove otope socb boqe
ptoflts, ooJetmloeJ bls coootty. ne oskeJ
Ooeeo vlctotlo to pot o stop to tbe ttoJe.
"AfLer a long perlod of commerclal lnLercourse,
Lhere appear among Lhe crowd of barbarlans
boLh good persons and bad, unevenly.
ConsequenLly Lhere are Lhose who smuggle
oplum Lo seduce Lhe Chlnese people and so
cause Lhe spread of Lhe polson Lo all provlnces.
Such persons who only care Lo proflL
Lhemselves, and dlsregard Lhelr harm Lo oLhers,
are noL LoleraLed by Lhe laws of heaven and are
unanlmously haLed by human belngs. Pls
Ma[esLy Lhe Lmperor, upon hearlng of Lhls, ls ln
a Lowerlng rage. Pe has especlally senL me, hls
commlssloner, Lo come Lo kwangLung, and
LogeLher wlLh Lhe governor-general and
governor [olnLly Lo lnvesLlgaLe and seLLle Lhls
maLLer.
"All Lhose people ln Chlna who sell oplum or
smoke oplum should recelve Lhe deaLh penalLy.
lf we Lrace Lhe crlme of Lhose barbarlans who
Lhrough Lhe years have been selllng oplum,
Lhen Lhe deep harm Lhey have wroughL and Lhe
greaL proflL Lhey have usurped should
fundamenLally [usLlfy Lhelr execuLlon accordlng
Lo law. We Lake lnLo conslderaLlon, however,
Lhe facL LhaL Lhe varlous barbarlans have sLlll
known how Lo repenL Lhelr crlmes and reLurn Lo
Lhelr alleglance Lo us by Laklng Lhe 20,183
chesLs of oplum from Lhelr sLoreshlps and
peLlLlonlng us, Lhrough Lhelr consular offlcer
[superlnLendenL of Lrade], LllloL, Lo recelve lL. lL
has been enLlrely desLroyed and Lhls has been
falLhfully reporLed Lo Lhe 1hrone ln several
memorlals by Lhls commlssloner and hls
colleagues.
"lorLunaLely we have recelved a speclally
exLended favor from ls Ma[esLy Lhe Lmperor,
who conslders LhaL for Lhose who volunLarlly
surrender Lhere are sLlll some clrcumsLances Lo
palllaLe Lhelr crlme, and so for Lhe Llme belng
he has magnanlmously excused Lhem from
punlshmenL. 8uL as for Lhose who agaln vlolaLe
Lhe oplum prohlblLlon, lL ls dlfflculL for Lhe law
Lo pardon Lhem repeaLedly. Pavlng esLabllshed
new regulaLlons, we presume LhaL Lhe ruler of
your honorable counLry, who Lakes dellghL ln
our culLure and whose dlsposlLlon ls lncllned
Lowards us, musL be able Lo lnsLrucL Lhe varlous
barbarlans Lo observe Lhe law wlLh care. lL ls
only necessary Lo explaln Lo Lhem Lhe
advanLages and dlsadvanLages and Lhen Lhey
wlll know LhaL Lhe legal code of Lhe CelesLlal
CourL musL be absoluLely obeyed wlLh awe.
"We flnd LhaL your counLry ls slxLy or sevenLy
Lhousand ll [Lhree ll equal one mlle] from Chlna.
?eL Lhere are barbarlan shlps LhaL sLrlve Lo
come here for Lrade for Lhe purpose of maklng
a greaL proflL. 1he wealLh of Chlna ls used Lo
proflL Lhe barbarlans. 1haL ls Lo say, Lhe greaL
proflL made by barbarlans ls all Laken from Lhe
rlghLful share of Chlna. 8y whaL rlghL do Lhey
Lhen ln reLurn use Lhe polsonous drug Lo ln[ure
Lhe Chlnese people? Lven Lhough Lhe
barbarlans may noL necessarlly lnLend Lo do us
harm, yeL ln coveLlng proflL Lo an exLreme, Lhey
have no regard for ln[urlng oLhers. LeL us ask,
where ls your consclence? l have heard LhaL Lhe
smoklng of oplum ls very sLrlcLly forbldden by
your counLry, LhaL ls because Lhe harm caused
by oplum ls clearly undersLood. Slnce lL ls noL
permlLLed Lo do harm Lo your own counLry,
Lhen even less should you leL lL be passed on Lo
Lhe harm of oLher counLrles - how much less Lo
Chlna!"




17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$$("!"

1he Mora||ty of the Cp|um 1rade

1wo Jlffetloq petspectlves teqotJloq tbe motollty of ttoJloq oplom ote pteseoteJ lo tbese selectloos. 1be
fltst teoJloq ls tbe petsoool expetleoce of oo Ametlcoo metcboot wltb fotty yeots of expetleoce lo cbloo,
ooJ tbe secooJ selectloo ls ftom oootbet metcboot lo cootoo, wtltloq to o 8tltlsb moqozloe lo 18J7.

D$6B266$+#(R2"6%$+#6(
1. wbot ls yoot oploloo of tbe fltst wtltets soqqestloo tbot smokloq oplom ooJ Jtlokloq wloe ote
tbe some? now Joes tbe secooJ wtltet tespooJ to tbls compotlsoo?
2. wbot ls tbe fltst metcboots cooclosloo os to tbe etblcs of oplom smokloq? wbot ooJetlyloq
motlves mlqbt lofloeoce bls ottltoJe? wbot otqomeots Joes tbe secooJ metcboot ose to tefote
tbe vlews of tbe fltst metcboot, ooJ otbets wbom yoove teoJ?
J. 1bot wblcb, solJ lo cbests, ls commetce, ooJ to be opplooJeJ, becomes volqot ooJ meoo wbeo
JoleJ oot lo smoll lots. AJmltoble loqlc! wbot ls tbe secooJ metcboots polot lo tbls stotemeot,
ooJ Jo yoo floJ metlt lo bls otqomeot?
4. Ate tbe vlews teqotJloq tbe motollty of osloq ooJ ttoJloq oplom lo tbe 19
tb
ceototy slmllot to
pteseot ottltoJes ooJ otqomeots? ls lt opptoptlote to ose tbe stooJotJs of tbe pteseot to
evoloote post octloos, socb os tbe motollty of tbe oplom ttoJets?

ltom w. c. nootet, 1be loo kwoe ot cootoo 8efote 1teoty uoys. 1825-1844, 5booqbol, 1911, pp. 79-
80, ooJ A 8tltlsb Metcboots Aoswet, ftom 1be cbloese keposltoty, vol. v, pp. 407-412.

An Amer|can Merchant |n Canton

Whlle Lhe oplum Lrade was golng on,
dlscusslons ofLen occurred as Lo Lhe morallLy of
lL, as well as Lo Lhe effecL of smoklng on Lhe
Chlnese. none of Lhe Pong merchanLs ever had
anyLhlng Lo do wlLh lL, and several of Lhe forelgn
houses refralned from deallng ln lL on
consclenLlous grounds. As Lo lLs lnfluence on
Lhe lnhablLanLs of Lhe clLy and suburbs aL large,
Lhey were a healLhy, acLlve, hard-worklng, and
lndusLrlous people, wlLhal cheerful and frugal.
1hey were lnLelllgenL ln buslness, sklllful ln
manufacLures and handlcrafLs. 1hese LralLs are
lnconslsLenL wlLh hablLual smoklng, whlle Lhe
cosLllness of Lhe prepared drug was such as Lo
render a dlluLlon of lL (Lo brlng lL wlLhln Lhe
means of Lhe masses) uLLerly harmless.
AmongsL Lhe wealLhler classes, no doubL lL was
more or less common, Lhls we knew, buL l
myself, and l Lhlnk l may safely say Lhe enLlre
forelgn communlLy, rarely, lf ever, saw any one
physlcally or menLally ln[ured by lL. no
evldences of a general abuse, rarely of Lhe use
of Lhe plpe, were apparenL. l remember one
man havlng been broughL Lo a mlsslonary
hosplLal Lo be LreaLed for excesslve smoklng of
oplum, buL he was looked upon as a Llon and
much was made of hlm. ln facL, smoklng was a
hablL, as Lhe use of wlne was wlLh us, ln
moderaLlon. As compared wlLh Lhe use of
splrlLuous llquors ln Lhe unlLed SLaLes and ln
Lngland, and Lhe evll consequences of lL, LhaL of
oplum was lnflnlLeslmal. 1hls ls my personal
experlence durlng a resldence aL CanLon,
Macao, and Pong kong of forLy years.

2(M#$,$0*(6'#&*9%,/0(2%0N'#(

Were Lhe Lrafflckers ln Lhls polson,- for such
no one ln possesslon of hls senses can deny lL Lo
be, Lo sLaLe LhaL Lhey deal ln lL merely as a
maLLer of galn, and LhaL, wlLh Lhem, Lhls
deLermlnaLlon supersedes every conslderaLlon
of rlghL or wrong, Lhen Lhelr premlses could be
aL once seen, and opposlLlon or reasonlng
would be valn, slnce all convlcLlon would be
frulLless, buL when, as now, Lhe pracLlce, evll ln
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$$)"!"

lLself, and necessarlly felL Lo be so, ls upheld by
anxlous sophlsLlcaLlon, lL ls buL rlghL LhaL lL be
exposed. .

. . Were noL greaL caplLal, sklll, and enLerprlse
embarked ln Lhls Lrade, lL would never have
arrlved aL lLs presenL magnlLude. . . . ConsLanLly,
avowedly, noLorlously, ln Lhe pracLlce of a
Lrade, dlrecLly opposed Lo Lhe laws of Lhe
emplre, noL less opposed Lo morallLy and
proprleLy, Lhe purveyors of a mosL powerful
lncenLlve Lo vlce, a flerce moral desLroylng
agenL-on whaL has Lhe oplum merchanL Lo
plume hlmself, beyond hls broLher smuggler
and law breaker, Lhe conLraband gln-lmporLer
lnLo CreaL 8rlLaln? 1he one rlsks hls llfe-Lhe
oLher, shleldlng hlmself behlnd Lhe corrupLlon
of Lhe local offlcers, or Lhe weakness of Lhe
marlne, carrles on deeds of unlawfulness,
wlLhouL even Lhe rlsk or exclLemenL of personal
danger, and coolly commenLs on Lhe ln[usLlce of
Lhe Chlnese governmenL ln refuslng Lhe pracLlce
of lnLernaLlonal law and reclproclLy Lo
counLrles, whose sub[ecLs lL knows only as
engaged ln consLanL and gross lnfracLlon of
laws, Lhe breaklng of whlch affecLs Lhe basls of
all good governmenL, Lhe morals of Lhe counLry.
. . .

8everse Lhe plcLure. Suppose, by any chance,
LhaL Chlnese [unks were Lo lmporL lnLo Lngland,
as a
forelgn and fashlonable luxury, so harmless a
Lhlng as arsenlc, or corroslve subllmaLe-LhaL,
afLer a few years, lL became a rage-LhaL
Lhousands-LhaL hundreds of Lhousands used
lL-and LhaL lLs use was, ln consequence of lLs
bad effecLs, prohlblLed. Suppose LhaL, ln
opposlLlon Lo Lhe prohlblLlon, [unks were
sLaLloned ln Lhe SL. Ceorge's channel, wlLh a
consLanL supply, Laklng occaslonal Lrlps Lo Lhe
lsle of WlghL, and Lhe mouLh of Lhe 1hames,
when Lhe governmenLal offlcers were
sufflclenLly aLLenLlve Lo Lhelr duLy, aL Lhe former
sLaLlon, Lo prevenL lLs lnLroducLlon Lhere.
Suppose Lhe consumpLlon Lo lncrease annually,
and Lo arouse Lhe aLLenLlon of governmenL, and
of Lhose sound Lhlnklng men who foresaw
mlsery and desLrucLlon from Lhe rapld spread of
an lnsldlous, unproflLable, and dangerous hablL.
. . .

1he comparlson of oplum Lo wlne ls, l beg Lo
say, mere fudge," and Lhe aLLempL aL
argumenL, Lhence deduced, no beLLer Lhan
nonsense: buL, even dld Lhe parallel hold, whaL
would lL prove? 1haL because people ln Lhe
wesLern world polson Lhemselves wlLh wlne, lL
ls llghL and expedlenL LhaL Lhe Chlnese should
be polsoned wlLh oplum. . . . Such ls Lhe oplnlon
enLerLalned of lL, lo oll cooottles wbete lt ls
oseJ, LhaL he, who has once become a prey Lo
Lhe lnfaLuaLlon, ls regarded as losL Lo socleLy,
hls famlly, and hlmself-he ls looked on as a
reprobaLe, a debauchee, an lncurable, and
experlence proves, by Lhe lnnumerable wrecks
whlch Lhe faLal hablL marks on lLs page, Lhe
LruLh of Lhe observaLlon. l wlll refer you for
proof of Lhls, Lo all Lhe wrlLers* on 1urkey,
ersla, and oLher counLrles, where Lhe hablL
prevalls. ?ou wlll flnd all agree ln Lhe remark,
above made. uoes noL our own experlence
conflrm lL? Who would have ln hls house a
servanL who smokes oplum? ls noL such a man a
marked one, by hls own counLrymen and
forelgners, and ls he noL looked down on wlLh
plLy or scorn ln consequence? 1he Chlnese, who
may be allowed Lo know somewhaL of Lhelr
own people, denounce Lhe hablL, as pre[udlclal
and desLrucLlve. When once lL ls lndulged ln,
renunclaLlon ls all buL lmposslble, and Lhe
appeLlLe, growlng by whaL lL feeds on,"
lncreases Llll premaLure decay and deaLh close
Lhe scene of dlsslpaLlon and vlce. 1hls plcLure ls
by no means so agreeable a one Lo
conLemplaLe, as Lhe foocy one of uslng lL-
belng merely a raLlonal and soclable arLlcle of
luxury and hosplLallLy, buL, whaL lL wanLs ln
pleaslng lmagery, lL makes up ln LruLh. Ask any
Chlnese (who does noL use Lhls raLlonal and
soclable Lhlng), whaL lL ls, and hear whaL he wlll
Lell you. . . .

. . . 1he savlng clause ln Lhe oplum-smuggllng
professlon ls LhaL lL ls, noL o volqot one. lL ls a
wholesale Lrade. Sales are made ln Lhousands of
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$$*"!"

dollars' worLh. 1he amounL ls genLlemanly.
Slngle balls would be low. Sales by reLall would
be lndefenslble. 1he seller of a plpe or Lwo, Lhe
poor pander Lo a depraved appeLlLe, should be
pursued by [usLlce- for none of Lhese can be
genLlemen. 1haL whlch, sold ln chesLs, ls
commerce, and Lo be applauded, becomes
vulgar and mean when doled ouL ln small loLs.
Admlrable loglc! wlLh whlch one may hug one's
self, saLlsfled LhaL lL ls noLhlng more Lhan
supplylng an lmporLanL branch of Lhe lndlan
revenue safely and peaceably." . . . 1he Lrade
may be a proflLable one-lL may be of
lmporLance Lo Lhe lndlan governmenL, and Lo
lndlvlduals- buL Lo aLLempL a defense on Lhe
ground of lLs noL havlng dangerous and
pernlclous lnfluence on healLh and morals, ls Lo
say whaL cannoL be borne ouL, by facL or
argumenL, and whaL all, who reason on Lhe
sub[ecL, cannoL buL feel Lo be an lmpoLenL
aLLempL Lo defend whaL ls, ln lLself, manlfesLly
lndefenslble.

* Pope, Chardln, lraser, Madden, 8affles, and a
hosL of oLhers.

1he 1reaty of Nank|ng, August 1842

Art|c|e I
1here shall henceforLh be eace and lrlendshlp
beLween ...(Lngland and Chlna) and beLween
Lhelr respecLlve Sub[ecLs, who shall en[oy full
securlLy and proLecLlon for Lhelr persons and
properLy wlLhln Lhe uomlnlons of Lhe oLher.
Art|c|e II
Pls Ma[esLy Lhe Lmperor of Chlna agrees LhaL
8rlLlsh Sub[ecLs, wlLh Lhelr famllles and
esLabllshmenLs, shall be allowed Lo reslde, for
Lhe purpose of carrylng on Lhelr commerclal
pursulLs, wlLhouL molesLaLlon or resLralnL aL Lhe
ClLles and 1owns of CanLon, Amoy, loochow-fu,
nlngpo, and Shanghal, and Per Ma[esLy Lhe
Cueen of CreaL 8rlLaln, eLc., wlll appolnL
SuperlnLendenLs or Consular Cfflcers, Lo reslde
aL each of Lhe above-named ClLles or 1owns, Lo
be Lhe medlum of communlcaLlon beLween Lhe
Chlnese AuLhorlLles and Lhe sald MerchanLs,
and Lo see LhaL Lhe [usL uuLles and oLher uues
of Lhe Chlnese CovernmenL as hereafLer
provlded for, are duly dlscharged by Per
8rlLannlc Ma[esLy's Sub[ecLs.

Art|c|e III
lL belng obvlously necessary and deslrable, LhaL
8rlLlsh Sub[ecLs should have some orL whereaL
Lhey may careen and reflL Lhelr Shlps, when
requlred, and keep SLores for LhaL purpose, Pls
Ma[esLy Lhe Lmperor of Chlna cedes Lo Per
Ma[esLy Lhe Cueen of CreaL 8rlLaln, eLc., Lhe
lsland of Pong-kong, Lo be possessed ln
perpeLulLy by her 8rlLannlc Ma[esLy, Per Pelrs
and Successors, and Lo be governed by such
Laws and 8egulaLlons as Per Ma[esLy Lhe Cueen
of CreaL 8rlLaln, eLc., shall see flL Lo dlrecL.
Art|c|e V
1he CovernmenL of Chlna havlng compelled Lhe
8rlLlsh MerchanLs Lradlng aL CanLon Lo deal
excluslvely wlLh cerLaln Chlnese MerchanLs
called Pong merchanLs (or Cohong) who had
been llcensed by Lhe Chlnese CovernmenL for
LhaL purpose, Lhe Lmperor of Chlna agrees Lo
abollsh LhaL pracLlce ln fuLure aL all orLs where
8rlLlsh MerchanLs may reslde, and Lo permlL
Lhem Lo carry on Lhelr mercanLlle LransacLlons
wlLh whaLever persons Lhey please, and Pls
lmperlal Ma[esLy furLher agrees Lo pay Lo Lhe
8rlLlsh CovernmenL Lhe sum of 1hree Mllllons of
uollars, on accounL of uebLs due Lo 8rlLlsh
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$$+"!"

Sub[ecLs by some of Lhe sald Pong MerchanLs
(or Cohong) who have become lnsolvenL, and
who owe very large sums of money Lo Sub[ecLs
of Per 8rlLannlc Ma[esLy.
Art|c|e VII
lL ls agreed LhaL Lhe 1oLal amounL of 1wenLy-
one Mllllons of uollars, descrlbed ln Lhe Lhree
precedlng ArLlcles, shall be pald as follows:
Slx Mllllons lmmedlaLely.
Slx Mllllons ln 1843...
llve Mllllons ln 1844...
lour Mllllons ln 1843...
Art|c|e Ik
1he Lmperor of Chlna agrees Lo publlsh and
promulgaLe, under hls lmperlal Slgn Manual and
Seal, a full and enLlre amnesLy and acL of
lndemnlLy, Lo all Sub[ecLs of Chlna on accounL of
Lhelr havlng reslded under, or havlng had
deallngs and lnLercourse wlLh, or havlng
enLered Lhe Servlce of Per 8rlLannlc Ma[esLy, or
of Per Ma[esLy's Cfflcers, and Pls lmperlal
Ma[esLy furLher engages Lo release all Chlnese
Sub[ecLs who may be aL Lhls momenL ln
conflnemenL for slmllar reasons.
Art|c|e k
Pls Ma[esLy Lhe Lmperor of Chlna agrees Lo
esLabllsh all Lhe orLs whlch are by Lhe 2nd
ArLlcle of Lhls 1reaLy Lo be Lhrown open for Lhe
resorL of 8rlLlsh MerchanLs, a falr and regular
1arlff of LxporL and lmporL CusLoms and oLher
uues, whlch 1arlff shall be publlcly noLlfled and
promulgaLed for general lnformaLlon, and Lhe
Lmperor furLher engages, LhaL when 8rlLlsh
Merchandlse shall have once pald aL any of Lhe
sald orLs Lhe regulaLed CusLoms and uues
agreeable Lo Lhe 1arlff, Lo be hereafLer flxed,
such Merchandlse may be conveyed by Chlnese
MerchanLs, Lo any rovlnce or ClLy ln Lhe
lnLerlor of Lhe Lmplre of Chlna on paylng
furLher amounL as 1ranslL uuLles whlch shall noL
exceed ___ percenL on Lhe Larlff value of such
goods. (noLe: 1arlff schedules were noL seLLled
aL Lhls Llme. 1he Larlff raLes on varlous goods
were flxed afLer furLher dlscusslons, Lhey
averaged abouL flve percenL.)
Important Add|t|ona| r|v||eges Granted 1o
Iore|gners In Subsequent 1reat|es
MosL lavored naLlon SLaLus (ArLlcle vlll of Lhe
SupplemenLary 1reaLy of Lhe 8ogue, beLween
Chlna and CreaL 8rlLaln, slgned CcLober 8,
1843)
1he Lmperor of Chlna, havlng been graclously
pleased Lo granL Lo all forelgn CounLrles whose
Sub[ecLs, or ClLlzens, have hlLherLo Lraded aL
CanLon Lhe prlvllege of resorLlng for purposes of
1rade Lo Lhe oLher four orLs of luchow, Amoy,
nlngpo, and Shanghal, on Lhe same Lerms as Lhe
Lngllsh, lL ls furLher agreed, LhaL should Lhe
Lmperor hereafLer, from any cause whaLever,
be pleased Lo granL addlLlonal prlvlleges or
lmmunlLles Lo any of Lhe Sub[ecLs or ClLlzens of
such lorelgn CounLrles, Lhe same prlvlleges and
lmmunlLles wlll be exLended Lo and en[oyed by
8rlLlsh Sub[ecLs, buL lL ls Lo be undersLood LhaL
demands or requesLs are noL, on Lhls plea, Lo be
unnecessarlly broughL forward.

Mohandas k. Gandh|: Ind|an nome ku|e (1909)

1be popolot lmoqe of CooJbl lo tbe west lovolves o solotly moooet ooJ "posslve teslstooce." lo foct be
wos o sklllfol lowyet wbose tecbolpoes of ooovloleot ptotest wete ooytbloq bot posslve ooJ wbo coolJ be
feotlessly ootspokeo lo Jefeose of bls beloveJ loJlo. lo tbls lmoqlooty Jloloqoe, CooJbl ls teplyloq to tbe
poestloo of oo lotetvlewet (bete lobeleJ "kAuk") os to bow be woolJ oJJtess "exttemlsts" seekloq
loJepeoJeoce ftom 8tltolo. CooJbl's teplles ote lobeleJ "ul1Ok."
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$$,"!"

wbot Joes CooJbl soy tbe ptopet tole of tbe 8tltlsb lo loJlo sboolJ be?

Lul1C8:
l would say Lo Lhe exLremlsLs: "l know LhaL you
wanL Pome 8ule (1) for lndla, lL ls noL Lo be had
for your asklng. Lveryone wlll have Lo Lake lL for
hlmself. WhaL oLhers geL for me ls noL Pome
8ule buL forelgn rule, Lherefore, lL would noL be
proper for you Lo say LhaL you have obLalned
Pome 8ule lf you have merely expelled Lhe
Lngllsh. l have already descrlbed Lhe Lrue
naLure of Pome 8ule. 1hls you would never
obLaln by force of arms. 8ruLe-force ls noL
naLural Lo lndlan soll. ?ou wlll have, Lherefore,
Lo rely wholly on soul-force. ?ou musL noL
conslder LhaL vlolence ls necessary aL any sLage
for reachlng our goal." l would say Lo Lhe
moderaLes: "Mere peLlLlonlng ls derogaLory, we
Lhereby confess lnferlorlLy. 1o say LhaL 8rlLlsh
rule ls lndlspensable, ls almosL a denlal of Lhe
Codhead. We cannoL say LhaL anybody or
anyLhlng ls lndlspensable excepL Cod.
Moreover, common sense should Lell us LhaL Lo
sLaLe LhaL, for Lhe Llme belng, Lhe presence of
Lhe Lngllsh ln lndla ls a necesslLy, ls Lo make
Lhem concelLed.
"lf Lhe Lngllsh vacaLed lndla, bag and baggage,
lL musL noL be supposed LhaL she would be
wldowed. lL ls posslble LhaL Lhose who are
forced Lo observe peace under Lhelr pressure
would flghL afLer Lhelr wlLhdrawal. 1here can be
no advanLage ln suppresslng an erupLlon, lL
musL have lLs venL. lf, Lherefore, before we can
remaln aL peace, we musL flghL amongsL
ourselves, lL ls beLLer LhaL we do so. (2) 1here ls
no occaslon for a Lhlrd parLy Lo proLecL Lhe
weak. lL ls Lhls so-called proLecLlon whlch has
unnerved us. Such proLecLlon can only make Lhe
weak weaker. unless we reallze Lhls, we cannoL
have Pome 8ule. l would paraphrase Lhe
LhoughL of an Lngllsh dlvlne (3) and say LhaL
anarchy under Pome 8ule were beLLer Lhan
orderly forelgn rule. Cnly, Lhe meanlng LhaL Lhe
leaned dlvlne aLLached Lo Pome 8ule ls
dlfferenL from lndlan Pome 8ule accordlng Lo
my concepLlon. We have Lo learn, and Lo Leach
oLhers, LhaL we do noL wanL Lhe Lyranny of
elLher Lngllsh rule or lndlan rule."
lf Lhls ldea were carrled ouL, boLh Lhe
exLremlsLs and Lhe moderaLes could [oln hands.
1here ls no occaslon Lo fear or dlsLrusL one
anoLher.
8LAuL8:
WhaL Lhen, would you say Lo Lhe Lngllsh?
Lul1C8:
1o Lhem l would respecLfully say: "l admlL you
are my rulers. lL ls noL necessary Lo debaLe Lhe
quesLlon wheLher you hold lndla by Lhe sword
or by my consenL. l have no ob[ecLlon Lo your
remalnlng ln my counLry, buL alLhough you are
Lhe rulers, you wlll have Lo remaln as servanLs
of Lhe people. lL ls noL we who have Lo do as
you wlsh, buL lL ls you who have Lo do as we
wlsh. ?ou may keep Lhe rlches LhaL you have
dralned away from Lhls land, buL you may noL
draln rlches henceforLh. ?our funcLlon wlll be, lf
you so wlsh, Lo pollce lndla, you musL abandon
Lhe ldea of derlvlng any commerclal beneflL
from us. We hold Lhe clvlllzaLlon LhaL you
supporL Lo be Lhe reverse of clvlllzaLlon. We
conslder our clvlllzaLlon Lo be far superlor Lo
yours. lf you reallze Lhls LruLh, lL wlll be Lo your
advanLage and, lf you do noL, accordlng Lo your
own proverb, (4) you should only llve ln our
counLry ln Lhe same manner as we do. ?ou musL
noL do anyLhlng LhaL ls conLrary Lo our rellglons.
lL ls your duLy as rulers LhaL for Lhe sake of Lhe
Plndus you should eschew beef, and for Lhe
sake of Mahomedans (3) you should avold
bacon and ham. We have hlLherLo sald noLhlng
because we have been cowed down, buL you
need noL conslder LhaL you have noL hurL our
feellngs by your conducL. We are noL expresslng
our senLlmenLs elLher Lhrough base selflshness
or fear, buL because lL ls our duLy now Lo speak
ouL boldly. We conslder your schools and courLs
Lo be useless. We wanL our own anclenL schools
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$%-"!"

and courLs Lo be resLored. 1he common
language of lndla ls noL Lngllsh buL Plndl. ?ou
should, Lherefore, learn lL. We can hold
communlcaLlon wlLh you only ln our naLlonal
language.
"We cannoL LoleraLe Lhe ldea of your spendlng
money on rallways and Lhe mlllLary. We see no
occaslon for elLher. ?ou may fear 8ussla, we do
noL. When she comes we shall look afLer her. lf
you are wlLh us, we may Lhen recelve her
[olnLly. We do noL need any Luropean cloLh. We
shall manage wlLh arLlcles produced and
manufacLured aL home. ?ou may noL keep one
eye on ManchesLer (6) and Lhe oLher on lndla.
We can work LogeLher only lf our lnLeresLs are
ldenLlcal.

(1) lndependence, self-governmenL.
(2) Candhl Lhus foresees Lhe posslblllLy of someLhlng
llke Lhe dlvlslve vlolence LhaL occurred aL
lndependence, even Lhough lL was Lo break hls hearL
and Lake hls llfe.
(3) Clergyman.
(4) "When ln 8ome, do as Lhe 8omans do."
(3) An old Lngllsh Lerm for "Musllm." noLe LhaL
Candhl ls already Lrylng Lo be senslLlve Lo boLh
rellglons. 1hls was Lhe lssue LhaL ln Lhe end defeaLed
hlm.
(6) 1he cenLer of Lhe Lngllsh coLLon-weavlng Lrade.
Cne of Candhl's mosL lmporLanL campalgns was Lo
persuade lndlans Lo wear only LradlLlonal lndlan
homespun garmenLs, boycoLLlng Lngllsh lmporLs.

kubn Dar|o (1867-1916): 1o kooseve|t
1beoJote koosevelt wos tbe loJlvlJool wbo most tepteseoteJ tbe u5 locotsloos loto lotlo Ametlco tbot
oottoqeJ eveo ooopolltlcol poets socb os kobo uotlo (Nlcotoqoo, 1867-1916). lotlo Ametlcoos boJ
oJmlteJ tbe eoetqy, weoltb, ooJ Jemoctocy of tbe uolteJ 5totes, bot oow tbey feoteJ tbe bollyloq of
tbelt oottbeto oelqbbot. lteslJeot koosevelt soppotteJ o 190J tevolotloo lo looomo tbot tesolteJ lo tbe
oooexotloo by tbe u.5. of tettltoty fot tbe looomo coool, ooJ lo 1904 ptoclolmeJ o cootolloty to tbe
Mootoe uocttloe wblcb jostlfleJ tbe ose of tbe u.5. mllltoty to "pollce" lotlo Ametlco.

lL ls wlLh Lhe volce of Lhe 8lble, or Lhe verse of
WalL WhlLman,
LhaL l should come Lo you, PunLer,
prlmlLlve and modern, slmple and compllcaLed,
wlLh someLhlng of WashlngLon and more of
nlmrod.

?ou are Lhe unlLed SLaLes,
you are Lhe fuLure lnvader
of Lhe nalve Amerlca LhaL has lndlan blood,
LhaL sLlll prays Lo !esus ChrlsL and sLlll speaks
Spanlsh.

?ou are Lhe proud and sLrong exemplar of your
race,
you are culLured, you are sklllful, you oppose
1olsLoy.
And breaklng horses, or murderlng Llgers,
you are an Alexander-nebuchadnezzar.
(?ou are a professor of Lnergy
as Loday's madmen say.)

?ou Lhlnk LhaL llfe ls flre, L
haL progress ls erupLlon,
LhaL wherever you shooL
you hlL Lhe fuLure.

no.

1he unlLed SLaLes ls poLenL and greaL.
When you shake Lhere ls a deep Lremblor
LhaL passes Lhrough Lhe enormous verLebrae of
Lhe Andes.
lf you clamor, lL ls heard llke Lhe roarlng of a
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$%$"!"

llon.
Pugo already sald lL Lo CranL: 1he sLars are
yours.
(1he ArgenLlne sun, ascendlng, barely shlnes,
and Lhe Chllean sLar rlses...) ?ou are rlch.
?ou [oln Lhe culL of Percules Lo Lhe culL of
Mammon,
and lllumlnaLlng Lhe road of easy conquesL,
LlberLy ralses lLs Lorch ln new ?ork.

8uL our Amerlca, LhaL has had poeLs
slnce Lhe anclenL Llmes of neLzahualcoyoLl,
LhaL has walked ln Lhe fooLprlnLs of greaL
8acchus
who learned an's alphabeL aL once,
LhaL consulLed Lhe sLars, LhaL knew ALlanLls
whose resoundlng name comes Lo us from
laLo,
LhaL slnce Lhe remoLe Llmes of lLs llfe
has llved on llghL, on flre, on perfume, on love,
Amerlca of Lhe greaL MonLezuma, of Lhe lnca,
Lhe fragranL Amerlca of ChrlsLopher Columbus,
CaLhollc Amerlca, Spanlsh Amerlca,
Lhe Amerlca ln whlch noble CuahLemoc sald:
"l'm noL ln a bed of roses", LhaL Amerlca
LhaL Lrembles ln hurrlcanes and llves on love,
lL llves, you men of Saxon eyes and barbarous
soul.
And lL dreams. And lL loves, and lL vlbraLes, and
lL ls Lhe daughLer of Lhe Sun.
8e careful. vlva Spanlsh Amerlca!
1here are a Lhousand cubs loosed from Lhe
Spanlsh llon.
8oosevelL, one would have Lo be, Lhrough Cod
hlmself,
Lhe-fearful 8lfleman and sLrong PunLer,
Lo manage Lo grab us ln your lron claws.

And, alLhough you counL on everyLhlng, you
lack one Lhlng: Cod!

1toosloteJ by 8ooole lteJetlck

Mar|a Lugen|a Lchen|que: 1he Lmanc|pat|on of Women (1876)

When emanclpaLlon was glven Lo men, lL was
also glven Lo women ln recognlLlon of Lhe
equallLy of rlghLs, conslsLenL wlLh Lhe prlnclples
of naLure on whlch Lhey are founded, LhaL
proclalm Lhe ldenLlLy of soul beLween men and
women. 1hus, ArgenLlne women have been
emanclpaLed by law for a long Llme. 1he code of
law LhaL governs us auLhorlzes a wldow Lo
defend her rlghLs ln courL, [usL as an educaLed
woman can ln norLh Amerlca, and llke her, we
can manage Lhe lnLeresLs of our chlldren, Lhese
rlghLs belng Lhe basls for emanclpaLlon. WhaL
we lack ls sufflclenL educaLlon and lnsLrucLlon Lo
make use of Lhem, lnsLrucLlon LhaL norLh
Amerlcan women have, lL ls noL [usL recenLly
LhaL we have proclalmed our freedom. 1o Lry Lo
quesLlon or Lo oppose women's emanclpaLlon ls
Lo oppose someLhlng LhaL ls almosL a facL, lL ls
Lo aLLack our laws and desLroy Lhe 8epubllc.
So leL Lhe debaLe be Lhere, on Lhe Lrue polnL
where lL should be: wheLher or noL lL ls proper
for women Lo make use of Lhose granLed rlghLs,
asklng as a consequence Lhe auLhorlzaLlon Lo go
Lo Lhe unlverslLy so as Lo pracLlce Lhose rlghLs or
make Lhem effecLlve. And Lhls consLlLuLes
anoLher rlghL and duLy ln woman: a duLy Lo
accepL Lhe role LhaL our own laws besLow on
her when exLendlng Lhe clrcle of her [urlsdlcLlon
and whlch makes her responslble before Lhe
members of her famlly.
1hls, assumlng LhaL Lhe woman ls a moLher. 8uL,
are all women golng Lo marry? Are all golng Lo
be relegaLed Lo a llfe of lnacLlon durlng Lhelr
youLh or whlle Lhey remaln slngle? ls lL so easy
for all women Lo look for a sLranger Lo defend
Lhelr offended dlgnlLy, Lhelr bellLLled honor,
Lhelr sLolen lnLeresLs? uon'L we see every day
how Lhe laws are Lrodden underfooL, and Lhe
vlcLlm, belng a woman, ls forced Lo bow her
head because she does noL know how Lo
defend herself, exposed Lo lles and Lrlcks
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$%%"!"

because she does noL know Lhe way Lo clarlfy
Lhe LruLh?
lar from causlng Lhe breakdown of Lhe soclal
classes, Lhe emanclpaLlon of women would
esLabllsh morallLy and [usLlce ln Lhem, men
would have a brake LhaL would halL Lhe
"lmperlous need" LhaL Lhey have made of Lhe
"lles and Lrlcks" of llLlgaLlons, and Lhe sclence of
[urlsprudence, so sacred and magnlflcenL ln
lLself buL degeneraLed Loday because of abuses,
would reLurn Lo lLs splendor and Lrue ob[ecLlve
once women Lake parL ln Lhe forum. Cenerous
and abnegaLed by naLure, women would Leach
men humanlLarlan prlnclples and would
condemn Lhe frenzy and lnsulLs LhaL make a
baLLlefleld ouL of Lhe courLroom.
"Women elLher resolve Lo drown Lhe volce of
Lhelr hearLs, or Lhey llsLen Lo LhaL volce and
renounce emanclpaLlon." lf emanclpaLlon ls
opposed Lo Lhe Lender senLlmenLs, Lo Lhe volce
of Lhe hearL, Lhen men who are compleLely
emanclpaLed and sLudy sclence are noL capable
of love. 1he beauLlful and Lender glrl who glves
her hearL Lo a docLor or Lo a sclenLlsL, glves lL,
Lhen, Lo a sLony man, lncapable of appreclaLlng
lL or respondlng Lo her, women could noL love
emanclpaLed men, because where women flnd
love, men flnd lL Loo, ln boLh burns Lhe same
hearL's flame. l have seen LhaL Lhose who do
noL pracLlce sclence, who do noL know Lhelr
duLles or Lhe rlghLs of women, who are
lgnoranL, are Lhe ones who abandon Lhelr
wlves, noL Lhe ones who, concenLraLed on Lhelr
sLudles and duLles, barely have Llme Lo glve
Lhem a caress.
Men as much as women are vlcLlms of Lhe
lndlfference LhaL lgnorance, noL sclence,
produces. Men are more slaves of women who
abuse Lhe presLlge of Lhelr weakness and
become LyranLs ln Lhelr home, Lhan of Lhe
schooled and sclenLlflc women who undersLand
Lhelr duLles and are capable of someLhlng. WlLh
Lhe former Lhe husband has Lo play Lhe role of
man and woman, because she lgnores
everyLhlng: she ls noL capable of consollng nor
helplng her husband, she ls noL capable of
glvlng Lenderness, because, preoccupled wlLh
herself, she becomes demandlng, despoLlc, and
valn, and she does noL know how Lo make a
happy home. lor her Lhere are no
responslblllLles Lo carry ouL, only whlms Lo
saLlsfy. 1hls ls Lyplcal, we see lL happenlng every
day.
1he lgnoranL woman, Lhe one who volunLarlly
closes her hearL Lo Lhe subllme prlnclples LhaL
provoke sweeL emoLlons ln lL and elevaLe Lhe
mlnd, reveallng Lo men Lhe deep secreLs of Lhe
All-owerful, Lhe woman lncapable of helplng
her husband ln greaL enLerprlses for fear of
loslng Lhe presLlge of her weakness and
lgnorance, Lhe woman who only asplres Lo geL
marrled
and reproduce, and undersLands maLernlLy as
Lhe only mlsslon of women on earLh--she can be
Lhe wlfe of a savage, because ln hlm she can
saLlsfy all her asplraLlons and hopes, followlng
LhaL law of naLure LhaL operaLes even on beasLs
and lnanlmaLe belngs.
l would renounce and dlsown my sex lf Lhe
mlsslon of women were reduced only Lo
procreaLlon, yes, l would renounce lL, buL Lhe
mlsslon of women ln Lhe world ls much more
grandlose and subllme, lL ls more Lhan Lhe
beasLs', lL ls Lhe one of Leachlng humanklnd,
and ln order Lo Leach lL ls necessary Lo know. A
moLher should know sclence ln order Lo lnsplre
ln her chlldren greaL deeds and noble
senLlmenLs, maklng Lhem feel superlor Lo Lhe
oLher ob[ecLs ln Lhe unlverse, Leachlng Lhem
from Lhe cradle Lo become famlllar wlLh greaL
scenes of naLure where Lhey should go Lo look
for Cod and love Plm. And noLhlng more
subllme and ldeal Lhan Lhe sclenLlflc moLher
who, whlle her husband goes Lo cafes or Lo Lhe
pollLlcal club Lo Lalk abouL sLaLe lnLeresLs, she
goes Lo spend some of Lhe evenlng aL Lhe
asLronomlcal observaLory, wlLh her chlldren by
Lhe hand Lo show Lhem !uplLer, venus,
preparlng ln LhaL way Lhelr Lender hearLs for Lhe
mosL leglLlmaLe and subllme asplraLlons LhaL
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$%&"!"

could occupy men's mlnds. 1hls sacred mlsslon
ln Lhe sclenLlflc moLher who undersLands
emanclpaLlon--Lhe fulflllmenL of whlch, far from
causlng Lhe abandonmenL of Lhe home, causes
lL Lo unlLe more closely--lnsLead of causlng
dlspleasure Lo her husband, she wlll cause hls
happlness.
1he ablllLles of men are noL so mlserable LhaL
Lhe carrylng ouL of one responslblllLy would
make lL lmposslble Lo carry ouL oLhers. 1here ls
enough Llme and compeLence for cooklng and
mendlng, and a greaL soul such as LhaL of
women, equal Lo LhaL of Lhelr maLes, born Lo
embrace all Lhe beauLy LhaL exlsLs ln CreaLlon of
dlvlne orlgln and end, should noL be wasLed all
on seelng lf Lhe plaLes are clean and rocklng Lhe
cradle.
1toosloteJ by ltooclsco Moozo kobleJo

Vo|ta|re: N(=)"&%$6"(+#(=+'")&%$+# (1763)
voltolte wos tbe most elopoeot ooJ tlteless oJvocote of tbe ootl-Joqmotlc movemeot koowo os "1be
ollqbteomeot." ne otqoeJ lo fovot of "Jelsm," o voqoe sobstltote fot ttoJltloool tellqloo wblcb
ockoowleJqeJ o cteotot ooJ some sott of Jlvloe jostlce, bot tejecteJ most of tbe otbet fooJomeotol
bellefs of cbtlstloolty. losteoJ be pteocbeJ tbot oll ote obllqeJ to toletote eocb otbet. wbeo be JefeoJs
eveo folse tellqloo os sopetlot to oooe, lt ls obvloos tbot bls objectloos to otbelsm ote sopetflclol ooJ tbot
be looks oo tellqloos bellefs os osefol, bot oot oecessotlly ttoe. lt sboolJ be temembeteJ tbot otbelsm
wos sttlctly llleqol lo voltolte's tlme, ooJ be boJ beeo lmptlsooeJ tepeoteJly ooJ floolly exlleJ fot bls
cbolleoqes to ttoJltloool tellqloo. uelsm ptovlJeJ o cooveoleot (ooJ leqol) scteeo fot bls ottocks oo
cbtlstloolty, bot mooy scbolots belleve tbot Jesplte bls stotemeots to tbe coottoty, be wos lo foct oo
otbelst. nls otqomeots fot tellqloos fteeJom bove become commooploces lo tbe moJeto westeto wotlJ,
eveo omooq tellqloos bellevets.
wbot teosoos Joes voltolte qlve tbot we sboolJ oll toletote eocb otbet?

Whether |t |s Usefu| to Ma|nta|n eop|e |n
the|r Superst|t|on
Such ls Lhe feebleness of humanlLy, such ls lLs
perverslLy, LhaL doubLless lL ls beLLer for lL Lo be
sub[ecL Lo all posslble supersLlLlons, as long as
Lhey are noL murderous, Lhan Lo llve wlLhouL
rellglon. Man always needs a reln, and even lf lL
mlghL be rldlculous Lo sacrlflce Lo fauns, or
sylvans, or nalads, (1) lL ls much more
reasonable and more useful Lo veneraLe Lhese
fanLasLlc lmages of Lhe ulvlne Lhan Lo slnk lnLo
aLhelsm. An aLhelsL who ls raLlonal, vlolenL, and
powerful, would be as greaL a pesLllence as a
blood-mad, supersLlLlous man.
When men do noL have healLhy noLlons of Lhe
ulvlnlLy, false ldeas supplanL Lhem, [usL as ln
bad Llmes one uses counLerfelL money when
Lhere ls no good money. 1he pagan feared Lo
commlL any crlme, ouL of fear of punlshmenL by
hls false gods, Lhe Malabarlan fears Lo be
punlshed by hls pagoda. Wherever Lhere ls a
seLLled socleLy, rellglon ls necessary, Lhe laws
cover manlfesL crlmes, and rellglon covers
secreL crlmes.
8uL whenever human falLh comes Lo embrace a
pure and holy rellglon, supersLlLlon noL only
becomes useless, buL very dangerous. We
should noL seek Lo nourlsh ourselves on acorns
when Cod glves us bread.
SupersLlLlon ls Lo rellglon whaL asLrology ls Lo
asLronomy: Lhe foollsh daughLer of a very wlse
moLher. 1hese Lwo daughLers, supersLlLlon and
asLrology, have sub[ugaLed Lhe world for a long
Llme.
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$%'"!"

When, ln our ages of barbarlLy, scarcely Lwo
feudal lords owned beLween Lhem a slngle new
1esLamenL, lL mlghL be pardonable Lo offer
fables Lo Lhe vulgar, LhaL ls, Lo Lhese feudal
lords, Lo Lhelr lmbeclle wlves, and Lo Lhelr
bruLlsh vassals, Lhey were led Lo belleve LhaL
SalnL ChrlsLopher carrled Lhe lnfanL !esus from
one slde of a rlver Lo Lhe oLher, Lhey were fed
sLorles abouL sorcerers and Lhelr splrlLual
possesslons, Lhey easlly lmaglned LhaL SalnL
Cenou (2) would cure Lhe gouL, and LhaL SalnL
Clalre (3) would cure eye problems. 1he
chlldren belleved ln Lhe werewolf, and Lhe
faLhers ln Lhe rope glrdle of SalnL lrancls. 1he
number of rellcs (4) was lnnumerable.
1he sedlmenL of Lhese supersLlLlons sLlll
survlved among Lhe people, even aL LhaL Llme
LhaL rellglon was purlfled. We know LhaL when
Monsleur de noallles, Lhe 8lshop of Chlons,
removed and Lhrew lnLo Lhe flre Lhe false rellc
of Lhe holy navel of !esus ChrlsL, Lhen Lhe enLlre
vlllage of Chlons began proceedlngs agalnsL
hlm, however, he had as much courage as he
had pleLy, and he succeeded ln maklng Lhe
Champenols belleve LhaL Lhey could adore !esus
ChrlsL ln splrlL and LruLh, wlLhouL havlng hls
navel ln Lhe church.
1hose we call !ansenlsLs (3) conLrlbuLed greaLly
Lo rooLlng ouL gradually from Lhe splrlL of Lhe
naLlon Lhe greaLer parL of Lhe false ldeas whlch
dlshonored Lhe ChrlsLlan rellglon. eople ceased
Lo belleve LhaL lL was sufflclenL Lo reclLe a
prayer Lo Lhe vlrgln Mary for LhlrLy days so LhaL
Lhey could do whaL Lhey wlsh and sln wlLh
lmpunlLy Lhe resL of Lhe year.
llnally Lhe bourgeolsle began Lo reallze LhaL lL
was noL SalnL Cenevleve who gave or wlLheld
raln, buL LhaL lL was Cod Plmself who dlsposed
of Lhe elemenLs. 1he monks were asLonlshed
LhaL Lhelr salnLs dld noL brlng abouL mlracles
any longer, and lf Lhe wrlLers of 1he Llfe of SalnL
lrancls xavler reLurned Lo Lhe world, Lhey
would noL dare Lo wrlLe LhaL Lhe salnL revlved
nlne corpses, LhaL he was ln Lwo places, on Lhe
sea and on land, aL Lhe same Llme, and LhaL hls
cruclflx fell lnLo Lhe sea and was resLored Lo hlm
by a crab.
lL ls Lhe same wlLh excommunlcaLlons. Cur
hlsLorlans Lells us LhaL when klng 8oberL was
excommunlcaLed by ope Cregory v, for
marrylng hls godmoLher, Lhe prlncess 8erLha,
hls domesLlc servanLs Lhrew Lhe meaLs Lo be
served Lo Lhe klng rlghL ouL Lhe wlndow, and
Cueen 8erLha gave blrLh Lo a goose ln
punlshmenL for Lhe lncesLuous marrlage. Cne
could serlously doubL LhaL ln Lhls day and age
Lhe servanLs of Lhe klng of lrance, lf he were
excommunlcaLed, would Lhrow hls dlnner ouL
Lhe wlndow, or LhaL Lhe queen would glve blrLh
Lo a goose.
1here are sLlll a few convulslve fanaLlcs (6) ln
remoLe corners of Lhe suburbs, buL Lhls dlsease
only aLLacks Lhe mosL vlle populaLlon. Lach day
reason peneLraLes furLher lnLo lrance, lnLo Lhe
shops of merchanLs as well as Lhe manslons of
lords. We musL culLlvaLe Lhe frulLs of Lhls
reason, especlally slnce lL ls lmposslble Lo check
lLs advance. Cne cannoL govern lrance, afLer lL
has been enllghLened by ascal, nlcole,
Arnauld, 8ossuleL, uescarLes, Cassendl, 8ayle,
lonLenelle, and Lhe oLhers, as lL as been
governed ln Lhe Llmes of Carasse and MenoL.
lf Lhe masLers of errors, and l'm speaklng here
of Lhe grand masLers, so long pald and honored
for abuslng Lhe human specles, ordered us
Loday Lo belleve LhaL Lhe seed musL dle ln order
Lo germlnaLe, LhaL Lhe world ls lmmovable on
lLs foundaLlons, LhaL lL does noL orblL around
Lhe sun, LhaL Lhe Lldes are noL a naLural effecL
of gravlLaLlon, LhaL Lhe ralnbow ls noL formed
by Lhe refracLlon and Lhe reflecLlon of rays of
llghL, and so on, and Lhey based Lhelr
ordlnances on passages poorly undersLood from
Lhe Poly 8lble, how would educaLed men
regard Lhese men? Would Lhe Lerm "beasLs"
seem Loo sLrong? And lf Lhese wlse masLers
used force and persecuLlon Lo enforce Lhelr
lnsolenL sLupldlLy, would Lhe Lerm "wlld beasLs"
seem Loo exLreme?
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$%("!"

1he more Lhe supersLlLlons of monks are
desplsed, Lhe more Lhe blshops are respecLed
and Lhe prlesLs llsLened Lo, whlle Lhey do no
good, Lhese monklsh supersLlLlons from over
Lhe mounLalns (7) do a greaL deal of harm. 8uL
of all Lhese supersLlLlons, ls noL Lhe mosL
dangerous LhaL of haLlng your nelghbor for hls
oplnlons? And ls lL noL evldenL LhaL lL would be
much more reasonable Lo worshlp Lhe Poly
navel, Lhe Poly loreskln, or Lhe mllk or Lhe robe
of Lhe vlrgln Mary, (8) Lhan Lo deLesL and
persecuLe your broLher?

Chapter 21: V|rtue |s 8etter than Sc|ence
1he fewer dogmas, Lhe fewer dlspuLes, Lhe
fewer dlspuLes, Lhe fewer mlserles: lf Lhls ls noL
Lrue, Lhen l'm wrong.
8ellglon was lnsLlLuLed Lo make us happy ln Lhls
llfe and ln Lhe oLher. WhaL musL we do Lo be
happy ln Lhe llfe Lo come? 8e [usL.
WhaL musL we do ln order Lo be happy ln Lhls
llfe, as far as Lhe mlsery of our naLure permlLs?
8e lndulgenL.
lL would be Lhe helghL of folly Lo preLend Lo
lmprove all men Lo Lhe polnL LhaL Lhey Lhlnk ln a
unlform manner abouL meLaphyslcs. lL would be
easler Lo sub[ugaLe Lhe enLlre unlverse Lhrough
force of arms Lhan Lo sub[ugaLe Lhe mlnds of a
slngle vlllage. . . .

Chapter 22: Cn Un|versa| 1o|erance
lL does noL requlre greaL arL, or magnlflcenLly
Lralned eloquence, Lo prove LhaL ChrlsLlans
should LoleraLe each oLher. l, however, am
golng furLher: l say LhaL we should regard all
men as our broLhers. WhaL? 1he 1urk my
broLher? 1he Chlnaman my broLher? 1he !ew?
1he Slam? ?es, wlLhouL doubL, are we noL all
chlldren of Lhe same faLher and creaLures of Lhe
same Cod?
8uL Lhese people desplse us, Lhey LreaL us as
ldolaLers! very well! l wlll Lell Lhem LhaL Lhey
are grlevously wrong. lL seems Lo me LhaL l
would aL leasL asLonlsh Lhe proud, dogmaLlc
lslam lmam or 8uddhlsL prlesL, lf l spoke Lo
Lhem as follows:
"1hls llLLle globe, whlch ls buL a polnL, rolls
Lhrough space, as do many oLher globes, we are
losL ln Lhe lmmenslLy of Lhe unlverse. Man, only
flve feeL hlgh, ls assuredly only a small Lhlng ln
creaLlon. Cne of Lhese lmpercepLlble belngs
says Lo anoLher one of hls nelghbors, ln Arabla
or SouLh Afrlca: 'LlsLen Lo me, because Cod of
all Lhese worlds has enllghLened me: Lhere are
nlne hundred mllllon llLLle anLs llke us on Lhe
earLh, buL my anL-hole ls Lhe only one dear Lo
Cod, all Lhe oLher are casL off by Plm for
eLernlLy, mlne alone wlll be happy, and all Lhe
oLhers wlll be eLernally damned."
1hey would Lhen lnLerrupL me, and ask whlch
fool blabbed all Lhls nonsense. l would be
obllged Lo answer, "?ou, yourselves." l would
Lhen endeavor Lo calm Lhem, whlch would be
very dlfflculL.
l would Lhen speak wlLh Lhe ChrlsLlans, and l
would dare Lo say, for example, Lo a uomlnlcan
lnqulslLor of Lhe lalLh: (9) "My broLher, you
know LhaL each provlnce of lLaly has Lhelr own
dlalecL, and LhaL people do noL speak aL venlce
or 8ergamo Lhe same way Lhey speak aL
llorence. 1he Academy of Crusca near llorence
has flxed Lhe language, lLs dlcLlonary ls a rule
whlch one dare noL deparL from, and Lhe
Crammar of 8uonmaLLel ls an lnfalllble gulde
LhaL one musL follow. 8uL do you belleve LhaL
Lhe consul of Lhe Academy, or 8uonmaLLel ln hls
absence, could ln consclence cuL Lhe Longues
ouL of all Lhe veneLlans and all Lhe 8ergamese
who perslsL ln speaklng Lhelr dlalecL?"
1he lnqulslLor responds, "1here ls a dlfference
beLween your example and our pracLlce. lor us,
lL ls a maLLer of Lhe healLh of your soul. lL ls for
your good LhaL Lhe dlrecLor of Lhe lnqulslLlon
ordalns LhaL you be selzed on Lhe LesLlmony of a
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$%)"!"

slngle person, however lnfamous or crlmlnal
LhaL person mlghL be, LhaL you wlll have no
advocaLe Lo defend you, LhaL Lhe name of your
accuser wlll noL even be known by you, LhaL Lhe
lnqulslLor can promlse you mercy, and
lmmedlaLely condemn you, LhaL flve dlfferenL
LorLures wlll be applled Lo you, and Lhen you
wlll be flogged, or senL Lo Lhe galleys, or
ceremonlously burned. laLher lvoneL, uocLor
Cuchalon, Zanchlnus, Campeglus, 8olas,
lelynus, Comarus, ulabarus, Cemellnus, are
expllclL on Lhls polnL, and Lhls plous pracLlce
cannoL suffer any conLradlcLlon."
l would Lake Lhe llberLy Lo respond, "My
broLher, perhaps you are reasonable, l am
convlnced LhaL you wlsh Lo do me good, buL
could l noL be saved wlLhouL all LhaL?"
lL ls Lrue LhaL Lhese absurd horrors do noL sLaln
Lhe face of Lhe earLh every day, buL Lhey are
frequenL, and Lhey could easlly flll a volume
much greaLer Lhan Lhe gospels whlch condemn
Lhem. (10) noL only ls lL exLremely cruel Lo
persecuLe ln Lhls brlef llfe Lhose who do noL
Lhlnk Lhe way we do, buL l do noL know lf lL
mlghL be Loo presumpLuous Lo declare Lhelr
eLernal damnaLlon. lL seems Lo me LhaL lL does
noL perLaln Lo Lhe aLoms of Lhe momenL, such
as we are, Lo anLlclpaLe Lhe decrees of Lhe
CreaLor.
1toosloteJ by klcbotJ nooket

(1) AnclenL Creek demlgods.
(2) Pls name means "knee" ln lrench.
(3) Per name suggesLs llghL.
(4) hyslcal remalns of salnLs, elLher Lhelr body
parLs, cloLhlng, or any oLher physlcal ob[ecL
assoclaLed wlLh Lhem, Lhese rellcs were supposed Lo
dlsplay remarkable curaLlve and oLher maglcal
properLles.
(3) 8eformers who agreed ln many ways wlLh
roLesLanL ldeas.
(6) LcsLaLlcs who fell lnLo rellglous flLs.
(7) 8ome.
(8) 1hese are all rellcs acLually veneraLed ln hls Llme.
(9) 1he uomlnlcans ran Lhe noLorlous lnqulslLlon
whlch LorLured and condemned Lo deaLh people
who deparLed from orLhodox CaLhollclsm.
(10) noLe how he sllps ln Lhls commenL, argulng LhaL
Lhe lnqulslLlon lLself ls conLrary Lo Lhe Leachlngs of
ChrlsL.
kousseau, Iean-Iacques: =:"(1+B$&'(<+#%)&B% (1762)
Ieoo-Iocpoes koosseoo, lo 1he Soclal ConLracL, ptopoooJs o Jocttloe wblcb olteoJy boJ o looq
blstoty lo tbe sttoqqle oqolost tbe olJet vlew of tbe Jlvloe tlqbt of kloqs, oomely, tbot
qovetomeot qets lts ootbotlty ovet os by o wlllloq cooseot oo oot pott, oot by tbe ootbotlzotloo
of CoJ. wblle koosseoo's fomoos opeoloq lloe cooJemos tbe soclety of bls Joy fot lts llmltloq of
oot oototol spootooelty (loJeeJ, lts cottoptloo of oot oototol qooJoess), be tbloks tbot o qooJ
qovetomeot coo be jostlfleJ lo tetms of tbe comptomlse to wblcb eocb of os sobmlts so os to
qolo "clvll llbetty ooJ tbe ptoptletotsblp of oll be possesses." koosseoo eveo tbloks tbot we
motote os bomoo beloqs lo socb o soclol settloq, wbete we ote oot slmply Jtlveo by oot
oppetltes ooJ Jesltes bot become self-qovetoloq, self-JlsclplloeJ beloqs.
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$%*"!"

now, os koosseoo blmself osks, coo ooe eotet loto oo oqteemeot wblcb llmlts ooe's powet
wltboot tbeteby "botmloq bls owo lotetests ooJ oeqlectloq tbe cote be owes to blmself?"

Sub[ect of the I|rst 8ook
Man ls born free, and everywhere he ls ln
chalns. Cne Lhlnks hlmself Lhe masLer of oLhers,
and sLlll remalns a greaLer slave Lhan Lhey. Pow
dld Lhls change come abouL? l do noL know.
WhaL can make lL leglLlmaLe? 1haL quesLlon l
Lhlnk l can answer.
lf l Look lnLo accounL only force, and Lhe effecLs
derlved from lL, l should say: "As long as a
people ls compelled Lo obey, and obeys, lL does
well, as soon as lL can shake off Lhe yoke, and
shakes lL off, lL does sLlll beLLer, for, regalnlng lLs
llberLy by Lhe same rlghL as Look lL away, elLher
lL ls [usLlfled ln resumlng lL, or Lhere was no
[usLlflcaLlon for Lhose who Look lL away." 8uL
Lhe soclal order ls a sacred rlghL whlch ls Lhe
basls of all rlghLs. neverLheless, Lhls rlghL does
noL come from naLure, and musL Lherefore be
founded on convenLlons. . . . (1)

S|avery
Slnce no man has a naLural auLhorlLy over hls
fellow, and force creaLes no rlghL, we musL
conclude LhaL convenLlons form Lhe basls of all
leglLlmaLe auLhorlLy among men.

1he Soc|a| Compact
l suppose men Lo have reached Lhe polnL aL
whlch Lhe obsLacles ln Lhe way of Lhelr
preservaLlon ln Lhe sLaLe of naLure show Lhelr
power of reslsLance Lo be greaLer Lhan Lhe
resources aL Lhe dlsposal of each lndlvldual for
hls malnLenance ln LhaL sLaLe. 1haL prlmlLlve
condlLlon can Lhen subslsL no longer, and Lhe
human race would perlsh unless lL changed lLs
manner of exlsLence.
8uL, as men cannoL engender new forces, buL
only unlLe and dlrecL exlsLlng ones, Lhey have
no oLher means of preservlng Lhemselves Lhan
Lhe formaLlon, by aggregaLlon, of a sum of
forces greaL enough Lo overcome Lhe
reslsLance. 1hese Lhey have Lo brlng lnLo play by
means of a slngle moLlve power, and cause Lo
acL ln concerL. (2)
1hls sum of forces can arlse only where several
persons come LogeLher: buL, as Lhe force and
llberLy of each man are Lhe chlef lnsLrumenLs of
hls self-preservaLlon, how can he pledge Lhem
wlLhouL harmlng hls own lnLeresLs, and
neglecLlng Lhe care he owes Lo hlmself? 1hls
dlfflculLy, ln lLs bearlng on my presenL sub[ecL,
may be sLaLed ln Lhe followlng Lerms:
"1he problem ls Lo flnd a form of assoclaLlon
whlch wlll defend and proLecL wlLh Lhe whole
common force Lhe person and goods of each
assoclaLe, and ln whlch each, whlle unlLlng
hlmself wlLh all, may sLlll obey hlmself alone.
and remaln as free as before." 1hls ls Lhe
fundamenLal problem of whlch Lhe Soclal
ConLracL provldes Lhe soluLlon. . . .

1he C|v|| State
1he passage (3) from Lhe sLaLe of naLure Lo Lhe
clvll sLaLe produces a very remarkable change ln
man, by subsLlLuLlng [usLlce for lnsLlncL ln hls
conducL, and glvlng hls acLlons Lhe morallLy
Lhey had formerly lacked. 1hen only, when Lhe
volce of duLy Lakes Lhe place of physlcal
lmpulses and rlghL of appeLlLe, does man, who
so far had consldered only hlmself, flnd LhaL he
ls forced Lo acL on dlfferenL prlnclples, and Lo
consulL hls reason before llsLenlng Lo hls
lncllnaLlons. AlLhough, ln Lhls sLaLe, he deprlves
hlmself of some advanLages whlch he goL from
naLure, he galns ln reLurn oLhers so greaL, hls
faculLles are so sLlmulaLed and developed, hls
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$%+"!"

ldeas so exLended, hls feellngs so ennobled, and
hls whole soul so upllfLed LhaL, dld noL Lhe
abuses of Lhls new condlLlon ofLen degrade hlm
below LhaL whlch he lefL, he would be bound Lo
bless conLlnually Lhe happy momenL whlch Look
hlm from lL for ever, and, lnsLead of a sLupld
and unlmaglnaLlve anlmal, made hlm an
lnLelllgenL belng and a man.
LeL us draw up Lhe whole accounL ln Lerms
easlly commensurable. WhaL man loses by Lhe
soclal conLracL ls hls naLural llberLy and an
unllmlLed rlghL Lo everyLhlng he Lrles Lo geL and
succeeds ln geLLlng, whaL he galns ls clvll llberLy
and Lhe proprleLorshlp of all he possesses. lf we
are Lo avold mlsLake ln welghlng one agalnsL Lhe
oLher, we musL clearly dlsLlngulsh naLural
llberLy, whlch ls bounded only by Lhe sLrengLh
of Lhe lndlvldual, from clvll llberLy, whlch ls
llmlLed by Lhe general wlll, and possesslon,
whlch ls merely Lhe effecL of force or Lhe rlghL
of Lhe flrsL occupler, from properLy, whlch can
be founded only on a poslLlve LlLle.
We mlghL, over and above all Lhls, add, Lo whaL
man acqulres ln Lhe clvll sLaLe, moral llberLy,
whlch alone makes hlm Lruly masLer of hlmself,
for Lhe mere lmpulse of appeLlLe ls slavery,
whlle obedlence Lo a law whlch we prescrlbe Lo
ourselves ls llberLy. . . .
1toosloteJ by C. u. n. cole (191J)

(1) 1haL ls, agreemenLs whlch are noL lnevlLable
buL are enLered ln Lo volunLarlly.
(2) !olnLly.
(3) 1ranslLlon.

Women M|ners |n the Lng||sh Coa| |ts

lrom CreaL 8rlLaln, lotllomeototy lopets, 1842,
voL xvl, pp. 24, 196.
ln Lngland, excluslve of Wales, lL ls only ln some
of Lhe colllery dlsLrlcLs of ?orkshlre and
Lancashlre LhaL female Chlldren of Lender age
and young and adulL women are allowed Lo
descend lnLo Lhe coal mlnes and regularly Lo
perform Lhe same klnds of underground work,
and Lo work for Lhe same number of hours, as
boys and men, buL ln Lhe LasL of ScoLland Lhelr
employmenL ln Lhe plLs ls general, and ln SouLh
Wales lL ls noL uncommon.
west klJloq of otksblte. 5ootbeto lott - ln
many of Lhe colllerles ln Lhls dlsLrlcL, as far as
relaLes Lo Lhe underground employmenL, Lhere
ls no dlsLlncLlon of sex, buL Lhe labour ls
dlsLrlbuLed lndlfferenLly among boLh sexes,
excepL LhaL lL ls comparaLlvely rare for Lhe
women Lo hew or geL Lhe coals, alLhough Lhere
are numerous lnsLances ln whlch Lhey regularly
perform even Lhls work. ln greaL numbers of Lhe
coalplLs ln Lhls dlsLrlcL Lhe men work ln a sLaLe
of perfecL nakedness, and are ln Lhls sLaLe
asslsLed ln Lhelr labour by females of all ages,
from glrls of slx years old Lo women of LwenLy-
one, Lhese females belng Lhemselves qulLe
naked down Lo Lhe walsL.
"Clrls," says Lhe Sub-Commlssloner [!. C.
Symons], -regularly perform all Lhe varlous
offlces of Lrapplng, hurrylng [?orkshlre Lerms
for drawlng Lhe loaded coal corves], fllllng,
rlddllng, Llpplng, and occaslonally geLLlng, [usL
as Lhey are performed by boys. Cne of Lhe mosL
dlsgusLlng slghLs 1 have ever seen was LhaL of
young females, dressed llke boys ln Lrousers,
crawllng on all fours, wlLh belLs round Lhelr
walsLs and chalns passlng beLween Lhelr legs, aL
day plLs aL Punshelf 8ank, and ln many small
plLs near PolmflrLh and new Mllls: lL exlsLs also
ln several oLher places. 1 vlslLed Lhe Punshelf
Colllery on Lhe 18Lh of !anuary: lL ls a day plL,
LhaL ls, Lhere ls no shafL or descenL, Lhe gaLe or
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$%,"!"

enLrance ls aL Lhe slde of a bank, and nearly
horlzonLal. 1he gaLe was noL more Lhan a yard
hlgh, and ln some places noL above 2 feeL.
" When l arrlved aL Lhe board or worklngs of Lhe
plL l found aL one of Lhe sldeboards down a
narrow passage a glrl of fourLeen years of age ln
boy's cloLhes, plcklng down Lhe coal wlLh Lhe
regular plck used by Lhe men. She was half
slLLlng half lylng aL her work, and sald she found
lL Llred her very much, and 'of course she dldn'L
llke lL.' 1he place where she was aL work was
noL 2 feeL hlgh. lurLher on were men lylng on
Lhelr sldes and geLLlng. no less Lhan slx glrls ouL
of elghLeen men and chlldren are employed ln
Lhls plL.
"WhllsL l was ln Lhe plL Lhe 8ev Mr 8ruce, of
Wadsley, and Lhe 8ev Mr nelson, of 8oLherham,
who accompanled me, and remalned ouLslde,
saw anoLher glrl of Len years of age, also
dressed ln boy's cloLhes, who was employed ln
hurrylng, and Lhese genLlemen saw her aL work.
She was a nlce-looklng llLLle chlld, buL of course
as black as a Llnker, and wlLh a llLLle necklace
round her LhroaL.
"ln Lwo oLher plLs ln Lhe Puddersfleld unlon l
have seen Lhe same slghL. ln one near new
Mllls, Lhe chaln, passlng hlgh up beLween Lhe
legs of Lwo of Lhese glrls, had worn large holes
ln Lhelr Lrousers, and any slghL more
dlsgusLlngly lndecenL or revolLlng can scarcely
be lmaglned Lhan Lhese glrls aL work-no broLhel
can beaL lL.
"Cn descendlng Messrs Popwood's plL aL
8arnsley, l found assembled round a flre a
group of men, boys, and glrls, some of whom
were of Lhe age of puberLy, Lhe glrls as well as
Lhe boys sLark naked down Lo Lhe walsL, Lhelr
halr bound up wlLh a LlghL cap, and Lrousers
supporLed by Lhelr hlps. (AL SllksLone and aL
llockLon Lhey work ln Lhelr shlfLs and Lrousers.)
1helr sex was recognlzable only by Lhelr breasLs,
and some llLLle dlfflculLy occaslonally arose ln
polnLlng ouL Lo me whlch were glrls and whlch
were boys, and whlch caused a good deal of
laughlng and [oklng. ln Lhe llockLon and
1hornhlll plLs Lhe sysLem ls even more lndecenL:
for Lhough Lhe glrls are cloLhed, aL leasL Lhree-
fourLhs of Lhe men for whom Lhey "hurry" work
sLark ookeJ, ot wlLh a flannel walsLcoaL only,
and ln Lhls sLaLe Lhey asslsL one anoLher Lo flll
Lhe corves 18 or 20 Llmes a day: l have seen Lhls
done myself frequenLly.
"When lL ls remembered LhaL Lhese glrls hurry
chlefly for men who are noL Lhelr parenLs, LhaL
Lhey go from 13 Lo 20 Llmes a day lnLo a dark
chamber (Lhe bank face), whlch ls ofLen 30
yards aparL from any one, Lo a man worklng
naked, or nexL Lo naked, lL ls noL Lo be supposed
buL LhaL where opporLunlLy Lhus prevalls sexual
vlces are of common occurrence. Add Lo Lhls
Lhe free lnLercourse, and Lhe rendezvous aL Lhe
shafL or bullsLake, where Lhe corves are
broughL, and conslder Lhe language Lo whlch
Lhe young ear ls hablLuaLed, Lhe absence of
rellglous lnsLrucLlon, and Lhe early age aL whlch
conLamlnaLlon beglns, and you wlll have before
you, ln Lhe coal-plLs where females are
employed, Lhe plcLure of a nursery for [uvenlle
vlce whlch you wlll go far and we above ground
Lo equal."
1wo Women M|ners
lrom CreaL 8rlLaln, lotllomeototy lopets, 1842,
vol. xv, p. 84, and lbld., vol. xvll, p. 108.
;"%%*(I&))$6, age 37: l was marrled aL 23, and
wenL lnLo a colllery when l was marrled. l used
Lo weave when abouL 12 years old, can nelLher
read nor wrlLe. l work for Andrew knowles, of
LlLLle 8olLon (Lancs), and make someLlmes 7s a
week, someLlmes noL so much. l am a drawer,
and work from 6 ln Lhe mornlng Lo 6 aL nlghL.
SLop abouL an hour aL noon Lo eaL my dlnner,
have bread and buLLer for dlnner, l geL no drlnk.
l have Lwo chlldren, buL Lhey are Loo young Lo
work. l worked aL drawlng when l was ln Lhe
famlly way. l know a woman who has gone
home and washed herself, Laken Lo her bed,
dellvered of a chlld, and gone Lo work agaln
under Lhe week.
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$&-"!"

l have a belL round my walsL, and a chaln
passlng beLween my legs, and l go on my hands
and feeL. 1he road ls very sLeep, and we have Lo
hold by a rope, and when Lhere ls no rope, by
anyLhlng we can caLch hold of. 1here are slx
women and abouL slx boys and glrls ln Lhe plL l
work ln, lL ls very hard work for a woman. 1he
plL ls very weL where l work, and Lhe waLer
comes over our clog-Lops always, and l have
seen lL up Lo my Lhlghs, lL ralns ln aL Lhe roof
Lerrlbly. My cloLhes are weL Lhrough almosL all
day long. l never was lll ln my llfe, buL when l
was lylng ln.
My cousln looks afLer my chlldren ln Lhe day
Llme. l am very Llred when l geL home aL nlghL, l
fall asleep someLlmes before l geL washed. l am
noL so sLrong as l was, and cannoL sLand my
work so well as l used Lo. l have drawn Llll l have
baLhe skln off me, Lhe belL and chaln ls worse
when we are ln Lhe famlly way. My feller
(husband) has beaLen me many a Llmes for noL
belng ready. l were noL used Lo lL aL flrsL, and he
had llLLle paLlence.
l have known many a man beaL hls drawer. l
have known men Lake llberLles wlLh Lhe
drawers, and some of Lhe women have
basLards.
!&%$"#B"(E")6:&H, age 17, Pallfax: l go Lo plL aL
3 o'clock ln Lhe mornlng and come ouL aL 3 ln
Lhe evenlng, l geL my breakfasL, porrldge and
mllk, flrsL, l Lake my dlnner wlLh me, a cake, and
eaL lL as l go, l do noL sLop or resL aL any Llme
for Lhe purpose, l geL noLhlng else unLll l geL
home, and Lhen have poLaLoes and meaL, noL
every day meaL.

kar| Marx and Ir|edr|ch Lnge|s: =:"(<+332#$6%(5&#$@"6%+ (1848)

Altbooqb lt ot fltst boJ llttle ot oo lmpoct oo tbe wlJespteoJ ooJ votleJ tevolotloooty movemeots of tbe
mlJ-19tb ceototy otope, tbe CommunlsL ManlfesLo wos to become ooe of tbe most wlJely teoJ ooJ
JlscosseJ Jocomeots of tbe 20tb ceototy. Motx sooqbt to Jlffeteotlote bls btooJ of soclollsm ftom otbets
by loslstloq tbot lt wos scleotlflcolly boseJ lo tbe objectlve stoJy of blstoty, wblcb be sow os beloq o
cootloooos ptocess of cbooqe ooJ ttoosfotmotloo. Iost os feoJollsm boJ oototolly evolveJ loto
metcootlllsm ooJ tbeo copltollsm, so copltollsm woolJ loevltobly qlve woy to lts loqlcol soccessot,
soclollsm (o tetm wblcb lo Motx's osoqe locloJes lts most oJvooceJ fotm, commoolsm) os tbe oecessoty
tesolt of closs sttoqqle. Motx's loslsteoce tbot tooqb-mloJeJ teollsm sboolJ teploce tbe otoploo lJeollsm
of eotllet soclollsts boJ ptofoooJ coosepoeoces. lt eoobleJ tevolotloootles llke leolo to be pot lt loto
octloo, bot lt olso teoJeJ to eocootoqe lts followets to occept totbless meoos to jostlfy wbot tbey
belleveJ wete blstotlcolly oecessoty eoJs. koJlcol polltlcs wete beloq mocb mote wlJely JlscosseJ tboo
tbe smoll oombet of toJlcols jostlfleJ, bot Motx oses tbls foct to bls oJvootoqe by ptoclolmloq tbot ooy
lJeoloqy so feoteJ most be lmpottoot ooJ wottb explololoq cleotly. lo tbe ootes, "Motx" ls oseJ os
sbottbooJ fot botb Motx (tbe tbeotetlcloo) ooJ oqels (tbe mote elopoeot wtltet of tbe two).1be
ManlfesLo wos otlqloolly lssoeJ lo sevetol looqooqes, locloJloq tbls oqllsb vetsloo.
wbot kloJs of cbooqes Joes Motx soy bove beeo cbotoctetlstlc of tbe bootqeols eto?

ro|ogue
A specLer ls haunLlng Lurope--Lhe specLer of
communlsm. All Lhe powers of old Lurope have
enLered lnLo a holy alllance Lo exorclse Lhls
specLer: ope and Czar, MeLLernlch and CulzoL,
(1) lrench 8adlcals and Cerman pollce sples.
Where ls Lhe parLy ln opposlLlon LhaL has noL
been decrled as communlsLlc by lLs opponenLs
ln power? Where Lhe CpposlLlon LhaL has noL
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$&$"!"

hurled back Lhe brandlng reproach of
communlsm, agalnsL Lhe more advanced
opposlLlon parL-les, as well as agalnsL lLs
reacLlonary adversarles?
1wo Lhlngs resulL from Lhls facL:
l. Communlsm ls already acknowledged by all
Luropean powers Lo be lLself a power.
ll. lL ls hlgh Llme LhaL CommunlsLs should
openly, ln Lhe face of Lhe whole world, publlsh
Lhelr vlews, Lhelr alms, Lhelr Lendencles, and
meeL Lhls nursery Lale of Lhe specLer of
communlsm wlLh a manlfesLo of Lhe parLy lLself.
(2)
art I: 8ourgeo|s And ro|etar|ans
1he hlsLory of all hlLherLo exlsLlng socleLy ls Lhe
hlsLory of class sLruggles.
lreeman and slave, (3) paLrlclan and plebelan,
(4) lord and serf, (3) gulldmasLer and
[ourneyman, (6) ln a word, oppressor and
oppressed, sLood ln consLanL opposlLlon Lo one
anoLher, carrled on an unlnLerrupLed, now
hldden, now open flghL, a flghL LhaL each Llme
ended, elLher ln a revoluLlonary reconsLlLuLlon
of socleLy aL large, or ln Lhe common ruln of Lhe
conLendlng classes.
ln Lhe earller epochs of hlsLory, we flnd almosL
everywhere a compllcaLed arrangemenL of
socleLy lnLo varlous orders, a manlfold
gradaLlon of soclal rank. ln anclenL 8ome we
have paLrlclans, knlghLs, plebelans, slaves, ln
Lhe Mlddle Ages, feudal lords, vassals, gulld-
masLers, [ourneymen, apprenLlces, serfs, ln
almosL all of Lhese classes, agaln, subordlnaLe
gradaLlons.
1he modern bourgeols socleLy LhaL has
sprouLed from Lhe rulns of feudal socleLy, has
noL done away wlLh class anLagonlsms. lL has
buL esLabllshed new classes, new condlLlons of
oppresslon, new forms of sLruggle ln place of
Lhe old ones.
Cur epoch, Lhe epoch of Lhe bourgeolsle, (7)
possesses, however, Lhls dlsLlncLlve feaLure: lL
has slmpllfled Lhe class anLagonlsms. SocleLy as
a whole ls more and more spllLLlng up lnLo Lwo
greaL hosLlle camps, lnLo Lwo greaL classes
dlrecLly faclng each oLher--bourgeolsle and
proleLarlaL. . . . (8)
Modern lndusLry has esLabllshed Lhe world
markeL, for whlch Lhe dlscovery of Amerlca
paved Lhe way. (9) 1hls markeL has glven an
lmmense developmenL Lo commerce, Lo
navlgaLlon, Lo communlcaLlon by land. 1hls
developmenL has, ln lLs Lurn, reacLed on Lhe
exLenslon of lndusLry, and ln proporLlon as
lndusLry, commerce, navlgaLlon, rallways
exLended, ln Lhe same proporLlon Lhe
bourgeolsle developed, lncreased lLs caplLal,
and pushed lnLo Lhe background every class
handed down from Lhe Mlddle Ages.
We see, Lherefore, how Lhe modern bourgeolsle
ls lLself Lhe producL of a long course of
developmenL, of a serles of revoluLlons ln Lhe
modes of producLlon and of exchange.
Lach sLep ln Lhe developmenL of Lhe
bourgeolsle was accompanled by a
correspondlng pollLlcal advance of LhaL class.
(10) An oppressed class under Lhe sway of Lhe
feudal noblllLy, lL became an armed and self-
governlng assoclaLlon ln Lhe medleval
commune, here lndependenL urban republlc (as
ln lLaly and Cermany), Lhere Laxable "Lhlrd
esLaLe" of Lhe monarchy (as ln lrance),
afLerwards, ln Lhe perlod of manufacLure
proper, servlng elLher Lhe seml-feudal or Lhe
absoluLe monarchy as a counLerpolse agalnsL
Lhe noblllLy, and, ln facL, cornersLone of Lhe
greaL monarchles ln general--Lhe bourgeolsle
has aL lasL, slnce Lhe esLabllshmenL of modern
lndusLry and of Lhe world markeL conquered for
lLself, ln Lhe modern represenLaLlve sLaLe,
excluslve pollLlcal sway. 1he execuLlve of Lhe
modern sLaLe ls buL a commlLLee for managlng
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$&%"!"

Lhe common affalrs of Lhe whole bourgeolsle.
(11)
1he bourgeolsle has played a mosL
revoluLlonary role ln hlsLory. (12)
1he bourgeolsle, wherever lL has goL Lhe upper
hand, has puL an end Lo all feudal, paLrlarchal,
ldylllc relaLlons. lL has plLllessly Lorn asunder Lhe
moLley feudal Lles LhaL bound man Lo hls
"naLural superlors," and has lefL no oLher bond
beLween man and man Lhan naked self-lnLeresL,
Lhan callous "cash paymenL." lL has drowned
Lhe mosL heavenly ecsLasles of rellglous fervor,
of chlvalrous enLhuslasm, of phlllsLlne
senLlmenLallsm, ln Lhe lcy waLer of egoLlsLlcal
calculaLlon. lL has resolved personal worLh lnLo
exchange value, and ln place of Lhe numberless
lndefeaslble charLered freedoms, has seL up
LhaL slngle, unconsclonable freedom--lree
1rade. ln one word, for explolLaLlon, velled by
rellglous and pollLlcal llluslons, lL has
subsLlLuLed naked, shameless, dlrecL, bruLal
explolLaLlon. (13)

art II: ro|etar|ans and Commun|sts
WhaL else does Lhe hlsLory of ldeas prove, Lhan
LhaL lnLellecLual producLlon changes lLs
characLer ln proporLlon as maLerlal producLlon
ls changed? 1he rullng ldeas of each age have
ever (14) been Lhe ldeas of lLs rullng class. (13)
When people speak of ldeas LhaL revoluLlonlze
socleLy, Lhey do buL express Lhe facL LhaL wlLhln
Lhe old socleLy Lhe elemenLs of a new one have
been creaLed, and LhaL Lhe dlssoluLlon of Lhe
old ldeas keeps even pace wlLh Lhe dlssoluLlon
of Lhe old condlLlons of exlsLence.
When Lhe anclenL world was ln lLs lasL Lhroes,
Lhe anclenL rellglons were overcome by
ChrlsLlanlLy. When ChrlsLlan ldeas succumbed ln
Lhe elghLeenLh cenLury Lo raLlonallsL ldeas,
feudal socleLy foughL lLs deaLh-baLLle wlLh Lhe
Lhen revoluLlonary bourgeolsle. 1he ldeas of
rellglous llberLy and freedom of consclence,
merely gave expresslon Lo Lhe sway of free
compeLlLlon wlLhln Lhe domaln of knowledge.
"undoubLedly," lL wlll be sald, "rellglon, moral,
phllosophlcal and [urldlcal ldeas have been
modlfled ln Lhe course of hlsLorlcal
developmenL. 8uL rellglon morallLy, phllosophy,
pollLlcal sclence, and law, consLanLly survlved
Lhls change."
"1here are, besldes, eLernal LruLhs, such as
lreedom, !usLlce, eLc., LhaL are common Lo all
sLaLes of socleLy. 8uL communlsm abollshes
eLernal LruLhs, lL abollshes all rellglon, and all
morallLy, lnsLead of consLlLuLlng Lhem on a new
basls, lL Lherefore acLs ln conLradlcLlon Lo all
pasL hlsLorlcal experlence."
WhaL does Lhls accusaLlon reduce lLself Lo? 1he
hlsLory of all pasL socleLy has conslsLed ln Lhe
developmenL of class anLagonlsms, anLagonlsms
LhaL assumed dlfferenL forms aL dlfferenL
epochs.
8uL whaLever form Lhey may have Laken, one
facL ls common Lo all pasL ages, vlz., Lhe
explolLaLlon of one parL of socleLy by Lhe oLher.
no wonder, Lhen, LhaL Lhe soclal consclousness
of pasL ages, desplLe all Lhe mulLlpllclLy and
varleLy lL dlsplays, moves wlLhln cerLaln
common forms, or general ldeas, whlch cannoL
compleLely vanlsh excepL wlLh Lhe LoLal
dlsappearance of class anLagonlsms.
1he CommunlsL revoluLlon ls Lhe mosL radlcal
rupLure wlLh LradlLlonal properLy relaLlons, no
wonder LhaL lLs developmenL lnvolves Lhe mosL
radlcal rupLure wlLh LradlLlonal ldeas. (16)

art IV: os|t|on of the Commun|sts |n ke|at|on
to the Var|ous Lx|st|ng Cppos|t|on art|es
ln shorL, Lhe CommunlsLs everywhere supporL
every revoluLlonary movemenL agalnsL Lhe
exlsLlng soclal and pollLlcal order of Lhlngs. (17)
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$&&"!"

ln all Lhese movemenLs Lhey brlng Lo Lhe fronL,
as Lhe leadlng quesLlon ln each case, Lhe
properLy quesLlon, no maLLer whaL lLs degree of
developmenL aL Lhe Llme.
llnally, Lhey labor everywhere for Lhe unlon and
agreemenL of Lhe democraLlc parLles of all
counLrles.
1he CommunlsLs dlsdaln Lo conceal Lhelr vlews
and alms. (18) 1hey openly declare LhaL Lhelr
ends can be aLLalned only by Lhe forclble
overLhrow of all exlsLlng soclal condlLlons. LeL
Lhe rullng classes Lremble aL a CommunlsL
revoluLlon. 1he proleLarlans have noLhlng Lo
lose buL Lhelr chalns. 1hey have a world Lo wln.
Worklngmen of all counLrles, unlLe! (19)

(1) Cerman and lrench conservaLlves.
(2) Marx opposed secreL consplraLorlal communlsL
organlzaLlons because he felL LhaL Lhe only
successful revoluLlon would need Lhe supporL of Lhe
overwhelmlng mass of socleLy, and people could noL
be expecLed Lo supporL whaL Lhey dld noL
undersLand or even know abouL.
(3) 1yplcal of anclenL clvlllzaLlons llke LhaL of Lhe
Creeks.
(4) 8oman soclal classes.
(3) lrom Lhe Luropean Mlddle Ages.
(6) 8epresenLlng Lhe laLer Mlddle Ages and
8enalssance.
(7) 1he Lerm orlglnally meanL slmply Lhe class of
people who llved ln clLles, buL here lL means Lhose
whose lncome comes from dolng buslness raLher
Lhan--llke Lhe arlsLocracy--from lnherlLed esLaLes or--
llke Lhe proleLarlaL--from wages.
(8) 1he worklng class, people who make Lhelr llvlng
by worklng for oLhers raLher Lhan ownlng or
lnvesLlng ln buslnesses.
(9) Marx's commenLs on Lhe lmporLance of Lhe world
markeL, developed furLher ln passages here omlLLed,
sounds very modern. Pe argued LhaL Lhe dlfferences
beLween counLrles would dlmlnlsh as Lhey adopLed
caplLallsm and lncreased Lhelr lnLernaLlonal Lrade,
pavlng Lhe way for a sLaLeless world unlLed ln
communlsm.
(10) Marx parLlcularly has ln mlnd Lhe Luropean
revoluLlons of 1789-1848, ln whlch Lhe bourgeolsle,
whlch had long before become Lhe domlnanL
economlc force ln socleLy, asserLed lLs clalms Lo
pollLlcal power as well.
(11) ln Lhls famous commenL, Lhe modern
democraLlc sLaLes are dlsmlssed as mere Lools of Lhe
bourgeolsle, slnce lL ls Lhe wealLhy who run Lhem
and seL Lhelr agendas, desplLe Lhelr clalms Lo
popular represenLaLlon.
(12) AlLhough Lhe followlng paragraph ouLllnes Lhls
role ln negaLlve Lerms, Marx belleved LhaL Lhe
LransformaLlon of Lhe world wroughL by caplLallsm
was absoluLely necessary Lo provlde Lhe foundaLlons
for communlsm, so Lhe bourgeolsle are
revoluLlonary ln facL, Lhough unwlLLlngly so.
(13) AlLhough Lhls ls harshly puL, Marx belleves LhaL
Lhe ldeallsm whlch [usLlfled earller class sLrucLures
was lndeed an llluslon, a represslve decepLlon LhaL
needed Lo be desLroyed.
(14) Always.
(13) Cne of Marx's mosL lnfluenLlal concepLs. ln a
caplLallsL socleLy people Lhlnk compeLlLlon naLural
because caplLallsm requlres compeLlLlon, buL ln Lhe
Mlddle Ages submlsslon Lo one's soclal "superlors"
was seen as equally naLural. Communlsm ls noL
"agalnsL human naLure" because Lhere ls no such
Lhlng--only Lhe soclal values produced by cerLaln
klnds of economlc organlzaLlon. ConLemporary
MarxlsL analysls aLLempLs Lo Lrace socleLy's values
back Lo Lhe economlc and pollLlcal lnLeresLs of Lhe
mosL powerful people ln socleLy.
(16) Marx spenL relaLlvely llLLle Llme ouLllnlng Lhe
naLure of communlsL socleLy, buL Lhe goals were
wldely undersLood Lo be 1) compleLe equallLy of all
clLlzens, 2) abollLlon of prlvaLe ownershlp of Lhe
means of producLlon (facLorles, mlnes, rallways,
eLc.), 3) Lhe replacemenL of a markeL economy wlLh
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$&'"!"

one ln whlch everyone goL whaLever Lhey needed ln
reLurn for such labor as Lhey were able Lo glve. ln
addlLlon, Marx envlslons Lhe abollLlon of all sLaLes
and governmenLs, and as a consequence, an end Lo
war. 1he cruclal problem of how one moLlvaLes
workers ln a sLaLe whlch ls boLh free and
properLyless was never solved by Lhe MarxlsL sLaLes
of Lhe 20Lh cenLury.
(17) Marx argues LhaL communlsL should work wlLh
all "progresslve" movemenLs ln whaL were laLer Lo
be called "unlLed fronLs."
(18) noLe Lhe repeaLed emphasls on openness.
When communlsLs were vlewed as consplraLors Lhey
rlsked belng seen as enemles of Lhe people Lhey
were Lrylng Lo help.
(19) 1hls sLlrrlng concluslon ls almosL always
mlsquoLed as "Worklng men of all counLrles, unlLe!
?ou have noLhlng Lo lose buL your chalns!"

Char|es Darw|n: =:"(K)$>$#(+@(17"B$"6 (18S9)

Opposltloo to evolotloooty tbeoty bos olwoys beeo most vlqotoos omooq tbose wbo felt tbot tbelt
tellqloos bellefs tepolteJ tbem to teject lt. uotwlo wos ocotely owote of tbls foct ooJ ttleJ wbeoevet be
coolJ to occommoJote tellqloos seoslbllltles. lo tbe followloq ovetvlew of bls tbeoty of oototol selectloo
be empboslzes oot ooly bow mocb mote totloool tbe tbeoty ls tboo tbe clolm tbot eocb specles wos
sepototely cteoteJ, bot otqoes tbot lt ls motveloos ooJ wottby of o mojestlc cteotot os well. lo tbe flool
potoqtopb be loys Jowo tbe boslc elemeots of bls tbeoty. tbot loJlvlJools lo evety specles teoJ oototolly
to voty ftom tbe ootm, ooJ tbot wbeo tbete ote so mooy membets of o specles sbotloq oo ecoloqlcol
olcbe tbot tbey ote competloq fot sotvlvol, ooly tbose wbo wbose votlotloos qlve tbem Jeclslve
oJvootoqes wlll sotvlve. 1bey wlll poss tbese cbotoctetlstlcs oo to tbelt JesceoJoots. uesplte mooy
Jlsoqteemeots omooq scleotlsts oboot tbe Jetolls of evolotloo, some of wblcb ote meotlooeJ lo tbe
footootes below, most of tbem oqtee tbot o ceototy ooJ o bolf of occomoloteJ evlJeoce soppotts tbe
btooJ ootlloes of tbls eleqoot tbeoty wblcb explolos ootote's oJJltles, follotes ooJ eveo occosloool
oqlloess os tbe ptoJocts of cbooce opetotloos totbet tboo of oo omolpoteot qoJ.

wbot exomples Joes uotwlo qlve of feototes of ootote tbot seem llke ettots ("less tboo petfect")?

As naLural selecLlon acLs solely by accumulaLlng
sllghL, successlve, favorable varlaLlons, lL can
produce no greaL or sudden modlflcaLlons, lL
can acL only by shorL and slow sLeps. (1) Pence,
Lhe canon of "Nototo ooo foclt soltom," (2)
whlch every fresh addlLlon Lo our knowledge
Lends Lo conflrm, ls on Lhls Lheory lnLelllglble.
We can see why LhroughouL naLure Lhe same
general end ls galned by an almosL lnflnlLe
dlverslLy of means, for every pecullarlLy when
once acqulred ls long lnherlLed, and sLrucLures
already modlfled ln many dlfferenL ways have
Lo be adapLed for Lhe same general purpose.
We can, ln shorL, see why naLure ls prodlgal ln
varleLy, Lhough nlggard (3) ln lnnovaLlon. 8uL
why Lhls should be a law of naLure lf each
specles has been lndependenLly creaLed no man
can explaln.
Many oLher facLs are, as lL seems Lo me,
expllcable on Lhls Lheory. Pow sLrange lL ls LhaL
a blrd, under Lhe form of a woodpecker, should
prey on lnsecLs on Lhe ground, LhaL upland
geese whlch rarely or never swlm, should
possess webbed feeL, LhaL a Lhrush-llke blrd
should dlve and feed on sub-aquaLlc lnsecLs,
and LhaL a peLrel should have Lhe hablLs and
sLrucLure flLLlng lL for Lhe llfe of an auk! and so
ln endless oLher cases. 8uL on Lhe vlew of each
specles consLanLly Lrylng Lo lncrease ln member,
wlLh naLural selecLlon always ready Lo adapL Lhe
slowly varylng descendanLs of each Lo any
unoccupled or lll-occupled place ln naLure,
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$&("!"

Lhese facLs cease Lo be sLrange, or mlghL even
have been anLlclpaLed.
We can Lo a cerLaln exLenL undersLand how lL ls
LhaL Lhere ls so much beauLy LhroughouL
naLure, for Lhls may be largely aLLrlbuLed Lo Lhe
agency of selecLlon. 1haL beauLy, accordlng Lo
our sense of lL, ls noL unlversal, musL be
admlLLed by every one who wlll look aL some
venomous snakes, aL some flshes, and aL cerLaln
hldeous baLs wlLh a dlsLorLed resemblance Lo
Lhe human face. Sexual selecLlon has glven Lhe
mosL brllllanL colors, eleganL paLLerns, and
oLher ornamenLs Lo Lhe males, and someLlmes
Lo boLh sexes of many blrds, buLLerflles, and
oLher anlmals. WlLh blrds lL has ofLen rendered
Lhe volce of Lhe male muslcal Lo Lhe female, as
well as Lo our ears. llowers and frulL have been
rendered consplcuous by brllllanL colors ln
conLrasL wlLh Lhe green follage, ln order LhaL
Lhe flowers may be easlly seen, vlslLed, and
ferLlllzed by lnsecLs, and Lhe seeds dlssemlnaLed
by blrds. Pow lL comes LhaL cerLaln colors,
sounds, and forms should glve pleasure Lo man
and Lhe lower anlmals,--LhaL ls, how Lhe sense
of beauLy ln lLs slmplesL form was flrsL
acqulred,--we do noL know any more Lhan how
cerLaln odors and favors were flrsL rendered
agreeable.
As naLural selecLlon acLs by compeLlLlon, lL
adapLs and lmproves Lhe lnhablLanLs of each
counLry only ln relaLlon Lo Lhelr co-lnhablLanLs,
so LhaL we need feel no surprlse aL Lhe specles
of any one counLry, alLhough on Lhe ordlnary
vlew supposed Lo have been creaLed and
speclally adapLed for LhaL counLry, belng beaLen
and supplanLed by Lhe naLurallzed producLlons
from anoLher land. nor oughL we Lo marvel lf all
Lhe conLrlvances ln naLure be noL, as far as we
can [udge, absoluLely perfecL, as ln Lhe case
even of Lhe human eye, or lf some of Lhem be
abhorrenL Lo our ldeas of flLness. We need noL
marvel aL Lhe sLlng of Lhe bee, when used
agalnsL an enemy, causlng Lhe bee's own deaLh,
aL drones belng produced ln such greaL
numbers for one slngle acL, and belng Lhen
slaughLered by Lhelr sLerlle slsLers, aL Lhe
asLonlshlng wasLe of pollen by our flr-Lrees, aL
Lhe lnsLlncLlve haLred of Lhe queen-bee for her
own ferLlle daughLers, aL lchneumonldae (4)
feedlng wlLhln Lhe llvlng bodles of caLerplllars,
or aL oLher such cases. 1he wonder lndeed ls, on
Lhe Lheory of naLural selecLlon, LhaL more cases
of Lhe wanL (3) of absoluLe perfecLlon have noL
been deLecLed. . . .

AuLhors of Lhe hlghesL emlnence seem Lo be
fully saLlsfled wlLh Lhe vlew LhaL each specles
has been lndependenLly creaLed. 1o my mlnd lL
accords beLLer wlLh whaL we know of Lhe laws
lmpressed on maLLer by Lhe CreaLor, LhaL Lhe
producLlon and exLlncLlon of Lhe pasL and
presenL lnhablLanLs of Lhe world should have
been due Lo secondary causes, llke Lhose
deLermlnlng Lhe blrLh and deaLh of Lhe
lndlvldual. When l vlew all belngs noL as speclal
creaLlons, buL as Lhe llneal descendanLs of some
few belngs whlch llved long before Lhe flrsL bed
of Lhe Cambrlan (6) sysLem was deposlLed, Lhey
seem Lo me Lo become ennobled. !udglng from
Lhe pasL, we may safely lnfer LhaL noL one llvlng
specles wlll LransmlL lLs unalLered llkeness Lo a
dlsLanL fuLurlLy. And of Lhe specles now llvlng
very few wlll LransmlL progeny of any klnd Lo a
far dlsLanL fuLurlLy, for Lhe manner ln whlch all
organlc belngs are grouped, shows LhaL Lhe
greaLer number of specles ln each genus, and all
Lhe specles ln many genera, have lefL no
descendanLs, buL have become uLLerly exLlncL.
We can so far Lake a propheLlc glance lnLo
fuLurlLy as Lo foreLell LhaL lL wlll be Lhe common
and wldely-spread specles, belonglng Lo Lhe
larger and domlnanL groups wlLhln each class,
whlch wlll ulLlmaLely prevall and procreaLe new
and domlnanL specles. As all Lhe llvlng forms of
llfe are Lhe llneal descendanLs of Lhose whlch
llved long before Lhe Cambrlan epoch, we may
feel cerLaln LhaL Lhe ordlnary successlon by
generaLlon has never once been broken, and
LhaL no caLaclysm has desolaLed Lhe whole
world. (7) Pence we may look wlLh some
confldence Lo a secure fuLure of greaL lengLh.
And as naLural selecLlon works solely by and for
Lhe good of each belng, all corporeal and
menLal endowmenLs wlll Lend Lo progress
Lowards perfecLlon. (8)
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$&)"!"

lL ls lnLeresLlng Lo conLemplaLe a Langled bank,
cloLhed wlLh many planLs of many klnds, wlLh
blrds slnglng on Lhe bushes, wlLh varlous lnsecLs
fllLLlng abouL, and wlLh worms crawllng Lhrough
Lhe damp earLh, and Lo reflecL LhaL Lhese
elaboraLely consLrucLed forms, so dlfferenL
from each oLher, and dependenL upon each
oLher ln so complex a manner, have all been
produced by laws acLlng around us. 1hese laws,
Laken ln Lhe largesL sense, belng CrowLh wlLh
8eproducLlon, lnherlLance whlch ls almosL
lmplled by reproducLlon, varlablllLy from Lhe
lndlrecL and dlrecL acLlon of Lhe condlLlons of
llfe, and from use and dlsuse: a 8aLlo of
lncrease so hlgh as Lo lead Lo a SLruggle for Llfe,
and as a consequence Lo naLural SelecLlon,
enLalllng ulvergence of CharacLer and Lhe
LxLlncLlon of less-lmproved forms. 1hus, from
Lhe war of naLure, from famlne and deaLh, Lhe
mosL exalLed ob[ecL whlch we are capable of
concelvlng, namely, Lhe producLlon of Lhe
hlgher anlmals, dlrecLly follows. 1here ls
grandeur ln Lhls vlew of llfe, wlLh lLs several
powers, havlng been orlglnally breaLhed by Lhe
CreaLor lnLo a few forms or lnLo one, and LhaL,
whllsL Lhls planeL has gone cycllng on accordlng
Lo Lhe flxed law of gravlLy, from so slmple a
beglnnlng endless forms mosL beauLlful and
mosL wonderful have been, and are belng
evolved.

(1) Cne modern school of LhoughL re[ecLs uarwln's
graduallsm, argulng LhaL sudden and wldespread
change afLer long perlods of sLablllLy has been more
characLerlsLlc of evoluLlonary hlsLory.
(2) naLure makes no leaps. (3) Mlserly. (4) A klnd of
wasp. (3) Lack. (6) AbouL 700,000,000 years ago
(7) uarwln has ln mlnd noL only Lhe 8lbllcal flood,
buL Lheorles of naLure whlch aLLrlbuLed all Lraces of
large-scale change Lo varlous caLasLrophes.
lronlcally, mosL modern uarwlnlans have lnLegraLed
Lhe bellef ln aL leasL one greaL caLaclysm--Lhe
comeLary lmpacL whlch evldenLly ended Lhe age of
Lhe dlnosaurs--lnLo evoluLlonary Lheory.
(8) 1hls vlew has been dlspuLed by some sclenLlsLs
who argue LhaL laLer forms are noL necessarlly
"beLLer" Lhan laLer ones.

kudyard k|p||ng, 1he Wh|te Man's 8urden (1899)
8oto lo 8tltlsb loJlo lo 1865, koJyotJ klplloq wos eJocoteJ lo oqlooJ befote tetotoloq to loJlo lo 1882,
wbete bls fotbet wos o moseom Jltectot ooJ ootbotlty oo loJloo otts ooJ ctofts. 1bos klplloq wos
tbotooqbly lmmetseJ lo loJloo coltote. by 1890 be boJ pobllsbeJ lo oqllsb oboot 80 stotles ooJ bolloJs
ptevloosly ookoowo ootslJe loJlo. As o tesolt of floooclol mlsfottooe, ftom 1892-96 be ooJ bls wlfe, tbe
Jooqbtet of oo Ametlcoo pobllsbet, llveJ lo vetmoot, wbete be wtote tbe two !ungle 8ooks. Aftet
tetotoloq to oqlooJ, be pobllsbeJ "1be wblte Moo's 8otJeo" lo 1899, oo oppeol to tbe uolteJ 5totes to
ossome tbe tosk of Jeveloploq tbe lblllpploes, teceotly woo lo tbe 5poolsb-Ametlcoo wot. As o wtltet,
klplloq petbops llveJ too looq. by tbe tlme of bls Jeotb lo 19J6, be boJ come to be tevlleJ os tbe poet of
8tltlsb lmpetlollsm, tbooqb beloq teqotJeJ os o beloveJ cbllJteo's book ootbot. 1oJoy be mlqbt yet qolo
oppteclotloo os o ttoosmlttet of loJloo coltote to tbe west.

wbot ls lt toJoy's teoJet floJs so tepoqooot oboot klplloq's poem? lf yoo wete o cltlzeo of o coloolzeJ
tettltoty, bow woolJ yoo tespooJ to klplloq?

1ake up Lhe WhlLe Man's burden--
Send forLh Lhe besL ye breed--
Co blnd your sons Lo exlle
1o serve your capLlves' need,
1o walL ln heavy harness,
Cn fluLLered folk and wlld--
?our new-caughL, sullen peoples,
Palf-devll and half-chlld.
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$&*"!"


1ake up Lhe WhlLe Man's burden--
ln paLlence Lo ablde,
1o vell Lhe LhreaL of Lerror
And check Lhe show of prlde,
8y open speech and slmple,
An hundred Llmes made plaln
1o seek anoLher's proflL,
And work anoLher's galn.

1ake up Lhe WhlLe Man's burden--
1he savage wars of peace--
llll full Lhe mouLh of lamlne
And bld Lhe slckness cease,
And when your goal ls nearesL
1he end for oLhers soughL,
WaLch sloLh and heaLhen lolly
8rlng all your hopes Lo noughL.

1ake up Lhe WhlLe Man's burden--
no Lawdry rule of klngs,
8uL Loll of serf and sweeper--
1he Lale of common Lhlngs.
1he porLs ye shall noL enLer,
1he roads ye shall noL Lread,
Co mark Lhem wlLh your llvlng,
And mark Lhem wlLh your dead.

1ake up Lhe WhlLe Man's burden--
And reap hls old reward:
1he blame of Lhose ye beLLer,
1he haLe of Lhose ye guard--
1he cry of hosLs ye humour
(Ah, slowly!) Loward Lhe llghL:--
"Why broughL he us from bondage,
Cur loved LgypLlan nlghL?"

1ake up Lhe WhlLe Man's burden--
?e dare noL sLoop Lo less--
nor call Loo loud on lreedom
1o cloke (1) your wearlness,
8y all ye cry or whlsper,
8y all ye leave or do,
1he sllenL, sullen peoples
Shall welgh your gods and you.

1ake up Lhe WhlLe Man's burden--
Pave done wlLh chlldlsh days--
1he llghLly proferred laurel, (2)
1he easy, ungrudged pralse.
Comes now, Lo search your manhood
1hrough all Lhe Lhankless years
Cold, edged wlLh dear-boughL wlsdom,
1he [udgmenL of your peers!
(1) Cloak, cover.
(2) Slnce Lhe days of Classlcal Creece, a laurel wreaLh
has been a symbollc vlcLory prlze.

kudyard k|p||ng: Issues a Word of Warn|ng (1890)

lo tbe poem "kecessloool," wtltteo fot Ooeeo vlctotlo's ulomooJ Iobllee lo 1897, koJyotJ klplloq (1865-
19J6) seot o wotoloq to bls qeoetotloo of otJeot lmpetlollsts. klplloq, wbo boJ beeo boto lo loJlo, bos
looq beeo teqotJeJ os o stooocb oJvocote of otopeoo lmpetlollsm. nls "wblte Moo's 8otJeo" (1899),
wtltteo fot tbe Ametlcoo ooJleoce Jotloq tbe 5poolsb-Ametlcoo wot, ls ooe of tbe most eleqoot
sommotloos of tbe "clvlllzloq mlssloo" jostlflcotloo of lmpetlollsm, teplete wltb ovettooes of toclol
sopetlotlty. nls stotles ooJ oovels losplteJ mooy o yoooq oqllsbmoo to seek bls fome ooJ fottooe lo tbe
fot teocbes of tbe 8tltlsb mplte. 1bos, tbe cootloooty messoqe of "kecessloool" ls somewbot of o
potoJox.

R2"6%$+#6(%+(<+#6$/")
! wbot ls klplloq wotoloq bls qeoetotloo oboot?
! Offet oo exploootloo fot tbe potoJox of tbe "kecessloool."


Cod of our faLhers, known of old--
Lord of our far-flung baLLle llne--
8eneaLh whose awful hand we hold
uomlnlon over palm and plne--
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$&+"!"

Lord Cod of PosLs, be wlLh us yeL,
LesL we forgeL--lesL we forgeL!

1he LumulL and Lhe shouLlng dle--
1he CapLalns and Lhe klngs deparL--
SLlll sLands Lhlne anclenL sacrlflce,
An humble and a conLrlLe hearL.
Lord Cod of PosLs,

lar-called, our navles melL away--
Cn dune and headland slnks Lhe flre--
Lo, all our pomp of yesLerday
ls one wlLh nlneveh and 1yre!
!udge of Lhe naLlons, spare us yeL,
LesL we forgeL

lf, drunk wlLh slghL of power, we loose
Wlld Longues LhaL have noL 1hee ln awe--
Such boasLlng as Lhe CenLlles use
Cr lesser breeds wlLhouL Lhe Law--
Lord Cod of PosLs,

lor heaLhen hearL LhaL puLs her LrusL
ln reeklng Lube and lron shard--
All vallanL dusL LhaL bullds on dusL,
And guardlng calls noL 1hee Lo guard,
lor franLlc boasL and foollsh word,
1hy Mercy on Lhy eople, Lord!

A5*'(M39&-(69%/0(M.#O'%H@(2(P'0?+%0'(,+(8$?3$%7
lo lebtooty 1899, 8tltlsb oovellst ooJ poet koJyotJ klplloq wtote o poem eotltleJ 1be wblte Moos
8otJeo. 1be uolteJ 5totes ooJ 1be lblllpploe lslooJs. lo tbls poem, klplloq otqeJ tbe u.5. to toke op tbe
botJeo of emplte, os boJ 8tltolo ooJ otbet otopeoo ootloos. 1beoJote koosevelt, sooo to become
vlce-pteslJeot ooJ tbeo pteslJeot, JesctlbeJ lt os totbet poot poetty, bot qooJ seose ftom tbe
expoosloo polot of vlew. Not evetyooe wos os fovotobly lmptesseJ os koosevelt. Aftlcoo Ametlcoos,
omooq mooy otbets, objecteJ to tbe ootloo of tbe wblte moos botJeo. Amooq tbe Jozeos of teplles to
klplloqs poem wos 1be 8lock Moos 8otJeo, wtltteo by Aftlcoo-Ametlcoo cletqymoo ooJ eJltot n. 1.
Iobosoo ooJ pobllsbeJ lo Aptll 1899. A 8lock Moos 8otJeo Assoclotloo wos eveo otqoolzeJ wltb tbe
qool of Jemoosttotloq tbot mlstteotmeot of btowo people lo tbe lblllpploes wos oo exteosloo of tbe
mlstteotmeot of block Ametlcoos ot bome.

lle on Lhe 8lack Man's 8urden.
'1ls nearesL aL your door,
Why heed long bleedlng Cuba,
or dark Pawall's shore?
Pall ye your fearless armles,
Whlch menace feeble folks
Who flghL wlLh clubs and arrows
and brook your rlfle's smoke.
lle on Lhe 8lack Man's 8urden
Pls wall wlLh laughLer drown
?ou've sealed Lhe 8ed Man's problem,
And wlll Lake up Lhe 8rown,
ln valn ye seek Lo end lL,
WlLh bulleLs, blood or deaLh
8eLLer by far defend lL
WlLh honor's holy breaLh.
Source: P.1. !ohnson, 1he 8lack Man's
8urden," volce of Mlssloos, vll (ALlanLa: Aprll 1899),
1. 8eprlnLed ln Wlllard 8. CaLewood, !r.,8lock
Ametlcoos ooJ tbe wblte Moos 8otJeo, 1898-
190J (urbana: unlverslLy of llllnols ress), 1973,
183-184.

Ioseph Conrad: from I"&)%(+@(D&)C#"66 (1902)
neott of uotkoess bos beeo cooslJeteJ fot most of tbls ceototy oot ooly os o lltetoty closslc, bot os o
powetfol loJlctmeot of tbe evlls of lmpetlollsm. lt teflects tbe sovoqe teptessloos cottleJ oot lo tbe cooqo
by tbe 8elqloos lo ooe of tbe lotqest octs of qeooclJe commltteJ op to tbot tlme. cootoJ's oottotot
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$&,"!"

eocoootets ot tbe eoJ of tbe stoty o moo oomeJ kottz, Jyloq, losooe, ooJ qollty of oospeokoble
ottocltles. Mote teceotly, Aftlcoo ctltlcs llke cblooo Acbebe bove poloteJ oot tbot tbe stoty coo be teoJ
os o toclst ot coloolollst potoble lo wblcb Aftlcoos ote JeplcteJ os loootely lttotloool ooJ vloleot, ooJ lo
wblcb Aftlco ltself ls teJoceJ to o metopbot fot tbot wblcb wblte otopeoos feot wltblo tbemselves. 1be
people of Aftlco ooJ tbe looJ tbey llve lo temolo losctotobly olleo, otbet. 1be tltle, tbey otqoe, lmplles
tbot Aftlco ls tbe "beott of Jotkoess," wbete wbltes wbo "qo ootlve" tlsk teleosloq tbe "sovoqe" wltblo
tbemselves. uefeoJets of cootoJ sometlmes otqoe tbot tbe oottotot Joes oot speok lo cootoJ's owo
volce, ooJ tbot o loyet of ltooy cooceols bls ttoe vlews.
wbot ls yoot lmptessloo of tbese opeoloq poqes ftom neott of uotkoess? uo tbe Aftlcoos seem
steteotypeJ to yoo? wbot slqos ote tbete tbot tbe oottotot ls sympotbetlc to tbem?

"l lefL ln a lrench sLeamer, and she called ln
every blamed porL Lhey have ouL Lhere, for, as
far as l could see, Lhe sole purpose of landlng
soldlers and cusLom-house offlcers. l waLched
Lhe coasL. WaLchlng a coasL as lL sllps by Lhe
shlp ls llke Lhlnklng abouL an enlgma. 1here lL ls
before you-- smlllng, frownlng, lnvlLlng, grand,
mean, lnslpld, or savage, and always muLe wlLh
an alr of whlsperlng, Come and flnd ouL. 1hls
one was almosL feaLureless, as lf sLlll ln Lhe
maklng, wlLh an aspecL of monoLonous
grlmness. 1he edge of a colossal [ungle, so dark-
green as Lo be almosL black, frlnged wlLh whlLe
surf, ran sLralghL, llke a ruled llne, far, far away
along a blue sea whose gllLLer was blurred by a
creeplng mlsL. 1he sun was flerce, Lhe land
seemed Lo gllsLen and drlp wlLh sLeam. Pere
and Lhere graylsh-whlLlsh specks showed up
clusLered lnslde Lhe whlLe surf, wlLh a flag flylng
above Lhem perhaps. SeLLlemenLs some
cenLurles old, and sLlll no blgger Lhan plnheads
on Lhe unLouched expanse of Lhelr background.
We pounded along, sLopped, landed soldlers,
wenL on, landed cusLom-house clerks Lo levy
Loll ln whaL looked llke a Cod-forsaken
wllderness, wlLh a Lln shed and a flagpole losL ln
lL, landed more soldlers--Lo Lake care of Lhe
cusLom-house clerks, presumably. Some, l
heard, goL drowned ln Lhe surf, buL wheLher
Lhey dld or noL, nobody seemed parLlcularly Lo
care. 1hey were [usL flung ouL Lhere, and on we
wenL. Lvery day Lhe coasL looked Lhe same, as
Lhough we had noL moved, buL we passed
varlous places--Lradlng places--wlLh names llke
Cran' 8assam, LlLLle opo, names LhaL seemed
Lo belong Lo some sordld farce acLed ln fronL of
a slnlsLer back-cloLh. 1he ldleness of a
passenger, my lsolaLlon amongsL all Lhese men
wlLh whom l had no polnL of conLacL, Lhe olly
and languld sea, Lhe unlform somberness of Lhe
coasL, seemed Lo keep me away from Lhe LruLh
of Lhlngs, wlLhln Lhe Loll of a mournful and
senseless deluslon. 1he volce of Lhe surf heard
now and Lhen was a poslLlve pleasure, llke Lhe
speech of a broLher. lL was someLhlng naLural,
LhaL had lLs reason, LhaL had a meanlng. now
and Lhen a boaL from Lhe shore gave one a
momenLary conLacL wlLh reallLy. lL was paddled
by black fellows. ?ou could see from afar Lhe
whlLe of Lhelr eyeballs gllsLenlng. 1hey shouLed,
sang, Lhelr bodles sLreamed wlLh persplraLlon,
Lhey had faces llke groLesque masks--Lhese
chaps, buL Lhey had bone, muscle, a wlld
vlLallLy, an lnLense energy of movemenL, LhaL
was as naLural and Lrue as Lhe surf along Lhelr
coasL. 1hey wanLed no excuse for belng Lhere.
1hey were a greaL comforL Lo look aL. lor a Llme
l would feel l belonged sLlll Lo a world of
sLralghLforward facLs, buL Lhe feellng would noL
lasL long. SomeLhlng would Lurn up Lo scare lL
away. Cnce, l remember, we came upon a man-
of-war anchored off Lhe coasL. 1here wasn'L
even a shed Lhere, and she was shelllng Lhe
bush. lL appears Lhe lrench had one of Lhelr
wars golng on LhereabouLs. Per enslgn (1)
dropped llmp llke a rag, Lhe muzzles of Lhe long
slx-lnch guns sLuck ouL all over Lhe low hull, Lhe
greasy, sllmy swell swung her up lazlly and leL
her down, swaylng her Lhln masLs. ln Lhe empLy
lmmenslLy of earLh, sky, and waLer, Lhere she
was, lncomprehenslble, flrlng lnLo a conLlnenL.
op, would go one of Lhe slx-lnch guns, a small
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$'-"!"

flame would darL and vanlsh, a llLLle whlLe
smoke would dlsappear, a Llny pro[ecLlle would
glve a feeble screech--and noLhlng happened.
noLhlng could happen. 1here was a Louch of
lnsanlLy ln Lhe proceedlng, a sense of lugubrlous
drollery ln Lhe slghL, and lL was noL dlsslpaLed
by somebody on board assurlng me earnesLly
Lhere was a camp of naLlves--he called Lhem
enemles!--hldden ouL of slghL somewhere.
"We gave her her leLLers (l heard Lhe men ln
LhaL lonely shlp were dylng of fever aL Lhe raLe
of Lhree a day) and wenL on. We called aL some
more places wlLh farclcal names, where Lhe
merry dance of deaLh and Lrade goes on ln a
sLlll and earLhy aLmosphere as of an overheaLed
caLacomb, all along Lhe formless coasL bordered
by dangerous surf, as lf naLure herself had Lrled
Lo ward off lnLruders, ln and ouL of rlvers,
sLreams of deaLh ln llfe, whose banks were
roLLlng lnLo mud, whose waLers, Lhlckened lnLo
sllme, lnvaded Lhe conLorLed mangroves LhaL
seemed Lo wrlLhe aL us ln Lhe exLremlLy of an
lmpoLenL despalr. nowhere dld we sLop long
enough Lo geL a parLlcularlzed lmpresslon, buL
Lhe general sense of vague and oppresslve
wonder grew upon me. lL was llke a weary
pllgrlmage amongsL hlnLs for nlghLmares.
"lL was upward of LhlrLy days before l saw Lhe
mouLh of Lhe blg rlver. We anchored off Lhe
seaL of Lhe governmenL. 8uL my work would noL
begln Llll some Lwo hundred mlles farLher on. So
as soon as l could l made a sLarL for a place
LhlrLy mlles hlgher up.
"l had my passage on a llLLle sea-golng sLeamer.
Per capLaln was a Swede, and knowlng me for a
seaman, lnvlLed me on Lhe brldge. Pe was a
young man, lean, falr, and morose, wlLh lanky
halr and a shuffllng galL. As we lefL Lhe
mlserable llLLle wharf, he Lossed hls head
conLempLuously aL Lhe shore. '8een llvlng
Lhere?' he asked. l sald, '?es.' 'llne loL Lhese
governmenL chaps--are Lhey noL?' he wenL on,
speaklng Lngllsh wlLh greaL preclslon and
conslderable blLLerness. 'lL ls funny whaL some
people wlll do for a few francs a monLh. l
wonder whaL becomes of LhaL klnd when lL goes
up counLry?' l sald Lo hlm l expecLed Lo see LhaL
soon. 'So-o-o!' he exclalmed. Pe shuffled
aLhwarL, keeplng one eye ahead vlgllanLly.
'uon'L be Loo sure,' he conLlnued. '1he oLher
day l Look up a man who hanged hlmself on Lhe
road. Pe was a Swede, Loo.' 'Panged hlmself!
Why, ln Cod's name?' l crled. Pe kepL on
looklng ouL waLchfully. 'Who knows? 1he sun
Loo much for hlm, or Lhe counLry perhaps.'
"AL lasL we opened a reach. (2) A rocky cllff
appeared, mounds of Lurned-up earLh by Lhe
shore, houses on a hlll, oLhers wlLh lron roofs,
amongsL a wasLe of excavaLlons, or hanglng Lo
Lhe decllvlLy. A conLlnuous nolse of Lhe raplds
above hovered over Lhls scene of lnhablLed
devasLaLlon. A loL of people, mosLly black and
naked, moved abouL llke anLs. A [eLLy pro[ecLed
lnLo Lhe rlver. A bllndlng sunllghL drowned all
Lhls aL Llmes ln a sudden recrudescence of glare.
'1here's your Company's sLaLlon,' sald Lhe
Swede, polnLlng Lo Lhree wooden barrack-llke
sLrucLures on Lhe rocky slope. 'l wlll send your
Lhlngs up. lour boxes dld you say? So. larewell.'
"l came upon a boller wallowlng ln Lhe grass,
Lhen found a paLh leadlng up Lhe hlll. lL Lurned
aslde for Lhe boulders, and also for an
underslzed rallway-Lruck lylng Lhere on lLs back
wlLh lLs wheels ln Lhe alr. Cne was off. 1he Lhlng
looked as dead as Lhe carcass of some anlmal. l
came upon more pleces of decaylng machlnery,
a sLack of rusLy ralls. 1o Lhe lefL a clump of Lrees
made a shady spoL, where dark Lhlngs seemed
Lo sLlr feebly. l bllnked, Lhe paLh was sLeep. A
horn LooLed Lo Lhe rlghL, and l saw Lhe black
people run. A heavy and dull deLonaLlon shook
Lhe ground, a puff of smoke came ouL of Lhe
cllff, and LhaL was all. no change appeared on
Lhe face of Lhe rock. 1hey were bulldlng a
rallway. 1he cllff was noL ln Lhe way or
anyLhlng, buL Lhls ob[ecLless blasLlng was all Lhe
work golng on.
"A sllghL cllnklng behlnd me made me Lurn my
head. Slx black men advanced ln a flle, Lolllng up
Lhe paLh. 1hey walked erecL and slow, balanclng
small baskeLs full of earLh on Lhelr heads, and
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$'$"!"

Lhe cllnk kepL Llme wlLh Lhelr fooLsLeps. 8lack
rags were wound round Lhelr lolns, and Lhe
shorL ends behlnd waggled Lo and fro llke Lalls. l
could see every rlb, Lhe [olnLs of Lhelr llmbs
were llke knoLs ln a rope, each had an lron
collar on hls neck, and all were connecLed
LogeLher wlLh a chaln whose blghLs swung
beLween Lhem, rhyLhmlcally cllnklng. AnoLher
reporL from Lhe cllff made me Lhlnk suddenly of
LhaL shlp of war l had seen flrlng lnLo a
conLlnenL. lL was Lhe same klnd of omlnous
volce, buL Lhese men could by no sLreLch of
lmaglnaLlon be called enemles. 1hey were
called crlmlnals, and Lhe ouLraged law, llke Lhe
bursLlng shells had come Lo Lhem, an lnsoluble
mysLery from Lhe sea. All Lhelr meager breasLs
panLed LogeLher, Lhe vlolenLly dllaLed nosLrlls
qulvered, Lhe eyes sLared sLonlly up-hlll. 1hey
passed me wlLhln slx lnches, wlLhouL a glance,
wlLh LhaL compleLe, deaLhllke lndlfference of
unhappy savages. 8ehlnd Lhls raw maLLer one of
Lhe reclalmed, Lhe producL of Lhe new forces aL
work, sLrolled despondenLly, carrylng a rlfle by
lLs mlddle. Pe had a unlform [ackeL wlLh one
buLLon off, and seelng a whlLe man on Lhe paLh,
holsLed hls weapon Lo hls shoulder wlLh
alacrlLy. 1hls was slmple prudence, whlLe men
belng so much allke aL a dlsLance LhaL he could
noL Lell who l mlghL be. Pe was speedlly
reassured, and wlLh a large, whlLe, rascally grln,
and a glance aL hls charge, seemed Lo Lake me
lnLo parLnershlp ln hls exalLed LrusL. AfLer all, l
was also a parL of Lhe greaL cause of Lhese hlgh
and [usL proceedlngs.
"lnsLead of golng up, l Lurned and descended Lo
Lhe lefL. My ldea was Lo leL LhaL chaln-gang geL
ouL of slghL before l cllmbed Lhe hlll. ?ou know l
am noL parLlcularly Lender, l've had Lo sLrlke
and Lo fend off. l've had Lo reslsL and Lo aLLack
someLlmes--LhaL's Lhe only way of reslsLlng--
wlLhouL counLlng Lhe exacL cosL, accordlng Lo
Lhe demands of such sorL of llfe as l had
blundered lnLo. l've seen Lhe devll of vlolence,
and Lhe devll of greed, and Lhe devll of hoL
deslre, buL, by all Lhe sLars! Lhese were sLrong,
lusLy, red-eyed devlls, LhaL swayed and drove
men--men, l Lell you. 8uL as l sLood on Lhls
hlllslde, l foresaw LhaL ln Lhe bllndlng sunshlne
of LhaL land l would become acqualnLed wlLh a
flabby, preLendlng, weak-eyed devll of a
rapaclous and plLlless folly. Pow lnsldlous he
could be, Loo, l was only Lo flnd ouL several
monLhs laLer and a Lhousand mlles farLher. lor
a momenL l sLood appalled, as Lhough by a
warnlng. llnally l descended Lhe hlll, obllquely,
Lowards Lhe Lrees l had seen.

(1) A small flag.
(2) 8eached a sLralghL sLreLch of rlver.

Documents of German Un|f|cat|on, 1848-1871
Iobooo Costov utoyseo. 5peecb to tbe ltookfott Assembly, 1848
! ltleJtlcb wllbelm lv, kloq of ltosslo. ltoclomotloo of 1849
! Otto voo 8lsmotck. lettet to Mlolstet voo Mooteoffel, 1856
! llelJ Motsbol nelmotb voo Moltke. 1866
! Otto voo 8lsmotck. 1866
! 1be lmpetlol ltoclomotloo, Iooooty 18, 1871


17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$'%"!"

Iohann Gustav Droysen: 17""B:(%+(%:"(
T)&#C@2)%(N66"3G'*0(1848
We cannoL conceal Lhe facL LhaL Lhe whole
Cerman quesLlon ls a slmple alLernaLlve
beLween russla and AusLrla. ln Lhese sLaLes
Cerman llfe has lLs poslLlve and negaLlve poles--
ln Lhe former, all Lhe lnLeresLs whlch are
naLlonal and reformaLlve, ln Lhe laLLer, all LhaL
are dynasLlc and desLrucLlve. 1he Cerman
quesLlon ls noL a consLlLuLlonal quesLlon, buL a
quesLlon of power, and Lhe russlan monarchy
ls now wholly Cerman, whlle LhaL of AusLrla
cannoL be. . . .We need a powerful rullng house.
AusLrla's power meanL lack of power for us,
whereas russla deslred Cerman unlLy ln order
Lo supply Lhe deflclencles of her own power.
Already russla ls Cermany ln embryo. She wlll
"merge" wlLh Cermany. . .
Ir|edr|ch W||he|m IV, k|ng of russ|a:
roc|amat|on of 1849
l am noL able Lo reLurn a favorable reply Lo Lhe
offer of a crown on Lhe parL of Lhe Cerman
naLlonal Assembly [meeLlng ln lrankfurL],
because Lhe Assembly has noL Lhe rlghL, wlLhouL
Lhe consenL of Lhe Cerman governmenLs, Lo
besLow Lhe crown whlch Lhey Lendered me, and
moreover because Lhey offered Lhe crown upon
condlLlon LhaL l would accepL a consLlLuLlon
whlch could noL be reconclled wlLh Lhe rlghLs of
Lhe Cerman sLaLes.
Ctto von 8|smarck: Q"%%")(%+(5$#$6%")(-+#(
5&#%"2@@"', 18S6
8ecause of Lhe pollcy of vlenna [Lhe Congress of
vlenna, 1813], Cermany ls clearly Loo small for
us boLh [russla and AusLrla], as long as an
honorable arrangemenL concernlng Lhe
lnfluence of each ln Cermany cannoL be
concluded and carrled ouL, we wlll boLh plough
Lhe same dlspuLed acre, and AusLrla wlll remaln
Lhe only sLaLe Lo whom we can permanenLly
lose or from whom we can permanenLly galn. . .
.l wlsh only Lo express my convlcLlon LhaL, ln Lhe
noL Loo dlsLanL fuLure, we shall have Lo flghL for
our exlsLence agalnsL AusLrla and LhaL lL ls noL
wlLhln our power Lo avold LhaL, slnce Lhe course
of evenLs ln Cermany has no oLher soluLlon.
I|e|d Marsha| ne|muth von Mo|tke: 1866
1he war of 1866 [beLween russla and AusLrla]
was enLered on noL because Lhe exlsLence of
russla was LhreaLened, nor was lL caused by
publlc oplnlon and Lhe volce of Lhe people, lL
was a sLruggle, long foreseen and calmly
prepared for, recognlzed as a necesslLy by Lhe
CablneL, noL for LerrlLorlal aggrandlzemenL, for
an exLenslon of our domaln, or for maLerlal
advanLage, buL for an ldeal end--Lhe
esLabllshmenL of power. noL a fooL of land was
exacLed from AusLrla, buL she had Lo renounce
all parL ln Lhe hegemony of Cermany. . . AusLrla
had exhausLed her sLrengLh ln conquesLs souLh
of Lhe Alps, and lefL Lhe wesLern Cerman
provlnces unproLecLed, lnsLead of followlng Lhe
road polnLed ouL by Lhe uanube. lLs cenLer of
gravlLy lay ouL of Cermany, russla's lay wlLhln
lL. russla felL lLself called upon and sLrong
enough Lo assume Lhe leadershlp of Lhe
Cerman races.
Ctto von 8|smarck: 1866
We had Lo avold woundlng AusLrla Loo severely,
we had Lo avold leavlng behlnd ln her any
unnecessary blLLerness of feellng or deslre for
revenge, we oughL raLher Lo reserve Lhe
posslblllLy of becomlng frlends agaln wlLh our
adversary of Lhe momenL, and ln any case Lo
regard Lhe AusLrlan sLaLe as a plece on Lhe
Luropean chessboard. lf AusLrla were severely
ln[ured, she would become Lhe ally of lrance
and of every oLher opponenL of ours, she would
even sacrlflce her anLl-8usslan lnLeresLs for Lhe
sake of revenge on russla. . . .1he acqulslLlon
of provlnces llke AusLrla Sllesla and porLlons of
8ohemla could noL sLrengLhen Lhe russlan
sLaLe, lL would noL lead Lo an amalgamaLlon of
Cerman AusLrla wlLh russla, and vlenna could
noL be governed from 8erlln as a mere
dependency. . . .AusLrla's confllcL and rlvalry
wlLh us was no more culpable Lhan ours wlLh
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$'&"!"

her, our Lask was Lhe esLabllshmenL or
foundaLlon of Cerman naLlonal unlLy under Lhe
leadershlp of Lhe klng of russla.
1he Imper|a| roc|amat|on, Ianuary 18, 1871
Whereas Lhe Cerman prlnces and Lhe free clLles
have unanlmously called upon us Lo renew and
Lo assume, wlLh Lhe resLoraLlon of Lhe Cerman
Lmplre, Lhe Cerman lmperlal offlce, whlch has
been empLy for more Lhan slxLy years, and
Whereas adequaLe arrangemenLs have been
provlded for Lhls ln Lhe consLlLuLlon of Lhe
Cerman ConfederaLlon,
We, Wllhelm, by Lhe grace of Cod klng of
russla, do herewlLh declare LhaL we have
consldered lL a duLy Lo our common faLherland
Lo answer Lhe summons of Lhe unlLed Cerman
prlnces and clLles and Lo accepL Lhe Cerman
lmperlal LlLle. ln consequence, we and our
successors on Lhe Lhrone of russla wlll
henceforLh bear Lhe lmperlal LlLle ln all our
relaLlons and ln all Lhe buslness of Lhe Cerman
Lmplre, and we hope Lo Cod LhaL Lhe Cerman
naLlon wlll be granLed Lhe ablllLy Lo fashlon a
proplLlous fuLure for Lhe faLherland under Lhe
symbol of lLs anclenL glory. We assume Lhe
lmperlal LlLle, consclous of Lhe duLy of
proLecLlng, wlLh Cerman loyalLy, Lhe rlghLs of
Lhe Lmplre and of lLs members, of keeplng Lhe
peace, and of proLecLlng Lhe lndependence of
Cermany, whlch depends ln lLs Lurn upon Lhe
unlLed sLrengLh of Lhe people. We assume Lhe
LlLle ln Lhe hope LhaL Lhe Cerman people wlll be
granLed Lhe ablllLy Lo en[oy Lhe reward of lLs
ardenL and self-sacrlflclng wars ln lasLlng peace,
wlLhln boundarles whlch afford Lhe faLherland a
securlLy agalnsL renewed lrench aggresslon
whlch has been losL for cenLurles. And may Cod
granL LhaL We and our successors on Lhe
lmperlal Lhrone may aL all Llmes lncrease Lhe
wealLh of Lhe Cerman Lmplre, noL by mlllLary
conquesLs, buL by Lhe blesslngs and Lhe glfLs of
peace, ln Lhe realm of naLlonal prosperlLy,
llberLy, and morallLy. Wllhelm l, kalser und
knlg.
lrom: !ames Parvey 8oblnson, ed., keoJloqs lo
otopeoo nlstoty, 2 vols., (8osLon: Clnn and Co.,
1904-1903), ll:371-373, CLLo von 8lsmarck, 1be Moo
ooJ 5totesmoo, (new ?ork, 1899), ll:48-31
Scanned by: !. S. Arkenberg, uepL. of PlsLory, Cal.
SLaLe lullerLon. rof. Arkenberg has modernlzed Lhe
LexL.

Lxcerpts Irom nerz|: =:"(M"H$6:(1%&%"

1beoJot netzl, tbe fotbet of polltlcol 2loolsm, ootlloeJ bls vlsloo fot o Iewlsb stote lo uer !udensLaaL (1be
Iewlsb 5tote), pobllsbeJ lo lebtooty 1896. 1be followloq ote excetpts.

1he ldea l have developed ln Lhls pamphleL ls an
anclenL one: lL ls Lhe resLoraLlon of Lhe !ewlsh
SLaLe. . . 1he declslve facLor ls our propelllng
force. And whaL ls LhaL force? 1he pllghL of Lhe
!ews. . . l am profoundly convlnced LhaL l am
rlghL, Lhough l doubL wheLher l shall llve Lo see
myself proved so. 1hose who Loday lnauguraLe
Lhls movemenL are unllkely Lo llve Lo see lLs
glorlous culmlnaLlon. 8uL Lhe very lnauguraLlon
ls enough Lo lnsplre ln Lhem a hlgh prlde and
Lhe [oy of an lnner llberaLlon of Lhelr exlsLence. .

1he plan would seem mad enough lf a slngle
lndlvldual were Lo underLake lL, buL lf many
!ews slmulLaneously agree on lL, lL ls enLlrely
reasonable, and lLs achlevemenL presenLs no
dlfflculLles worLh menLlonlng. 1he ldea depends
only on Lhe number of lLs adherenLs. erhaps
our amblLlous young men, Lo whom every road
of advancemenL ls now closed, and for whom
Lhe !ewlsh sLaLe Lhrows open a brlghL prospecL
of freedom, happlness, and honor perhaps Lhey
wlll see Lo lL LhaL Lhls ldea ls spread. . .
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$''"!"

lL depends on Lhe !ews Lhemselves wheLher Lhls
pollLlcal documenL remalns for Lhe presenL a
pollLlcal romance. lf Lhls generaLlon ls Loo dull
Lo undersLand lL rlghLly, a fuLure, flner, more
advanced generaLlon wlll arlse Lo comprehend
lL. 1he !ews who wlll Lry lL shall achleve Lhelr
SLaLe, and Lhey wlll deserve lL. . .
l conslder Lhe !ewlsh quesLlon nelLher a soclal
nor a rellglous one, even Lhough lL someLlmes
Lakes Lhese and oLher forms. lL ls a naLlonal
quesLlon, and Lo solve lL we musL flrsL of all
esLabllsh lL as an lnLernaLlonal pollLlcal problem
Lo be dlscussed and seLLled by Lhe clvlllzed
naLlons of Lhe world ln councll.

We are a people - one people.
We have slncerely Lrled everywhere Lo merge
wlLh Lhe naLlonal communlLles ln whlch we llve,
seeklng only Lo preserve Lhe falLh of our faLhers.
lL ls noL permlLLed us. ln valn are we loyal
paLrloLs, someLlmes superloyal, ln valn do we
make Lhe same sacrlflces of llfe and properLy as
our fellow clLlzens, ln valn do we sLrlve Lo
enhance Lhe fame of our naLlve lands ln Lhe arLs
and sclences, or her wealLh by Lrade and
commerce. ln our naLlve lands where we have
llved for cenLurles we are sLlll decrled as allens,
ofLen by men whose ancesLors had noL yeL
come aL a Llme when !ewlsh slghs had long
been heard ln Lhe counLry. . .

Cppresslon and persecuLlon cannoL
exLermlnaLe us. no naLlon on earLh has endured
such sLruggles and sufferlngs as we have. !ew-
balLlng has merely wlnnowed ouL our
weakllngs, Lhe sLrong among us deflanLly reLurn
Lo Lhelr own whenever persecuLlon breaks ouL. .
. Wherever we remaln pollLlcally secure for any
lengLh of Llme, we asslmllaLe. l Lhlnk Lhls ls noL
pralseworLhy. . .

alesLlne ls our unforgeLLable hlsLorlc
homeland. . . LeL me repeaL once more my
openlng words: 1he !ews who wlll lL shall
achleve Lhelr SLaLe. We shall llve aL lasL as free
men on our own soll, and ln our own homes
peacefully dle. 1he world wlll be llberaLed by
our freedom, enrlched by our wealLh, magnlfled
by our greaLness. And whaLever we aLLempL
Lhere for our own beneflL wlll redound mlghLlly
and beneflclally Lo Lhe good of all manklnd.

Is|am and the Iews: 1he Status of Iews and Chr|st|ans |n Mus||m
Lands, 1772 CL

lo 1772 o Mosllm scbolot lo colto wos oskeJ bow Iews ooJ cbtlstloos sboolJ be tteoteJ. 1be ooswet ls
foooJ lo tbls selectloo, lssoeJ foot yeots befote tbe Ametlcoo ueclototloo of loJepeoJeoce. 1bls ooswet
ls oot low, bot ooly tbe oploloo of o coosetvotlve Mosllm. 1be oploloo ls lo Atoblc.
uest|on
WhaL do you say, C scholars of lslam, shlnlng
lumlnarles who dlspel Lhe darkness (may Cod
lengLhen your days!)? WhaL do you say of Lhe
lnnovaLlons lnLroduced by Lhe cursed
unbellevers [!ewlsh and ChrlsLlan] lnLo Calro,
lnLo Lhe clLy of al-Mulzz [founder of Calro, 969]
whlch by lLs splendor ln legal and phllosophlc
sLudles sparkles ln Lhe flrsL rank of Musllm
clLles?
WhaL ls your oplnlon concernlng Lhese
deplorable lnnovaLlons whlch are, moreover,
conLrary Lo Lhe acL of umar whlch prescrlbed
Lhe expulslon of Lhe unbellevers from Musllm
LerrlLory? [1hls ls exaggeraLed. umar exlled Lhe
lnfldels only from Arabla.]
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$'("!"

Among oLher changes Lhey have puL Lhemselves
on a fooLlng of equallLy wlLh Lhe chlefs,
scholars, and nobles, wearlng, llke Lhem, cosLly
garmenLs of cloLh of lndla, expenslve sllk and
cashmere fabrlcs, and Lhey lmlLaLe Lhem even ln
Lhe cuL of Lhese very garmenLs.
ln addlLlon, wheLher Lhrough necesslLy or
oLherwlse, Lhey rlde on saddles whlch are of Lhe
same Lype as Lhose of chlefs, scholars, and
offlcers, wlLh servanLs aL Lhelr rlghL, aL Lhelr lefL,
and behlnd Lhem, scaLLerlng and pushlng back
Musllms for whom Lhey Lhus block Lhe sLreeLs.
1hey carry small baLons ln Lhelr hands [usL llke
Lhe chlefs. 1hey buy Musllm slaves, Lhe
offsprlng of negro, Abysslnlan, and even whlLe
slaves, Lhls has become so common and so
frequenL among Lhem LhaL Lhey no longer
conslder Lhls offenslve. 1hey even buy slaves
publlcly, [usL llke Lhe Musllms.
1hey have become Lhe owners of houses and
bulld new ones of a solldlLy, durablllLy, and
helghL possessed by nelLher Lhe houses nor
mosques of Lhe Musllms Lhemselves. 1hls sLaLe
of affalrs ls spreadlng and ls exLendlng beyond
all proporLlons. 1hey conLrlbuLe for Lhe
exLenslon of Lhelr churches and convenLs, Lhey
seek Lo ralse Lhem hlgher and Lo glve Lhem a
sLrengLh and a durablllLy whlch even Lhe
mosques and Lhe monasLerles Lhemselves do
noL have.
ChrlsLlan forelgners, foes who sollclL our
Lolerance, seLLle ln Lhe counLry for more Lhan a
year wlLhouL submlLLlng Lhemselves Lhereby Lo
LaxaLlon and wlLhouL renewlng Lhelr LreaLles of
proLecLlon. 1he women of Lhe LoleraLed non-
Musllm naLlves llken Lhemselves Lo our women
ln LhaL Lhey deck Lhemselves ln a garmenL of
black sllk and cover Lhelr faces wlLh a vell of
whlLe muslln wlLh Lhe resulL LhaL ln Lhe sLreeLs
Lhey are LreaLed wlLh Lhe conslderaLlon due
only Lo respecLable Musllm women.
CughL one Lo allow Lhese Lhlngs Lo Lhe
unbellevers, Lo Lhe enemles of Lhe falLh? CughL
one Lo allow Lhem Lo dwell among bellevers
under such condlLlons? Cr, lndeed, ls lL noL Lhe
duLy of every Musllm prlnce and of every
maglsLraLe Lo ask Lhe scholars of Lhe holy law Lo
express Lhelr legal oplnlon, and Lo call for Lhe
advlce of wlse and enllghLened men ln order Lo
puL an end Lo Lhese revolLlng lnnovaLlons and Lo
Lhese reprehenslble acLs? CughL one noL
compel Lhe unbellevers Lo sLlck Lo Lhelr pacL [of
umar], oughL one noL keep Lhem ln servlLude
and prevenL Lhem from golng beyond Lhe
bounds and Lhe llmlLs of Lhelr LoleraLed sLaLus
ln order LhaL Lhere may resulL from Lhls Lhe
greaLesL glory of Cod, of Pls ropheL, and of all
Musllms, and llkewlse of LhaL whlch ls sald ln
Lhe Cu'ran?
8e good enough Lo glve us a preclse answer,
one based on auLhenLlc LradlLlons.
1he Answer Cf 1he Sha|kh nasan A| kafraw|,
1he Shaf||te [rofessor of canon |aw |n Ca|ro, d.
1788 CL]
ralse be Lo Cod, Lhe gulde of Lhe rlghL way!
1he declslon glven by Lhe Shalkh ar-8amll [a
greaL Calro legal auLhorlLy, d. 1396], by Lhe
Shalkh al-lslam [Lhe Musllm rellglous auLhorlLy
ln ConsLanLlnople], and by Lhe learned scholars
whose decrees can hardly be wrlLLen down
here, may be worded as follows: "lL ls forbldden
Lo Lhe LoleraLed peoples llvlng on Musllm
LerrlLory Lo cloLhe Lhemselves ln Lhe same
manner as Lhe chlefs, Lhe scholars, and Lhe
nobles. 1hey should noL be allowed Lo cloLhe
Lhemselves ln cosLly fabrlcs whlch have been
cuL ln Lhe modes whlch are forbldden Lo Lhem,
ln order LhaL Lhey may noL offend Lhe
senslblllLles of poor Musllms and ln order LhaL
Lhelr falLh ln Lhelr rellglon should noL be shaken
by Lhls. [oor Musllms may regreL Lhelr falLh
when Lhey see how well-dressed Lhe ChrlsLlans
and !ews are.]
"1hey should noL be permlLLed Lo employ
mounLs llke Lhe Musllms. 1hey musL use nelLher
saddles, nor lron-sLlrrups, ln order Lo be
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$')"!"

dlsLlngulshed from Lhe Lrue bellevers. 1hey
musL under no clrcumsLance rlde horses
because of Lhe noble characLer of Lhls anlmal.
1he MosL-Plgh has sald [Cu'ran 8:62]: 'And
Lhrough powerful squadrons [of horses]
Lhrough whlch you wlll sLrlke Lerror lnLo your
own and Cod's enemles.' [A verse of Lhe Cu'ran
makes a good supporL for a law. verses may
even be Lorn ouL of Lhelr conLexL.]
"1hey should noL be permlLLed Lo Lake Musllms
lnLo Lhelr servlce because Cod has glorlfled Lhe
people of lslam. Pe has glven Lhem Pls ald and
has glven Lhem a guaranLee by Lhese words
[Cu'ran 3:140]: 'Surely Cod wlll never glve
preemlnence Lo unbellevers over Lhe Lrue
bellevers.' now Lhls ls [usL whaL ls happenlng
Loday, for Lhelr servanLs are Musllms Laken
from among men of a maLure age or from Lhose
who are sLlll young. 1hls ls one of Lhe greaLesL
scandals Lo whlch Lhe guardlans of auLhorlLy
musL puL an end. lL ls wrong Lo greeL Lhem even
wlLh a slmple 'how-do-you-do', Lo serve Lhem,
even for wages, aL Lhe baLhs or ln whaL relaLes
Lo Lhelr rldlng anlmals, and lL ls forbldden Lo
accepL anyLhlng from Lhelr hand, for LhaL would
be an acL of debasemenL by Lhe falLhful. 1hey
are forbldden whlle golng Lhrough Lhe sLreeLs Lo
ape Lhe manners of Lhe Musllms, and sLlll less
Lhose of Lhe clLles of Lhe rellglon. 1hey shall
only walk slngle-flle, and ln narrow lanes Lhey
musL wlLhdraw even more lnLo Lhe mosL
cramped parL of Lhe road.
"Cne may read LhaL whlch follows ln 8ukharl
and Musllm [rellglous auLhorlLles of Lhe nlnLh
cenLury]: '!ews and ChrlsLlans shall never begln
a greeLlng, lf you encounLer one of Lhem on Lhe
road, push hlm lnLo Lhe narrowesL and LlghLesL
spoL.' 1he absence of every mark of
conslderaLlon Loward Lhem ls obllgaLory for us,
we oughL never Lo glve Lhem Lhe place of honor
ln an assembly when a Musllm ls presenL. 1hls ls
ln order Lo humble Lhem and Lo honor Lhe Lrue
bellevers. 1hey should under no clrcumsLances
acqulre Musllm slaves, whlLe or black.
1herefore Lhey should geL rld of Lhe slaves
whlch Lhey now have for Lhe), have no rlghL Lo
own Lhem. lf one of Lhelr slaves who was
formerly an lnfldel, becomes a Musllm, he shall
be removed from Lhem, and hls masLer,
wllllngly or unwllllngly, shall be compelled Lo
sell hlm and Lo accepL Lhe prlce for hlm.
"lL ls no longer permlLLed Lhem Lo puL
Lhemselves, wlLh respecL Lo Lhelr houses, on an
equal fooLlng wlLh Lhe dwelllngs of Lhelr Musllm
nelghbors, and sLlll less Lo bulld Lhelr bulldlngs
hlgher. lf Lhey are of Lhe same helghL, or hlgher,
lL ls lncumbenL upon us Lo pull Lhem down Lo a
slze a llLLle less Lhan Lhe houses of Lhe Lrue
bellevers. 1hls conforms Lo Lhe word of Lhe
ropheL: 'lslam rules, and noLhlng shall ralse
lLself above lL.' 1hls ls also ln order Lo hlnder
Lhem from knowlng where our weak spoLs are
and ln order Lo make a dlsLlncLlon beLween
Lhelr dwelllngs and ours.
"1hey are forbldden Lo bulld new churches,
chapels, or monasLerles ln any Musllm land. We
should desLroy everyLhlng LhaL ls of new
consLrucLlon ln every place, such as Calro, for
lnsLance, founded under Lhe Musllm rellglon,
for lL ls sald ln a LradlLlon of umar: 'no church
shall be bullL ln lslam.' 1hey shall no longer be
permlLLed Lo repalr Lhe parLs of Lhese [posL-
lslamlc] bulldlngs whlch are ln rulns. Powever,
Lhe old bulldlngs [of pre-lslamlc Llmes] whlch
are found ln a land whose populaLlon had
embraced lslam need noL be desLroyed. 1hey
shall noL, however, be enlarged by means of
repalrs or oLherwlse. ln case Lhe LoleraLed
peoples [!ews, ChrlsLlans, eLc.] acL conLrary Lo
Lhese provlslons we wlll be obllged Lo desLroy
everyLhlng LhaL has been added Lo Lhe orlglnal
slze of Lhe bulldlng. [Cnly pre-lslamlc churches
and synagogues may be repalred, new ones
musL be Lorn down.]
"LnLrance lnLo Musllm LerrlLory by lnfldels of
forelgn lands under Lhe pacL guaranLeelng
proLecLlon Lo Lhe LoleraLed peoples ls permlLLed
only for Lhe Llme necessary Lo seLLle Lhelr
buslness affalrs. lf Lhey exceed Lhls perlod, Lhelr
safe-conducL havlng explred, Lhey wlll be puL Lo
deaLh or be sub[ecL Lo Lhe paymenL of Lhe head-
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$'*"!"

Lax.[!ews and ChrlsLlans of forelgn lands musL
pay a speclal head-Lax lf Lhey wlsh Lo remaln
permanenLly ln Musllm lands.] As Lo Lhose wlLh
whom Lhe ruler may have slgned LreaLles, and
wlLh whom he, for whaLever moLlve, may have
granLed a Lemporary Lruce, Lhey form only Lhe
smallesL fracLlon. 8uL Lhey, Loo, musL noL pass
Lhe flxed llmlL of more Lhan four monLhs
[wlLhouL paylng Lhe Lax], parLlcularly lf Lhls
occurs aL a Llme when lslam ls prosperous and
flourlshlng. 1he MosL-Plgh has sald [Cu'ran 2:
2341: '1hey should walL four monLhs,' and he
has agaln sald [47:37]: 'uo noL show any
cowardlce, and do noL aL all lnvlLe Lhe
unbellevers Lo a peace when you have Lhe
upper-hand and may Cod be wlLh you.'
"1helr men and women are ordered Lo wear
garmenLs dlfferenL from Lhose of Lhe Musllms ln
order Lo be dlsLlngulshed from Lhem. 1hey are
forbldden Lo exhlblL anyLhlng whlch mlghL
scandallze us, as, for lnsLance, Lhelr fermenLed
llquors, and lf Lhey do noL conceal Lhese from
us, we are obllged Lo pour Lhem lnLo Lhe
sLreeL."
1hls whlch precedes ls only a parL of LhaL whlch
has been wrlLLen on Lhls sub[ecL, and lf we
should wlsh Lo menLlon lL all here lL would Lake
Loo long. 8uL Lhls brlef reclLal wlll be sufflclenL
for Lhose men whose lnLelllgence Cod has
enllghLened, Lo whom he has glven Lhe breaLh
of llfe, and whose lnner LhoughLs he has
sancLlfled. now leL us beg Lhe Soverelgn MasLer
of Lhe world Lo exLend Pls [usLlce over humanlLy
unlversally, ln order LhaL Lhey may dlrecL all
Lhelr efforLs Loward ralslng wlLh flrmness Lhe
banner of Lhe rellglon.
ln a LradlLlon of Lhe slncere and falLhful [Callf
Abu 8ekr, 632-634] lL ls llkewlse sald: "1he
abollLlon of a sacrlleglous lnnovaLlon ls
preferable Lo Lhe permanenL operaLlon of Lhe
law." ln anoLher LradlLlon lL ls also sald: "Cne
hour of [usLlce ls worLh more Lhan slxLy years of
rlLual." 1he verses of Lhe Cu'ran and Lhe
LradlLlons are very numerous on Lhls sub[ecL,
and Lhey are known by all Lhe falLhful. Cod has
cursed Lhe former naLlons because Lhey have
noL condemned scandalous Lhlngs, and Pe has
sald [Cu'ran 3:82]: "1hey [Lhe chlldren of lsrael]
seek noL aL all Lo Lurn one anoLher from Lhe bad
acLlons whlch Lhey have commlLLed. 0 how
deLesLable were Lhelr acLlons. 8uL Pe has
punlshed Lhese men because of Lhelr obsLlnaLe
conducL." 1he MosL-Plgh has also sald [Cu'ran
9: 1 131: "1hose who bld whaL ls rlghL and
forbld whaL ls wrong, who observe Lhe dlvlne
precepLs, wlll be rewarded. Announce Lhese
glad Lldlngs Lo Lhe Musllms."
May Lhe MosL Plgh Cod admlL us Lo Lhe number
of Lhls company and may Pe lead us ln Lhe
paLhs of Pls favor. CerLalnly Cod ls powerful ln
everyLhlng, Pe ls full of mercy Lo Pls servanLs,
Pe sees all.
WrlLLen by Lhe humble Pasan al kafrawl, Lhe
ShafllLe. [1772 CL]
!acob Marcus, 1be Iew lo tbe MeJlevol wotlJ. A
5ootcebook, J15-1791, (new ?ork: !S, 1938),
13-19
LaLer prlnLlngs of Lhls LexL (e.g. by ALheneum,
1969, 1972, 1978) do noL lndlcaLe LhaL Lhe
copyrlghL was renewed)
1914 C.L. to the resent
!"$'+"!"

Ma[or Deve|opments
1) CuesLlons of perlodlzaLlon
A) ConLlnulLles and breaks, causes of changes from Lhe prevlous perlod and wlLhln Lhls perlod
2) War and peace ln global conLexL (1he World Wars, colonlal soldlers ln Lhe llrsL World War, Lhe PolocausL, Lhe Cold War, nuclear
weaponry, lnLernaLlonal organlzaLlons and Lhelr lmpacL on Lhe global framework, globallzaLlon of dlplomacy and confllcL, global balance of
power, reducLlon of Luropean lnfluence, Lhe League of naLlons, Lhe unlLed naLlons, Lhe non-Allgned naLlons)
3) new paLLerns of naLlonallsm (Lhe lnLerwar years, decolonlzaLlon, raclsm, genoclde, new naLlonallsms, lncludlng Lhe breakup of Lhe SovleL
unlon)
4) lmpacL of ma[or global economlc developmenLs (Lhe CreaL uepresslon ln LaLln Amerlca, Lechnology, aclflc 8lm, mulLlnaLlonal
corporaLlons)
3) new forces of revoluLlon and oLher sources of pollLlcal lnnovaLlons
6) Soclal reform and soclal revoluLlon (changlng gender roles, famlly sLrucLures, rlse of femlnlsm, peasanL proLesL, lnLernaLlonal Marxlsm,
rellglous fundamenLallsm)
7) CloballzaLlon of sclence, Lechnology, and culLure
A) uevelopmenLs ln global culLures and reglonal reacLlons, lncludlng sclence and consumer culLure
8) lnLeracLlons beLween ellLe and popular culLure and arL
C) aLLerns of reslsLance lncludlng rellglous responses
8) uemographlc and envlronmenLal changes (mlgraLlons, changes ln blrLhraLes and deaLh raLes, new forms of urbanlzaLlon, deforesLaLlon,
green/envlronmenLal movemenLs, rural Lo urban shlfLs)
9) ulverse lnLerpreLaLlons
A) ls culLural convergence or dlverslLy Lhe besL model for undersLandlng lncreased lnLerculLural conLacL ln Lhe LwenLleLh cenLury?
8) WhaL are Lhe advanLages and dlsadvanLages of uslng unlLs of analysls ln Lhe LwenLleLh cenLury, such as Lhe naLlon, Lhe world, Lhe
WesL, and Lhe 1hlrd World?
Ma[or Compar|sons and Snapshots
! Compare paLLerns and resulLs of decolonlzaLlon ln Afrlca and lndla
! lck Lwo revoluLlons (8usslan, Chlnese, Cuban, lranlan) and compare Lhelr effecLs on Lhe roles of women
! Compare Lhe effecLs of Lhe World Wars on areas ouLslde of Lurope
! Compare legacles of colonlallsm and paLLerns of economlc developmenL ln Lwo of Lhree areas (Afrlca, Asla, and LaLln Amerlca)
! Compare legacles of colonlallsm and paLLerns of economlc developmenL ln Lwo of Lhree areas (Afrlca, Asla, LaLln Amerlca)
! Analyze naLlonallsL ldeologles and movemenLs ln conLrasLlng Luropean and colonlal envlronmenLs
! Compare Lhe dlfferenL Lypes of lndependence sLruggles
! Lxamlne global lnLeracLlons ln culLural arenas (e.g. reggae, arL, sporLs)
! Analyze Lhe effecLs of global consumer socleLy
! Compare ma[or forms of LwenLleLh-cenLury warfare
! Asses dlfferenL proposals (or models) for Lhlrd world economlc developmenL and Lhe soclal and pollLlcal consequences
Lxamp|es of What ou Need to know
8elow are examples of Lhe Lypes of lnformaLlon you are expecLed Lo know conLrasLed wlLh examples of Lhose Lhlngs you are noL expecLed Lo
know for Lhe mulLlple-cholce secLlon.
! LffecLs of Lhe global wars, buL noL speclflc baLLles ln Lhe World Wars
! CulLural and pollLlcal LransformaLlons resulLlng from Lhe wars, buL noL lrench pollLlcal and culLural hlsLory
! AuLhorlLarlan reglmes, buL noL Mussollnl's or vargas's lnLernal pollcles
! lemlnlsm and gender relaLlons, buL noL Slmone de 8eauvolr or Puda Shaarawl
! 1he growLh of lnLernaLlonal organlzaLlons, buL noL Lhe hlsLory of Lhe lLC
! Colonlal lndependence movemenLs, buL noL Lhe resoluLlons passed by Lhe lndlan naLlonal Congress
! 1he lssue of genoclde, buL noL Cambodla, 8wanda, or kosovo
! 1he lnLernaLlonallzaLlon of popular culLure, buL noL Lhe 8eaLles


17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$',"!"

uotat|ons from Cha|rman Mao 1se-1ung

lot o sbott petloJ lo tbe lote slxtles tbe "llttle keJ 8ook" cootololoq tbe tbooqbts of cbloese commoolst
lotty cboltmoo Moo 2eJooq (ot os bls oome wos spelleJ lo oqllsb ot tbe tlme "Moo 1se-1ooq") wos ooe
of tbe most loteoslvely-stoJleJ books lo tbe wotlJ. AssembleJ by potty eJltots ftom olJ speecbes ooJ
wtltloqs of Moo, lt wos loteoJeJ os o qolJe fot tbose lovolveJ lo tbe coltotol kevolotloo of 1966-1969.
Moo otqoeJ tbot tbe cbloese kevolotloo boJ become tlqlJ ooJ bettoyeJ lts boslc ptloclples. 1o
telovlqotote lt, be lovlteJ yoooq people to jolo tbe keJ CootJs ooJ ottock "bootqeols" elemeots lo
soclety. vetyooe lo cbloo wos fotceJ to qotbet lo stoJy qtoops to speoJ boots Jlscossloq evety lloe of
tbe Ooototloos ooJ opplyloq tbem to tbelt llves. 1be book wos olso stoJleJ by Moolsts obtooJ, locloJloq
lo tbe u.5. 1be tesolts wete Jlsosttoos. Mlllloos JleJ, mooy otbets wete lmptlsooeJ fot "locottect"
tbooqbts socb os llkloq westeto moslc ot oJvocotloq coofocloolsm, mooy of cbloo's btlqbtest ooJ most
cteotlve people wete fotceJ to obooJoo tbelt jobs to lobot oo collectlve fotms, ooJ o wbole qeoetotloo
lost lts cbooce ot eJocotloo os lt cbotqeJ otoooJ tbe cooottyslJe ottockloq tbe ptevloos qeoetotloo. 1be
ttooslotloo oseJ bete ls tbot lssoeJ by tbe potty ltself tbtooqb lotelqo looqooqes ltess lo 8eljloq lo tbe
secooJ eJltloo of 1966.

"1o 8e Attacked by the Lnemy Is Not a 8ad
1h|ng but a Good 1h|ng," (May 26, 1939)
now Joes Moo toto ctltlclsm loto oo
oJvootoqe?
l hold LhaL lL ls bad as far as we are concerned lf
a person, a pollLlcal parLy, an army or a school ls
noL aLLacked by Lhe enemy, for ln LhaL case lL
would deflnlLely mean LhaL we have sunk Lo Lhe
level of Lhe enemy. lL ls good lf we are aLLacked
by Lhe enemy, slnce lL proves LhaL we have
drawn a clear llne of demarcaLlon beLween Lhe
enemy and ourselves. lL ls sLlll beLLer lf Lhe
enemy aLLacks us wlldly and palnLs us as uLLerly
black and wlLhouL a slngle vlrLue, lL
demonsLraLes LhaL we have noL only drawn a
clear llne of demarcaLlon beLween Lhe enemy
and ourselves buL achleved a greaL deal ln our
work.

Speech at the Ch|nese Commun|st arty's
Nat|ona| Conference on ropaganda Work
(March 12, 19S7)
1bls possoqe wos oseJ to jostlfy tbe loteoslve
"teeJocotloo" sessloos wblcb ttleJ to btloq oll
cbloese people loto lloe. 1be flool poollfyloq
pbtoses wete osoolly lqooteJ.
ln our counLry bourgeols and peLLy-bourgeols
ldeology, anLl-MarxlsL ldeology, wlll conLlnue Lo
exlsL for a long Llme. 8aslcally, Lhe soclallsL
sysLem has been esLabllshed ln our counLry. We
have won Lhe baslc vlcLory ln Lransformlng Lhe
ownershlp of Lhe means of producLlon, buL we
have noL yeL won compleLe vlcLory on Lhe
pollLlcal and ldeologlcal fronLs. ln Lhe
ldeologlcal fleld, Lhe quesLlon of who wlll wln ln
Lhe sLruggle beLween Lhe proleLarlaL and Lhe
bourgeolsle has noL been really seLLled yeL. We
sLlll have Lo wage a proLracLed sLruggle agalnsL
bourgeols and peLLy-bourgeols ldeology. lL ls
wrong noL Lo undersLand Lhls and Lo glve up
ldeologlcal sLruggle. All erroneous ldeas, all
polsonous weeds, all ghosLs and monsLers, musL
be sub[ecLed Lo crlLlclsm, ln no clrcumsLance
should Lhey be allowed Lo spread unchecked.
Powever, Lhe crlLlclsm should be fully reasoned,
analyLlcal and convlnclng, and noL rough,
bureaucraLlc, meLaphyslcal or dogmaLlc.

"Cn the eop|e's Democrat|c D|ctatorsh|p"
(Iune 30, 1949)
1be oltlmote qool of Motxlsts wos oot oollke
tbot of oootcblsts. tbe complete obolltloo of
stote powet ooJ tbe estobllsbmeot of Jltect
Jemoctocy omooq tbe people. nowevet botb
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$(-"!"

Motx ooJ leolo boJ otqoeJ tbot o petloJ of
ttoosltloo colleJ "soclollsm" wos oecessoty, lo
wblcb tbe stote woolJ otqoolze tbe cooJltloos
oecessoty fot lts owo obolltloo. 8ot tbe ooly
commoolst stotes wblcb obollsbeJ tbemselves,
llke tbot of tbe 5ovlet uoloo, JlJ so lo otJet to
ttoosfotm tbemselves loto cooveotloool stotes.
wbot teosoos Joes Moo qlve fot oot obollsbloq
stote powet tlqbt owoy? (1bls speecb wos qlveo
lmmeJlotely oftet tbe ttlompb of tbe
commoolsts.)
"uon'L you wanL Lo abollsh sLaLe power?" ?es,
we do, buL noL rlghL now, we cannoL do lL yeL.
Why? 8ecause lmperlallsm sLlll exlsLs, because
domesLlc reacLlon sLlll exlsLs, because classes
sLlll exlsL ln our counLry. Cur presenL Lask ls Lo
sLrengLhen Lhe people's sLaLe apparaLus--malnly
Lhe people's army, Lhe people's pollce and Lhe
people's courLs--ln order Lo consolldaLe naLlonal
defense and proLecL Lhe people's lnLeresLs.

"rob|ems of War and Strategy"
(November 6, 1938)
lo lts otlqlool cootext tbls soyloq meoot tbot tbe
commoolsts woolJ oevet be olloweJ to come to
powet lo cbloo wltboot o soccessfol vloleot
tevolotloo. lo tbe cootext of tbe coltotol
kevolotloo lt meoot tbot tbe cbloese leople's
Atmy boJ to ploy o leoJloq tole lo sostololoq,
potlfyloq, ooJ spteoJloq commoolsm. AoJ
obtooJ lt wos ofteo oseJ to jostlfy tevolotloooty
tettotlsm.
Lvery CommunlsL musL grasp Lhe LruLh,
"ollLlcal power grows ouL of Lhe barrel of a
gun."

Speech at the Moscow Meet|ng of Commun|st
and Workers' art|es (November 18, 19S7)
Moo wos wlJely tlJlcoleJ obtooJ fot stotloq
tbot tbe u.5. ooJ lts oocleot otseool wete
"popet tlqets." Mooy sopposeJ tbot Moo woolJ
bove wlllloqly plooqeJ tbe wotlJ loto o oocleot
wot oot of sbeet lqootooce. 8ot lt seems mote
ptoboble tbot, lockloq socb otms blmself, be
oseJ bls most powetfol weopoo. tbe bloff. 1be
bomb wos oot o vety effectlve tool of Jlplomocy
becoose tbe tbteot lt poseJ wos ooly os cteJlble
os tbe wlllloqoess of ooy ootloo to plooqe tbe
wotlJ loto o bolocoost, vety ptobobly Jesttoyloq
ltself lo tbe ptocess. Moo boJ evety teosoo to let
tbe wotlJ tblok be wos oot oftolJ of tbe bomb
oo mottet wbot bls ptlvote tbooqbts mlqbt bove
beeo.
l have sald LhaL all Lhe repuLedly powerful
reacLlonarles are merely paper Llgers. 1he
reason ls LhaL Lhey are dlvorced from Lhe
people. Look! Was noL PlLler a paper Llger? Was
PlLler noL overLhrown? l also sald LhaL Lhe Lsar
of 8ussla, Lhe emperor of Chlna and !apanese
lmperlallsm were all paper Llgers. As we know,
Lhey were all overLhrown. u.S. lmperlallsm has
noL yeL been overLhrown and lL has Lhe aLom
bomb. l belleve lL also wlll be overLhrown. lL,
Loo, ls a paper Llger.

"Some uest|ons Concern|ng Methods of
Leadersh|p" (Iune 1, 1943)
1bls ls tbe cote of tbe lJeoloqy tbot moJe tbe
coltotol kevolotloo so oppeolloq to mooy yoooq
lJeollsts, bot lo tbe eoJ leotoloq ftom tbe
people totoeJ oot to meoo leotoloq ooly ftom
cboltmoo Moo ooJ bls ollles.
ln all Lhe pracLlcal work of our arLy, all correcL
leadershlp ls necessarlly "from Lhe masses, Lo
Lhe masses." 1hls means: Lake Lhe ldeas of Lhe
masses (scaLLered and unsysLemaLlc ldeas) and
concenLraLe Lhem (Lhrough sLudy Lurn Lhem
lnLo concenLraLed and sysLemaLlc ldeas), Lhen
go Lo Lhe masses and propagaLe and explaln
Lhese ldeas unLll Lhe masses embrace Lhem as
Lhelr own, hold fasL Lo Lhem and LranslaLe Lhem
lnLo acLlon, and LesL Lhe correcLness of Lhese
ldeas ln such acLlon. 1hen once agaln
concenLraLe ldeas from Lhe masses and once
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$($"!"

agaln go Lhe masses so LhaL Lhe ldeas are
persevered ln and carrled Lhrough. And so on,
over and over agaln ln an endless splral, wlLh
Lhe ldeas becomlng more correcL, more vlLal
and rlcher each Llme. Such ls Lhe MarxlsL Lheory
of knowledge.

Introductory note to "Women nave Gone to
the Labor Iront" (19SS)
womeo boJ beeo opptesseJ lo cbloo os mocb
os ooywbete oo eottb, ooJ Moo ofteo spoke of
tbe lmpottoot tole tbey woolJ ploy lo bollJloq
commoolsm. Mooy cooctete oJvooces wete
moJe fot womeo, bowevet, except fot bls wlfe
Iloo Oloq, wbo wos vety lofloeotlol Jotloq tbe
coltotol kevolotloo, womeo wete qeoetolly
teleqoteJ to sobotJloote posltloos lo tbe potty
leoJetsblp.
ln order Lo bulld a greaL soclallsL socleLy, lL ls of
Lhe uLmosL lmporLance Lo arouse Lhe broad
masses of women Lo [oln ln producLlve acLlvlLy.
Men and women musL recelve equal pay for
equal work ln producLlon. Cenulne equallLy
beLween Lhe sexes can only be reallzed ln Lhe
process of Lhe soclallsL LransformaLlon of
socleLy as a whole.


Cn the Correct nand||ng of Contrad|ct|ons
Among the eop|e (Iebruary 27, 19S7)
Of oll tbe poototloos lo tbe "llttle keJ 8ook"
oooe ls mote lospltloq ot cblllloq tboo tbls. lt
comes ftom o btlef petloJ of tefotm lo tbe flftles
koowo os tbe "nooJteJ llowets compolqo"
Jotloq wblcb Moo eocootoqeJ complete
fteeJom of tbooqbt, locloJloq ctltlclsm of tbe
lotty. 1be tesolt wos mocb mote vlqotoos
Jebote tboo Moo boJ expecteJ ooJ tbe petloJ
eoJeJ wltb oo obtopt ctockJowo oqolost tbose
wbo boJ tolseJ tbelt volces lo opposltloo. lt
coolJ stooJ os o ctltlpoe of tbe follotes of tbe
coltotol kevolotloo ltself, wblcb ttleJ to settle
lJeoloqlcol poestloos by fotce ooJet tbe qolse of
Jebote.
LeLLlng a hundred flowers blossom and a
hundred schools of LhoughL conLend ls Lhe
pollcy for promoLlng Lhe progress of Lhe arLs
and Lhe sclences and a flourlshlng soclallsL
culLure ln our land. ulfferenL forms and sLyles ln
arL should develop freely and conLend freely.
We Lhlnk LhaL lL ls harmful Lo Lhe growLh of arL
and sclence lf admlnlsLraLlve measures are used
Lo lmpose one parLlcular sLyle of arL or school of
LhoughL and Lo ban anoLher. CuesLlons of rlghL
and wrong ln Lhe arLs and sclences should be
seLLled Lhrough free dlscusslon ln arLlsLlc and
sclenLlflc clrcles and Lhrough pracLlcal work ln
Lhese flelds. 1hey should noL be seLLled ln
summary fashlon.
koupen of Sassoun: >Q'N$,%'00(,+(2#;'%$9/0(R'%+&$O'
All tbe belllqeteots lo wotlJ wot l boJ lotetool polltlcol ptoblems, bot tbe 1otklsb mplte boJ speclol
ptoblems wltb lts lotqe mlootlty popolotloos. leotfol tbot lts boqe Atmeoloo popolotloo woolJ be too
sympotbetlc to lts eoemy, kosslo, lo tbe sptloq of 1915, tbe 1otklsb mllltoty ootbotltles JeclJeJ to
temove Atmeoloos ftom eosteto 1otkey ooJ motcb tbem sootb to tbe clty to Aleppo, wbete tbey woolJ
be seot loto tbe 5ytloo Jesett ot motcbeJ eost loto tbe 1lqtls-opbtotes volley. Oo Aptll 24, 1915, tbe fltst
toooJop of Atmeoloos beqoo. 1btooqboot tbe sptloq ooJ sommet of 1915, lotqe elemeots of tbe
Atmeoloo popolotloo wete temoveJ ftom tbelt bomes, sttlppeJ of tbelt ptopetty, ooJ motcbeJ loto tbe
Jesett, lo mooy coses, tbey wete kllleJ lo tbelt vllloqes. Altbooqb tbe exoct oombets ote Jlfflcolt to
Jetetmloe, lt ls llkely tbot mote tboo o mlllloo Atmeoloos wete slooqbteteJ lo 1915. Mt. koopeo, oo
Atmeoloo teslJeot of 5ossooo ulsttlct, ptovlJeJ tbls eyewltoess occooot of tbe 1915 sommet mossoctes
lo oo lotetvlew wltb Mt. A.5. 5oftostloo. lo bls occooot, be tefets to tbe kotJs, oootbet mlootlty ooJet
1otklsb tole, wbo wete ftepoeotly oseJ by tbe 1otks to ottock tbe Atmeoloos.
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$(%"!"

R2"6%$+#6S(
1. now woolJ yoo compote tbls eyewltoess occooot of etbolc cleoosloq wltb otbet occooots lo tbls
sectloo? Ate tbete ooy commoo cbotoctetlstlcs?
2. wby woolJ tbe 1otklsb mllltoty ose kotJlsb ttoops oqolost Atmeoloos?
J. Ate Atmeoloo womeo totqeteJ fot ooy speclol tteotmeot? wby woolJ womeo be o speclol totqet lo
qeooclJe?
4. wete tbe 1otklsb coocetos oboot Atmeoloos soppottloq kossloos jostlfleJ? wby? wby oot?
1+2)B"S(ltom 1be 1teotmeot of Atmeoloos lo tbe Ottomoo mplte. uocomeots lteseoteJ to vlscooot
Ctey of lolloJoo, 5ectetoty of 5tote fot lotelqo Affolts, wltb o ltefoce by vlscooot 8tyce (looJoo. nM5O,
1916), pp. 85-87.

Larly ln !uly, Lhe auLhorlLles ordered Lhe
Armenlans Lo surrender Lhelr arms, and pay a
large money ransom. 1he leadlng Armenlans of
Lhe Lown and Lhe headmen of Lhe vlllages were
sub[ecLed Lo revolLlng LorLures. 1helr flnger
nalls and Lhen Lhelr Loe nalls were forclbly
exLracLed, Lhelr LeeLh were knocked ouL, and ln
some cases Lhelr noses were whlLLled down, Lhe
vlcLlms belng Lhus done Lo deaLh under
shocklng, llngerlng agonles. 1he female relaLlves
of Lhe vlcLlms who came Lo Lhe rescue were
ouLraged ln publlc before Lhe very eyes of Lhelr
muLllaLed husbands and broLhers. 1he shrleks
and deaLh-crles of Lhe vlcLlms fllled Lhe alr, yeL
Lhey dld noL move Lhe 1urklsh beasL. 1he same
process of dlsarmamenL was carrled ouL ln Lhe
large Armenlan vlllages of khaskegh,
lranknorshen, eLc., and on Lhe sllghLesL show of
reslsLance men and women were done Lo deaLh
ln Lhe manner descrlbed above. Cn Lhe 10Lh
!uly, large conLlngenLs of Lroops, followed by
bands of crlmlnals released from Lhe prlsons,
began Lo round up Lhe able-bodled men from
all Lhe vlllages. ln Lhe 100 vlllages of Lhe plaln of
Moush mosL of Lhe vlllagers Look up any arms
Lhey possessed and offered a desperaLe
reslsLance ln varlous favourable poslLlons. ln Lhe
naLural order of Lhlngs Lhe ammunlLlon soon
gave ouL ln mosL vlllages, and Lhere followed
whaL ls perhaps one of Lhe greaLesL crlmes ln all
hlsLory. 1hose who had no arms and had done
noLhlng agalnsL Lhe auLhorlLles were herded
lnLo varlous camps and bayoneLed ln cold
blood.
ln Lhe Lown of Moush lLself Lhe Armenlans,
under Lhe leadershlp of CoLoyan and oLhers,
enLrenched Lhemselves ln Lhe churches and
sLone-bullL houses and foughL for four days ln
self-defense. 1he 1urklsh arLlllery, manned by
Cerman offlcers, made shorL work of all Lhe
Armenlan poslLlons. Lvery one of Lhe
Armenlans, leaders as well as men, was kllled
flghLlng, and when Lhe sllence of deaLh relgned
over Lhe rulns of churches and Lhe resL, Lhe
Moslem rabble made a descenL upon Lhe
women and chlldren and drove Lhem ouL of Lhe
Lown lnLo large camps whlch had already been
prepared for Lhe peasanL women and chlldren.
1he ghasLly scenes whlch followed may lndeed
sound lncredlble, yeL Lhese reporLs have been
conflrmed from 8usslan sources beyond all
doubL. 1he shorLesL meLhod for dlsposlng of Lhe
women and chlldren concenLraLed ln Lhe
varlous camps was Lo burn Lhem. llre was seL Lo
large wooden sheds ln Alld[an, Megrakom,
khaskegh, and oLher Armenlan vlllages, and
Lhese absoluLely helpless women and chlldren
were roasLed Lo deaLh. Many wenL mad and
Lhrew Lhelr chlldren away, some knelL down
and prayed amld Lhe flames ln whlch Lhelr
bodles were burnlng, oLhers shrleked and crled
for help whlch came from nowhere. And Lhe
execuLloners, who seem Lo have been unmoved
by Lhls unparalleled savagery, grasped lnfanLs
by one leg and hurled Lhem lnLo Lhe flre, calllng
ouL Lo Lhe burnlng moLhers: Pere are your
llons." 1urklsh prlsoners who had apparenLly
wlLnessed some of Lhese scenes were horrlfled
and maddened aL rememberlng Lhe slghL. 1hey
Lold Lhe 8usslans LhaL Lhe sLench of Lhe burnlng
human flesh permeaLed Lhe alr for many days
afLer.
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$(&"!"

under presenL clrcumsLances lL ls lmposslble Lo
say how many Armenlans, ouL of a populaLlon
of 60,000 ln Lhe plaln of Moush, are lefL allve,
Lhe one facL whlch can be recorded aL presenL ls
LhaL now and Lhen some survlvors escape
Lhrough Lhe mounLalns and reach Lhe 8usslan
llnes Lo glve furLher deLalls of Lhe unparalleled
crlme perpeLraLed ln Moush durlng !uly.
1he Massacres ln Sassoun.-Whlle Lhe
8uLcher" baLLallons of u[evdeL 8ey and Lhe
regulars of klazlm 8ey were engaged ln 8lLlls
and Moush, some cavalry were senL Lo Sassoun
early ln !uly Lo encourage Lhe kurds who had
been defeaLed by Lhe Armenlans aL Lhe
beglnnlng of !une. 1he 1urklsh cavalry lnvaded
Lhe lower valley of Sassoun and capLured a few
vlllages afLer sLouL flghLlng. ln Lhe meanLlme
Lhe reorganlzed kurdlsh Lrlbes aLLempLed Lo
close on Sassoun from Lhe souLh, wesL, and
norLh. uurlng Lhe lasL forLnlghL of !uly almosL
lncessanL flghLlng wenL on, omeLlmes even
durlng Lhe nlghL. Cn Lhe whole, Lhe Armenlans
held Lhelr own on all fronLs and expelled Lhe
kurds from Lhelr advanced poslLlons. Powever,
Lhe people of Sassoun had oLher anxleLles Lo
worry abouL. 1he populaLlon had doubled slnce
Lhelr broLhers who had escaped from Lhe plalns
had soughL refuge ln Lhelr mounLalns, Lhe mllleL
crop of Lhe lasL season had been a fallure, all
honey, frulL, and oLher local produce had been
consumed, and Lhe people had been feedlng on
unsalLed roasL muLLon (Lhey had noL even any
salL Lo make Lhe muLLon more susLalnlng),
flnally, Lhe ammunlLlon was ln no way sufflclenL
for Lhe requlremenLs of heavy flghLlng. 8uL Lhe
worsL had yeL Lo come. klazlm 8ey, afLer
reduclng Lhe Lown and Lhe plaln of Moush,
rushed hls army Lo Sassoun for a new efforL Lo
overwhelm Lhese brave mounLalneers. llghLlng
was renewed on all fronLs LhroughouL Lhe
Sassoun dlsLrlcL. 8lg guns made carnage among
Lhe Armenlan ranks. 8oupen Lells me LhaL
Corloun, ulkran, and LwenLy oLher of Lhelr besL
flghLers were kllled by a slngle shell, whlch bursL
ln Lhelr mldsL. Lncouraged by Lhe presence of
guns, Lhe cavalry and kurds pushed on wlLh
relenLless energy.
1he Armenlans were compelled Lo abandon Lhe
ouLlylng llnes of Lhelr defence and were
reLreaLlng day by day lnLo Lhe helghLs of AnLok,
Lhe cenLral block of Lhe mounLalns, some
10,000 feeL hlgh. 1he non-combaLanL women
and chlldren and Lhelr large flocks of caLLle
greaLly hampered Lhe free movemenLs of Lhe
defenders, whose number had already been
reduced from 3,000 Lo abouL half LhaL flgure.
1errlble confuslon prevalled durlng Lhe 1urklsh
aLLacks as well as Lhe Armenlan counLer-
aLLacks. Many of Lhe Armenlans smashed Lhelr
rlfles afLer flrlng Lhe lasL carLrldge and grasped
Lhelr revolvers and daggers. 1he 1urklsh
regulars and kurds, amounLlng now Lo
someLhlng llke 30,000 alLogeLher, pushed
hlgher and hlgher up Lhe helghLs and
surrounded Lhe maln Armenlan poslLlon aL
close quarLers. 1hen followed one of Lhose
desperaLe and herolc sLruggles for llfe whlch
have always been Lhe prlde of mounLalneers.
Men, women and chlldren foughL wlLh knlves,
scyLhes, sLones, and anyLhlng else Lhey could
handle. 1hey rolled blocks of sLone down Lhe
sLeep slopes, kllllng many of Lhe enemy. ln a
frlghLful hand-Lo-hand combaL, women were
seen LhrusLlng Lhelr knlves lnLo Lhe LhroaLs of
1urks and Lhus accounLlng for many of Lhem.
Cn Lhe 3Lh AugusL, Lhe lasL day of Lhe flghLlng,
Lhe blood-sLalned rocks of AnLok were capLured
by Lhe 1urks. 1he Armenlan warrlors of
Sassoun, excepL Lhose who had worked round
Lo Lhe rear of Lhe 1urks Lo aLLack Lhem on Lhelr
flanks, had dled ln baLLle. Several young
women, who were ln danger of falllng lnLo Lhe
1urks' hands, Lhrew Lhemselves from Lhe rocks,
some of Lhem wlLh Lhelr lnfanLs ln Lhelr arms.
1he survlvors have slnce been carrylng on a
guerllla warfare, llvlng only on unsalLed muLLon
and grass. 1he approachlng wlnLer may have
dlsasLrous consequences for Lhe remnanLs of
Lhe Sassounll Armenlans, because Lhey have
noLhlng Lo eaL and no means of defendlng
Lhemselves.
1914 C.L. to the resent
!"$('"!"

Woodrow W||son: "1he Iourteen o|nts" (1918)

As Ametlcoo ttoops floolly eoteteJ combot lo otope, wooJtow wllsoo ottempteJ to qlve sbope to tbe
ootloo's wot olms, wblle soqqestloq tbe tetms ooJet wblcb peoce coolJ be ottoloeJ sbott of totol vlctoty.
uellveteJ befote cooqtess oo Iooooty 8, 1918, tbls "ptoqtom of tbe wotlJ's peoce," wblcb become koowo
os "tbe lootteeo lolots," ttoosfotmeJ wllsoo loto oo lotetootloool leoJet of qteot motol ootbotlty.
cleotly o qteot mooy commoo people lo Ametlco ooJ otope sboteJ wllsoo's vlsloo fot tbe postwot
wotlJ. wbeo Cetmooy floolly soeJ fot peoce, lts qovetomeot JlJ so wltb tbe expectotloo tbot tbe
lootteeo lolots woolJ setve os tbe bosls fot oll fotote oeqotlotloos.

R2"6%$+#6(%+(<+#6$/")
! wby woolJ Ametlco's eoemles come to floJ bope lo tbe lootteeo lolots?
! now JlJ wllsoo tblok tbot bls ptoqtom woolJ ptoJoce wotlJ peoce?


CenLlemen of Lhe Congress: Cnce more, as
repeaLedly before, Lhe spokesmen of Lhe
CenLral Lmplres have lndlcaLed Lhelr deslre Lo
dlscuss Lhe ob[ecLs of Lhe war and Lhe posslble
basls of a general peace. arleys have been ln
progress aL 8resL-LlLovsk beLween 8usslan
represenLaLlves and represenLaLlves of Lhe
CenLral owers, Lo whlch Lhe aLLenLlon of all Lhe
belllgerenLs has been lnvlLed for Lhe purpose of
ascerLalnlng wheLher lL may be posslble Lo
exLend Lhese parleys lnLo a general conference
wlLh regard Lo Lerms of peace and seLLlemenL....
1he represenLaLlves of Lhe CenLral
owers...presenLed an ouLllne of seLLlemenL
whlch... proposed no concesslons aL all, elLher
Lo Lhe soverelgnLy of 8ussla or Lo Lhe
preferences of Lhe populaLlon wlLh whose
forLunes lL dealL, buL meanL, ln a word, LhaL Lhe
CenLral Lmplres were Lo keep every fooL of
LerrlLory Lhelr armed forces had occupled-every
provlnce, every clLy, every polnL of vanLage-as a
permanenL addlLlon Lo Lhelr LerrlLorles and Lhelr
power. lL ls a reasonable con[ecLure LhaL Lhe
general prlnclples of seLLlemenL whlch Lhey aL
flrsL suggesLed orlglnaLed wlLh Lhe more llberal
sLaLesmen of Cermany and AusLrla, Lhe men
who have begun Lo feel Lhe force of Lhelr own
peoples' LhoughL and purpose, whlle Lhe
concreLe Lerms of acLual seLLlemenL came from
Lhe mlllLary leaders who have no LhoughL buL Lo
keep whaL Lhey have goL. 1he negoLlaLlons have
been broken off. 1he 8usslan represenLaLlves
were slncere and ln earnesL. 1hey cannoL
enLerLaln such proposals of conquesL and
domlnaLlon.

1he whole lncldenL ls full of slgnlflcance. lL ls
also full of perplexlLy. WlLh whom are Lhe
8usslan represenLaLlves deallng? lor whom are
Lhe represenLaLlves of Lhe CenLral Lmplres
speaklng? Are Lhey speaklng for Lhe ma[orlLles
of Lhelr respecLlve arllamenLs or for Lhe
mlnorlLy parLles, LhaL mlllLary and lmperlallsLlc
mlnorlLy whlch has so far domlnaLed Lhelr
whole pollcy and conLrolled Lhe affalrs of
1urkey and of Lhe 8alkan SLaLes whlch have felL
obllged Lo become Lhelr assoclaLes ln Lhls war?
1he 8usslan represenLaLlves have lnslsLed, very
[usLly, very wlsely, and ln Lhe Lrue splrlL of
modern democracy, LhaL Lhe conferences Lhey
have been holdlng wlLh Lhe 1euLonlc and
1urklsh sLaLesmen should be held wlLh open,
noL closed, doors, and all Lhe world has been
audlence, as was deslred....

...noL once, buL agaln and agaln, we have lald
our whole LhoughL and purpose before Lhe
world, noL ln general Lerms only, buL each Llme
wlLh sufflclenL deflnlLlon Lo make lL clear whaL
sorL of deflnlLe Lerms of seLLlemenL musL
necessarlly sprlng ouL of Lhem.... 1here ls no
confuslon of counsel among Lhe adversarles of
Lhe CenLral owers, no uncerLalnLy of prlnclple,
no vagueness of deLall. 1he only secrecy of
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$(("!"

counsel, Lhe only lack of fearless frankness, Lhe
only fallure Lo make deflnlLe sLaLemenL of Lhe
ob[ecLs of Lhe war, lle wlLh Cermany and her
allles. 1he lssues of llfe and deaLh hang upon
Lhese deflnlLlons. no sLaLesman who has Lhe
leasL concepLlon of hls responslblllLy oughL for a
momenL Lo permlL hlmself Lo conLlnue Lhls
Lraglcal and appalllng ouLpourlng of blood and
Lreasure unless he ls sure beyond a
peradvenLure LhaL Lhe ob[ecLs of Lhe vlLal
sacrlflce are parL and parcel of Lhe very llfe of
socleLy and LhaL Lhe people for whom he speaks
Lhlnk Lhem rlghL and lmperaLlve as he does.

1here ls, moreover, a volce calllng for Lhese
deflnlLlons of prlnclple and of purpose whlch ls,
lL seems Lo me, more Lhrllllng and more
compelllng Lhan any of Lhe many movlng volces
wlLh whlch Lhe Lroubled alr of Lhe world ls fllled.
lL ls Lhe volce of Lhe 8usslan people. 1hey are
prosLraLe and all buL helpless, lL would seem,
before Lhe grlm power of Cermany, whlch has
hlLherLo known no relenLlng and no plLy. 1helr
power apparenLly ls shaLLered. And yeL Lhelr
soul ls noL subservlenL.... 1hey call Lo us Lo say
whaL lL ls LhaL we deslre, ln whaL, lf ln anyLhlng,
our purpose and our splrlL dlffer from Lhelrs,
and l belleve LhaL Lhe people of Lhe unlLed
SLaLes would wlsh me Lo respond wlLh uLLer
slmpllclLy and frankness. WheLher Lhelr presenL
leaders belleve lL or noL, lL ls our hearLfelL
deslre and hope LhaL some way may be opened
whereby we may be prlvlleged Lo asslsL Lhe
people of 8ussla Lo aLLaln Lhelr uLmosL hope of
llberLy and ordered peace.

lL wlll be our wlsh and purpose LhaL Lhe
processes of peace, when Lhey are begun, shall
be absoluLely open, and LhaL Lhey shall lnvolve
and permlL henceforLh no secreL
undersLandlngs of any klnd. 1he day of
conquesL and aggrandlzemenL ls gone by, so ls
also Lhe day of secreL covenanLs enLered lnLo ln
Lhe lnLeresL of parLlcular governmenLs and llkely
aL some unlooked-for momenL Lo upseL Lhe
peace of Lhe world....

We enLered Lhls war because vlolaLlons of rlghL
had occurred whlch Louched us Lo Lhe qulck and
made Lhe llfe of our own people lmposslble
unless Lhey were correcLed and Lhe world
secured once for all agalnsL Lhelr recurrence.
WhaL we demand ln Lhls war, Lherefore, ls
noLhlng pecullar Lo ourselves. lL ls LhaL Lhe
world be made flL and safe Lo llve ln, and
parLlcularly LhaL lL be made safe for every
peace-lovlng naLlon whlch, llke our own, wlshes
Lo llve lLs own llfe, deLermlne lLs own
lnsLlLuLlons, be assured of [usLlce and falr
deallngs by Lhe oLher peoples of Lhe world, as
agalnsL force and selflsh aggresslon. All Lhe
peoples of Lhe world are ln effecL parLners ln
Lhls lnLeresL, and for our own parL we see very
clearly LhaL unless [usLlce be done Lo oLhers lL
wlll noL be done Lo us.

1he program of Lhe world's peace, Lherefore, ls
our program, and LhaL program, Lhe only
posslble program, as we see lL, ls Lhls:
l. Cpen covenanLs of peace, openly
arrlved aL, afLer whlch Lhere shall be no
prlvaLe lnLernaLlonal undersLandlngs of
any klnd, buL dlplomacy shall proceed
always frankly and ln Lhe publlc vlew.
ll. AbsoluLe freedom of navlgaLlon upon
Lhe seas, ouLslde LerrlLorlal waLers, allke
ln peace and ln war, excepL as Lhe seas
may be closed ln whole or ln parL by
lnLernaLlonal acLlon for Lhe
enforcemenL of lnLernaLlonal
covenanLs.
lll. 1he removal, so far as posslble, of all
economlc barrlers and Lhe
esLabllshmenL of an equallLy of Lrade
condlLlons among all Lhe naLlons
consenLlng Lo Lhe peace and assoclaLlng
Lhemselves for lLs malnLenance.
lv. AdequaLe guaranLees glven and Laken
LhaL naLlonal armamenLs wlll be
reduced Lo Lhe lowesL polnL conslsLenL
wlLh domesLlc safeLy.
v. lree, open-mlnded, and absoluLely
lmparLlal ad[usLmenL of all colonlal
clalms, based upon a sLrlcL observance
of Lhe prlnclple LhaL ln deLermlnlng all
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$()"!"

such quesLlons of soverelgnLy Lhe
lnLeresLs of Lhe populaLlon concerned
musL have equal welghL wlLh Lhe
equlLable clalms of Lhe CovernmenL
whose LlLle ls Lo be deLermlned.
vl. 1he evacuaLlon of all 8usslan LerrlLory
and such a seLLlemenL of all quesLlons
affecLlng 8ussla as wlll secure Lhe besL
and freesL cooperaLlon of Lhe oLher
naLlons of Lhe world ln obLalnlng for her
an unhampered and unembarrassed
opporLunlLy for Lhe lndependenL
deLermlnaLlon of her own pollLlcal
developmenL and naLlonal pollcy, and
assure her of a slncere welcome lnLo
Lhe socleLy of free naLlons under
lnsLlLuLlons of her own chooslng, and,
more Lhan a welcome, asslsLance also
of every klnd LhaL she may need and
may herself deslre....
vll. 8elglum, Lhe whole world wlll agree,
musL be evacuaLed and resLored,
wlLhouL any aLLempL Lo llmlL Lhe
soverelgnLy whlch she en[oys ln
common wlLh all oLher free naLlons. no
oLher slngle acL wlll serve as Lhls wlll
serve Lo resLore confldence among Lhe
naLlons ln Lhe laws whlch Lhey have
Lhemselves seL and deLermlned for Lhe
governmenL of Lhelr relaLlons wlLh one
anoLher. WlLhouL Lhls heallng acL Lhe
whole sLrucLure and valldlLy of
lnLernaLlonal law ls forever lmpalred.
vlll. All lrench LerrlLory should be freed and
Lhe lnvaded porLlons resLored, and Lhe
wrong done Lo lrance by russla ln
1871 ln Lhe maLLer of Alsace-Lorralne,
whlch has unseLLled Lhe peace of Lhe
world for nearly flfLy years, should be
rlghLed, ln order LhaL peace may once
more be made secure ln Lhe lnLeresL of
all.
lx. A read[usLmenL of Lhe fronLlers of lLaly
should be effecLed along clearly
recognlzable llnes of naLlonallLy.
x. 1he peoples of AusLrla-Pungary, whose
place among Lhe naLlons we wlsh Lo see
safeguarded and assured, should be
accorded Lhe freesL opporLunlLy of
auLonomous developmenL.
xl. 8umanla, Serbla, and MonLenegro
should be evacuaLed, occupled
LerrlLorles resLored, Serbla accorded
free and secure access Lo Lhe sea, and
Lhe relaLlons of Lhe several 8alkan
SLaLes Lo one anoLher deLermlned by
frlendly counsel along hlsLorlcally
esLabllshed llnes of alleglance and
naLlonallLy, and lnLernaLlonal
guaranLees of Lhe pollLlcal and
economlc lndependence and LerrlLorlal
lnLegrlLy of Lhe several 8alkan SLaLes
should be enLered lnLo.
xll. 1he 1urklsh porLlons of Lhe presenL
CLLoman Lmplre should be assured a
secure soverelgnLy, buL Lhe oLher
naLlonallLles whlch are now under
1urklsh rule should be assured an
undoubLed securlLy of llfe and an
absoluLely unmolesLed opporLunlLy of
auLonomous developmenL, and Lhe
uardanelles should be permanenLly
opened as a free passage Lo Lhe shlps
and commerce of all naLlons under
lnLernaLlonal guaranLees.
xlll. An lndependenL ollsh SLaLe should be
erecLed whlch should lnclude Lhe
LerrlLorles lnhablLed by lndlspuLably
ollsh populaLlons, whlch should be
assured a free and secure access Lo Lhe
sea, and whose pollLlcal and economlc
lndependence and LerrlLorlal lnLegrlLy
should be guaranLeed by lnLernaLlonal
covenanL.
xlv. A general assoclaLlon of naLlons musL
be formed under speclflc covenanLs for
Lhe purpose of affordlng muLual
guaranLees of pollLlcal lndependence
and LerrlLorlal lnLegrlLy Lo greaL and
small sLaLes allke.
ln regard Lo Lhese essenLlal recLlflcaLlons of
wrong and asserLlons of rlghL, we feel ourselves
Lo be lnLlmaLe parLners of all Lhe governmenLs
and peoples assoclaLed LogeLher agalnsL Lhe
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$(*"!"

lmperlallsLs. We cannoL be separaLed ln lnLeresL
or dlvlded ln purpose. We sLand LogeLher unLll
Lhe end.

lor such arrangemenLs and covenanLs we are
wllllng Lo flghL and Lo conLlnue Lo flghL unLll
Lhey are achleved, buL only because we wlsh
Lhe rlghL Lo prevall and deslre a [usL and sLable
peace, such as can be secured only by removlng
Lhe chlef provocaLlons Lo war, whlch Lhls
program does remove. We have no [ealousy of
Cerman greaLness, and Lhere ls noLhlng ln Lhls
program LhaL lmpalrs lL. We grudge her no
achlevemenL or dlsLlncLlon of learnlng or of
paclflc enLerprlse such as have made her record
very brlghL and very envlable. We do noL wlsh
Lo ln[ure her or Lo block ln any way her
leglLlmaLe lnfluence or power. We do noL wlsh
Lo flghL her elLher wlLh arms or wlLh hosLlle
arrangemenLs of Lrade, lf she ls wllllng Lo
assoclaLe herself wlLh us and Lhe oLher peace-
lovlng naLlons of Lhe world ln covenanLs of
[usLlce and law and falr deallng. We wlsh her
only Lo accepL a place of equallLy among Lhe
peoples of Lhe world-Lhe new world ln whlch
we now llve-lnsLead of a place of masLery.

nelLher do we presume Lo suggesL Lo her any
alLeraLlon or modlflcaLlon of her lnsLlLuLlons.
8uL lL ls necessary, we musL frankly say, and
necessary as a prellmlnary Lo any lnLelllgenL
deallngs wlLh her on our parL, LhaL we should
know whom her spokesmen speak for when
Lhey speak Lo us, wheLher for Lhe 8elchsLag
ma[orlLy or for Lhe mlllLary parLy and Lhe men
whose creed ls lmperlal domlnaLlon.

We have spoken, now, surely, ln Lerms Loo
concreLe Lo admlL of any furLher doubL or
quesLlon. An evldenL prlnclple runs Lhrough Lhe
whole program l have ouLllned. lL ls Lhe
prlnclple of [usLlce Lo all peoples and
naLlonallLles, and Lhelr rlghL Lo llve on equal
Lerms of llberLy and safeLy wlLh one anoLher,
wheLher Lhey be sLrong or weak. unless Lhls
prlnclple be made lLs foundaLlon, no parL of Lhe
sLrucLure of lnLernaLlonal [usLlce can sLand. 1he
people of Lhe unlLed SLaLes could acL upon no
oLher prlnclple, and Lo Lhe vlndlcaLlon of Lhls
prlnclple Lhey are ready Lo devoLe Lhelr llves,
Lhelr honor, and everyLhlng LhaL Lhey possess.
1he moral cllmax of Lhls, Lhe culmlnaLlng and
flnal war for human llberLy, has come, and Lhey
are ready Lo puL Lhelr own sLrengLh, Lhelr own
hlghesL purpose, Lhelr own lnLegrlLy and
devoLlon Lo Lhe LesL.

Source: SupplemenL Lo Lhe Messages and apers of
Lhe resldenLs, Coverlng Lhe Second 1erm of
Woodrow Wllson, March 4, 1917, Lo March 4, 1921
(WashlngLon, u.C., 1921), pp. 8421-8426.

1he 8a|four Dec|arat|on (1917)

1be 8tltlsb lotelqo 5ectetoty, Attbot Iomes 8olfoot, wtote to Iewlsb leoJet lotJ kotbsbllJ, to ossote blm
tbot bls qovetomeot soppotteJ tbe lJeol of ptovlJloq o bomelooJ fot tbe Iews. 1be 8tltlsb bopeJ tbeteby
to wlo mote Iewlsb soppott fot tbe Allles lo tbe lltst wotlJ wot. 1be "8olfoot ueclototloo" become tbe
bosls fot lotetootloool soppott fot tbe foooJloq of tbe moJeto stote of lstoel. 1be lettet wos pobllsbeJ o
week lotet lo 1he 1lmes of looJoo os teptoJoceJ bete.

17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$(+"!"

lorelgn Cfflce
november 2nd, 1917

uear Lord 8oLhschlld:

l have much pleasure ln conveylng Lo you. on behalf of Pls Ma[esLy's
CovernmenL, Lhe followlng declaraLlon of sympaLhy wlLh !ewlsh ZlonlsL asplraLlons whlch has been
submlLLed Lo, and approved by, Lhe CablneL:

Pls Ma[esLy's CovernmenL vlew wlLh favor Lhe esLabllshmenL ln alesLlne of a naLlonal home for Lhe
!ewlsh people, and wlll use Lhelr besL endeavors Lo faclllLaLe Lhe achlevemenL of Lhls ob[ecL, lL belng
clearly undersLood LhaL noLhlng shall be done whlch may pre[udlce Lhe clvll and rellglous rlghLs of
exlsLlng non-!ewlsh communlLles ln alesLlne, or Lhe rlghLs and pollLlcal sLaLus en[oyed by !ews ln any
oLher counLry.

l should be graLeful lf you would brlng Lhls declaraLlon Lo Lhe knowledge
of Lhe ZlonlsL lederaLlon.

?ours,
ArLhur !ames 8alfour

8r|t|sh Wh|te aper of 1939
lo tbe stotemeot oo lolestloe, lssoeJ oo 9 Novembet, 19J8, nls Mojesty's Covetomeot ooooooceJ tbelt
loteotloo to lovlte tepteseototlves of tbe Atobs of lolestloe, of cettolo oelqbbotloq cooottles ooJ of tbe
Iewlsb Aqeocy to coofet wltb tbem lo looJoo teqotJloq fotote pollcy. lt wos tbelt slocete bope tbot, os o
tesolt of foll, ftee ooJ ftook Jlscossloos, some ooJetstooJloq mlqbt be teocbeJ. coofeteoces teceotly
took ploce wltb Atob ooJ Iewlsb Jeleqotloos, lostloq fot o petloJ of sevetol weeks, ooJ setveJ tbe
potpose of o complete excbooqe of vlews betweeo 8tltlsb Mlolstets ooJ tbe Atob ooJ Iewlsb
tepteseototlves. lo tbe llqbt of tbe Jlscossloos os well os of tbe sltootloo lo lolestloe ooJ of tbe kepotts
of tbe koyol commlssloo ooJ tbe lottltloo commlssloo, cettolo ptoposols wete fotmoloteJ by nls
Mojesty's Covetomeot ooJ wete lolJ befote tbe Atob ooJ Iewlsb ueleqotloos os tbe bosls of oo oqteeJ
settlemeot. Neltbet tbe Atob oot tbe Iewlsb Jeleqotloo felt oble to occept tbese ptoposols, ooJ tbe
coofeteoces tbetefote JlJ oot tesolt lo oo oqteemeot. AccotJloqly nls Mojesty's Covetomeot ote ftee to
fotmolote tbelt owo pollcy, ooJ oftet cotefol cooslJetotloo tbey bove JeclJeJ to oJbete qeoetolly to tbe
ptoposols wblcb wete floolly sobmltteJ to ooJ JlscosseJ wltb tbe Atob ooJ Iewlsb Jeleqotloos.

1he MandaLe for alesLlne, Lhe Lerms of
whlch were conflrmed by Lhe Councll of Lhe
League of naLlons ln 1922, has governed Lhe
pollcy of successlve 8rlLlsh CovernmenLs for
nearly 20 years. lL embodles Lhe 8alfour
ueclaraLlon and lmposes on Lhe MandaLory four
maln obllgaLlons. 1hese obllgaLlons are seL ouL
ln ArLlcle 2, 6 and 13 of Lhe MandaLe. 1here ls
no dlspuLe regardlng Lhe lnLerpreLaLlon of one
of Lhese obllgaLlons, LhaL Louchlng Lhe
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$(,"!"

proLecLlon of and access Lo Lhe Poly laces and
rellglous bulldlng or slLes. 1he oLher Lhree maln
obllgaLlons are generally as follows:
1o place Lhe counLry under such pollLlcal,
admlnlsLraLlve and economlc condlLlons as wlll
secure Lhe esLabllshmenL ln alesLlne of a
naLlonal home for Lhe !ewlsh eople. 1o
faclllLaLe !ewlsh lmmlgraLlon under sulLable
condlLlons, and Lo encourage, ln cooperaLlon
wlLh Lhe !ewlsh Agency, close seLLlemenL by
!ews on Lhe Land.
1o safeguard Lhe clvll and rellglous rlghLs of
all lnhablLanLs of alesLlne lrrespecLlve of race
and rellglon, and, whllsL faclllLaLlng !ewlsh
lmmlgraLlon and seLLlemenL, Lo ensure LhaL Lhe
rlghLs and poslLlon of oLher secLlons of Lhe
populaLlon are noL pre[udlced.
1o place Lhe counLry under such pollLlcal,
admlnlsLraLlve and economlc condlLlons as wlll
secure Lhe developmenL of self governlng
lnsLlLuLlons.
1he 8oyal Commlsslon and prevlous
commlsslons of Lnqulry have drawn aLLenLlon
Lo Lhe amblgulLy of cerLaln expresslons ln Lhe
MandaLe, such as Lhe expresslon `a naLlonal
home for Lhe !ewlsh people', and Lhey have
found ln Lhls amblgulLy and Lhe resulLlng
uncerLalnLy as Lo Lhe ob[ecLlves of pollcy a
fundamenLal cause of unresL and hosLlllLy
beLween Arabs and !ews. Pls Ma[esLy's
CovernmenL are convlnced LhaL ln Lhe lnLeresLs
of Lhe peace and well belng of Lhe whole people
of alesLlne a clear deflnlLlon of pollcy and
ob[ecLlves ls essenLlal. 1he proposal of parLlLlon
recommended by Lhe 8oyal Commlsslon would
have afforded such clarlLy, buL Lhe
esLabllshmenL of self supporLlng lndependenL
Arab and !ewlsh SLaLes wlLhln alesLlne has
been found Lo be lmpracLlcable. lL has Lherefore
been necessary for Pls Ma[esLy's CovernmenL
Lo devlse an alLernaLlve pollcy whlch wlll,
conslsLenL wlLh Lhelr obllgaLlons Lo Arabs and
!ews, meeL Lhe needs of Lhe slLuaLlon ln
alesLlne. 1helr vlews and proposals are seL
forLh below under Lhree heads, SecLlon l, "1he
ConsLlLuLlon", SecLlon ll. lmmlgraLlon and
SecLlon lll. Land.
Sect|on I. "1he Const|tut|on"
lL has been urged LhaL Lhe expresslon "a
naLlonal home for Lhe !ewlsh people" offered a
prospecL LhaL alesLlne mlghL ln due course
become a !ewlsh SLaLe or CommonwealLh. Pls
Ma[esLy's CovernmenL do noL wlsh Lo conLesL
Lhe vlew, whlch was expressed by Lhe 8oyal
Commlsslon, LhaL Lhe ZlonlsL leaders aL Lhe Llme
of Lhe lssue of Lhe 8alfour ueclaraLlon
recognlsed LhaL an ulLlmaLe !ewlsh SLaLe was
noL precluded by Lhe Lerms of Lhe ueclaraLlon.
8uL, wlLh Lhe 8oyal Commlsslon, Pls Ma[esLy's
CovernmenL belleve LhaL Lhe framers of Lhe
MandaLe ln whlch Lhe 8alfour ueclaraLlon was
embodled could noL have lnLended LhaL
alesLlne should be converLed lnLo a !ewlsh
SLaLe agalnsL Lhe wlll of Lhe Arab populaLlon of
Lhe counLry. 1haL alesLlne was noL Lo be
converLed lnLo a !ewlsh SLaLe mlghL be held Lo
be lmplled ln Lhe passage from Lhe Command
aper of 1922 whlch reads as follows
"unauLhorlzed sLaLemenLs have been made
Lo Lhe effecL LhaL Lhe purpose ln vlew ls Lo
creaLe a wholly !ewlsh alesLlne. hrases have
been used such as LhaL `alesLlne ls Lo become
as !ewlsh as Lngland ls Lngllsh.' Pls Ma[esLy's
CovernmenL regard any such expecLaLlon as
lmpracLlcable and have no such alm ln vlew.
nor have Lhey aL any Llme conLemplaLed .... Lhe
dlsappearance or Lhe subordlnaLlon of Lhe
Arablc populaLlon, language or culLure ln
alesLlne. 1hey would draw aLLenLlon Lo Lhe
facL LhaL Lhe Lerms of Lhe (8alfour) ueclaraLlon
referred Lo do noL conLemplaLe LhaL alesLlne
as a whole should be converLed lnLo a !ewlsh
naLlonal Pome, buL LhaL such a Pome should be
founded ln ALLS1lnL."
8uL Lhls sLaLemenL has noL removed
doubLs, and Pls Ma[esLy's CovernmenL
Lherefore now declare unequlvocally LhaL lL ls
noL parL of Lhelr pollcy LhaL alesLlne should
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$)-"!"

become a !ewlsh SLaLe. 1hey would lndeed
regard lL as conLrary Lo Lhelr obllgaLlons Lo Lhe
Arabs under Lhe MandaLe, as well as Lo Lhe
assurances whlch have been glven Lo Lhe Arab
people ln Lhe pasL, LhaL Lhe Arab populaLlon of
alesLlne should be made Lhe sub[ecLs of a
!ewlsh SLaLe agalnsL Lhelr wlll.
1he naLure of Lhe !ewlsh naLlonal Pome ln
alesLlne was furLher descrlbed ln Lhe
Command aper of 1922 as follows
"uurlng Lhe lasL Lwo or Lhree generaLlons
Lhe !ews have recreaLed ln alesLlne a
communlLy now numberlng 80,000, of whom
abouL one fourLh are farmers or workers upon
Lhe land. 1hls communlLy has lLs own pollLlcal
organs, an elecLed assembly for Lhe dlrecLlon of
lLs domesLlc concerns, elecLed counclls ln Lhe
Lowns, and an organlsaLlon for Lhe conLrol of lLs
schools. lL has lLs elecLed Chlef 8abblnaLe and
8abblnlcal Councll for Lhe dlrecLlon of lLs
rellglous affalrs. lLs buslness ls conducLed ln
Pebrew as a vernacular language, and a Pebrew
press serves lLs needs. lL has lLs dlsLlncLlve
lnLellecLual llfe and dlsplays conslderable
economlc acLlvlLy. 1hls communlLy, Lhen, wlLh
lLs Lown and counLry populaLlon, lLs pollLlcal,
rellglous and soclal organlsaLlons, lLs own
language, lLs own cusLoms, lLs own llfe, has ln
facL `naLlonal' characLerlsLlcs. When lL ls asked
whaL ls meanL by Lhe developmenL of Lhe
!ewlsh naLlonal Pome ln alesLlne, lL may be
answered LhaL lL ls noL Lhe lmposlLlon of a
!ewlsh naLlonallLy upon Lhe lnhablLanLs of
alesLlne as a whole, buL Lhe furLher
developmenL of Lhe exlsLlng !ewlsh communlLy,
wlLh Lhe asslsLance of !ews ln oLher parLs of Lhe
world, ln order LhaL lL may become a cenLre ln
whlch Lhe !ewlsh people as a whole may Lake,
on grounds of rellglon and race, an lnLeresL and
prlde. 8uL ln order LhaL Lhls communlLy should
have Lhe besL prospecL of free developmenL
and provlde a full opporLunlLy for Lhe !ewlsh
people Lo dlsplay lLs capaclLles, lL ls essenLlal
LhaL lL should know LhaL lL ls ln alesLlne as of
rlghL and noL on sufferance. 1haL ls Lhe reason
why lL ls necessary LhaL Lhe exlsLence of a
!ewlsh naLlonal Pome ln alesLlne should be
lnLernaLlonally guaranLeed, and LhaL lL should
be formally recognlsed Lo resL upon anclenL
hlsLorlc connecLlon."
Pls Ma[esLy's CovernmenL adhere Lo Lhls
lnLepreLaLlon of Lhe (8alfour) ueclaraLlon of
1917 and regard lL as an auLhorlLaLlve and
comprehenslve descrlpLlon of Lhe characLer of
Lhe !ewlsh naLlonal Pome ln alesLlne. lL
envlsaged Lhe furLher developmenL of Lhe
exlsLlng !ewlsh communlLy wlLh Lhe asslsLance
of !ews ln oLher parLs of Lhe world. Lvldence
LhaL Pls Ma[esLy's CovernmenL have been
carrylng ouL Lhelr obllgaLlon ln Lhls respecL ls Lo
be found ln Lhe facLs LhaL, slnce Lhe sLaLemenL
of 1922 was publlshed, more Lhan 300,000 !ews
have lmmlgraLed Lo alesLlne, and LhaL Lhe
populaLlon of Lhe naLlonal Pome has rlsen Lo
some 430,000, or approachlng a Lhlrd of Lhe
enLlre populaLlon of Lhe counLry. nor has Lhe
!ewlsh communlLy falled Lo Lake full advanLage
of Lhe opporLunlLles glven Lo lL. 1he growLh of
Lhe !ewlsh naLlonal Pome and lLs achelvemenLs
ln many flelds are a remarkable consLrucLlve
efforL whlch musL command Lhe admlraLlon of
Lhe world and musL be, ln parLlcular, a source of
prlde Lo Lhe !ewlsh people.
ln Lhe recenL dlscusslons Lhe Arab
delegaLlons have repeaLed Lhe conLenLlon LhaL
alesLlne was lncluded wlLhln Lhe area ln whlch
Slr Penry McMahon, on behalf of Lhe 8rlLlsh
CovernmenL, ln CcLober, 1913, underLook Lo
recognlse and supporL Arab lndependence. 1he
valldlLy of Lhls clalm, based on Lhe Lerms of Lhe
correspondence whlch passed beLween Slr
Penry McMahon and Lhe Sharlf of Mecca, was
Lhoroughly and carefully lnvesLlgaLed by Lhe
8rlLlsh and Arab represenLaLlves durlng Lhe
recenL conferences ln London. 1helr reporL,
whlch has been publlshed, sLaLes LhaL boLh Lhe
Arab and Lhe 8rlLlsh represenLaLlves
endeavoured Lo undersLand Lhe polnL of vlew of
Lhe oLher parLy buL LhaL Lhey were unable Lo
reach agreemenL upon an lnLerpreLaLlon of Lhe
correspondence. 1here ls no need Lo summarlze
here Lhe argumenLs presenLed by each slde. Pls
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$)$"!"

Ma[esLy's CovernmenL regreL Lhe
mlsundersLandlngs whlch have arlsen as regards
some of Lhe phrases used. lor Lhelr parL Lhey
can only adhere, for Lhe reasons glven by Lhelr
represenLaLlves ln Lhe 8eporL, Lo Lhe vlew LhaL
Lhe whole of alesLlne wesL of !ordan was
excluded from Slr Penry McMahon's pledge,
and Lhey Lherefore cannoL agree LhaL Lhe
McMahon correspondence forms a [usL basls
for Lhe clalm LhaL alesLlne should be converLed
lnLo an Arab SLaLe.
Pls Ma[esLy's CovernmenL are charged as
Lhe MandaLory auLhorlLy "Lo secure Lhe
developmenL of self governlng lnsLlLuLlons" ln
alesLlne. AparL from Lhls speclflc obllgaLlon,
Lhey would regard lL as conLrary Lo Lhe whole
splrlL of Lhe MandaLe sysLem LhaL Lhe
populaLlon of alesLlne should remaln forever
under MandaLory LuLelage. lL ls proper LhaL Lhe
people of Lhe counLry should as early as
posslble en[oy Lhe rlghLs of self-governmenL
whlch are exerclsed by Lhe people of
nelghbourlng counLrles. Pls Ma[esLy's
CovernmenL are unable aL presenL Lo foresee
Lhe exacL consLlLuLlonal forms whlch
governmenL ln alesLlne wlll evenLually Lake,
buL Lhelr ob[ecLlve ls self governmenL, and Lhey
deslre Lo see esLabllshed ulLlmaLely an
lndependenL alesLlne SLaLe. lL should be a
SLaLe ln whlch Lhe Lwo peoples ln alesLlne,
Arabs and !ews, share auLhorlLy ln governmenL
ln such a way LhaL Lhe essenLlal lnLeresLs of
each are shared.
1he esLabllshmenL of an lndependenL SLaLe
and Lhe compleLe rellnqulshmneL of MandaLory
conLrol ln alesLlne would requlre such
relaLlons beLween Lhe Arabs and Lhe !ews as
would make good governmenL posslble.
Moreover, Lhe growLh of self governlng
lnsLlLuLlons ln alesLlne, as ln oLher counLrles,
musL be an evoluLlonary process. A LranslLlonal
perlod wlll be requlred before lndependence ls
achleved, LhroughouL whlch ulLlmaLe
responslblllLy for Lhe CovernmenL of Lhe
counLry wlll be reLalned by Pls Ma[esLy's
CovernmenL as Lhe MandaLory auLhorlLy, whlle
Lhe people of Lhe counLry are Laklng an
lncreaslng share ln Lhe CovernmenL, and
undersLandlng and cooperaLlon amongsL Lhem
are growlng. lL wlll be Lhe consLanL endeavour
of Pls Ma[esLy's CovernmenL Lo promoLe good
relaLlons beLween Lhe Arabs and Lhe !ews.
ln Lhe llghL of Lhese conslderaLlons Pls
Ma[esLy's CovernmenL make Lhe followlng
declaraLlon of Lhelr lnLenLlons regardlng Lhe
fuLure governmenL of alesLlne:
1he ob[ecLlve of Pls Ma[esLy's CovernmenL
ls Lhe esLabllshmenL wlLhln 10 years of an
lndependenL alesLlne SLaLe ln such LreaLy
relaLlons wlLh Lhe unlLed klngdom as wlll
provlde saLlsfacLorlly for Lhe commerclal and
sLraLeglc requlremenLs of boLh counLrles ln Lhe
fuLure. 1he proposal for Lhe esLabllshmenL of
Lhe lndependenL SLaLe would lnvolve
consulLaLlon wlLh Lhe Councll of Lhe League of
naLlons wlLh a vlew Lo Lhe LermlnaLlon of Lhe
MandaLe.
1he lndependenL SLaLe should be one ln
whlch Arabs and !ews share governmenL ln such
a way as Lo ensure LhaL Lhe essenLlal lnLeresLs
of each communlLy are safeguarded.
1he esLabllshmenL of Lhe lndependenL SLaLe
wlll be preceded by a LranslLlonal perlod
LhroughouL whlch Pls Ma[esLy's CovernmenL
wlll reLaln responslblllLy for Lhe counLry. uurlng
Lhe LranslLlonal perlod Lhe people of alesLlne
wlll be glven an lncreaslng parL ln Lhe
governmenL of Lhelr counLry. 8oLh secLlons of
Lhe populaLlon wlll have an opporLunlLy Lo
parLlclpaLe ln Lhe machlnery of governmenL,
and Lhe process wlll be carrled on wheLher or
noL Lhey boLh avall Lhemselves of lL.
As soon as peace and order have been
sufflclenLly resLored ln alesLlne sLeps wlll be
Laken Lo carry ouL Lhls pollcy of glvlng Lhe
people of alesLlne an lncreaslng parL ln Lhe
governmenL of Lhelr counLry, Lhe ob[ecLlve
belng Lo place alesLlnlans ln charge of all Lhe
ueparLmenLs of CovernmenL, wlLh Lhe
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$)%"!"

asslsLance of 8rlLlsh advlsers and sub[ecL Lo Lhe
conLrol of Lhe Plgh Commlssloner. Arab and
!ewlsh represenLaLlves wlll be lnvlLed Lo serve
as heads of ueparLmenLs approxlmaLely ln
proporLlon Lo Lhelr respecLlve populaLlons. 1he
number of alesLlnlans ln charge of
ueparLmenLs wlll be lncreased as clrcumsLances
permlL unLll all heads of ueparLmenLs are
alesLlnlans, exerclslng Lhe admlnlsLraLlve and
advlsory funcLlons whlch are presenLly
performed by 8rlLlsh offlclals. When LhaL sLage
ls reached conslderaLlon wlll be glven Lo Lhe
quesLlon of converLlng Lhe LxecuLlve Councll
lnLo a Councll of MlnlsLers wlLh a consequenLlal
change ln Lhe sLaLus and funcLlons of Lhe
alesLlnlan heads of ueparLmenLs.
Pls Ma[esLy's CovernmenL make no
proposals aL Lhls sLage regardlng Lhe
esLabllshmenL of an elecLlve leglslaLure.
neverLheless Lhey would regard Lhls as an
approprlaLe consLlLuLlonal developmenL, and,
should publlc oplnlon ln alesLlne hereafLer
show lLself ln favour of such a developmenL,
Lhey wlll be prepared, provlded LhaL local
condlLlons permlL, Lo esLabllsh Lhe necessary
machlnery.
AL Lhe end of flve years from Lhe
resLoraLlon of peace and order, an approprlaLe
body represenLaLlve of Lhe people of alesLlne
and of Pls Ma[esLy's CovernmenL wlll be seL up
Lo revlew Lhe worklng of Lhe consLlLuLlonal
arrangemenLs durlng Lhe LranslLlonal perlod and
Lo conslder and make recommendaLlons
regardlng Lhe consLlLuLlon of Lhe lndependenL
alesLlne SLaLe.
Pls Ma[esLy's CovernmenL wlll requlre Lo be
saLlsfled LhaL ln Lhe LreaLy conLemplaLed by sub-
paragraph (6) adequaLe provlslon has been
made for:
Lhe securlLy of, and freedom of access Lo
Lhe Poly laces, and proLecLlon of Lhe lnLeresLs
and properLy of Lhe varlous rellglous bodles.
Lhe proLecLlon of Lhe dlfferenL communlLles
ln alesLlne ln accordance wlLh Lhe obllgaLlons
of Pls Ma[esLy's CovernmenL Lo boLh Arabs and
!ews and for Lhe speclal poslLlon ln alesLlne of
Lhe !ewlsh naLlonalPome.
such requlremenLs Lo meeL Lhe sLraLeglc
slLuaLlon as may be regarded as necessary by
Pls Ma[esLy's CovernmenL ln Lhe llghL of Lhe
clrcumsLances Lhen exlsLlng. Pls Ma[esLy's
CovernmenL wlll also requlre Lo be saLlsfled
LhaL Lhe lnLeresLs of cerLaln forelgn counLrles ln
alesLlne, for Lhe preservaLlon of whlch Lhey are
aL presenL responslble, are adequaLely
safeguarded.
Pls Ma[esLy's CovernmenL wlll do
everyLhlng ln Lhelr power Lo creaLe condlLlons
whlch wlll enable Lhe lndependenL alesLlne
SLaLe Lo come lnLo belng wlLhln 10 years. lf, aL
Lhe end of 10 years, lL appears Lo Pls Ma[esLy's
CovernmenL LhaL, conLrary Lo Lhelr hope,
clrcumsLances requlre Lhe posLponemenL of Lhe
esLabllshmenL of Lhe lndependenL SLaLe, Lhey
wlll consulL wlLh represenLaLlves of Lhe people
of alesLlne, Lhe Councll of Lhe League of
naLlons and Lhe nelghbourlng Arab SLaLes
before decldlng on such a posLponemenL. lf Pls
Ma[esLy's CovernmenL come Lo Lhe concluslon
LhaL posLponemenL ls unavoldable, Lhey wlll
lnvlLe Lhe co-operaLlon of Lhese parLles ln
framlng plans for Lhe fuLure wlLh a vlew Lo
achlevlng Lhe deslred ob[ecLlve aL Lhe earllesL
posslble daLe.
uurlng Lhe LranslLlonal perlod sLeps wlll be
Laken Lo lncrease Lhe powers and
responslblllLles of munlclpal corporaLlons and
local counclls.
Sect|on II. Imm|grat|on
under ArLlcle 6 of Lhe MandaLe, Lhe
AdmlnlsLraLlon of alesLlne, "whlle ensurlng
LhaL Lhe rlghLs and poslLlon of oLher secLlons of
Lhe populaLlon are noL pre[udlced," ls requlred
Lo "faclllLaLe !ewlsh lmmlgraLlon under sulLable
condlLlons." 8eyond Lhls, Lhe exLenL Lo whlch
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$)&"!"

!ewlsh lmmlgraLlon lnLo alesLlne ls Lo be
permlLLed ls nowhere deflned ln Lhe MandaLe.
8uL ln Lhe Command aper of 1922 lL was lald
down LhaL for Lhe fulfllmenL of Lhe pollcy of
esLabllshlng a !ewlsh naLlonal Pome:
"lL ls necessary LhaL Lhe !ewlsh commun lLy
ln alesLlne should be able Lo lncrease lLs
numbers by lmmlgraLlon. 1hls lmmlgraLlon
cannoL be so greaL ln volume as Lo exceed
whaLever may be Lhe economlc capaclLy of Lhe
counLry aL Lhe Llme Lo absorb new arrlvals. lL ls
essenLlal Lo ensure LhaL Lhe lmmlgranLs should
noL be a burden upon Lhe people of alesLlne as
a whole, and LhaL Lhey should noL deprlve any
secLlon of Lhe presenL populaLlon of Lhelr
employmenL."
ln pracLlce, from LhaL daLe onwards unLll
recenL Llmes, Lhe economlc absorpLlve capaclLy
of Lhe counLry has been LreaLed as Lhe sole
llmlLlng facLor, and ln Lhe leLLer whlch Mr.
8amsay Macuonald, as rlme MlnlsLer, senL Lo
ur. Welzmann ln lebruary 1931 lL was lald
down as a maLLer of pollcy LhaL economlc
absorpLlve capaclLy was Lhe sole crlLerlon. 1hls
lnLerpreLaLlon has been supporLed by
resoluLlons of Lhe ermanenL MandaLes
Commlssloner. 8uL Pls Ma[esLy's CovernmenL
do noL read elLher Lhe SLaLemenL of ollcy of
1922 or Lhe leLLer of 1931 as lmplylng LhaL Lhe
MandaLe requlres Lhem, for all Llme and ln all
clrcumsLances, Lo faclllLaLe Lhe lmmlgraLlon of
!ews lnLo alesLlne sub[ecL only Lo
conslderaLlon of Lhe counLry's economlc
absorpLlve capaclLy. nor do Lhey flnd anyLhlng
ln Lhe MandaLe or ln subsequenL SLaLemenLs of
ollcy Lo supporL Lhe vlew LhaL Lhe
esLabllshmenL of a !ewlsh naLlonal Pome ln
alesLlne cannoL be effecLed unless lmmlgraLlon
ls allowed Lo conLlnue lndeflnlLely. lf
lmmlgraLlon has an adverse effecL on Lhe
economlc poslLlon ln Lhe counLry, lL should
clearly be resLrlcLed, and equally, lf lL has a
serlously damaglng effecL on Lhe pollLlcal
poslLlon ln Lhe counLry, LhaL ls a facLor LhaL
should noL be lgnored. AlLhough lL ls noL
dlfflculL Lo conLend LhaL Lhe large number of
!ewlsh lmmlgranLs who have been admlLLed so
far have been absrobed economlcally, Lhe fear
of Lhe Arabs LhaL Lhls lnflux wlll conLlnue
lndeflnlLely unLll Lhe !ewlsh populaLlon ls ln a
poslLlon Lo domlnaLe Lhem has produced
consequences whlch are exLremely grave for
!ews and Arabs allke and for Lhe peace and
prosperlLy of alesLlne. 1he lamenLable
dlsLurbances of Lhe pasL Lhree years are only
Lhe laLesL and mosL susLalned manlfesLaLlon of
Lhls lnLense Arab apprehenslon. 1he meLhods
employed by Arab LerrorlsLs agalnsL fellow
Arabs and !ews allke musL recelve unquallfled
condemnaLlon. 8uL lL cannoL be denled LhaL
fear of lndeflnlLe !ewlsh lmmlgraLlon ls
wldespread amongsL Lhe Arab populaLlon and
LhaL Lhls fear has made posslble dlsLurbances
whlch have glven a serlous seLback Lo economlc
progress, depleLed Lhe alesLlne exchequer,
rendered llfe and properLy lnsecure, and
produced a blLLerness beLween Lhe Arab and
!ewlsh populaLlons whlch ls deplorable
beLween clLlzens of Lhe same counLry. lf ln
Lhese clrcumsLances lmmlgraLlon ls conLlnued
up Lo Lhe economlc absorpLlve capaclLy of Lhe
counLry, regardless of all oLher conslderaLlons, a
faLal enmlLy beLween Lhe Lwo peoples wlll be
perpeLuaLed, and Lhe slLuaLlon ln alesLlne may
become a permanenL source of frlcLlon amongsL
all peoples ln Lhe near and Mlddle LasL. Pls
Ma[esLy's CovernmenL cannoL Lake Lhe vlew
LhaL elLher Lhelr obllgaLlons under Lhe MandaLe,
or conslderaLlons of common sense and [usLlce,
requlre LhaL Lhey should lgnore Lhese
clrcumsLances ln framlng lmmlgraLlon pollcy.
ln Lhe vlew of Lhe 8oyal Commlsslon Lhe
assoclaLlon of Lhe pollcy of Lhe 8alfour
ueclaraLlon wlLh Lhe MandaLe sysLem lmplled
Lhe bellef LhaL Arab hosLlllLy Lo Lhe former
would sooner or laLer be overcome. lL has been
Lhe hope of 8rlLlsh CovernmenLs ever slnce Lhe
8alfour ueclaraLlon was lssued LhaL ln Llme Lhe
Arab populaLlon, recognlzlng Lhe advanLages Lo
be derlved from !ewlsh seLLlemenL and
developmenL ln alesLlne, would become
reconclled Lo Lhe furLher growLh of Lhe !ewlsh
naLlonal Pome. 1hls hope has noL been fulfllled.
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$)'"!"

1he alLernaLlves before Pls Ma[esLy's
CovernmenL are elLher (l) Lo seek Lo expand Lhe
!ewlsh naLlonal Pome lndeflnlLely by
lmmlgraLlon, agalnsL Lhe sLrongly expressed wlll
of Lhe Arab people of Lhe counLry, or (ll) Lo
permlL furLher expanslon of Lhe !ewlsh naLlonal
Pome by lmmlgraLlon only lf Lhe Arabs are
prepared Lo acqulesce ln lL. 1he former pollcy
means rule by force. AparL from oLher
conslderaLlons, such a pollcy seems Lo Pls
Ma[esLy's CovernmenL Lo be conLrary Lo Lhe
whole splrlL of ArLlcle 22 of Lhe CovenanL of Lhe
League of naLlons, as well as Lo Lhelr speclflc
obllgaLlons Lo Lhe Arabs ln Lhe alesLlne
MandaLe. Moreover, Lhe relaLlons beLween Lhe
Arabs and Lhe !ews ln alesLlne musL be based
sooner or laLer on muLual Lolerance and
goodwlll, Lhe peace, securlLy and progress of
Lhe !ewlsh naLlonal Pome lLself requlres Lhls.
1herefore Pls Ma[esLy's CovernmenL, afLer
earnesL conslderaLlon, and Laklng lnLo accounL
Lhe exLenL Lo whlch Lhe growLh of Lhe !ewlsh
naLlonal Pome has been faclllLaLed over Lhe lasL
LwenLy years, have declded LhaL Lhe Llme has
come Lo adopL ln prlnclple Lhe second of Lhe
alLernaLlves referred Lo above.
lL has been urged LhaL all furLher !ewlsh
lmmlgraLlon lnLo alesLlne should be sLopped
forLhwlLh. Pls Ma[esLy's CovernmenL cannoL
accepL such a proposal. lL would damage Lhe
whole of Lhe flnanclal and economlc sysLem of
alesLlne and Lhus effecL adversely Lhe lnLeresLs
of Arabs and !ews allke. Moreover, ln Lhe vlew
of Pls Ma[esLy's CovernmenL, abrupLly Lo sLop
furLher lmmlgraLlon would be un[usL Lo Lhe
!ewlsh naLlonal Pome. 8uL, above all, Pls
Ma[esLy's CovernmenL are consclous of Lhe
presenL unhappy pllghL of large numbers of
!ews who seek refuge from cerLaln Luropean
counLrles, and Lhey belleve LhaL alesLlne can
and should make a furLher conLrlbuLlon Lo Lhe
soluLlon of Lhls presslng world problem. ln all
Lhese clrcumsLances, Lhey belleve LhaL Lhey wlll
be acLlng conslsLenLly wlLh Lhelr MandaLory
obllgaLlons Lo boLh Arabs and !ews, and ln Lhe
manner besL calculaLed Lo serve Lhe lnLeresLs of
Lhe whole people of alesLlne, by adopLlng Lhe
followlng proposals regardlng lmmlgraLlon:
!ewlsh lmmlgraLlon durlng Lhe nexL flve
years wlll be aL a raLe whlch, lf economlc
absorpLlve capaclLy permlLs, wlll brlng Lhe
!ewlsh populaLlon up Lo approxlmaLely one
Lhlrd of Lhe LoLal populaLlon of Lhe counLry.
1aklng lnLo accounL Lhe expecLed naLural
lncrease of Lhe Arab and !ewlsh populaLlons,
and Lhe number of lllegal !ewlsh lmmlgranLs
now ln Lhe counLry, Lhls would allow of Lhe
admlsslon, as from Lhe beglnnlng of Aprll Lhls
year, of some 73,000 lmmlgranLs over Lhe nexL
flve years. 1hese lmmlgranLs would, sub[ecL Lo
Lhe crlLerlon of economlc absorpLlve capaclLy,
be admlLLed as follows:
lor each of Lhe nexL flve years a quoLa of
10,000 !ewlsh lmmlgranLs wlll be allowed on
Lhe undersLandlng LhaL a shorLage one year may
be added Lo Lhe quoLas for subsequenL years,
wlLhln Lhe flve year perlod, lf economlc
absorpLlve capaclLy permlLs.
ln addlLlon, as a conLrlbuLlon Lowards Lhe
soluLlon of Lhe !ewlsh refugee problem, 23,000
refugees wlll be admlLLed as soon as Lhe Plgh
Commlssloner ls saLlsfled LhaL adequaLe
provlslon for Lhelr malnLenance ls ensured,
speclal conslderaLlon belng glven Lo refugee
chlldren anddependenLs.
1he exlsLlng machlnery for ascerLalnlng
economlc absorpLlve capaclLy wlll be reLalned,
and Lhe Plgh Commlssloner wlll have Lhe
ulLlmaLe responslblllLy for decldlng Lhe llmlLs of
economlc capaclLy. 8efore each perlodlc
declslon ls Laken, !ewlsh and Arab
represenLaLlves wlll be consulLed.
AfLer Lhe perlod of flve years, no furLher
!ewlsh lmmlgraLlon wlll be permlLLed unless Lhe
Arabs of alesLlne are prepared Lo acqulesce ln
lL.
Pls Ma[esLy's CovernmenL are deLermlned
Lo check lllegal lmmlgraLlon, and furLher
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$)("!"

prevenLlve measures are belng adopLed. 1he
numbers of any !ewlsh lllegal lmmlgranLs who,
desplLe Lhese measures, may succeed ln comlng
lnLo Lhe counLry and cannoL be deporLed wlll be
deducLed from Lhe yearly quoLas.
Pls Ma[esLy's CovernmenL are saLlsfled
LhaL, when Lhe lmmlgraLlon over flve years
whlch ls now conLemplaLed has Laken place,
Lhey wlll noL be [usLlfled ln faclllLaLlng, nor wlll
Lhey be under any obllgaLlon Lo faclllLaLe, Lhe
furLher developmenL of Lhe !ewlsh naLlonal
Pome by lmmlgraLlon regardless of Lhe wlshes
of Lhe Arab populaLlon.
Sect|on III. Land
1he AdmlnlsLraLlon of alesLlne ls requlred,
under ArLlcle 6 of Lhe MandaLe, "whlle ensurlng
LhaL Lhe rlghLs and poslLlon of oLher secLlons of
Lhe populaLlon are noL pre[udlced," Lo
encourage "close seLLlemenL by !ews on Lhe
land," and no resLrlcLlon has been lmposed
hlLherLo on Lhe Lransfer of land from Arabs Lo
!ews. 1he 8eporLs of several experL
Commlsslons have lndlcLaed LhaL, owlng Lo Lhe
naLural growLh of Lhe Arab populaLlon and Lhe
sLeady sale ln recenL years of Arab land Lo !ews,
Lhere ls now ln cerLaln areas no room for
furLher Lransfers of Arab land, whllsL ln some
oLher areas such Lransfers of land musL be
resLrlcLed lf Arab culLlvaLors are Lo malnLaln
Lhelr exlsLlng sLandard of llfe and a conslderable
landless Arab populaLlon ls noL soon Lo be
creaLed. ln Lhese clrcumsLances, Lhe Plgh
Commlssloner wlll be glven general powers Lo
prohlblL and regulaLe Lransfers of land. 1hese
powers wlll daLe from Lhe publlcaLlon of Lhls
sLaLemenL of pollcy and Lhe Plgh Commlssloner
wlll reLaln Lhem LhroughouL Lhe LranslLlonal
perlod.
1he pollcy of Lhe CovernmenL wlll be
dlrecLed Lowards Lhe developmenL of Lhe land
and Lhe lmprovemenL, where posslble, of
meLhods of culLlvaLlon. ln Lhe llghL of such
developmenL lL wlll be open Lo Lhe Plgh
Commlssloner, should he be saLlsfled LhaL Lhe
"rlghLs and poslLlon" of Lhe Arab populaLlon wlll
be duly preserved, Lo revlew and modlfy any
orders passed relaLlng Lo Lhe prohlblLlon or
resLrlcLlon of Lhe Lransfer of land.
ln framlng Lhese proposals Pls Ma[esLy's
CovernmenL have slncerely endeavoured Lo acL
ln sLrlcL accordance wlLh Lhelr obllgaLlons under
Lhe MandaLe Lo boLh Lhe Arabs and Lhe !ews.
1he vagueness of Lhe phrases employed ln
some lnsLances Lo descrlbe Lhese obllgaLlons
has led Lo conLroversy and has made Lhe Lask of
lnLerpreLaLlon dlfflculL. Pls Ma[esLy's
CovernmenL cannoL hope Lo saLlsfy Lhe
parLlsans of one parLy or Lhe oLher ln such
conLroversy as Lhe MandaLe has aroused. 1helr
purpose ls Lo be [usL as beLween Lhe Lwo people
ln alesLlne whose desLlnles ln LhaL counLry
have been affecLed by Lhe greaL evenLs of
recenL years, and who, slnce Lhey llve slde by
slde, musL learn Lo pracLlce muLual Lolerance,
goodwlll and co operaLlon. ln looklng Lo Lhe
fuLure, Pls Ma[esLy's CovernmenL are noL bllnd
Lo Lhe facL LhaL some evenLs of Lhe pasL make
Lhe Lask of creaLlng Lhese relaLlons dlfflculL, buL
Lhey are encouraged by Lhe knowledge LhaL as
many Llmes and ln many places ln alesLlne
durlng recenL years Lhe Arab and !ewlsh
lnhablLanLs have llved ln frlendshlp LogeLher.
Lach communlLy has much Lo conLrlbuLe Lo Lhe
welfare of Lhelr common land, and each musL
earnesLly deslre peace ln whlch Lo asslsL ln
lncreaslng Lhe well belng of Lhe whole people of
Lhe counLry. 1he responslblllLy whlch falls on
Lhem, no less Lhan upon Pls Ma[esLy's
CovernmenL, Lo co operaLe LogeLher Lo ensure
peace ls all Lhe more solemn because Lhelr
counLry ls revered by many mllllons of
Moslems, !ews and ChrlsLlans LhroughouL Lhe
world who pray for peace ln alesLlne and for
Lhe happlness of her people.

17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$))"!"

Naz| kac|a| Leg|s|at|on: 1he Nuremberg Laws (193S)

1be qolJloq lJeoloqy of tbe Nozl movemeot wos ptovlJeJ, of cootse, by AJolf nltlet (1889-1945) ooJ
ootlloeJ lo bls Melo kompf (o bybtlJ memolt ooJ polltlcol moolfesto tbot be JlctoteJ lo ptlsoo followloq
tbe folleJ ottempt to ovettbtow tbe 8ovotloo stote qovetomeot lo 1924). lo oJJltloo to bls vltoleot
botteJ of tbe vetsollles settlemeot, nltlet empboslzeJ two molo teoets. lebeostoom (llvloq spoce) ooJ
toclol potlty. nls flxotloo oo toclol potlty JetlveJ ftom bls eotly lottoJoctloo to soclol uotwlolsm ooJ ootl-
5emltlsm lo vleooo befote wotlJ wot l. nltlet belleveJ tbot tbe toclolly sopetlot Cetmoolc toce wos
beloq polloteJ by lotetmottloqe wltb ooo-Cetmoos, by Jefloltloo lofetlot, especlolly Iews. Moteovet, tbe
"lofetlot toces" wete teptoJocloq ot o blqbet tote tboo wete tbe Cetmoos. 1bls ls tbe qeoesls of bls
Jetetmlootloo oot ooly to ooolbllote tbe Iews (ooJ otbets) bot olso to locteose tbe slze of tbe toclolly
pote Cetmoo popolotloo. 1be Iews wete pottlcolotly totqeteJ by nltlet ooJ tbe Nozls wltb lf oot posltlve
soppott ot leost posslve occeptooce by o sobstootlol pottloo of tbe Cetmoo popolotloo. 1btooqboot tbe
1920s, qooqs of Nozls ("8towo 5bltts") ftepoeotly ooJ vlcloosly ottockeJ Iews, botb lo tbelt petsoo ooJ
tbelt ptopetty. Ooce tbe Nozls wete lo powet, ottocks oo Iews become mote leqollstlc. Iews wete
excloJeJ ftom qovetomeot jobs ooJ llceoseJ ptofessloos (low, meJlcloe, etc.), ooJ oltlmotely sttlppeJ of
tbelt Cetmoo cltlzeosblp. 1be Notembetq lows, wblcb JefloeJ wbo o Iew wos, wete o mojot step oo tbe
potb to tbe llool 5olotloo, os nltlet's ploo to etoJlcote otopeoo Iewty wos koowo. 1be nolocoost tbot
eosoeJ clolmeJ tbe llves of slx mlllloo Iews.

R2"6%$+#6(%+(<+#6$/")
! lo tbese lows, bow Jo tbe Nozls Jefloe wbo o Iew ls? wby?
! now Jo tbe Nozls loteoJ to potlfy Cetmoo blooJ?
! now Joes tbls leqlslotloo coofotm to nltlet's toclol tbeotles? now Joes lt coofotm to soclol
uotwlolsm?

Art|c|e S
1. A !ew ls anyone who descended from aL
leasL Lhree grandparenLs who were
raclally full !ews. ArLlcle 2, par. 2,
second senLence wlll apply.
2. A !ew ls also one who descended from
Lwo full !ewlsh parenLs, lf: (a) he
belonged Lo Lhe !ewlsh rellglous
communlLy aL Lhe Llme Lhls law was
lssued, or who [olned Lhe communlLy
laLer, (b) he was marrled Lo a !ewlsh
person, aL Lhe Llme Lhe law was lssued,
or marrled one subsequenLly, (c) he ls
Lhe offsprlng from a marrlage wlLh a
!ew, ln Lhe sense of SecLlon 1, whlch
was conLracLed afLer Lhe Law for Lhe
roLecLlon of Cerman 8lood and
Cerman Ponor became effecLlve, (d) he
ls Lhe offsprlng of an exLramarlLal
relaLlonshlp, wlLh a !ew, accordlng Lo
SecLlon 1, and wlll be born ouL of
wedlock afLer !uly 31, 1936.
Law for the rotect|on of German 8|ood and
German nonor of 1S September 193S

1horoughly convlnced by Lhe knowledge LhaL
Lhe purlLy of Cerman blood ls essenLlal for Lhe
furLher exlsLence of Lhe Cerman people and
anlmaLed by Lhe lnflexlble wlll Lo safe-guard Lhe
Cerman naLlon for Lhe enLlre fuLure, Lhe
8elchsLag has resolved upon Lhe followlng law
unanlmously, whlch ls promulgaLed herewlLh:

Sect|on 1
1. Marrlages beLween !ews and naLlonals
of Cerman or klndred blood are
forbldden. Marrlages concluded ln
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$)*"!"

deflance of Lhls law are vold, even lf, for
Lhe purpose of evadlng Lhls law, Lhey
are concluded abroad...
Sect|on 2

8elaLlon[s] ouLslde marrlage beLween !ews and
naLlonals of Cerman or klndred blood are
forbldden.

Sect|on 3

!ews wlll noL be permlLLed Lo employ female
naLlonals of Cerman or klndred blood ln Lhelr
household.

Sect|on 4
1. !ews are forbldden Lo holsL Lhe 8elch
and naLlonal flag and Lo presenL Lhe
colors of Lhe 8elch...
Sect|on S
1. A person who acLs conLrary Lo Lhe
prohlblLlon of secLlon 1 wlll be punlshed
wlLh hard labor.
2. A person who acLs conLrary Lo Lhe
prohlblLlon of secLlon 2 wlll be punlshed
wlLh lmprlsonmenL or wlLh hard labor.
3. A person who acLs conLrary Lo Lhe
provlslons of secLlons 3 or 4 wlll be
punlshed wlLh lmprlsonmenL up Lo a
year and wlLh a flne or wlLh one of
Lhese penalLles...
S$()*9+T$@((AU+N(,+(M'(9(R++O(4+;;.%$0,H(VJLWLX
Iost befote bls Jeotb lo 1925, 5oo ot-seo boJ oppoloteJ tbe yoooq mllltoty offlcet, Ilooq Ilesbl, to
socceeJ blm os leoJet of tbe CoomloJooq potty ooJ beoJ of tbe Notloool kevolotloooty Atmy. lt become
Ilooqs tespooslblllty to otqoolze o Nottbeto xpeJltloo to ctosb tbe wotlotJs ooJ oolfy tbe coootty.
1be CoomloJooq potty ot tbot tlme wos composeJ of o coolltloo of Notlooollsts ooJ commoolsts, oolteJ
lo tbelt opposltloo to tbe wotlotJs ooJ westeto lofloeoce. 8ot tbe commoolst foctloo olso vleweJ tbe
compolqo ptlmotlly os oo ootl-lmpetlollst ooJ ootl-feoJol sttoqqle wbeteos tbe Notlooollsts wete lookloq
to eoJ tbe lotetfeteoce of tbe west tbtooqb oeqotlotloo. 1be Notlooollsts sooqbt tbe soppott of westeto
powets wblle tbe commoolsts, ttoe to tbelt Motxlst toots, wooteJ o Jomestlc tevolotloo ooJ
estobllsbmeot of o wotkets ooJ peosoots stote. 8y 19J0, tbe Notlooollst compolqos oqolost wotlotJ
coottol boJ evolveJ loto ootl-commoolst fotoys.
Moos soccess lo otqoolzloq peosoots, ptomotloq sttlkes oqolost looJlotJs, ooJ eveotoolly teJlsttlbotloq
looJ to tbe oeeJy peosoots JemoosttoteJ bls Jooqetoos otqoolzotloool qeolos. Ilooq looocbeJ foot
mllltoty compolqos oqolost Moos oew cbloese 5ovlet kepobllc ftom 19J0 to 19J2, oll foot ptoveJ
oosoccessfol. 1be commoolst keJ Atmy, tbooqb pootly ttoloeJ ooJ epolppeJ, wos locteJlbly motlvoteJ
ooJ oble to teslst tbese ossoolts. 8ot by 19J4, oo effectlve ecooomlc blockoJe ooJ o flftb Notlooollst
offeoslve ptoveJ too mocb fot tbe commoolsts. kotbet tboo tlsk totol ooolbllotloo, Moo btoke tbtooqb
Ilooqs eocltclemeot ooJ beqoo o tetteot to tbe bllls colleJ tbe looq Motcb oo Octobet 16, 19J4.
AttockeJ ooJ bottleJ by Notlooollst fotces Jotloq o 6,000 mlle ttek, tbe keJ Atmy wos JeclmoteJ ooJ
bot o skeletoo fotce wbeo tbe motcb eoJeJ o yeot lotet. As Moo tecolleJ lo 1971. 1be keJ Atmy boJ
boJ J00,000 meo ptlot to tbe looq Motcb, bot lt wos teJoceJ to 25,000 meo wbeo lt ottlveJ lo 5beosl
ptovloce. As Ilooqs fotces moveJ lo fot tbe klll, tbe commoolsts wete tescoeJ, most ltoolcolly, by o
Iopooese lovosloo of Moocbotlo lo oottbeto cbloo. ocootoqeJ by tbe cbloese clvll wot, tbe Iopooese
boJ selzeJ tbe oppottoolty to ottock, fotcloq Ilooq to Jeflect bls otteotloo.
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$)+"!"

1be 5ovlet uoloos leoJet, Iosepb 5tollo, eocootoqeJ botb Moo ooJ Ilooq to eoJ tbelt clvll wot, ooJ cbloo
eoteteJ wotlJ wot ll oqolost Iopoo lo 19J7. 1bls teptleve of tbe commoolsts wos o ctoclol totoloq polot
lo tbe cbloese kevolotloo. lot wblle Ilooq JltecteJ tbe cbloese teslstooce oqolost Iopoo, Moo
teotqoolzeJ bls polltlcol movemeot. At tbe eoJ of wotlJ wot ll lo 1945, Moo stooJ teoJy to meet Ilooq
ooce oqolo lo o flqbt to tbe Jeotb.
1be followloq selectloo ls oo loJocttlootloo ttoct by ll 5boopl (1898-1969), ooe of Moos closest oJvlsots
ooJ tbeotetlcloos. 1bls wos pott of tbe commoolst stteoqtbeoloq movemeot tbot focoseJ lotty Jlsclplloe
ooJ tevlveJ commoolst fottooes. 5ocb losttoctlve ttocts qove lospltotloo to tbe peosoots movemeot ooJ
keJ Atmy lo tbelt Joel wltb tbe Notlooollsts.
R2"6%$+#6S(
1. ll 5boopls 19J9 polltlcol ttoct, now to 8e o CooJ commoolst, sooqbt to losplte oolty ooJ focos
commltmeot to tbe commoolst coose. wby wos socb oo effott so lmpottoot ot tbe tlme? Note
especlolly tbe llok betweeo lJeollsm ooJ ptoctlcol oecesslty otqoeJ by ll 5boopl. now Joes ooe
become o qooJ commoolst?
2. ll ootes tbot Motxlsm-leololsm offets o scleotlflc exploootloo tbot leoves oo toom fot Joobt ooJ
tbot socb o soclety wlll loevltobly be btooqbt oboot. Ovet slxty yeots lotet, wby bos tbls boppy ooJ
beootlfol commoolst wotlJ oot motetlollzeJ?
1+2)B"S(now to 8e o CooJ commoolst ls ftom ll 5boopl, now to 8e o CooJ commoolst (New otk. New
ceototy ltess, 1952), pp. 15-16, 24, 29-J2.

Comrades! WhaL ls Lhe mosL fundamenLal and
common duLy of us CommunlsL arLy
members? As everybody knows, lL ls Lo
esLabllsh Communlsm, Lo Lransform Lhe presenL
world lnLo a CommunlsL world. ls a CommunlsL
world good or noL? We all know LhaL lL ls very
good. ln such a world Lhere wlll be no
explolLers, oppressors, landlords, caplLallsLs,
lmperlallsLs, or fasclsLs. 1here wlll be no
oppressed and explolLed people, no darkness,
lgnorance, backwardness, eLc. ln such a socleLy
all human belngs wlll become unselflsh and
lnLelllgenL CommunlsLs wlLh a hlgh level of
culLure and Lechnlque. 1he splrlL of muLual
asslsLance and muLual love wlll prevall among
manklnd. 1here wlll be no such lrraLlonal Lhlngs
as muLual decepLlon, muLual anLagonlsm,
muLual slaughLer and war, eLc. Such a socleLy
wlll, of course, be Lhe besL, Lhe mosL beauLlful,
and Lhe mosL advanced socleLy ln Lhe hlsLory of
manklnd. Who wlll say LhaL such a socleLy ls noL
good? Pere Lhe quesLlon arlses: Can CommunlsL
socleLy be broughL abouL? Cur answer ls yes."
AbouL Lhls Lhe whole Lheory of Marxlsm-
Lenlnlsm offers a sclenLlflc explanaLlon LhaL
leaves no room for doubL. lL furLher explalns
LhaL as Lhe ulLlmaLe resulL of Lhe class sLruggle
of manklnd, such a socleLy wlll lnevlLably be
broughL abouL. 1he vlcLory of Soclallsm ln Lhe
u.S.S.8. has also glven us facLual proof. Cur
duLy ls, Lherefore, Lo brlng abouL aL an early
daLe Lhls CommunlsL socleLy, Lhe reallzaLlon of
whlch ls lnevlLable ln Lhe hlsLory of manklnd. . . .
Comrades! lf you only possess greaL and lofLy
ldeals buL . . . do noL carry on genulnely
pracLlcal work, you are noL a good CommunlsL
arLy member. ?ou can only be a dreamer, a
praLLler, or a pendanL. lf on Lhe conLrary, you
only do pracLlcal work, buL do noL possess Lhe
greaL and lofLy ldeals of Communlsm, you are
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$),"!"

noL a good CommunlsL, buL a common
careerlsL. A good CommunlsL arLy member ls
one who comblnes Lhe greaL and lofLy ldeals of
Communlsm wlLh pracLlcal work and Lhe splrlL
of searchlng for Lhe LruLh from concreLe facLs.
1he CommunlsL ldeal ls beauLlful whlle Lhe
exlsLlng caplLallsL world ls ugly. lL ls preclsely
because of lLs ugllness LhaL Lhe overwhelmlng
ma[orlLy of Lhe people wanL Lo change lL and
cannoL buL change lL. . . . AL all Llmes and on all
quesLlons, a CommunlsL arLy member should
Lake lnLo accounL Lhe lnLeresLs of Lhe arLy as a
whole, and place Lhe arLy's lnLeresLs above hls
personal problems and lnLeresLs. lL ls Lhe
hlghesL prlnclple of our arLy members LhaL Lhe
arLy's lnLeresLs are supreme. . . .
A CommunlsL arLy member should possess all
Lhe greaLesL and noblesL vlrLues of man-klnd. . .
. Such eLhlcs are noL bullL upon Lhe backward
basls of safeguardlng Lhe lnLeresLs of lndlvlduals
or a small number of explolLers. 1hey are bullL,
on Lhe conLrary, upon Lhe progresslve basls of
Lhe lnLeresLs of Lhe proleLarlaL, of Lhe ulLlmaLe
emanclpaLlon of manklnd as a whole, of savlng
Lhe world from desLrucLlon, and of bulldlng a
happy and beauLlful CommunlsL world.

1he kape of Nan[|ng
Oo uecembet 1J, 19J7, Noojloq, tbe copltol clty of Notlooollst cbloo, fell to tbe ooslooqbt of tbe lovoJloq
Iopooese otmy. lot tbe cbloese fotces of Ilooq Ilesbl, wblcb boJ fooqbt to JefeoJ tbe ooqtze volley, tbls
wos o blttet Jefeot. 1be oocleot wolleJ clty of Noojloq loy opeo to tbe foty of tbe Iopooese wbo, fot tbe
oext slx weeks, pllloqeJ ooJ botoeJ tbe towo, execoteJ teos of tboosooJs of cbloese solJlets,
slooqbteteJ clvllloo meo, ooJ topeJ tbe womeo ooJ cbllJteo. 1bls wos oo tempototy lopse of mllltoty
Jlsclplloe lo tbe Iopooese tooks, bot o metboJlcol ooJ bottlflc oct of tettot tbot tesolteJ lo tbe Jeotb of
oeotly J00,000 cbloese. 1be kope of Noojloq, os lt wos lmmeJlotely colleJ, wos oot pobllclzeJ oftet tbe
wot ooJ bos beeo tetmeJ by some blstotloos, tbe fotqotteo nolocoost. 8ot lts lloqetloq memoty bos
polsooeJ cbloese-Iopooese telotloos fot ovet slxty yeots. 1be followloq ttoosctlpt of tbe 1947 seoteocloq
of o coovlcteJ Iopooese wot ctlmlool testlfles to tbe sovoqety ooJ ttoqeJy of tbe kope of Noojloq.
R2"6%$+#S(
1. wbot motlvoteJ tbe Iopooese to commlt socb octs?
1+2)B"S(1be kope of Noojloq ls ftom Mllltoty 1tlboool fot tbe 1tlol of wot ctlmlools (Motcb 10, 1947),
cootoloeJ lo uoo I. ll, 1be kooJ to commoolsm (New otk. voo NosttooJ kelobolJ compooy, compote
ooJ coottost.
- compote tbls occooot of tbe ottocltles lo Noojloq wltb tbose JesctlbeJ lo tbe Nozl Jeotb comps. wbot
motlvoteJ tbe Iopooese ooJ Cetmoo solJlets to commlt socb octs?
- uotll teceotly, wby JlJ tbe Iopooese btotollty lo Noojloq qo telotlvely ooootlceJ? wby bos Noojloq
beeo colleJ tbe fotqotteo nolocoost?
- 1be poet w. n. AoJeo teflecteJ oo tbe bolocoosts of wotlJ wot ll. AoJ mops coo teolly polot to
ploces/wbete llfe ls evll oow. Noojloq, uocboo. wbot Jo yoo tblok? coo evll be JefloeJ by tbe ottocltles
cooJocteJ oo tbese sltes? Ot ls evll socb o telotlve coocept tbot lt Jefles Jefloltloo? wos nltlet evll?

1914 C.L. to the resent
!"$*-"!"

I||e Number: Shen 1, 1947
Defendant: 1anl Pslao, male, age 66, naLlve of
!apan, a former lleuLenanL general and dlvlslon
commander of Lhe !apanese army. 1he above
defendanL was accused by Lhe publlc
prosecuLor of Lhls 1rlbunal as a war crlmlnal.
1he Lrlal has been duly conducLed. 1he declslon
ls as follows:
Dec|s|on: uurlng Lhe perlod of war, 1anl Pslao,
Lhe defendanL, condoned and encouraged Lhe
soldlers under hls command Lo commlL mass
murder agalnsL prlsoners of war as well as
clvlllans, ln addlLlon Lo rape, looLlng, and
dellberaLe desLrucLlon of properLles. 1he
defendanL ls hereby senLenced Lo deaLh.
Iacts: 1he defendanL ls regarded as one of Lhe
mosL feroclous and ablesL generals among Lhe
!apanese mlllLarlsLs. Pe [olned Lhe !apanese
army as early as Lhe 8usso-!apanese War [1903]
and dlsLlngulshed hlmself repeaLedly on Lhe
baLLlefleld. Pe was Lhe commander of Lhe
!apanese SlxLh ulvlslon when Lhe Slno-!apanese
War began ln 1937, ln AugusL of LhaL year, he
came Lo Chlna wlLh hls command and
parLlclpaLed ln Lhe war of aggresslon. . . . Slnce
nan[lng was Lhe caplLal of our counLry and Lhe
cenLer of reslsLance agalnsL Lhe !apanese
aggresslon, Lhe !apanese mlllLarlsLs moblllzed
Lhelr besL and mosL feroclous mlllLary unlLs,
lncludlng Lhe SlxLh ulvlslon headed by Lhe
defendanL . . . Lo launch an all-ouL aLLack under
Lhe overall supervlslon of Ceneral MaLsu lwane.
8ecause of Lhe facL LhaL Lhe defenders of Lhe
clLy had conLlnued Lo reslsL and refused Lo
surrender, Lhe !apanese army, afLer capLurlng
Lhe clLy, conducLed a sysLemaLlc campalgn of
murder Lo show lLs revenge, haLred, and
frusLraLlon.
Cn Lhe afLernoon of uecember 12, Lhe lnvaders,
led by Lhe SlxLh ulvlslon under Lhe command of
Lhe defendanL, capLured Lhe Zhonghua CaLe.
Massacre began Lhe momenL Lhey roped over
Lhe clLy wall and descended upon Lhe clvlllans. .
. . 1he massacre was followed by looLlng, rape,
and arson. 1he worsL slaughLer occurred
beLween uecember 12 and 21, Lhe Llme when
Lhe defendanL's Lroops were sLaLloned lnslde
Lhe clLy. . . . 1he LoLal number of capLured
soldlers and clvlllans who were collecLlvely
machlne-gunned and Lhen burned lnLo ashes
amounLed Lo more Lhan 190,000. 1he LoLal
number of vlcLlms who were murdered on an
lndlvldual basls and whose bodles were laLer
burled by phllanLhroplc organlzaLlons were
more Lhan 130,000. 1hus, Lhe grand LoLal of
clvlllans and prlsoners of war who fell vlcLlm Lo
Lhls campalgn of mass murder was well beyond
300,000. uead bodles were plled from one
sLreeL corner Lo anoLher, and no words,
however eloquenL, were adequaLe enough Lo
descrlbe Lhls aLroclLy of unprecedenLed scale. . .
Cn uecember 12, Mrs. Wang of xu, a peasanL
woman, was beheaded on Lhe harbor ouLslde of
Lhe Zhonghua CaLe. . . . Cn uecember 14, ?ao
Clalong, a naLlve of nan[lng, was ordered Lo
waLch Lhe performance when !apanese soldlers
Look Lurns raplng hls wlfe. When hls elghL-year-
old son and Lhree-year-old daughLer pleaded
for mercy on behalf of Lhelr moLher, Lhe raplsLs
plcked Lhem up wlLh Lhelr bayoneLs and roasLed
Lhem Lo deaLh over a camp flre. . . . ln anoLher
case, Lwo !apanese offlcers enLered a murder
conLesL, laLer, Lhe one who had kllled 106
persons was declared Lhe wlnner over Lhe oLher
who had kllled 103. Cn uecember 19, xle
Shanzhen, a peasanL woman more Lhan slxLy
years old, was cuL lnLo pleces afLer a !apanese
soldler had plerced her vaglna wlLh a bamboo
sLlck. ln each and every case, Lhe aLroclLles
commlLLed by Lhe !apanese army were bruLal Lo
Lhe greaLesL exLreme. lrom uecember 12 Lo 21,
Lhe LoLal number of aLroclLy cases LhaL can be
documenLed amounLs Lo 886.


17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$*$"!"

korea: 1he 1h|rty-e|ghth ara||e|
Oo Aoqost 9, 1945, tbe 5ovlet uoloo JecloteJ wot oo Iopoo, ooJ sooo oftetwotJs tbe 5ovlet keJ Atmy
ctosseJ loto Moocbotlo ooJ koteo. 1be uolteJ 5totes, wbose otmeJ fotces wete booJteJs of mlles owoy
ftom koteo, boJ to Jtow op o mllltoty Jemotcotloo lloe octoss tbe koteoo peolosolo to pteveot tbe
kossloos ftom ovettoooloq tbe eotlte teqloo. Oo Aoqost 11, tbe 5tote-wot-Novy cootJlootloq commlttee
otJeteJ two fotmet kboJes scbolots, colooels ueoo kosk ooJ cbotles n. 8ooesteel lll, to Jetetmloe o lloe
wltblo tbltty mlootes. 1bey tecommeoJeJ tbe tbltty-elqbtb potollel os o Jlvlsloo betweeo u.5. ooJ 5ovlet
occopotloo zooes. 8y tbe tlme Ametlcoo ttoops eoteteJ koteo oo 5eptembet 8, tbe kossloos wete
olteoJy eotteocbeJ olooq tbe tbltty-elqbtb potollel. 1bls lloe boJ beeo loteoJeJ metely os o tempototy
mllltoty lloe to expeJlte tbe Jlsotmloq of tbe Iopooese ttoops lo koteo. Oo Aoqost 14, Iopoo sotteoJeteJ
ooJ Iopooese tole lo koteo eoJeJ, bowevet, koteo foooJ ltself blsecteJ ooJ o focol polot of loteose
tlvolty betweeo tbe uolteJ 5totes ooJ tbe 5ovlet uoloo. 1be followloq excetpt ptovlJes o JetolleJ
occooot of wbo octoolly Jtew tbe lloe ooJ wby.
R2"6%$+#6S(
1. now Jo yoo ossess tbe bebloJ-tbe-sceoes Jeclsloo fot tbe cootololoq of tbe 5ovlet oJvooce lo
tbe koteoo peolosolo? wos tbe Jeclsloo to JlvlJe koteo ot tbe tbltty-elqbtb potollel o wlse
ooe? woolJ oootbet opptoocb bove beeo feoslble?
2. now JlJ tbe Jeclsloo to JlvlJe koteo sbope tbe cootse of koteoo blstoty ooJ lofloeoce tbe
colJ wot?

1+2)B"S(ltom Iomes l. 5cboobel, uolteJ 5totes Atmy lo tbe koteoo wot. lollcy ooJ ultectloo. 1be lltst
eot (wosbloqtoo, uc. Offlce of tbe cblef of Mllltoty nlstoty, uotleJ 5totes Atmy, 1972), pp. 8-11.

AL oLsdam, Lhe chlef of Lhe 8usslan Ceneral
SLaff Lold Ceneral Marshall LhaL 8ussla would
aLLack korea afLer declarlng war on !apan. Pe
asked wheLher Lhe Amerlcans could operaLe
agalnsL korean shores ln co-ordlnaLlon wlLh Lhls
offenslve. Ceneral Marshall Lold hlm LhaL Lhe
unlLed SLaLes planned no amphlblous operaLlon
agalnsL korea unLll !apan had been broughL
under conLrol and !apanese sLrengLh ln SouLh
korea was desLroyed. AlLhough Lhe Chlefs of
SLaff developed ldeas concernlng Lhe parLlLlon
of korea, Manchurla, and Lhe Sea of !apan lnLo
u.S. and uSS8 zones, Lhese had no connecLlon
wlLh Lhe laLer declslons LhaL parLlLloned korea
lnLo norLhern and souLhern areas.
8usslan enLry lnLo Lhe war agalnsL !apan on 9
AugusL, and slgns of lmmlnenL !apanese
collapse on 10 AugusL 1943 changed u.S. Army
plannlng from defeaLlng !apan Lo accepLlng lLs
surrender. MlllLary planners ln Lhe War
ueparLmenL CperaLlons ulvlslon began Lo
ouLllne surrender procedures ln Ceneral Crder
no. 1, whlch Ceneral MacArLhur would LransmlL
Lo Lhe !apanese CovernmenL afLer lLs surrender.
1he flrsL paragraph of Lhe order speclfled Lhe
naLlons and commands LhaL were Lo accepL Lhe
surrender of !apanese forces LhroughouL Lhe
lar LasL.
1he ollcy SecLlon of Lhe SLraLegy and ollcy
Croup ln Lhe CperaLlons ulvlslon drafLed Lhe
lnlLlal verslon of Lhe order.
under pressure Lo produce a paper as qulckly as
posslble, members of Lhe ollcy SecLlon began
work laLe aL nlghL on 10 AugusL. 1hey dlscussed
posslble surrender zones, Lhe allocaLlon of
Amerlcan, 8rlLlsh, Chlnese, and 8usslan
occupaLlon Lroops Lo accepL Lhe surrender ln
Lhe zones mosL convenlenL Lo Lhem, Lhe means
of acLually Laklng Lhe surrender of Lhe wldely
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$*%"!"

scaLLered !apanese mlllLary forces, and Lhe
poslLlon of 8ussla ln Lhe lar LasL. 1hey qulckly
declded Lo lnclude boLh provlslons for spllLLlng
up Lhe enLlre lar LasL for Lhe surrender and
deflnlLlons of Lhe geographlcal llmlLs of Lhose
zones.
1he Chlef of Lhe ollcy SecLlon, Col. Charles P.
8onesLeel, had LhlrLy mlnuLes ln whlch Lo
dlcLaLe aragraph 1 Lo a secreLary, for Lhe !olnL
SLaff lanners and Lhe SLaLe-War-navy
CoordlnaLlng CommlLLee were lmpaLlenLly
awalLlng Lhe resulL of hls work. Colonel
8onesLeel [along wlLh Colonel uean 8usk] Lhus
somewhaL hasLlly declded who would accepL
Lhe !apanese surrender. Pls LhoughLs, wlLh very
sllghL revlslon, we lncorporaLed lnLo Lhe flnal
dlrecLlve.
8onesLeel's prlme conslderaLlon was Lo
esLabllsh a surrender llne as far norLh as he
LhoughL Lhe SovleLs would accepL. Pe knew LhaL
8usslan Lroops could reach Lhe souLhern Llp of
korea before Amerlcan Lroops could arrlve. Pe
knew also LhaL Lhe 8usslans were on Lhe verge
of movlng lnLo korea, or were already Lhere.
1he nearesL Amerlcan Lroops Lo korea were on
Cklnawa, 600 mlles away. Pls problem
Lherefore was Lo compose a surrender
arrangemenL whlch, whlle accepLable Lo Lhe
8usslans, would aL Lhe same Llme prevenL Lhem
from selzlng all of korea. lf Lhey refused Lo
conflne Lhelr advance Lo norLh korea, Lhe
unlLed SLaLes would be unable Lo sLop Lhem.
AL flrsL 8onesLeel had LhoughL of surrender
zones conformlng Lo Lhe provlnclal boundary
llnes. 8uL Lhe only map he had ln hls offlce,
whlch was a small naLlonal Ceographlc map, a
1942 CllberL Crosvenor LdlLlon of Asla and
Ad[acenL Areas," was hardly adequaLe for Lhls
sorL of dlsLlncLlon. 1he 38Lh arallel, he noLed,
cuL korea approxlmaLely Lhrough Lhe mlddle. lf
Lhls llne was agreeable Lo resldenL 1ruman and
Lo Cenerallsslmo SLalln, lL would place Seoul
and a nearby prlsoner of war camp ln Amerlcan
hands. lL would also leave enough land Lo be
apporLloned Lo Lhe Chlnese and 8rlLlsh lf some
sorL of quadrlparLlLe admlnlsLraLlon became
necessary. 1hus he declded Lo use Lhe 38Lh
arallel as a hypoLheLlcal llne dlvldlng Lhe zones
wlLhln whlch !apanese forces ln korea would
surrender Lo appolnLed Amerlcan and 8usslan
auLhorlLles. . . .
When 8onesLeel's drafL paper reached Lhe !olnL
lanners ln Lhe predawn hours of 11 AugusL,
Admlral M.8. Cardner suggesLed movlng Lhe
surrender llne norLh Lo Lhe 39Lh arallel, a
recommendaLlon LhaL Lhe planners belleved Lhe
navy SecreLary, !ames C. lorresLal, favored.
Cardner polnLed ouL LhaL Lhe 39Lh arallel
would place ualren ln Lhe mlllLary zone Lo be
occupled by Lhe Amerlcans. Ceneral Llncoln,
however, felL LhaL Lhe 8usslans would hardly
accepL a surrender llne LhaL barred Lhem from
ualren and oLher parLs of Lhe LlaoLung
enlnsula, besldes, Amerlcan unlLs would have
greaL dlfflculLy reachlng Lhe Manchurlan porL
ahead of Lhe 8usslans. Calllng AsslsLanL
SecreLary of SLaLe !ames uunn, Llncoln
ascerLalned LhaL hls oplnlon was shared. Mr.
uunn belleved LhaL korea was more lmporLanL
pollLlcally Lo Lhe unlLed SLaLes Lhan ualren, and
he felL Lhls Lo be Lhe vlew of SecreLary of SLaLe
!ames l. 8yrnes. As a resulL, Lhe 38Lh arallel
remalned ln Lhe drafL when Lhe !olnL lanners
handed Lhe general order Lo Lhe SLaLe-War-
navy CoordlnaLlng CommlLLee.
Whlle Ceneral Llncoln was shepherdlng Lhe
documenL Lhrough Lhe SLaLe-War-navy
CoordlnaLlng CommlLLee on 11 and 12 AugusL,
Lhe 8usslans lnvaded korea, landlng on Lhe
norLheasL coasL near 8ashln. 8usslan Lroops
Lhen poured ouL of Lhe marlLlme provlnces of
Slberla, down Lhe korean penlnsula, and lnLo
Lhe kaesong-Ch'unch'on area above Seoul,
where Lhey looLed much equlpmenL, lncludlng
locomoLlves and rolllng sLock. 8eporLs of Lhe
8usslan Lroop movemenLs reachlng WashlngLon
underscored Lhe need for concurrence ln Lhe
proposed general order. CLherwlse, Lhe 8usslan
advance would render academlc Lhe Amerlcan
accepLance of Lhe !apanese surrender ln
souLhern korea. AL Lhe same Llme, swlfL 8usslan
Lroop movemenLs lnLo key areas of souLhern
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$*&"!"

Manchurla ellmlnaLed Lhe posslblllLy of
lncludlng ualren ln Lhe Amerlcan surrender
zone.
8eLween 11 and 14 AugusL, Lhe SLaLe-War-navy
CoordlnaLlng CommlLLee and Lhe !olnL Chlefs of
SLaff dlscussed Lhe wordlng of Lhe surrender
lnsLrumenL. Meanwhlle, Ceneral MacArLhur
lnformed Lhe !olnL Chlefs of SLaff LhaL he would
adhere Lo Lhree prlorlLles for Lhe use of Lhe
forces under hls command. AfLer Lhe !apanese
surrender, Lhe occupaLlon of !apan would come
flrsL, korea second, Chlna Lhlrd.
ln WashlngLon, Lhe War ueparLmenL CperaLlons
ulvlslon rephrased Ceneral Crder no. 1 Lo Lhe
saLlsfacLlon of Lhe !olnL Chlefs of SLaff and Lhe
heads of Lhe SLaLe, War, and navy
ueparLmenLs. Cn 13 AugusL 1943, clean coples
of Lhe drafL order were senL Lo lleeL Admlral
Wllllam u. Leahy's WhlLe Pouse offlce. WlLhln a
few hours resldenL 1ruman gave hls approval,
dlrecLlng aL Lhe same Llme LhaL Ceneral Crder
no. 1 be senL also Lo Lhe caplLals of CreaL
8rlLaln and Lhe uSS8 wlLh requesLs for
concurrence by Lhe heads of Lhose sLaLes. . . .
Among Lhe lLems lL speclfled, Ceneral Crder no.
1 sLaLed LhaL !apanese forces norLh of Lhe 38Lh
arallel ln korea would surrender Lo Lhe 8usslan
commander, whlle Lhose souLh of Lhe parallel
would surrender Lo Lhe commandlng general of
Lhe u.S. expedlLlonary forces. As WashlngLon
walLed for Lhe Moscow reacLlon Lo resldenL
1ruman's message, Lhere was a shorL perlod of
suspense. 8usslan Lroops had enLered korea
Lhree days before Lhe resldenL accepLed Lhe
drafL of Ceneral Crder no. 1. lf Lhe 8usslans
falled Lo accepL Lhe proposal, and lf 8usslan
Lroops occupled Seoul, Ceneral Llncoln
suggesLed LhaL Amerlcan occupaLlon forces
move lnLo usan.
SLalln replled Lo resldenL 1ruman on 16 AugusL
1943. Pe sald noLhlng speclflcally abouL Lhe
38Lh arallel buL offered no ob[ecLlon Lo Lhe
subsLance of Lhe resldenL's message.

)$#(B$%0,+%(4*.#&*$33@(A2%(Y#+%(4.#,9$%(U90(Z'0&'%O'O(2&#+00(,*'(
4+%,$%'%,H(V69#&*(JL[\X@
1be tetm colJ wot Jesctlbes tbe eto of ooeosy telotloos betweeo tbe westeto Allles ooJ tbe 5ovlet
uoloo oftet wotlJ wot ll. ocb wos competloq fot lofloeoce lo otope tbtooqb ptopoqooJo ooJ ttoop
plocemeot. lo tbe fltst excetpt, tbe 5ovlet leoJet Iosepb 5tollo offeteJ o qllmpse of tbe lJeoloqlcol
combot tbot wos to be woqeJ lo tbe fotote. A mootb lotet, wlostoo cbotcblll, wbo boJ lotqely JltecteJ
tbe 8tltlsb wot effott, wotoeJ tbe west of tbe Jeceptlve 5ovlet uoloo lo bls fomoos ltoo cottolo
speecb.
R2"6%$+#6S(
1. wbot pollcy wos cbotcblll oJvocotloq lo bls ltoo cottolo speecb?
2. wos be pesslmlstlc ot optlmlstlc oboot tbe posslblllty of wot?

l now come Lo Lhe . . . danger whlch LhreaLens
Lhe coLLage home and ordlnary people, namely
Lyranny. We cannoL be bllnd Lo Lhe facL LhaL Lhe
llberLles en[oyed by lndlvldual clLlzens
LhroughouL Lhe unlLed SLaLes and 8rlLlsh Lmplre
are noL valld ln a conslderable number of
counLrles, some of whlch are very powerful. ln
Lhese sLaLes conLrol ls forced upon Lhe common
people by varlous klnds of all-embraclng pollce
governmenLs, Lo a degree whlch ls
overwhelmlng and conLrary Lo every prlnclple of
democracy. 1he power of Lhe sLaLe ls exerclsed
wlLhouL resLralnL, elLher by dlcLaLors or by
compacL ollgarchles operaLlng Lhrough a
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$*'"!"

prlvlleged parLy and a pollLlcal pollce. lL ls noL
our duLy aL Lhls Llme, when dlfflculLles are so
numerous, Lo lnLerfere forclbly ln Lhe lnLernal
affalrs of counLrles whom we have noL
conquered ln war, buL we musL never cease Lo
proclalm ln fearless Lones Lhe greaL prlnclples of
freedom and Lhe rlghLs of man, whlch are Lhe
[olnL lnherlLance of Lhe Lngllsh-speaklng world
and whlch, Lhrough Magna CarLa, Lhe 8lll of
8lghLs, Lhe habeas corpus, Lrlal by [ury, and Lhe
Lngllsh common law flnd Lhelr famous
expresslon ln Lhe ueclaraLlon of lndependence.
. . .
A shadow has fallen upon Lhe scenes so laLely
llghLed by Lhe Allled vlcLory. nobody knows
whaL SovleL 8ussla and lLs CommunlsL
lnLernaLlonal organlzaLlon lnLends Lo do ln Lhe
lmmedlaLe fuLure, or whaL are Lhe llmlLs, lf any,
Lo Lhelr expanslve and proselyLlzlng Lendencles.
. . . lrom SLeLLln ln Lhe 8alLlc Lo 1rlesLe ln Lhe
AdrlaLlc, an lron curLaln has descended across
Lhe conLlnenL. 8ehlnd LhaL llne lle all Lhe
caplLals of Lhe anclenL sLaLes of cenLral and
easLern Lurope. Warsaw, 8erlln, rague,
vlenna, 8udapesL, 8elgrade, 8ucharesL, and
Sofla, all Lhese famous clLles and Lhe
populaLlons around Lhem lle ln Lhe SovleL
sphere and all are sub[ecL, ln one form or
anoLher, noL only Lo SovleL lnfluence buL Lo a
very hlgh and lncreaslng measure of conLrol
from Moscow. ALhens alone, wlLh lLs lmmorLal
glorles, ls free Lo declde lLs fuLure aL an elecLlon
under 8rlLlsh, Amerlcan, and lrench
observaLlon.
ln a greaL number of counLrles, far from Lhe
8usslan fronLlers and LhroughouL Lhe world,
CommunlsL flfLh columns are esLabllshed and
work ln compleLe unlLy and absoluLe obedlence
Lo Lhe dlrecLlons Lhey recelve from Lhe
CommunlsL cenLer. LxcepL ln Lhe 8rlLlsh
CommonwealLh, and ln Lhe unlLed SLaLes,
where communlsm ls ln lLs lnfancy, Lhe
CommunlsL parLles and flfLh columns consLlLuLe
a growlng challenge and perll Lo ChrlsLlan
clvlllzaLlon. 1hese are somber facLs for anyone
Lo have Lo reclLe on Lhe morrow of a vlcLory
galned by so much splendld comradeshlp ln
arms and ln Lhe cause of freedom and
democracy, and we should be mosL unwlse noL
Lo face Lhem squarely whlle Llme remalns. . . .
Cn Lhe oLher hand, l repulse Lhe ldea LhaL a new
war ls lnevlLable, sLlll more LhaL lL ls lmmlnenL.
lL ls because l am so sure LhaL our forLunes are
ln our own hands and LhaL we hold Lhe power
Lo save Lhe fuLure, LhaL l feel Lhe duLy Lo speak
ouL now LhaL l have occaslon Lo do so. l do noL
belleve LhaL SovleL 8ussla deslres war. WhaL
Lhey deslre ls Lhe frulLs of war and Lhe lndeflnlLe
expanslon of Lhelr power and docLrlnes. 8uL
whaL we have Lo conslder here Loday whlle Llme
remalns, ls Lhe permanenL prevenLlon of war
and Lhe esLabllshmenL of condlLlons of freedom
and democracy as rapldly as posslble ln all
counLrles.
Cur dlfflculLles and dangers wlll noL be removed
by closlng our eyes Lo Lhem, Lhey wlll noL be
removed by mere walLlng Lo see whaL happens,
nor wlll Lhey be relleved by a pollcy of
appeasemenL. WhaL ls needed ls a seLLlemenL,
and Lhe longer Lhls ls delayed, Lhe more dlfflculL
lL wlll be and Lhe greaLer our dangers wlll
become. lrom whaL l have seen of our 8usslan
frlends and allles durlng Lhe war, l am
convlnced LhaL Lhere ls noLhlng Lhey admlre so
much as sLrengLh, and Lhere ls noLhlng for
whlch Lhey have less respecL Lhan for mlllLary
weakness. lor LhaL reason Lhe old docLrlne of a
balance of power ls unsound. We cannoL afford,
lf we can help lL, Lo work on narrow marglns,
offerlng LempLaLlons Lo a Lrlal of sLrengLh. lf Lhe
wesLern democracles sLand LogeLher ln sLrlcL
adherence Lo Lhe prlnclples of Lhe unlLed
naLlons CharLer, Lhelr lnfluence for furLherlng
Lhese prlnclples wlll be lmmense and no one ls
llkely Lo molesL Lhem. lf, however, Lhey become
dlvlded or falLer ln Lhelr duLy, and lf Lhese all-
lmporLanL years are allowed Lo sllp away, Lhen
lndeed caLasLrophe may overwhelm us all.
1914 C.L. to the resent
!"$*("!"

Ioseph Sta||n: 1he Sov|et V|ctory: Cap|ta||sm versus Commun|sm
(Iebruary 1946)
1be tetm colJ wot Jesctlbes tbe eto of ooeosy telotloos betweeo tbe westeto Allles ooJ tbe 5ovlet
uoloo oftet wotlJ wot ll. ocb wos competloq fot lofloeoce lo otope tbtooqb ptopoqooJo ooJ ttoop
plocemeot. lo tbe fltst excetpt, tbe 5ovlet leoJet Iosepb 5tollo offeteJ o qllmpse of tbe lJeoloqlcol
combot tbot wos to be woqeJ lo tbe fotote. A mootb lotet, wlostoo cbotcblll, wbo boJ lotqely JltecteJ
tbe 8tltlsb wot effott, wotoeJ tbe west of tbe Jeceptlve 5ovlet uoloo lo bls fomoos ltoo cottolo
speecb.
R2"6%$+#S(
1. wbot JlJ 5tollo meoo lo bls speecb of lebtooty 1946 by tbe pbtose 5ovlet vlctoty?
1+2)B"S(1be 5ovlet vlctoty ls ftom mbossy of tbe u.5.5.k., speecb JellveteJ by I. v. 5tollo ot o Meetloq
of votets of tbe 5tollo lectotol Ateo of Moscow (wosbloqtoo, uc. Covetomeot ltlotloq Offlce, 1946).

lL would be wrong Lo belleve LhaL Lhe Second
World War broke ouL accldenLally or as a resulL
of Lhe mlsLakes of some or oLher sLaLesmen,
Lhough mlsLakes cerLalnly were made. ln reallLy,
Lhe war broke ouL as an lnevlLable resulL of Lhe
developmenL of world economlc and pollLlcal
forces on Lhe basls of modern monopoly
caplLallsm.
MarxlsLs have sLaLed more Lhan once LhaL Lhe
caplLallsL sysLem of world economy conceals ln
lLself Lhe elemenLs of general crlsls and mlllLary
clashes, LhaL ln vlew of Lhls ln our Llme Lhe
developmenL of world caplLallsm Lakes place
noL as a smooLh and even advance buL Lhrough
crlses and war caLasLrophes.
1he reason ls LhaL Lhe unevenness of Lhe
developmenL of caplLallsL counLrles usually
resulLs, as Llme passes, ln an abrupL dlsrupLlon
of Lhe equlllbrlum wlLhln Lhe world sysLem of
caplLallsm, and LhaL a group of caplLallsL
counLrles whlch belleves lLself Lo be less
supplled wlLh raw maLerlals and markeLs usually
aLLempLs Lo alLer Lhe slLuaLlon and re-dlvlde Lhe
spheres of lnfluence" ln lLs own favour by
means of armed force. . . .
1hls resulLs ln Lhe spllLLlng of Lhe caplLallsL
world lnLo Lwo hosLlle camps and ln war
beLween Lhem. erhaps Lhe caLasLrophes of war
could be avolded lf Lhere exlsLed Lhe posslblllLy
of re-dlsLrlbuLlng perlodlcally raw maLerlals and
markeLs among Lhe counLrles ln accordance
wlLh Lhelr economlc welghL-by means of
adopLlng coordlnaLed and peaceful declslons.
1hls, however, cannoL be accompllshed under
presenL caplLallsL condlLlons of Lhe
developmenL of world economy. . . .
As Lo our counLry, for her Lhe war was Lhe
severesL and hardesL of all Lhe wars our
MoLherland has ever experlenced ln her hlsLory.
8uL Lhe war was noL only a curse. lL was aL Lhe
same Llme a greaL school ln whlch all Lhe forces
of Lhe people were Lrled and LesLed. 1he war
lald bare all Lhe facLs and evenLs ln Lhe rear and
aL Lhe fronL, lL mercllessly Lore off all Lhe vells
and covers whlch had concealed Lhe Lrue faces
of SLaLes, governmenLs, and parLles, and placed
Lhem on Lhe sLage wlLhouL masks, wlLhouL
embelllshmenLs, wlLh all Lhelr shorLcomlngs and
vlrLues.
. . .
And so, whaL are Lhe resulLs of Lhe war? . . .
Cur vlcLory means, ln Lhe flrsL place, LhaL our
SovleL soclal sysLem has won, LhaL Lhe SovleL
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$*)"!"

soclal sysLem successfully wlLhsLood Lhe Lrlal ln
Lhe flames of war and proved lLs perfecL
vlablllLy. lL ls well known LhaL Lhe forelgn press
more Lhan once asserLed LhaL Lhe SovleL soclal
sysLem ls a rlsky experlmenL" doomed Lo
fallure, LhaL Lhe SovleL sysLem ls a house of
cards," wlLhouL any rooLs ln llfe, lmposed upon
Lhe people by Lhe organs of Lhe Cheka" [secreL
pollce], LhaL a sllghL push from ouLslde would
be enough Lo blow Lhls house of cards" Lo
smlLhereens.
now we can say LhaL Lhe war swepL away all
Lhese asserLlons of Lhe forelgn press as
groundless. 1he war has shown LhaL Lhe SovleL
soclal sysLem ls a Lruly popular sysLem, whlch
has grown from Lhe people and en[oys lLs
powerful supporL, LhaL Lhe SovleL soclal sysLem
ls a perfecLly vlable and sLable form of
organlzaLlon of socleLy.
More Lhan LhaL, Lhe polnL ls now noL wheLher
Lhe SovleL soclal sysLem ls vlable or noL, slnce
afLer Lhe ob[ecLlve lessons of Lhe war no slngle
skepLlc now venLures Lo come ouL wlLh doubLs
concernlng Lhe vlablllLy of Lhe SovleL soclal
sysLem. 1he polnL now ls LhaL Lhe SovleL soclal
sysLem has proved more vlable and sLable Lhan
a non-SovleL soclal sysLem, LhaL Lhe SovleL
soclal sysLem ls a beLLer form of organlzaLlon of
socleLy Lhan any non-SovleL soclal sysLem.
Dec|arat|on of numan k|ghts
Ooe of tbe eotly octs of tbe uolteJ Notloos wos to ptoclolm o uolvetsol ueclototloo of nomoo klqbts.
wotk oo tbe Jocomeot beqoo sooo oftet tbe lotetootloool otqoolzotloo wos estobllsbeJ ooJ cootlooeJ
fot opptoxlmotely tbtee yeots befote tbe ueclototloo wos fotmolly ptomolqoteJ by tbe Ceoetol Assembly
lo uecembet, 1948. lo tbe Assembly bollot fotty-elqbt membet stotes voteJ opptovol of tbe ueclototloo
ooJ elqbt obstoloeJ. 1bete wete oo oeqotlve votes.
1be sessloos of tbe Jtoftloq commlttees, wblcb oll toqetbet belJ booJteJs of meetloqs to ptepote tbe
Jocomeot, wete fot ftom botmooloos. 1be toplc of bomoo tlqbts ls ooe oot jost of fooJomeotol cooceto
bot olso ooe oboot wblcb Jlffeteot ootloos of tbe wotlJ belJ (ooJ stlll bolJ) polte Jlvetqeot oploloos. 1be
olm tbtooqboot tbe Jtoftloq sessloos wos to fotmolote o Jocomeot tbot, oltbooqb lt woolJ oot sotlsfy
tbe wlsbes of evety ootloo eotltely, woolJ stlll embtoce eoooqb of tbese to meet wltb qeoetol
occeptooce. 1bot lt wos olmost completely soccessfol lo Joloq so ls teveoleJ by tbe flool vote. As tbe
pteslJeot of tbe Ceoetol Assembly poloteJ oot ot tbe tlme. lt wos tbe fltst occosloo oo wblcb tbe
otqoolzeJ commoolty of ootloos boJ moJe o Jeclototloo of bomoo tlqbts ooJ fooJomeotol fteeJoms.
1be ueclototloo ls o compllotloo of polltlcol, soclol, ooJ coltotol lJeols to wblcb oll ootloos coo osplte. lt
sboolJ be cleot ftom o close teoJloq of lts text tbot oo coootty lo tbe wotlJ toJoy folly teollzes tbese
lJeols ooJ, loJeeJ, tbot mooy foll fot sbott of Joloq so. et, oltbooqb tbe Attlcles of tbe ueclototloo ote
oot leqolly bloJloq oo lts slqoototles, lt bos, os mooy Jeleqotes to tbe uolteJ Notloos empboslzeJ ot tbe
tlme, o motol fotce tbot coo leoJ tbe ootloos of tbe wotlJ owoy ftom opptessloo towotJ mote bomooe
ooJ llbetol fotms of soclety.
R2"6%$+#6S(
1. wbot tlqbts ote cooslJeteJ oolvetsol lo tbe ueclototloo?
2. uo yoo tblok oll of tlqbts eoometoteJ lo tbe ueclototloo sboolJ be locloJeJ? uo yoo tblok tbey left ooy
lmpottoot tlqbts oot?


17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$**"!"

UNIVLkSAL DLCLAkA1ICN CI nUMAN kIGn1S
kLAM8LL
Whereas recognlLlon of Lhe lnherenL dlgnlLy and
of Lhe equal and lnallenable rlghLs of all
members of Lhe human famlly ls Lhe foundaLlon
of freedom, [usLlce and peace ln Lhe world,
Whereas dlsregard and conLempL for human
rlghLs have resulLed ln barbarous acLs whlch
have ouLraged Lhe consclence of manklnd, and
Lhe advenL of a world ln whlch human belngs
shall en[oy freedom of speech and bellef and
freedom from fear and wanL has been
proclalmed as Lhe hlghesL asplraLlon of Lhe
common people,
Whereas lL ls essenLlal, lf man ls noL Lo be
compelled Lo have recourse, as a lasL resorL, Lo
rebelllon agalnsL Lyranny and oppresslon, LhaL
human rlghLs should be proLecLed by Lhe rule of
law,
Whereas lL ls essenLlal Lo promoLe Lhe
developmenL of frlendly relaLlons beLween
naLlons,
Whereas Lhe peoples of Lhe unlLed naLlons
have ln Lhe CharLer reafflrmed Lhelr falLh ln
fundamenLal human rlghLs, ln Lhe dlgnlLy and
worLh of Lhe human person and ln Lhe equal
rlghLs of men and women and have deLermlned
Lo promoLe soclal progress and beLLer sLandards
of llfe ln larger freedom,
Whereas Member SLaLes have pledged
Lhemselves Lo achleve, ln cooperaLlon wlLh Lhe
unlLed naLlons, Lhe promoLlon of unlversal
respecL for and observance of human rlghLs and
fundamenLal freedoms,
Whereas a common undersLandlng of Lhese
rlghLs and freedoms ls of Lhe greaLesL
lmporLance for Lhe full reallzaLlon of Lhls
pledge,
now, Lherefore, 1he Ceneral Assembly
roclalms Lhls unlversal ueclaraLlon of Puman
8lghLs as a common sLandard of achlevemenL
for all peoples and all naLlons, Lo Lhe end LhaL
every lndlvldual and every organ of socleLy,
keeplng Lhls ueclaraLlon consLanLly ln mlnd,
shall sLrlve by Leachlng and educaLlon Lo
promoLe respecL for Lhese rlghLs and freedoms
and by progresslve measures, naLlonal and
lnLernaLlonal, Lo secure Lhelr unlversal and
effecLlve recognlLlon and observance, boLh
among Lhe peoples of Member SLaLes
Lhemselves and among Lhe peoples of
LerrlLorles under Lhelr [urlsdlcLlon.
Ak1ICLL 1
All human belngs are born free and equal ln
dlgnlLy and rlghLs. 1hey are endowed wlLh
reason and consclence and should acL Lowards
one anoLher ln a splrlL of broLherhood.
Ak1ICLL 2
Lveryone ls enLlLled Lo all Lhe rlghLs and
freedoms seL forLh ln Lhls ueclaraLlon, wlLhouL
dlsLlncLlon of any klnd, such as race, colour, sex,
language, rellglon, pollLlcal or oLher oplnlon,
naLlonal or soclal orlgln, properLy, blrLh, or
oLher sLaLus.
lurLhermore, no dlsLlncLlon shall be made on
Lhe basls of Lhe pollLlcal, [urlsdlcLlonal or
lnLernaLlonal sLaLus of Lhe counLry or LerrlLory
Lo whlch a person belongs, wheLher lL be
lndependenL, LrusL, non-self-governlng, or
under any oLher llmlLaLlon of soverelgnLy.
Ak1ICLL 3
Lveryone has Lhe rlghL Lo llfe, llberLy, and Lhe
securlLy of person.
Ak1ICLL 4
no one shall be held ln slavery or servlLude,
slavery and Lhe slave Lrade shall be prohlblLed
ln all Lhelr forms.
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$*+"!"

Ak1ICLL S
no one shall be sub[ecLed Lo LorLure or Lo cruel,
lnhuman, or degradlng LreaLmenL or
punlshmenL.
Ak1ICLL 6
Lveryone has Lhe rlghL Lo recognlLlon
everywhere as a person before Lhe law.
Ak1ICLL 7
All are equal before Lhe law and are enLlLled
wlLhouL any dlscrlmlnaLlon Lo equal proLecLlon
of Lhe law. All are enLlLled Lo equal proLecLlon
agalnsL any dlscrlmlnaLlon ln vlolaLlon of Lhls
ueclaraLlon and agalnsL any lnclLemenL Lo such
dlscrlmlnaLlon.
Ak1ICLL 8
Lveryone has Lhe rlghL Lo an effecLlve remedy
by Lhe compeLenL naLlonal Lrlbunals for acLs
vlolaLlng Lhe fundamenLal rlghLs granLed hlm by
Lhe consLlLuLlon or by law.
Ak1ICLL 9
no one shall be sub[ecLed Lo arblLrary arresL,
deLenLlon, or exlle.
Ak1ICLL 10
Lveryone ls enLlLled ln full equallLy Lo a falr, and
publlc hearlng by an lndependenL and lmparLlal
Lrlbunal, ln Lhe deLermlnaLlon of hls rlghLs and
obllgaLlons and of any crlmlnal charge agalnsL
hlm.
Ak1ICLL 11
1. Lveryone charged wlLh a penal offence has
Lhe rlghL Lo be presumed lnnocenL unLll proved
gullLy accordlng Lo law ln a publlc Lrlal aL whlch
he has had all Lhe guaranLees necessary for hls
defence.
2. no one shall be held gullLy of any penal
offence on accounL of any acL or omlsslon whlch
dld noL consLlLuLe a penal offence, under
naLlonal or lnLernaLlonal law, aL Lhe Llme when
lL was commlLLed. nor shall a heavler penalLy be
lmposed Lhan Lhe one LhaL was appllcable aL
Lhe Llme Lhe penal offence was commlLLed.
Ak1ICLL 12
no one shall be sub[ecLed Lo arblLrary
lnLerference wlLh hls prlvacy, famlly, home, or
correspondence, nor Lo aLLacks upon hls honour
and repuLaLlon. Lveryone has Lhe rlghL Lo Lhe
proLecLlon of Lhe law agalnsL such lnLerference
or aLLacks.
Ak1ICLL 13
1. Lveryone has Lhe rlghL Lo freedom of
movemenL and resldence wlLhln Lhe borders of
each SLaLe.
2. Lveryone has Lhe rlghL Lo leave any counLry,
lncludlng hls own, and Lo reLurn Lo hls counLry.
Ak1ICLL 14
1. Lveryone has Lhe rlghL Lo seek and Lo en[oy ln
oLher counLrles asylum from persecuLlon.
2. 1hls rlghL may noL be lnvoked ln Lhe case of
prosecuLlons genulnely arlslng from non-
pollLlcal crlmes or from acLs conLrary Lo Lhe
purposes and prlnclples of Lhe unlLed naLlons.
Ak1ICLL 1S
1. Lveryone has Lhe rlghL Lo a naLlonallLy.
2. no one shall be arblLrarlly deprlved of hls
naLlonallLy nor denled Lhe rlghL Lo change hls
naLlonallLy.


17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$*,"!"

Ak1ICLL 16
1. Men and women of full age, wlLhouL any
llmlLaLlon due Lo race, naLlonallLy, or rellglon,
have Lhe rlghL Lo marry and Lo found a famlly.
1hey are enLlLled Lo equal rlghLs as Lo marrlage,
durlng marrlage, and aL lLs dlssoluLlon.
2. Marrlage shall be enLered lnLo only wlLh Lhe
free and full consenL of Lhe lnLendlng spouses.
3. 1he famlly ls Lhe naLural and fundamenLal
group unlL of socleLy and ls enLlLled Lo
proLecLlon by socleLy and Lhe SLaLe.
Ak1ICLL 17
1. Lveryone has Lhe rlghL Lo own properLy alone
as well as ln assoclaLlon wlLh oLhers.
2. no one shall be arblLrarlly deprlved of hls
properLy.
Ak1ICLL 18
Lveryone has Lhe rlghL Lo freedom of LhoughL,
consclence and rellglon, Lhls rlghL lncludes
freedom Lo change hls rellglon or bellef, and
freedom, elLher alone or ln communlLy wlLh
oLhers and ln publlc or prlvaLe, Lo manlfesL hls
rellglon or bellef ln Leachlng, pracLlce, worshlp,
and observance.
Ak1ICLL 19
Lveryone has Lhe rlghL Lo freedom of oplnlon
and expresslon, Lhls rlghL lncludes freedom Lo
hold oplnlons wlLhouL lnLerference and Lo seek,
recelve and lmparL lnformaLlon and ldeas
Lhrough any medla and regardless of fronLlers.
Ak1ICLL 20
1. Lveryone has Lhe rlghL Lo freedom of
peaceful assembly and assoclaLlon.
2. no one may be compelled Lo belong Lo an
assoclaLlon.
Ak1ICLL 21
1. Lveryone has Lhe rlghL Lo Lake parL ln Lhe
governmenL of hls counLry, dlrecLly or Lhrough
freely chosen represenLaLlves.
2. Lveryone has Lhe rlghL of equal access Lo
publlc servlce ln hls counLry.
3. 1he wlll of Lhe people shall be Lhe basls of Lhe
auLhorlLy of governmenL, Lhls wlll shall be
expressed ln perlodlc and genulne elecLlons
whlch shall be by unlversal and equal suffrage
and shall be held by secreL voLe or by
equlvalenL free voLlng procedures.
Ak1ICLL 22
Lveryone, as a member of socleLy, has Lhe rlghL
Lo soclal securlLy and ls enLlLled Lo reallzaLlon,
Lhrough naLlonal efforL and lnLernaLlonal co-
operaLlon and ln accordance wlLh Lhe
organlzaLlon and resources of each SLaLe, of Lhe
economlc, soclal and culLural rlghLs
lndlspensable for hls dlgnlLy and Lhe free
developmenL of hls personallLy.
Ak1ICLL 23
1. Lveryone has Lhe rlghL Lo work, Lo free cholce
of employmenL, Lo [usL and favourable
condlLlons of work and Lo proLecLlon agalnsL
unemploymenL.
2. Lveryone, wlLhouL any dlscrlmlnaLlon, has Lhe
rlghL Lo equal pay for equal work.
3. Lveryone who works has Lhe rlghL Lo [usL and
favourable remuneraLlon ensurlng for hlmself
and hls famlly an exlsLence worLhy of human
dlgnlLy, and supplemenLed, lf necessary, by
oLher means of soclal proLecLlon.
1914 C.L. to the resent
!"$+-"!"

1he Creat|on of Israe|
uocomeots ftom tbe 1tomoo llbtoty.
(
Edward Stettinius to Harry S. Truman, April 18, 1945

17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$+$"!"


Joseph Grew to Harry S. Truman, May 28, 1945

17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$+%"!"



17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$+&"!"


17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$+'"!"




17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$+("!"



Y0#9'3/0("#+&39;9,$+%(+=(Y%O'?'%O'%&'
Ooe Joy befote tbe tetmlootloo of tbe 8tltlsb mooJote fot lolestloe, tbe ltovlsloool 5tote cooocll (o
fotetoooet of tbe lstoell lotllomeot) JecloteJ tbe loJepeoJeoce of lstoel oo Moy 14, 1948. 1be followloq
selectloo ls oo excetpt ftom tbls offlclol oooooocemeot.
R2"6%$+#6S(
1. coo tbe blstotlc ooJ tellqloos tles of tbe Iewlsb people to lstoel occommoJote tbe foct tbot fot oeotly
two tboosooJ yeots lstoel wos olso tbe Jwellloq ploce of Atobs ooJ otbet ooo-Iewlsb popolotloos?
2. now Joes lstoels ltoclomotloo of loJepeoJeoce soqqest tbe lofloeoce of otopeoo ooJ Ametlcoo
blstoty lo tbls oteo?
(
1+2)B"S(ltom ltoclomotloo of tbe New Iewlsb 5tote, 1be New otk 1lmes, Moy 15, 1948, p. 2.
copytlqbt 1948 by 1be New otk 1lmes compooy. keptloteJ by petmlssloo.

1he Land of lsrael was Lhe blrLhplace of Lhe
!ewlsh people. Pere Lhelr splrlLual, rellglous and
naLlonal ldenLlLy was formed. Pere Lhey
achleved lndependence and creaLed a culLure of
naLlonal and unlversal slgnlflcance. Pere Lhey
wroLe and gave Lhe 8lble Lo Lhe world.
Lxlled from Lhe Land of lsrael Lhe !ewlsh people
remalned falLhful Lo lL ln all Lhe counLrles of
Lhelr dlsperslon, never ceaslng Lo pray and hope
for Lhelr reLurn and Lhe resLoraLlon of Lhelr
naLlonal freedom.
lmpelled by Lhls hlsLorlc assoclaLlon, !ews
sLrove LhroughouL Lhe cenLurles Lo go back Lo
Lhe land of Lhelr faLhers and regaln Lhelr
sLaLehood. ln recenL decades Lhey reLurned ln
Lhelr masses. 1hey reclalmed Lhe wllderness,
revlved Lhelr language,bullL clLles and vlllages,
and esLabllshed a vlgorous and ever-growlng
communlLy, wlLh lLs own economlc and culLural
llfe. 1hey soughL peace, yeL were prepared Lo
defend Lhemselves. 1hey broughL Lhe blesslngs
of progress Lo all lnhablLanLs of Lhe counLry and
looked forward Lo soverelgn lndependence.
ln Lhe year 1897 Lhe llrsL ZlonlsL Congress,
lnsplred by 1heodor Perzl's vlslon of Lhe !ewlsh
SLaLe, proclalmed Lhe rlghL of Lhe !ewlsh people
Lo naLlonal revlval ln Lhelr own counLry.
1hls rlghL was acknowledged by Lhe 8alfour
ueclaraLlon of november 2, 1917, and re-
afflrmed by Lhe MandaLe of Lhe League of
naLlons, whlch gave expllclL lnLernaLlonal
recognlLlon Lo Lhe hlsLorlc connecLlon of Lhe
!ewlsh people wlLh alesLlne and Lhelr rlghL Lo
reconsLlLuLe Lhelr naLlonal Pome.
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$+)"!"

1he recenL holocausL, whlch engulfed mllllons
of !ews ln Lurope, proved anew Lhe need Lo
solve Lhe problem of Lhe homelessness and lack
of lndependence of Lhe !ewlsh people by means
of Lhe re-esLabllshmenL of Lhe !ewlsh SLaLe,
whlch would open Lhe gaLes Lo all !ews and
endow Lhe !ewlsh people wlLh equallLy of sLaLus
among Lhe famlly of naLlons.
1he survlvors of Lhe dlsasLrous slaughLer ln
Lurope, and also !ews from oLher lands, have
noL deslsLed from Lhelr efforLs Lo reach LreLz-
?lsrael, ln face of dlfflculLles, obsLacles and
perlls, and have noL ceased Lo urge Lhelr rlghL Lo
a llfe of dlgnlLy, freedom and honesL Loll ln Lhelr
ancesLral land.
ln Lhe second World War Lhe !ewlsh people ln
alesLlne made Lhelr full conLrlbuLlon Lo Lhe
sLruggle of Lhe freedom-lovlng naLlons agalnsL
Lhe nazl evll. 1he sacrlflces of Lhelr soldlers and
Lhelr war efforL galned Lhem Lhe rlghL Lo rank
wlLh Lhe naLlons whlch founded Lhe unlLed
naLlons.
Cn november 29, 1947, Lhe Ceneral Assembly
of Lhe unlLed naLlons adopLed a 8esoluLlon
requlrlng Lhe esLabllshmenL of a !ewlsh SLaLe ln
alesLlne. 1he Ceneral Assembly called upon
Lhe lnhablLanLs of Lhe counLry Lo Lake all Lhe
necessary sLeps on Lhelr parL Lo puL Lhe plan
lnLo effecL. 1hls recognlLlon by Lhe unlLed
naLlons of Lhe rlghL of Lhe !ewlsh people Lo
esLabllsh Lhelr lndependenL SLaLe ls
unassallable.
lL ls Lhe naLural rlghL of Lhe !ewlsh people Lo
lead, as do all oLher naLlons, an lndependenL
exlsLence ln lLs soverelgn SLaLe.
ACCC8ulnCL? WL, Lhe members of Lhe
naLlonal Councll, represenLlng Lhe !ewlsh
people ln alesLlne and Lhe World ZlonlsL
MovemenL, are meL LogeLher ln solemn
assembly Loday, Lhe day of LermlnaLlon of Lhe
8rlLlsh MandaLe for alesLlne, and by vlrLue of
Lhe naLural and hlsLorlc rlghL of Lhe !ewlsh
people and of Lhe 8esoluLlon of Lhe Ceneral
Assembly of Lhe unlLed naLlons.
WL PL8L8? 8CCLAlM Lhe esLabllshmenL of Lhe
!ewlsh SLaLe ln alesLlne, Lo be called MedlnaLh
?lsrael (1he SLaLe of lsrael).
WL PL8L8? uLCLA8L LhaL, as from Lhe
LermlnaLlon of Lhe MandaLe aL mldnlghL, Lhe
14Lh-13Lh May, 1948, and pendlng Lhe seLLlng
up of Lhe duly elecLed bodles of Lhe SLaLe ln
accordance wlLh a ConsLlLuLlon, Lo be drawn up
by Lhe ConsLlLuenL Assembly noL laLer Lhan Lhe
1sL CcLober, 1948, Lhe naLlonal Councll shall acL
as Lhe rovlslonal SLaLe Councll, and LhaL Lhe
naLlonal AdmlnlsLraLlon shall consLlLuLe Lhe
rovlslonal CovernmenL of Lhe !ewlsh SLaLe,
whlch shall be known as lsrael.
1PL S1A1L Cl lS8ALL wlll be open Lo Lhe
lmmlgraLlon of !ews from all counLrles of Lhelr
dlsperslon, wlll promoLe Lhe developmenL of
Lhe counLry for Lhe beneflL of all lLs lnhablLanLs,
wlll be based on Lhe prlnclples of llberLy, [usLlce
and peace as concelved by Lhe ropheLs of
lsrael, wlll uphold Lhe full soclal and pollLlcal
equallLy of all lLs clLlzens, wlLhouL dlsLlncLlon of
rellglon, race, or sex, wlll guaranLee freedom of
rellglon, consclence, educaLlon and culLure, wlll
safeguard Lhe Poly laces of all rellglons, and
wlll loyally uphold Lhe prlnclples of Lhe unlLed
naLlons CharLer.
1PL S1A1L Cl lS8ALL wlll be ready Lo co-
operaLe wlLh Lhe organs and represenLaLlves of
Lhe unlLed naLlons ln Lhe lmplemenLaLlon of
Lhe 8esoluLlon of Lhe Assembly of november
29, 1947, and wlll Lake sLeps Lo brlng abouL Lhe
Lconomlc unlon over Lhe whole of alesLlne.
We appeal Lo Lhe unlLed naLlons Lo asslsL Lhe
!ewlsh people ln Lhe bulldlng of lLs SLaLe and Lo
admlL lsrael lnLo Lhe famlly of naLlons.
ln Lhe mldsL of wanLon aggresslon, we yeL call
upon Lhe Arab lnhablLanLs of Lhe SLaLe of lsrael
Lo preserve Lhe ways of peace and play Lhelr
parL ln Lhe developmenL of Lhe SLaLe, on Lhe
basls of full and equal clLlzenshlp and due
represenLaLlon ln all lLs bodles and
lnsLlLuLlons-provlslonal and permanenL.
1914 C.L. to the resent
!"$+*"!"

a|est|n|an Dec|arat|on of Independence
lotty yeots oftet tbe stote of lstoel JecloteJ lts loJepeoJeoce, tbe lolestloe Notloool cooocll, meetloq lo
Alqlets, fottbet tevlseJ lts 1964 cbottet ooJ oo Novembet 15, 1988, ptoclolmeJ tbls ueclototloo of
loJepeoJeoce fot tbe lolestloloo people.
R2"6%$+#6S(
1. Aftet o bolf ceototy of blttet wotfote betweeo lolestloloos ooJ lstoells, coo tbe lolestloloo ueclototloo
of loJepeoJeoce be tecooclleJ wltb tbe stote of lstoels coocetos oboot ootloool secotlty? coo tbe two
peoples evet floJ o woy to llve lo peoce?
2. lo lts ueclototloo of loJepeoJeoce, tbe lolestloloo Notloool cooocll colls opoo tbe uolteJ Notloos to
beot speclol tespooslblllty fot tbe lolestloloo Atob people ooJ lts bomelooJ. uo yoo belleve tbot tbe
uN sboolJ beot o speclol tespooslblllty fot eosotloq tbe secotlty of o lolestloloo stote? now sboolJ
tbe uN exetclse tbls tespooslblllty?

1+2)B"S(ltom lolestloe Notloool cooocll, lolestloloo ueclototloo of loJepeoJeoce, Alqlets, Novembet
15, 1988. 1be Iootool of lolestloe 5toJles 70 (wlotet 1989), pp. 21J-16. copytlqbt Iootool of lolestloe
5toJles. keptloteJ by petmlssloo.
ln Lhe name of Cod, Lhe CompasslonaLe, Lhe
Merclful. alesLlne, Lhe land of Lhe Lhree
monoLhelsLlc falLhs, ls where Lhe alesLlnlan
Arab people was born, on whlch lL grew,
developed, and excelled. 1he alesLlnlan people
was never separaLed from or dlmlnlshed ln lLs
lnLegral bonds wlLh alesLlne. 1hus Lhe
alesLlnlan Arab people ensured for lLself an
everlasLlng unlon beLween lLself, lLs land, and
lLs hlsLory. . .
uesplLe Lhe hlsLorlcal ln[usLlce lnfllcLed on Lhe
alesLlnlan Arab people resulLlng ln Lhelr
dlsperslon and deprlvlng Lhem of Lhelr rlghL Lo
self-deLermlnaLlon, followlng upon un Ceneral
Assembly 8esoluLlon 181 (1947), whlch
parLlLloned alesLlne lnLo Lwo sLaLes, one Arab,
one !ewlsh, yeL lL ls Lhls resoluLlon LhaL sLlll
provldes Lhose condlLlons of lnLernaLlonal
leglLlmacy LhaL ensure Lhe rlghL of Lhe
alesLlnlan Arab people Lo soverelgnLy and
naLlonal lndependence. . . .
ln alesLlne and on lLs perlmeLers, ln exlle
dlsLanL and near, Lhe alesLlnlan Arab people
never falLered and never abandoned lLs
convlcLlon ln lLs rlghLs of reLurn and
lndependence. CccupaLlon, massacres, and
dlsperslon achleved no galn ln Lhe unabaLed
alesLlnlan consclousness of self and pollLlcal
ldenLlLy, as alesLlnlans wenL forward wlLh Lhelr
desLlny, undeLerred and unbowed. And from
ouL of Lhe long years of Lrlal ln evermounLlng
sLruggle, Lhe alesLlnlan pollLlcal ldenLlLy
emerged furLher consolldaLed and conflrmed.
And Lhe collecLlve alesLlnlan naLlonal wlll forge
lLself ln a pollLlcal embodlmenL, Lhe alesLlne
LlberaLlon CrganlzaLlon, lLs sole, leglLlmaLe
represenLaLlve, recognlzed by Lhe world
communlLy as a whole, as well as by relaLed
reglonal and lnLernaLlonal lnsLlLuLlons. . . .
1he masslve naLlonal uprlslng, Lhe lnLlfadah,
now lnLenslfylng ln cumulaLlve scope and power
on occupled alesLlnlan LerrlLorles, as well as
Lhe unfllnchlng reslsLance of Lhe refugee camps
ouLslde Lhe homeland, have elevaLed
consclousness of Lhe alesLlnlan LruLh and rlghL
lnLo sLlll hlgher realms of comprehenslon and
acLuallLy. now aL lasL Lhe curLaln has been
dropped around a whole epoch of prevarlcaLlon
and negaLlon. 1he lnLlfadah has seL slege Lo Lhe
mlnd of offlclal lsrael, whlch has for Loo long
relled excluslvely upon myLh and Lerror Lo deny
alesLlnlan exlsLence alLogeLher. 8ecause of Lhe
lnLlfadah and lLs revoluLlonary lrreverslble
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$++"!"

lmpulse, Lhe hlsLory of alesLlne has Lherefore
arrlved aL a declslve [uncLure.
Whereas Lhe alesLlnlan people reafflrms mosL
deflnlLely lLs lnallenable rlghLs ln Lhe land of lLs
paLrlmony: now by vlrLue of naLural, hlsLorlcal,
and legal rlghLs and Lhe sacrlflces of successlve
generaLlons who gave of Lhemselves ln defense
of Lhe freedom and lndependence of Lhelr
homeland,
ln pursuance of resoluLlons adopLed by Arab
summlL conferences and relylng on Lhe
auLhorlLy besLowed by lnLernaLlonal leglLlmacy
as embodled ln Lhe resoluLlons of Lhe unlLed
naLlons CrganlzaLlon slnce 1947, And ln
exerclse by Lhe alesLlnlan Arab people of lLs
rlghLs Lo self-deLermlnaLlon, pollLlcal
lndependence, and soverelgnLy over lLs
LerrlLory,
1he alesLlne naLlonal Councll, ln Lhe name of
Cod, and ln Lhe name of Lhe alesLlnlan Arab
people, hereby proclalms Lhe esLabllshmenL of
Lhe SLaLe of alesLlne on our alesLlnlan
LerrlLory wlLh lLs caplLal !erusalem (Al-Cuds
Ash- Sharlf).
1he SLaLe of alesLlne ls Lhe sLaLe of alesLlnlans
wherever Lhey may be. 1he sLaLe ls for Lhem Lo
en[oy ln lL Lhelr collecLlve naLlonal and culLural
ldenLlLy, Lhelrs Lo pursue ln lL a compleLe
equallLy of rlghLs. ln lL wlll be safeguarded Lhelr
pollLlcal and rellglous convlcLlons and Lhelr
human dlgnlLy by means of a parllamenLary
democraLlc sysLem of governance, lLself based
on freedom of expresslon and Lhe freedom Lo
form parLles. 1he rlghLs of mlnorlLles wlll duly
be respecLed by Lhe ma[orlLy, as mlnorlLles
musL ablde by declslons of Lhe ma[orlLy.
Covernance wlll be based on prlnclples of soclal
[usLlce, equallLy and nondlscrlmlnaLlon ln publlc
rlghLs on grounds of race, rellglon, color, or sex
under Lhe aegls of a consLlLuLlon whlch ensures
Lhe role of law and an lndependenL [udlclary.
1hus shall Lhese prlnclples allow no deparLure
from alesLlne's age-old splrlLual and
clvlllzaLlonal herlLage of Lolerance and rellglous
co-exlsLence.
1he SLaLe of alesLlne ls an Arab sLaLe, an
lnLegral and lndlvlslble parL of Lhe Arab naLlon,
aL one wlLh LhaL naLlon ln herlLage and
clvlllzaLlon, wlLh lL also ln lLs asplraLlon for
llberaLlon, progress, democracy, and unlLy. 1he
SLaLe of alesLlne afflrms lLs obllgaLlon Lo ablde
by Lhe CharLer of Lhe League of Arab SLaLes,
whereby Lhe coordlnaLlon of Lhe Arab sLaLes
wlLh each oLher shall be sLrengLhened. lL calls
upon Arab compaLrloLs Lo consolldaLe and
enhance Lhe emergence ln reallLy of our SLaLe,
Lo moblllze poLenLlal, and Lo lnLenslfy efforLs
whose goal ls Lo end lsraell occupaLlon.
1he SLaLe of alesLlne proclalms lLs
commlLmenL Lo Lhe prlnclples and purposes of
Lhe unlLed naLlons, and Lo Lhe unlversal
ueclaraLlon of Puman 8lghLs. lL proclalms lLs
commlLmenL as well Lo Lhe prlnclples and
pollcles of Lhe non-Allgned MovemenL.
lL furLher announces lLself Lo be a peace-lovlng
sLaLe, ln adherence Lo Lhe prlnclples of peaceful
co-exlsLence. lL wlll [oln wlLh all sLaLes and
peoples ln order Lo assure a permanenL peace
based upon [usLlce and Lhe respecL of rlghLs so
LhaL humanlLy's poLenLlal for well-belng may be
assured, an earnesL compeLlLlon for excellence
be malnLalned, and ln whlch confldence ln Lhe
fuLure wlll ellmlnaLe fear for Lhose who are [usL
and for whom [usLlce ls Lhe only recourse.
ln Lhe conLexL of lLs sLruggle for peace ln Lhe
land of love and peace, Lhe SLaLe of alesLlne
calls upon Lhe unlLed naLlons Lo bear speclal
responslblllLy for Lhe alesLlnlan Arab people
and lLs homeland. lL calls upon all peace- and
freedom-lovlng peoples and sLaLes Lo asslsL lL ln
Lhe aLLalnmenL of lLs ob[ecLlves, Lo provlde lL
wlLh securlLy, Lo allevlaLe Lhe Lragedy of lLs
people, and Lo help Lo LermlnaLe lsrael's
occupaLlon of Lhe alesLlnlan LerrlLorles.
1he SLaLe of alesLlne herewlLh declares LhaL lL
belleves ln Lhe seLLlemenL of reglonal and
lnLernaLlonal dlspuLes by peaceful means, ln
accordance wlLh Lhe un CharLer and
resoluLlons. WlLhouL pre[udlce Lo lLs naLural
rlghL Lo defend lLs LerrlLorlal lnLegrlLy and
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$+,"!"

lndependence, lL Lherefore re[ecLs Lhe LhreaL or
use of force, vlolence, and Lerrorlsm agalnsL lLs
LerrlLorlal lnLegrlLy, or pollLlcal lndependence,
as lL also re[ecLs Lhelr use agalnsL Lhe LerrlLorlal
lnLegrlLy of oLher sLaLes.
1herefore, on Lhls day unllke all oLhers, 13
november, 1988, as we sLand aL Lhe Lhreshold
of a new dawn, ln all honor and modesLy we
humbly bow Lo Lhe sacred splrlLs of our fallen
ones, alesLlnlan and Arab, by Lhe purlLy of
whose sacrlflce for Lhe homeland our sky has
been lllumlnaLed and our land glven llfe. . . .
1herefore, we call upon our greaL people Lo
rally Lo Lhe banner of alesLlne, Lo cherlsh and
defend lL, so LhaL lL may forever be Lhe symbol
of our freedom and dlgnlLy ln LhaL homeland,
whlch ls a homeland for Lhe free, now and
always.
ln Lhe name of Cod, Lhe CompasslonaLe, Lhe
Merclful.

)9OO9;/0(Y%190$+%(+=(8.N9$,@(5N+(P9,$+%93'0

5oJJom nosselos mllltoty expeJltloo to kowolt speeJlly tesolteJ lo tbe sobjoqotloo of tbot oll-tlcb
mltote, ooJ pteclpltoteJ o leoqtby ctlsls wblcb wos ooly (ooJ tbeo petbops ooly tempototlly) eoJeJ wltb
ltops Jefeot by AllleJ fotces lo tbe 1991 uesett 5totm wot. As lo otbet ctlses tbot bove blstotlcolly
escoloteJ loto wotfote, tbe poestloo of wby? ls complex ooJ moltl-foceteJ. 5oJJom, lo o vlctoty uoy
speecb to bls people (A), ooJ tbe scbolot 8lsboto 8obbob (8) offet tbelt exploootloos.

R2"6%$+#6S(
1. Of wbot sbottcomloqs Joes 5oJJom occose tbe kowoltl leoJetsblp? 1o wbot blstotlcolly ootl-Atob
elemeots Joes be ottempt to llok tbem? wbot pott Jo jlboJ ooJ poo-Atoblsm ploy lo bls otqomeots?
2. AccotJloq to 8obbob, wbot pott JlJ tbe ollflelJs ooJ oll ptoJoctloo coottovetsles ploy lo ltopl-kowoltl
telotloos?
J. now Joes 8obbob ossess 5oJJoms petsooollty ooJ tbe tole lt ployeJ lo tbe oofolJloq of Colf ctlsls
eveots? wbot mlscolcolotloos Joes be set fotwotJ os beloq ctoclol?
4. compote ooJ coottost tbe two Jocomeots, wbot ls yoot ossessmeot os to polots of oqteemeot, ot
Jlvetqeoce?

1+2)B"6S(Ofto 8eoqlo, eJ., 5oJJom 5peoks oo tbe Colf ctlsls. A collectloo of uocomeots (1el Avlv, 1be
Mosbe uoyoo ceotet fot MlJJle osteto ooJ Aftlcoo 5toJles, 1be 5blloom lostltote, 1el Avlv uolvetslty,
1992), pp. 110-116.

8lsboto A. 8obbob, 1be ctlsls lo tbe Colf-wby ltoo lovoJeJ kowolt lo lbyllls 8eools ooJ Mlcboel
Moosbobeck, 8eyooJ tbe 5totm. A Colf ctlsls keoJet (N... Ollve 8toocb ltess, 1991), pp. 50-54.


A

Message from resldenL Saddam Pusayn on
Lhe occaslon of Lhe greaL vlcLory day on 8
AugusL 1988"-read by announcer. 8aghdad
uomesLlc Servlce ln Arablc 1700 CM1, 7 AugusL
1990.

ln Lhe name of Cod, Lhe merclful, Lhe
compasslonaLe.

C greaL lraql people, C sons of Lhe glorlous Arab
naLlon, on 8 AugusL 1988 maLLers were seLLled
afLer elghL years of duellng. 1haL day was Lhe
day of days, and Lhe communlque LhaL was
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$,-"!"

lssued on LhaL day was Lhe communlque of
communlques. 1haL day was Lruly Lhe day of
days because every day, beglnnlng wlLh Lhe flrsL
day ln Lhe book of Lhe second al-Cadlslyya LhaL
began on 4 SepLember 1980 and endlng wlLh
Lhe lasL day of LhaL eLernal and greaL book of
our people's llfe LhaL preceded Lhe day of days
on 7 AugusL 1988 has a share ln Lhe day of 8
AugusL 1988. 1he communlque broadcasL on 8
AugusL was Lhe communlque of communlques
because every communlque lssued from 4
SepLember 1980 Lo 7 AugusL 1988 ls a vlLal parL
of Lhe frulLs of Lhe record from whlch Lhe
banner of vlcLory was ralsed hlgh on 8 AugusL
1988. lrom Lhls we can see Lhe peoples' record,
and hlsLory cannoL exlsL wlLhouL Lhe
accumulaLlon of repeaLed sacrlflces, wlsdom,
bravery, paLlenL work, and Lrue sLruggle Lo
Cod's saLlsfacLlon. 8y Lhls we can see LhaL Lhe
day of days began from Lhe flrsL day of Lhe
record and LhaL Lhe communlque of
communlques was wrlLLen ln Lhe flrsL
communlque of Lhe second al Cadlslyya.

1he day of days glves lessons Lo Lhose who heed
Lhem, lessons whose meanlngs and dlmenslons
go beyond Lhe naLlonal borders Lo affecL Lhe
enLlre naLlon and humanlLy aL large. 1here are
people who do noL beneflL from oLher people's
lessons and Lhere are Lhose who do beneflL. All
Lhls ls deLermlned by Lhe facL LhaL some leaders
draw lessons ln accordance wlLh Lhe paLrloLlc
and naLlonal aspecLs of human wlsdom and
some oLhers learn Lhe lessons Lhey wlsh-buL
noL Lhe LruLh as lL ls.

We do noL llke lessons ouLslde Lhe course of
llfe, excepL Lhose afflllaLed wlLh Cod. We do noL
glve reason Lhe full rlghL Lo lnLerpreL Lhlngs
lndependenLly from Lhe eye or glve Lhe eye Lhe
full rlghL aparL from reason. 1he Lwo should
cooperaLe ln concreLe and absLracL maLLers.
1he blood of our marLyrs has Lurned lnLo a
permanenL Lorch along our people's paLh
Loward progress and a beLLer llfe. 1he edlflce of
progress ls rlslng wlLh Lhe passlng of every day
slnce 8 AugusL 1988, and lLs foundaLlon ls
becomlng sLronger on Lhe basls of
rlghLeousness and [usLlce. MlsLakes ln lLs course
are belng dealL wlLh on Lhe basls of Lhe
lnslsLence of Lhe people, who have defended
rlghLs and [usLlce and offered sacrlflces for
Lhem. 1hus, Lhe people deserve a llfe LhaL ls noL
dlsLurbed by evll lnLenLlons, and Lhe Lorch llL by
Lhe marLyrs' blood LhaL represenLs vlrLue and
naLlonal and pan-Arab dlgnlLy should noL be
exLlngulshed by Lhe aLLempLs of non-paLrloLs,
non-naLlonallsLs, and non humanlLarlans.

1herefore, Lhe day of days and Lhe communlque
of communlques became noL Lhe end of a sLage
ln Lhe llfe of Lhe lraqls and Lhe naLlon, buL Lhe
serlous beglnnlng of a llfe of honor and Lrlumph
ln all walks of llfe-ln Lheory and pracLlce- as
well as ln Lhe arena of Lhe baLLlefleld whenever
Lhe heaL rlses.

1herefore, we have Lhe rlghL and lL ls our duLy
Lo say LhaL Lhe day of Lhe call, Lhe second of Lhls
monLh, AugusL, ln Lhls year, ls Lhe leglLlmaLe
newborn chlld of 8 AugusL 1988. ln facL, Lhls ls
Lhe only way Lo deal wlLh Lhese desplcable
Croesuses* who rellshed sLeallng Lhe parL Lo
harm Lhe whole, who rellshed possesslon Lo
desLroy devoLlon, and who were gulded by Lhe
forelgner lnsLead of belng gulded by vlrLuous
sLandards, prlnclples of pan-Arablsm, and Lhe
creed of humanlLarlanlsm ln relaLlons beLween
Lhe sons of Lhe same people and naLlon. 1he
second of AugusL was a day bursLlng wlLh Lhese
meanlngs. ln Lhe same way lL ls Lhe leglLlmaLe
newborn chlld of Lhe sLruggle, paLlence, and
perseverance of Lhe kuwalLl people, whlch was
crowned by revoluLlonary acLlon on LhaL
lmmorLal day.

1he newborn chlld was born of a leglLlmaLe
faLher and an lmmaculaLe moLher. lL wlll be a
loyal son Lo Lhe kuwalLls, lraqls, and all Lhe
Arabs. CreeLlngs Lo Lhe makers of Lhe second of
AugusL, whose efforLs Cod has blessed. 1hey
have achleved one of Lhe brlghLesL, mosL
promlslng, and mosL prlnclpled naLlonal and
pan-Arab acLs.

17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$,$"!"

AL a Llme when Lhe second of AugusL arrlved Lo
be Lhe leglLlmaLe newborn son of Lhe second
Cadlslyya and lLs people-and wlLh Cod's help,
lL wlll also be a loyal son-lL and lLs
consequences shall be Lhe beglnnlng of a new,
lofLy, and rlslng sLage ln whlch vlrLue wlll spread
LhroughouL Lhe Arab homeland ln Lhe comlng
days and profanlLy, Lreachery, beLrayal,
meanness, and subservlence Lo Lhe forelgner
wlll reLreaL from lL. Many of Lhe goals of Lhe
Arabs wlll move closer afLer some belleved Lhey
were movlng away from Lhelr places ln Lhe
horlzon. new suns and moons wlll shlne, sLars
wlll gllLLer, llghL wlll expel darkness, and lunar
and solar ecllpses wlll wlLhdraw from Lhe skles
of lraq and Lhe Arab world.

Pow can LhaL be?

When Lhe sun of Lhe Arabs seL ln lLs faraway
horlzon, afLer 8aghdad's eye was puL ouL and lLs
mlnd was rulned by Lhe acLlons and rule of Lhe
forelgner, a plLch-black darkness prevalled
LhroughouL Lhe Arab world, wlLh Lhe excepLlon
of local cases LhaL used Lo emerge here and
Lhere and every now and Lhen under cerLaln
sympLoms and whose lndlcaLlons were noL
wholly pan-Arab. 1he Arabs had no sun, moon
or sLars Lo gulde Lhem Lo any road wlLh a
gllmmer of hope.

When Lhey saw before Lhem Lhe opporLunlLy Lo
be llberaLed from Lhe darkness of Lhe CLLoman
era, and Lhe vlrLuous and paLrloLlc Arabs
deLermlned Lo change Lhe lmage of Lhe sLaLe of
Lhe Arabs, Lhey fell lnLo Lhe claws of Lhe forces
of Lhe age as soon as Lhey Look Lhelr flrsL sLep.
AL a Llme when some forelgn rulers were
overLhrown by Arab rulers Lo sLarL wlLh, and
llberaLlon revoluLlons and movemenLs Look
place afLer Lhe flrsL Arab revoluLlon Lo replace
whaL was lefL wlLh local, naLlonal, or pan-Arab
alLernaLlves, Lhe parLlLlon and dlsperslon of Lhe
facLors of power and capablllLy LhroughouL
varlous reglons reLalned a weak Arab
homeland-weak lndlvlduals, acLlons, and
asplraLlons. ln Lhls condlLlon, every Llme Lhe
Arab Look a sLep forward, he Look Lwo sLeps
back, or a blL more or a blL less Lhan LhaL sLep,
and was moved furLher away from Lhe poslLlon
he was supposed Lo be ln.

1he mallclous WesLerners, whlle parLlLlonlng
Lhe Arab homeland, lnLenLlonally mulLlplled Lhe
number of counLrles wlLh Lhe resulL LhaL Lhe
Arab naLlon could noL achleve Lhe lnLegraLlon
needed Lo reallze lLs full capablllLy. ln Lhls way,
Lhey also fragmenLed capablllLles. Whlle
fragmenLlng Lhe Arab homeland, Lhey
lnLenLlonally dlsLanced Lhe ma[orlLy of Lhe
populaLlon denslLy and areas of culLural depLh
from rlches and Lhelr sources, someLhlng new
Lo Lhe llfe of Arabs. 1hls became one of Lhe
mosL dangerous resulLs of parLlLlon and a faLal
wedge ln Arab relaLlons.

1he wealLh cenLered ln one place, ln Lhe hands
of a mlnorlLy lacklng ln culLural depLh or, more
accuraLely, havlng no record of culLural depLh.
Cn Lhe oLher hand, culLural depLh and
populaLlon denslLy cenLered ln a place remoLe
from Lhe sources of Lhe new wealLh, as l sald.
1hls mallclous acL resulLed ln Lhe mlnorlLy
becomlng so corrupL LhaL lL was cuL off from lLs
naLlon. lL sLopped menLlonlng Lhls naLlon,
excepL ln llp servlce and on some ceremonlal
occaslons. 1he wealLh ln Lhe hands of Lhls
mlnorlLy dld noL come as a resulL of leglLlmaLe
hard work. 1he overwhelmlng ma[orlLy of Lhe
naLlon, whlch was llvlng away from Lhe sources
of wealLh and endurlng a ma[or parL of lLs
negaLlve lmpacL on lLs llfe ln Lhe soclal,
psychologlcal, culLural, mlllLary, and pollLlcal
spheres, suffered a weakness LhaL, lf noL
overcome, could noL allow Lhls ma[orlLy Lo play
a vlLal and effecLlve role ln Lhe llfe of Lhe naLlon.

1he auLhorlLy of Lhe honorable naLlonal and
pan-Arab ma[orlLy and lLs leadlng lnfluence on
Lhe Arab llfe was absenL and was replaced by
Lhe auLhorlLy of Lhe corrupL mlnorlLy, whlch ls
connecLed wlLh Lhe forelgner. As a resulL, Lhe
naLlon was hlL rlghL beLween Lhe eyes, and Lhe
damage lL suffered was no less ln lLs
consequences Lhan dlrecL forelgn rule. lndeed,
aL some sLages of Lhe naLlon's llfe dlrecL forelgn
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$,%"!"

rule awakened-Lhrough reacLlon-Lhe naLlonal
and pan-Arab awareness and crysLalllzed Lhe
facLors of splrlLual upsurge ln whlch Lhe naLlon
lnvoked lLs genulne values from Lhe depLhs of
lLs culLure.
8uL Lhe naLlon's slLuaLlon before 2 AugusL Lhls
year was faLal Lo lLs soul and body. Cne could
noL buL feel lLs descenL lnLo Lhe abyss. 1hls
slLuaLlon would rob rulers and people of Lhelr
courage, wheLher among Lhe corrupL wealLhy
mlnorlLy or among Lhe overwhelmlng ma[orlLy
of Lhe poor Arabs. lL would also block Lhe
capable collecLlve efforLs ln Lhe Lwo places,
make Lhe people ln boLh places dependenL on
forelgners ln one way or anoLher, and serlously
upseL Lhe soclal llfe ln boLh places. Moreover,
efforLs Loward Lrue lnLeracLlon wlLh Lhe laws of
Lhe age would become absenL or weak, and,
consequenLly, Lhe process of formulaLlng Lhese
laws ln a naLlonal and pan-Arab manner would
be hlndered ln boLh places. lurLhermore, Lhe
naLlon-ln lLs culLural sense, collecLlve
capablllLy, and [olnL acLlon-would become
lacklng ln boLh areas. 1he naLlon wlll reLurn Lo
lLs rlghLful poslLlon only Lhrough real sLruggle
and [lhad Lo place Lhe wealLh of Lhe naLlon ln
Lhe servlce of lLs noble ob[ecLlves so LhaL Lhe
oplnlon of Lhe ma[orlLy would become
prevalenL, capable, and honesL, and Lhe oplnlon
of Lhe mlnorlLy wlll be respecLed when lL ls
honesL. lLs conducL, Lhen, wlll be remoLe from
decay and corrupLlon.

1wo AugusL has come as a very vlolenL response
Lo Lhe harm LhaL Lhe forelgner has wanLed Lo
perpeLraLe agalnsL lraq and Lhe naLlon. 1he
Croesus of kuwalL and hls aldes became Lhe
obedlenL, humlllaLed, and Lreacherous
dependenLs of LhaL forelgner. lnsLead of
honorlng lLs commlLmenLs Loward Lhe sLem, Lhe
dead branch began sLabblng Lhe sLem wlLh a
polsonous dagger ln Lhe back so LhaL lL mlghL
fall dead beslde Lhe dead branch and so LhaL
Lhe llvlng sLem would noL Lry Lo awaken Lhe
dead branch (senLence as heard). WhaL Look
place on 2 AugusL was lnevlLable so LhaL deaLh
mlghL noL prevall over llfe, so LhaL Lhose who
were capable of ascendlng Lo Lhe peak would
noL be broughL down Lo Lhe abysmal preclplce,
so LhaL corrupLlon and remoLeness from Cod
would noL spread Lo Lhe ma[orlLy as a resulL of
need and poverLy afLer Lhe corrupL mlnorlLy had
dlsLanced lLself from Cod, values, books, and
dlsclples. Ponor wlll be kepL ln MesopoLamla so
LhaL lraq wlll conLlnue Lo be Lhe prlde of Lhe
Arabs, Lhelr proLecLor, and Lhelr model of noble
values, and so LhaL kuwalL wlll [oln Lhe march of
lLs naLlon.

1he lowly wallLed and planned Lo harm Lhe free
women of lraq, as Lhey had done Lo free Arab
women ln oLher places. 8uL Lhelr calculaLlons
wenL wrong because Lhey dld noL know LhaL we
prefer deaLh Lo Lhls and LhaL we cannoL sleep
wlLhouL puLLlng ouL Lhe eyes of Lhose who
encroach upon lraql and Arab and lslamlc
values. ueaLh ls beLLer Lhan humlllaLlon and
subordlnaLlon Lo Lhe forelgner.

1hls was Lhe 8Lh of AugusL 1988, Lhe day of
days, ln whlch Lhe communlque of
communlques was lssued, declarlng Lhe greaL
vlcLory. lL wlll be Lhe founLalnhead of all Lhe
sweeL days ln Lhe llfe of Lhe Arabs, and Lhelr
compasslonaLe moLher, as was Lhe day of 2
AugusL Lhls year. Clory Lo Lhe marLyrs, glory Lo
Lhe free, llvlng people, Cod ls greaL, and
accursed be Lhe lowly.

(Slgned) Saddam Pusayn, 16 Muharram, 1411
Peglra, correspondlng Lo 7 AugusL 1990.

8

Saddam Pusseln's declslon Lo lnvade kuwalL on
AugusL 2, 1990 Look frlend and foe by surprlse.
Cne can explaln lraq's declslon Lo lnvade kuwalL
by ouLllnlng and revlewlng Lhe llsL of grlevances
lraq had agalnsL kuwalL. 1hese lncluded:
hlsLorlcal and LerrlLorlal clalms LhaL lraq had
over kuwalL, kuwalL's refusal Lo lease Lwo
sLraLeglc lslands Lo lraq, lraq's anger over
kuwalL's pumplng of huge quanLlLles of oll from
Lhe 8umalla fleld whlch lles underneaLh boLh
counLrles, kuwalL's refusal Lo forglve lraq's debL
lncurred durlng Lhe lran-lraq war, and lraq's
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$,&"!"

accusaLlons LhaL kuwalL had waged economlc
warfare agalnsL lL.

neverLheless, lL can be argued LhaL Saddam
Pusseln's personallLy played a key role ln hls
declslon Lo embark on such a dlsasLrous
venLure. Moreover, Saddam Pusseln serlously
and perslsLenLly mlscalculaLed and falled Lo
predlcL oLher counLrles' reacLlon Lo hls lnvaslon
of kuwalL. And, when Lhe lnvaslon dld occur, he
falled Lo reallze LhaL flle coallLlon of forces
amassed agalnsL hlm would soundly defeaL hls
forces ln a very shorL perlod of Llme.

n|stor|ca| and 1err|tor|a| C|a|ms

1he borders of presenL day lraq and kuwalL are
Lhe producL of Lhe colonlal powers. under Lhe
Lerms of Lhe San 8emo conference ln 1920,
mosL of Lhe LerrlLorles of Lhe Arab Mlddle LasL,
formerly parL of flle CLLoman Lmplre, were
dlvlded beLween 8rlLaln and lrance, whlch
recelved mandaLes from Lhe League of naLlons
Lo esLabllsh and supervlse naLlonal
governmenLs ln Lhese LerrlLorles. ln 1921,
8rlLaln esLabllshed Lhe klngdom of lraq made up
of Lhe Lhree former provlnces of Mosul,
8aghdad, and 8asra (whlch had lncluded Lhe
CLLoman dlsLrlcL of kuwalL).

ln 1922, Lhe 8rlLlsh Plgh Commlssloner for lraq,
Slr ercy Cox, dellneaLed Lhe modern borders of
lraq, kuwalL and Saudl Arabla. Pe gave kuwalL a
coasLllne of 310 mlles, leavlng lraq a mere 36
mlles. AlLhough Lhls angered Lhe lraqls, Lhey dld
llLLle Lo alLer LhaL reallLy because lraq was under
varylng degrees of 8rlLlsh lnfluence.

Powever, Lwo developmenLs led Lo a drasLlc
change ln lraq's relaLlve sllence. ln 1938, Lhe
pro-WesLern monarch ln lraq was overLhrown
ln a mlllLary coup led by Ma[or Ceneral Abdul-
karlm Caslm. And, ln 1961, 8rlLaln and kuwalL
LermlnaLed Lhe 1899 agreemenL whlch had
allowed Lhe Sabah famlly Lo run lnLernal affalrs
ln kuwalL buL made 8rlLaln responslble for
kuwalL's defense and exLernal relaLlons.

When, ln !une 1961, kuwalL declared lLs
lndependence, Ceneral Caslm lald clalm Lo
kuwalL and LhreaLened Lo annex lL by force.
8rlLlsh forces rushed Lo kuwalL deLerred an lraql
lnvaslon. Cn lebruary 8, 1963, Caslm was
overLhrown and Lhe 8a'aLh parLy, lraq's currenL
rullng parLy, subsequenLly recognlzed kuwalL's
lndependence on CcLober 4, 1963 ln exchange
for a large paymenL from kuwalL.

noLwlLhsLandlng Lhls agreemenL, lraql reglmes
conLlnued Lo ralse quesLlons over border lssues.
ln 1973, a conLlngenL of lraql Lroops brlefly
occupled a kuwalLl border posL. ln a somewhaL
unusual buL lnLeresLlng LwlsL, and on Lhe eve of
lraq's lnvaslon of kuwalL, lraq accused kuwalL of
vlolaLlng lLs LerrlLorlal lnLegrlLy.

ln a leLLer senL Lo Lhe SecreLary Ceneral of Lhe
League of Arab SLaLes daLed !uly 16, 1990, lraql
lorelgn MlnlsLer 1arlq Azlz complalned LhaL Lhe
kuwalLl governmenL had .lmplemenLed a ploL
Lo escalaLe Lhe pace of Lhe gradual, sysLemaLlc
advance Loward lraql LerrlLory. 1he kuwalLl
governmenL seL up mlllLary esLabllshmenLs,
pollce posLs, oll lnsLallaLlons, and farms on lraql
LerrlLory."

2&&'00(,+(,*'(R.3=@(8.N9$,/0(P'=.093(,+(S'90'(
1wo Is|ands to Iraq

ln lLs quesL for a deep sea porL ln Lhe Culf, lraq
requesLed from kuwalL, ln Lhe early 1970s,
conLrol over Lhe Lwo lslands of Warbah and
8ublyan. 1hese lslands overlook Lhe approaches
Lo umm Casr, one of lraq's Lwo porLs on Lhe
Culf. ln 1973, kuwalL re[ecLed an lraql proposal
Lo cede Warbah lsland and lease half of 8ublyan
lsland Lo lraq for 99 years. ShorLly afLer Lhe
ouLbreak of Lhe lran-lraq war ln 1980, kuwalL
refused a slmllar lraql requesL. And, ln 1989,
afLer Lhe end of Lhe lran- lraq war, kuwalL
refused anoLher requesL Lo lease Lhe Lwo
lslands.

Clven LhaL one of Lhe maln reasons for Lhe lran-
lraq war was Lhe lssue oL who conLrols Lhe ShaLL
al-Arab waLerway whlch separaLes lran and lraq
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$,'"!"

and whlch provldes lraq wlLh lLs only access Lo
Lhe Culf, lraq vlewed kuwalL's refusal Lo
accommodaLe lLs needs wlLh regard Lo a deep
sea porL as unfrlendly. 1hus, Lhe lssue of Lhe
Lwo lslands has been a ma[or lrrlLanL ln lraql-
kuwalLl Lles.

1he D|spute over the kuma||a C||f|e|d

uesplLe lraq's recognlLlon of kuwalL's
lndependence ln CcLober 1963, Lhe Lwo
governmenLs dld noL seLLle Lhelr dlspuLe over
ownershlp of Lhe huge 30-mlle-long 8umalla
ollfleld, whlch lles beneaLh Lhe lraq-kuwalL
border. AbouL 90 of Lhe banana shaped fleld,
whlch ls esLlmaLed Lo conLaln 30 bllllon barrels
of oll, ls ln lraq. neverLheless, lraq clalmed LhaL
durlng Lhe 1980s kuwalL pumped over $10
bllllon worLh of oll from Lhe fleld LhaL should
have gone Lo lraq, wlLhouL any agreemenL
beLween Lhe Lwo counLrles.

1he slgnlflcance of Lhls lraql grlpe agalnsL
kuwalL becomes even more serlous when
conslderlng Lhe huge debL LhaL lraq found lLself
saddled wlLh as a resulL of Lhe lran-lraq war.
More lmporLanLly, a slgnlflcanL porLlon of lraq's
debL was owed Lo kuwalL.

8.N9$,/0(P'=.093(,+(F+#7$1'(Y#9T/0(Z'E,

Saddam Pusseln vlewed lraq's war wlLh lran as
havlng been foughL on behalf of all Arabs,
helplng Lo proLecL Lhem from khomelnl's
lslamlc revoluLlon. Pe, Lherefore, expecLed Arab
counLrles, parLlcularly Lhose ln Lhe Culf reglon,
Lo be graLeful for hls role ln checklng Lhe spread
of khomelnl's lslamlc revoluLlon.

lraq's war wlLh lran, by mosL esLlmaLes, cosL
lraq abouL $300 bllllon. lraq emerged from Lhe
confllcL wlLh debLs exceedlng $80 bllllon-abouL
one and a half Llmes lLs gross naLlonal
producL-lncludlng aL leasL $30 bllllon ln shorL-
Lerm debL LhaL had Lo be repald Lo Lurope,
!apan, and Lhe unlLed SLaLes ln dollars or oLher
hard currencles. AbouL half of lraq's debL was
owed Lo Saudl Arabla, kuwalL, and Lhe unlLed
Arab LmlraLes. ln lebruary and !uly 1990, lraq
demanded money from Lhe Arab sLaLes ln Lhe
Culf, and boLh Llmes, lL was Lurned down.

Lconom|c Warfare

kuwalL noL only refused Lo forglve Lhe debL, lL
dellberaLely, accordlng Lo lraq, flooded Lhe oll
markeL ln vlolaLlon of CLC producLlon quoLas
agreed Lo by Lhe ma[or oll producers. 1hls
kuwalLl overproducLlon depressed Lhe prlce of
oll and, ln Lurn, hurL lraq, whlch was already
shorL on funds.

uurlng Lhe 8aghdad Arab summlL whlch was
held aL Lhe end of May 1990, lraql resldenL
Saddam Pusseln clalmed LhaL every one dollar
drop ln Lhe prlce of a barrel of oll meanL a loss
of $1 bllllon a year for lraq. Pe Lhen added, ln
no uncerLaln Lerms, LhaL ln lraq's presenL
economlc sLaLe of affalrs, Lhls overproducLlon
amounLed Lo an acL of war."

lraq badly needed funds Lo rebulld lLs shaLLered
economy, devasLaLed by years of war wlLh lran.
Cne of Lhe ways LhaL Saddam Pusseln had
malnLalned lnLernal supporL for hls pollcles was
by spendlng generously on goods and servlces
even Lhrough Lhe bleakesL momenLs of Lhe war.
now LhaL Lhe war wlLh lran had ended, Lhe lraql
populaLlon's expecLaLlons for a beLLer sLandard
of llvlng were on Lhe rlse. 1he rulers of lraq
were aware of LhaL and sLrlved Lo cope wlLh
Lhese rlslng expecLaLlons. 1hls creaLed
Lremendous pressures Lo Lry and geL lraq's debL
forglven and Lo lncrease Lhe lncome generaLed
from Lhe sale of oll.

ln a memorandum daLed !uly 13, 1990,
addressed Lo Lhe SecreLary Ceneral of Lhe
unlLed naLlons, lraql lorelgn MlnlsLer 1arlq Azlz
expllclLly named kuwalL and Lhe unlLed Arab
LmlraLes as Lhe Lwo culprlLs" ln
overproducLlon.




17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$,("!"

U.00'$%/0("'#0+%93$,Q(9%O(6$0&a|cu|at|ons

Saddam Pusseln's personallLy, compounded by
Lhe facL LhaL he exerclsed absoluLe conLrol ln
lraq, played a key role ln Lhe unfoldlng of evenLs
ln Lhe Culf. Pe vlews hlmself as one of Lhe greaL
leaders of hlsLory, ranklng hlmself wlLh nasser,
CasLro, 1lLo, Po Chl Mlnh, and Mao Zedong. Pe
has been consumed by dreams of glory, and he
ldenLlfles hlmself wlLh nebuchadnezzar, Lhe
klng of 8abylonla who conquered !erusalem ln
386 8.C., and Salah ad-uln who regalned
!erusalem ln 1187 by defeaLlng Lhe Crusaders.
Pe belleved (lL ls noL clear lf he perslsLs ln Lhose
bellefs) LhaL Lhere could be only one supreme
Arab naLlonallsL leader, and he was Lhe one. Pe
was drlven by whaL he percelved as hls mlsslon
Lo lead Lhe Arab world.

neverLheless, based on hls acLlons and
sLaLemenLs, Saddam Pusseln ls a pragmaLlc
man. When he deemed cerLaln unLhlnkable"
acLlons Lo have been ln hls favor or beLLer Lhan
Lhe exlsLlng alLernaLlves, he carrled ouL Lhe
unLhlnkable."

ln March 1973, he slgned an agreemenL wlLh
Lhe Shah of lran, sLlpulaLlng [olnL soverelgnLy
wlLh lran over Lhe dlspuLed ShaLL al-Arab
waLerway ln reLurn for lran ceaslng Lo supply
ald Lo Lhe kurdlsh rebelllon. 1hen, ln !une 1982,
Pusseln reversed hls earller mlllLanL aLLlLude
Loward lran and khomelnl and aLLempLed Lo
LermlnaLe hosLlllLles by offerlng a unllaLeral
ceaseflre. And, on AugusL 13, 1990, Pusseln
agreed Lo meeL lranlan condlLlons for a
permanenL ceaseflre by promlslng Lo wlLhdraw
from lranlan LerrlLory, agreelng Lo an exchange
of prlsoners, and, mosL lmporLanLly, agreelng Lo
share Lhe dlspuLed ShaLL al-Arab waLerway-
one of Lhe maln reasons for lnlLlaLlng Lhe lran-
lraq war ln 1980-all because he desperaLely
needed Lhe 300,000 lraql Lroops who were Lled
up along Lhe lran-lraq border.

Clven hls pragmaLlsm, why Lhen dld Saddam
Pusseln occupy kuwalL and refuse Lo wlLhdraw
when lL was obvlous LhaL a ma[orlLy of Lhe
world communlLy led by Lhe unlLed SLaLes
supporLed un SecurlLy Councll resoluLlons LhaL
condemned lraq's lnvaslon of kuwalL, and
subsequenLly auLhorlzed Lhe use of force Lo
evlcL lraql Lroops and llberaLe kuwalL? Saddam
Pusseln's acLlons were based on serlous
mlscalculaLlons and mlspercepLlons.

llrsL, glven Saudl Arabla's long-sLandlng
senslLlvlLy Lo Lhe presence of forelgn Lroops on
lLs soll, Saddam Pusseln assumed LhaL Lhe
Saudls would noL ask, or be convlnced, Lo
accepL u.S. and oLher forelgn, parLlcularly non-
Musllm, Lroops Lo help defend Lhelr counLry and
llberaLe kuwalL. Pe was wrong.

Second, Saddam Pusseln overesLlmaLed Lhe
level of supporL he would have ln Lhe Arab
world. Pe assumed LhaL Lhe have-noLs ln Lhe
Arab world would be happy wlLh Lhe demlse of
oll-rlch kuwalL. Pe was surprlsed by Lhe
opposlLlon Lo hls occupaLlon of kuwalL by even
Lhose who were closesL Lo hlm, such as !ordan
and Lhe alesLlne LlberaLlon CrganlzaLlon.

1hlrd, Saddam Pusscln belleved LhaL Lhe unlLed
SLaLes would noL lnLerfeLe mlllLarlly lf he were
Lo occupy kuwalL. When Lhe unlLed SLaLes
declded Lo send Lroops Lo defend Saudl Arabla
and llberaLe kuwalL, he LhoughL LhaL Lhe u.S.
was blufflng and would noL wage a war agalnsL
lraq because of Lhe former's vleLnam
complex-Lhe fear of belng enLangled ln a long
drawn-ouL war ln a dlsLanL land. Pe felL LhaL,
even lf Lhe unlLed SLaLes dld aLLack lraql Lroops,
Lhe low Lolerance of Lhe Amerlcan publlc Lo u.S.
casualLles would force Lhe unlLed SLaLes Lo end
Lhe war and negoLlaLe an accepLable agreemenL
wlLh lraq.

lourLh, Saddam Pusseln was deLermlned Lo
aLLack lsrael lf a war erupLed. Pe belleved LhaL
lsrael would Lhen reLallaLe, leadlng Lo Lhe
collapse of Lhe Arab, and hence, Lhe
lnLernaLlonal alllance agalnsL lraq. When
aLLacked, lsrael opLed noL Lo reLallaLe and
reaped enormous beneflLs for lLs resLralnL.

17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$,)"!"

llfLh, lraq's vlcLory over lran, albelL aL an
ouLrageous cosL, and Lhe end of Lhe lran-lraq
war, unleashed an unreallsLlc level of
confldence ln Lhe lraql mlllLary's capablllLles.
lraq emerged as Lhe fourLh largesL army ln Lhe
world-an army LhaL was well-equlpped, and
baLLle-hardened. Where Saddam Pusseln
mlscalculaLed was by assumlng LhaL Lhls army
would or could puL up a flghL agalnsL Lhe u.S.
and oLher WesLern armles. More lmporLanLly,
Lhe lraql leader mlscalculaLed when he assumed
LhaL hls Lroops were commlLLed Lo flghLlng for
Lhe sake of reLalnlng kuwalL.

Conc|us|on

lraq's lnvaslon of kuwalL wlll go down ln hlsLory
as one of Lhose Lraglc evenLs LhaL preclplLaLed
as a resulL of one man's mlscalculaLlons.
WheLher lraq had [usLlflable grlevances agalnsL
kuwalL no longer ls Lhe lssue. 1hese grlevances
were qulckly overshadowed by Lhe Lremendous
desLrucLlon caused by kuwalL's lnvaslon, and
durlng Lhe baLLle for lLs subsequenL llberaLlon.

Many have argued LhaL Saddam Pusseln could
have seLLled hls grlevances wlLh kuwalL wlLhouL
havlng Lo physlcally occupy Lhe counLry.
noneLheless whaL Saddam Pusseln could or
could noL have done ls ln Lhe realm of
speculaLlon. WhaL ls unshakably clear ls LhaL
lraq's lnvaslon of kuwalL led Lo a chaln of evenLs
whlch LhreaLen noL only Saddam Pusseln's
career, buL also lraq's amblLlon Lo be Lhe
domlnanL power ln Lhe Culf and Lhe Arab world.

A|a|n Destexhe: kwanda and Genoc|de |n the 1went|eth Century

lo tbe sptloq of 1994, tbe westeto meJlo tepotteJ ttlbol wotfote of ooosool fetoclty lo kwooJo, o
smoll ceottol Aftlcoo coootty wltb 2olte oo lts west, uqooJo oo lts oottb, ooJ keoyo oo lts eost. 1oqetbet
wltb lts sootbeto oelqbbot, 8otooJl, kwooJo boJ beeo o Cetmoo colooy ftom 1885 to wotlJ wot l ooJ o
8elqloo mooJote ftom 1925 to 1962. lo 1994, tbe mojotlty notos seemeJ loteot oo klllloq os mooy of tbe
mlootlty 1otsls, wbo boJ fotmetly eojoyeJ sometbloq of oo ellte stotos, os tbey coolJ. lo tbe sommet
mootbs of tbe some yeot, tbe kwooJoo lottlotlc ltoot (kll), o qtoop composeJ lotqely of 1otsls lo exlle
lo uqooJo, wltb some notos bostlle to tbe teqlme, leJ oo lovosloo tbot socceeJeJ lo topplloq olmost tbe
eotlte noto qovetomeot. 1be leoJetsblp of tbe folleo teqlme eocootoqeJ notos to flee tbe coootty, ooJ
booJteJs of tboosooJs JlJ so, boqe oombets eoJloq op lo o sptowlloq tefoqee comp lo Como, jost octoss
tbe 2oltloo botJet.

Alolo uestexbe ls oo expetleoceJ obsetvet of Aftlcoo offolts ooJ tbe fotmet sectetoty qeoetol of
MJeclos soos ltootltes (uoctots wltboot 8otJets), o wotlJwlJe tellef ooJ beoltb otqoolzotloo vety
octlve lo Aftlco. lo bls wotk, excetpteJ bete, be ttoces bow tbe 1otsls, wbo tolseJ cottle ooJ ocpolteJ
weoltb ooJ stotos sepototloq tbem ftom tbe notos, wbo wete mostly ctop fotmets ooJ lobotets, become
tbe objects of motJetoos teseotmeot.

R2"6%$+#6S(
1. now woolJ yoo Jefloe qeooclJe? uo yoo tblok tbot uestexbe ls cottect lo loJlctloq tbe noto
leoJetsblp fot tbls ctlme?
2. lo tbe tefoqee comp ot Como ot leost teos of tboosooJs ooJ posslbly sevetol booJteJ tboosooJ
notos JleJ, lotqely ftom cboleto, wblcb swept tbe oteo lo eplJemlc fosbloo. 5evetol meJlo sootces
opplleJ tbe tetm qeooclJe to tbe ttoqeJy ot Como, bot uestexbe floJs lt loopptoptlote. wbot Jo yoo
tblok?
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$,*"!"

J. uestexbe floJs ooly tbtee booo flJe coses of qeooclJe lo tbe tweotletb ceototy. Apott ftom tbe Nozls
klllloq Iews ooJ notos klllloq 1otsls, JlscosseJ bete, wbot Jo yoo soppose bls tbltJ exomple ls? woolJ
yoo oJJ o tbltJ ooe? uo yoo tblok tbete ls o vollJ cooceptool botJet betweeo qeooclJe ooJ qeoetlc
moss motJet? wby ot wby oot?

(
1+2)B"S(ltom Alolo uestexbe, kwooJo ooJ CeooclJe lo tbe 1weotletb ceototy, ttoos. by Allsoo
Motscboet (New otk. New otk uolvetslty ltess, 1995), pp. 28, J0, J1-J2, JJ, J7-J8, 4J, 47, 49, 61-62,
70, posslm.

nU1U kACIS1 IDLCLCG

lL Look exacLly flfLy years . . . lL or someLhlng
very llke lL has lndeed happened agaln. !usL as
PlLler's grand plan was founded on an lngralned
Luropean anLl-SemlLlsm whlch he played on by
slngllng ouL Lhe !ews as Lhe source of all
Cermany's llls, Lhe PuLu radlcals are lnherlLors
of Lhe colonlal lunacy of classlfylng and gradlng
dlfferenL eLhnlc groups ln a raclal hlerarchy.
Whlle Lhe !ews were descrlbed by nazls as
vermln," Lhe 1uLsls were called lnvenzl (Lhe
cockroaches LhaL have Lo be crushed"). AnLl-
1uLsl propaganda presenLed Lhem as a
mlnorlLy, well-off and forelgn"-so slmllar Lo
Lhe lmage developed Lo sLlgmaLlze Lhe !ews-
and Lhus an ldeal scapegoaL for all 8wanda's
problems.

ln a counLry whlch recelves vlrLually no
lnformaLlon from Lhe ouLslde world, local
medla, parLlcularly Lhe radlo, play an essenLlal
role. lor a large parL of Lhe populaLlon, a
LranslsLor radlo ls Lhe only source for
lnformaLlon and Lherefore has Lhe poLenLlal for
exerLlng a powerful lnfluence. 8wandan radlo
broadcasLs are ln Lwo languages, lrench and
Lhe naLlonal language, klnyarwanda, whlch ls
spoken by all 8wandans. Less Lhan a year before
Lhe genoclde began, Lwo close assoclaLes of
resldenL Pabyarlmana seL up Lhe prlvaLe"
radlo sLaLlon, known as 8adlo Mllle Colllnes
(1housand Pllls). Assured of a large audlence
Lhanks Lo regular programs of popular muslc,
Lhe programs ln klnyarwanda broadcasL
unceaslng messages of haLe, such as 1he grave
ls only half full. Who wlll help us flll lL?"
ChrlsLened Lhe radlo LhaL kllls" by lLs
opponenLs, lL was Lhe baslc lnsLrumenL of
propaganda for Lhe PuLu exLremlsLs, and Lhe
mlllLlas rallled ln supporL of lLs slogans.

Cn 6 Aprll 1994 Lhe plane carrylng resldenL
Pabyarlmana and resldenL Cyprlen
nLarlyamlra of 8urundl was shoL down by
rockeL flre. AlLhough lL ls noL yeL known who
was behlnd Lhls assasslnaLlon, lL ls clear LhaL lL
acLed as Lhe fuse for Lhe erupLlon of vlolence
whlch led Lo Lhe greaLesL Lragedy ln Lhe hlsLory
of Lhe counLry.

As Lhe sLereoLypes of physlcal characLerlsLlcs do
noL always provlde sufflclenL ldenLlflcaLlon-
and can even be LoLally mlsleadlng-lL was Lhe
ldenLlLy cards demanded aL Lhe roadblocks seL
up by Lhe mlllLlas LhaL acLed as Lhe slgnaLure of
a deaLh warranL for Lhe 1uLsls. As conLrol of Lhe
road could noL alone ensure LhaL no 1uLsl
escaped, Lhe mlllLla leaders dlvlded up Lhe
LerrlLory under Lhelr conLrol so LhaL one man
was allocaLed for every Len households ln order
Lo sysLemaLlcally search for 1uLsls ln Lhelr
lmmedlaLe locallLles. ln Lhls way every 1uLsl
famlly could be denounced by somebody who
knew Lhe members personally: puplls were
kllled by Lhelr Leachers, shop owners by Lhelr
cusLomers, nelghbor kllled nelghbor and
husbands kllled wlves ln order Lo save Lhem
from a more Lerrlble deaLh. Churches where
1uLsls soughL sancLuary were parLlcular LargeLs
and Lhe scene of some of Lhe worsL massacres:
2,800 people ln klbungo, 6,000 ln Cyahlnda,
4,000 ln klbeho, Lo glve [usL a few examples. ln
8wanda, Lhe chlldren of mlxed marrlages Lake
Lhe eLhnlc group of Lhe faLher and, alLhough
many of Lhe PuLu klllers-lncludlng some mlllLla
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$,+"!"

leaders-had 1uLsl moLhers, so effecLlve was
Lhe lndocLrlnaLlon program, LhaL even Lhls
apparenLly counLed for noLhlng. 8adlo Mllle
Colllnes encouraged Lhe vlolence wlLh
sLaLemenLs such as LhaL made aL Lhe end of
Aprll 1994, 8y 3 May, Lhe counLry musL be
compleLely cleansed of 1uLsls." Lven Lhe
chlldren were LargeLed: We wlll noL repeaL Lhe
mlsLake of 1939. 1he chlldren musL be kllled
Loo." 1he medla dlrecLly lnfluenced PuLu
peasanLs, convlnclng Lhem LhaL Lhey were
under LhreaL and encouraglng Lhem Lo make
Lhe 1uLsls smaller" by decaplLaLlng Lhem. ln Lhe
norLhern areas occupled by Lhe 8l, Lhe
peasanLs were asLonlshed LhaL Lhe 1uLsl soldlers
dld noL have horns, Lalls and eyes LhaL shone ln
Lhe dark as Lhey had been descrlbed ln radlo
programs.

1he genoclde spread rapldly Lo cover Lhe whole
counLry under Lhe conLrol of Lhe governmenL
army. 8y Lhe end of Aprll, lL was esLlmaLed LhaL
100,000 people had been kllled. 1here are
aspecLs of Lhls genoclde whlch are new and
conLemporary, oLhers we have seen before. 1he
use of propaganda, Lhe way conLrol was
exerclsed over Lhe admlnlsLraLlon: Lhese are all
reflecLlons of Lhe modern era. So Loo are Lhe
exLreme raclsL ldeology and Lhe radlcal
deLermlnaLlon Lo exLermlnaLe all 1uLsls ln one
all-encompasslng blow. lL would be a mlsLake Lo
Lhlnk LhaL Lhe kllllngs were carrled ouL ln an
archalc manner: Lhe reallLy ls LhaL Lhey were
meLlculously well organlzed. Powever, Lhe
means used Lo accompllsh Lhem were prlmlLlve
ln Lhe exLreme: for example, Lhe use of
macheLes and unfunls (wooden clubs sLudded
wlLh meLal splkes). unforLunaLely, Lhe medla
ecllpsed Lhe flrsL aspecL of lLs preoccupaLlon
wlLh Lhe second.

nobody really knows Lhe exacL orlgln of Lhe
PuLu, 1uLsl and 1wa peoples (Lhe 1wa represenL
only one percenL of Lhe populaLlon and have
never played a slgnlflcanL role ln Lhe reglon).
1he Lhree groups speak Lhe same language,
share Lhe same LerrlLory and follow Lhe same
LradlLlons. 8y all deflnlLlons, Lhls should quallfy
8wanda as a naLlon ln Lhe Lrue sense.

1he flrsL Luropeans Lo reach 8wandan LerrlLory
descrlbed Lhe people and Lhelr way of llfe ln
Lerms very much lnfluenced by Lhe sclenLlflc
ldeas of Lhelr Llme. unLll Lhe beglnnlng of Lhe
nlneLeenLh cenLury, Lhe orlgln of Afrlca's many
peoples was regarded by Luropeans as rooLed
ln Lhe blbllcal sLory of Pam, noah's son. 1he
book of Cenesls Lells how Pam and hls
descendanLs were cursed LhroughouL all
generaLlons afLer he had seen hls faLher naked.
1he 8lacks" were belleved Lo be descendanLs
of Pam, Lhelr color a resulL of LhaL curse. AL Lhe
beglnnlng of Lhe nlneLeenLh cenLury, llngulsLlc
sLudles, archaeologlcal research and raLlonal
Lhlnklng led Lo a quesLlonlng of Lhls Lheory,
whlch was subsequenLly replaced wlLh a sysLem
of classlfylng people accordlng Lo Lhelr physlcal
characLerlsLlcs: skln color, Lype of halr, shape of
Lhe skull, eLc. 1hose who were Lhen classlfled as
blacks" were regarded as anoLher" klnd of
human belng, noL descended from noah. ?eL
Lhls classlflcaLlon dld noL cover Lhe whole
populaLlon of Lhe Afrlcan conLlnenL. Lxplorers ln
Lhe reglon we now know as nlger and Lhe areas
of Lhe Zambezl and Lhe upper nlle, came across
people LhaL dld noL correspond Lo Lhe
carlcaLure of Lhe negro.

So lL was LhaL Cerman, and laLer 8elglan,
colonlzers developed a sysLem of caLegorles for
dlfferenL Lrlbes" LhaL was largely a funcLlon of
aesLheLlc lmpresslons. lndlvlduals were
caLegorlzed as PuLu or 1uLsl accordlng Lo Lhelr
degree of beauLy, Lhelr prlde, lnLelllgence and
pollLlcal organlzaLlon. 1he colonlzers
esLabllshed a dlsLlncLlon beLween Lhose who
dld noL correspond Lo Lhe sLereoLype of a negro
(Lhe 1uLsl) and Lhose who dld (Lhe PuLu). 1he
flrsL group, superlor Afrlcans," were
deslgnaLed PamlLes or whlLe coloreds" who
represenLed a mlsslng llnk" beLween Lhe
whlLes" and Lhe blacks." Also lncluded ln Lhls
group were Lhe Calla peoples of LLhlopla and
Somalla. Any quallLy aLLrlbuLed Lo an Afrlcan
group musL be read as a slgn of lnLerbreedlng
17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"$,,"!"

wlLh 'non-negro' culLures":1 Lhls hamlLlc"
ldeology LranslaLes lnLo Lhe hypoLhesls, for
whlch Lhere ls no serlous proof, LhaL a mlgraLlon
of Lhe Calla Look place ln Lhe sevenLeenLh
cenLury, Lhus explalnlng Lhe slmllarlLles
beLween Lhe Calla and Lhe 1uLsl.

1he 8elglans also favored Lhe 1uLsl sLudenLs and
Lhe maln prlorlLy of 8wanda's schools was Lhelr
educaLlon. As Lhls was, lnevlLably, also Lhe
pollcy aL Lhe LerLlary level, Lhe educaLed ellLe aL
Lhe counLry's unlverslLy, AsLrlda, Lhe fuLure
admlnlsLraLlve and Lechnlcal backbone of Lhe
counLry, were very largely 1uLsl. 1he colonlzers
blamed Lhe lmbalance ln Lhe schools and
resulLlng low soclal sLandlng of Lhe PuLu on
PuLu passlvlLy, maklng no acknowledgemenL of
Lhelr own role ln Lhe slLuaLlon. 1he legacy of
Lhls Lheory conLlnues even Loday. 1he
mlsslonarles also supporLed Lhe 1uLsl power
sLrucLure, uslng lL Lo evangellze from Lhe Lop
down. 1he 1uLsl chlefs, once Lhey had become
ChrlsLlan, Lhen felL a moral obllgaLlon Lo converL
Lhe PuLu masses. 1he semlnarles were more
open Lo Lhe PuLu Lhan Lhe schools. AlLhough,
afLer 1939, Lhe educaLed 1uLsl someLlmes
backed Lhe Lheory of Lhe mono-eLhnlc orlglns of
Lhe populaLlon followlng Lhe removal from
power of Lhe 1uLsl arlsLocracy . . . Lhe myLh of
LgypLlan orlglns and PamlLlc superlorlLy was
supporLed by many among Lhe 1uLsl people.
Some PuLu dlscovered Lhe exLenL Lo whlch Lhey,
Lhe naLlve" people of Lhe reglon, had been
despolled" and developed Lhelr own Lheory of
Lhe LLhloplan lnvaders," caLegorlzlng Lhe 1uLsl
as colonlzers, Lhe same as Lhe 8elglans.
8wandan 1uLsls were from now on LreaLed as
lmmlgranLs and Lhe 1939 revoluLlonarles"
called for Lhe reLurn Lo LLhlopla of Lhe 1uLsl
colonlzers." 1he PuLu had begun Lo belleve LhaL
Lhey alone were Lhe naLlve people of 8wanda.

8elglum, crlLlclzed aL Lhe un for a colonlal
pollcy LhaL ensured LhaL only a handful of Lhe
local populaLlon ln Lhelr colonles recelved
sufflclenL Lralnlng for Lhem Lo evenLually be
promoLed Lo Lhe hlgher levels of Lhelr naLlonal
admlnlsLraLlons-a pollcy almed aL ensurlng
LhaL Lhey would noL Lhlnk Lhey were capable of
runnlng Lhelr own counLry-gradually ceded
power Lo Lhe small PuLu ellLe. 1he democraLlc
prlnclple of ma[orlLy rule was clLed as
[usLlflcaLlon for Lhe removal of Lhe 1uLsl from
Lhelr prevlous poslLlons of lnfluence, a
compleLe reversal of prevlous pollLlcal pollcy.
1he PuLu became Lhe good guys" who have
been domlnaLed for so long by Lhe 1uLsl" and
Lhe 8elglans now expressed sympaLhy for Lhe
cause of Lhe suppressed masses."

ln 1939, a serles of rloLs dlrecLed agalnsL Lhe
auLhorlLy of Lhe 1uLsl chlefs were allowed by
Lhe 8elglans Lo escalaLe lnLo a revoluLlon
accompanled by massacres whlch kllled more
Lhan 20,000 1uLsl. WhaL happened ln 8wanda
lllusLraLes a slLuaLlon where Lhe coexlsLence of
dlfferenL soclal groups or casLes
meLamorphosed lnLo an eLhnlc problem wlLh an
overwhelmlngly raclsL dlmenslon. 1he
carlcaLure of physlcal sLereoLypes, alLhough
Lhey dld noL always hold Lrue and were
probably due Lo Lhe prlnclple of endogamy
pracLlced by each group desplLe Lhe number of
mlxed marrlages, was manlpulaLed Lo provlde
proof of Lhe raclal superlorlLy of one group over
Lhe oLher. Archalc pollLlcal dlvlslons were
progresslvely Lransformed lnLo raclal ldeologles
and repeaLed ouLbreaks of vlolence resulLlng
from Lhe colonlal herlLage whlch was absorbed
by local ellLes who Lhen broughL lL lnLo Lhe
pollLlcal arena. 1he presenL generaLlon has
lnLernallzed Lhls eLhnologlcal colonlal model,
wlLh some groups dellberaLely chooslng Lo play
Lhe Lrlbal card. 1he reglmes LhaL have ruled
8wanda and 8urundl slnce lndependence have
shown LhaL Lhey acLually need eLhnlc dlvlslons
ln order boLh Lo relnforce and [usLlfy Lhelr
poslLlons. llnally, however, lL was Lhe eLhnlc
classlflcaLlon reglsLered on ldenLlLy cards
lnLroduced by Lhe 8elglans LhaL served as Lhe
baslc lnsLrumenL for Lhe genoclde of Lhe 1uLsl
people who were gullLy" on Lhree counLs: Lhey
were a mlnorlLy, Lhey were a remalnder of a
feudal sysLem and Lhey were regarded as
colonlzers ln Lhelr own counLry.

17S0 C.L. to 1914 C.L.

!"%--"!"

uay by day, as Lhe deaLh Loll lncreased ln Lhe
sprlng of 1994, Lhe reallLy LhaL a genoclde was
underway became clearer. 8y Lhe end of Aprll, lL
was esLlmaLed LhaL 100,000 people had been
kllled, by mld-May 200,000, and by Lhe end of
May half a mllllon. AlLhough nobody really
knew Lhe acLual deaLh Loll, Lhe slgns of
massacres were everywhere and Lhe 8lver
nyaborongo carrled Lhousands of corpses
Lowards Lake vlcLorla along whaL PuLu
propaganda descrlbed as Lhe shorLesL way
back Lo LLhlopla."

1aklng humanlLarlan, raLher Lhan pollLlcal,
acLlon ls one of Lhe besL ways for a developed
counLry Lo avold faclng up Lo lLs responslblllLles
ln Lhe wake of a dlsasLer such as 8wanda.
AnoLher way ls language. Lmploylng a parLlcular
vocabulary can casL doubL on Lhe acLual causes
of Lhe massacre and fosLer confused lmages of
Lhe gullLy and Lhe vlcLlms. Warrlng parLles,"
belllgerenLs" and clvll war" on one hand, and
aggresslon," massacre" and genoclde" on
Lhe oLher, are all sLrong words-buL Lhey are
noL synonyms ln meanlng. under Lhe cover of a
supposed ob[ecLlvlLy, Lo suggesL LhaL boLh
parLles" have commlLLed aLroclLles can ofLen be
seen as an underhand way of glvlng Lhem Lhe
same sLaLus. 1o speak of Lrlbal dlspuLes when
an armed ma[orlLy perpeLraLes a genoclde
agalnsL an unarmed mlnorlLy ls paLronlzlng and
meanlngless. 1he aggresslon agalnsL Lhe
8osnlans and Lhe genoclde of Lhe 1uLsls boLh
exceed clvll war. ln Lhe case of 8wanda, Lo
compare Lhe 8l wlLh Lhe 8wandan Armed
lorces (lA8) ls aL besL a dlsplay of lgnorance, aL
worsL propaganda. 1he lA8 have commlLLed a
genoclde and Lhe 8l have carrled ouL
exacLlons: Lhe Lwo Lhlngs cannoL be compared.
lf a dlsLlncLlon ls noL made, Lhen genoclde ls
reduced Lo Lhe sLaLus of common murder-buL
murder ls noL Lhe same as genoclde. 1hey dlffer
boLh ln naLure and ln degree, a facL LhaL needs
Lo be consLanLly emphaslzed lf Lhe crlmes
commlLLed ln 8wanda are noL Lo be pushed Lo
Lhe back of lnLernaLlonal consclousness.

1he raclsL phllosophy of Lhe prevlous PuLu
governmenL and Lhe dangers of Lrlvlallzlng, and
even forgeLLlng, Lhe evenLs of lasL summer are
summed up perfecLly ln a remarkable lnLervlew
wlLh lranols karera, Lhe former mayor of
klgall, now llvlng comforLably wlLh hls famlly ln
Zalre, [usL a few mlles from Lhe mlsery of Lhe
refugee camps (one of whlch he ls responslble
for). Accordlng Lo karera, 1he 1uLsls are
orlglnally bad. 1hey are murderers. 1he 1uLsls
have glven Lhe whlLe people Lhelr daughLers.
hyslcally Lhey are weak-look aL Lhelr arms
and legs. no 1uLsl can bulld: Lhey are Loo weak .
. . Lhey [usL command. . . . 1he oLhers work. lf
Lhe reasons are [usL, Lhe massacres are [usLlfled.
ln war you don'L conslder Lhe consequences,
you conslder Lhe causes."2

1he perpeLraLors of genoclde should
permanenLly lose any leglLlmacy as rulers of
Lhelr people. 1hey should be ouLlawed by Lhe
lnLernaLlonal communlLy and broughL Lo Lrlal
for Lhelr crlmes. ln Lhe case of 8wanda, no
aLLempL should be made Lo negoLlaLe wlLh
Lhose responslble for Lhe genoclde of Lhe 1uLsls:
Lhey are noL only dlrecLly responslble for Lhls
worsL posslble crlme agalnsL humanlLy, buL also
for Lhe exodus from 8wanda and Lhe
caLasLrophlc evenLs ln Coma whlch followed.
When Lhe new Allled forces won vlcLory ln
1943, Lhere was never any quesLlon of
provldlng a role for Lhe nazl parLy ln Lhe new
Cermany, nor of conslderlng [usL how small a
fracLlon of Lhe populaLlon lL really represenLed.
1he nazls were banned ouLrlghL and Lhe
auLhors of genoclde Lhen, as should happen ln
8wanda Loday, losL any rlghL Lo parLlclpaLe ln
publlc llfe.

1. 1hls hypoLhesls orlglnaLed wlLh Lhe 8rlLlsh
explorer !.P. Speke, references Lo lL conLlnued as
laLe as
1943. !ean-lerre ChreLlen, 8urundl: l'hlsLolre
reLrouvee (arls: karLhala, 1993).
2. lnLernaLlonal Perald-1rlbune, 16 AugusL 1994.

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