Methodology
Introduction Factors Influencing the Penetration Depth of GPR GPR Soil Indices Relative Suitability of Soils for GPR Ground-Penetrating Radar Soil Suitability Maps References C ontact the Author Tables
Introduction
Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) is widely used by a diverse group of service providers that include agronomist, archaeologists, criminologists, engineers, environmental specialists, foresters, geologists, geophysicists, hydrologists, land use managers, and soil scientists. In recent years, GPR has gained recognition in the search for terrorism and military hazards. A common concern of GPR service providers is whether or not GPR will be able to achieve the desired depth of penetration in the soils of a project area. In many soils, high rates of signal attenuation severely restrict penetration depths and limit the suitability of GPR for a large number of applications. In saline soils, where penetration depths are often less than 10 inches (Daniels, 2004), GPR is unsuited to most applications. In wet clays, where penetration depths are typically less than 40 inches (Doolittle et al., 2002), GPR has very low potentials for most applications. However, GPR is highly suited to most applications in dry sands and gravels, where penetration depths can exceed 160 feet with low frequency antennas (Smith and Jol, 1995). Most GPR service providers have limited knowledge of soils and are unable to foretell attenuation rates, penetration depths, and the general suitability of the soils within project areas to GPR. Knowledge of the probable penetration depth and the relative suitability of soils would help service providers assess the appropriateness of using GPR and the likelihood of achieving acceptable results. Soil attribute data contained in the State Soil Geographic (STATSGO) and the Soil Survey Geographic (SSURGO) data bases have been used to develop thematic maps showing, at different scales and levels of resolution, the relative suitability of soils for many GPR applications. Both STATSGO and SSURGO data bases consist of digital map data, attribute data, and Federal Geographic Data C ommittee compliant metadata. These data bases are linked to soil interpretation records, which contain data on the physical and chemical properties of approximately 22,000 different soils (USDA-Natural Resources C onservation Service, 1994). The STATSGO data base was developed by the USDA-NRC S and published in 1994 (USDA-Natural Resources C onservation Service, 1994). State Soil Geographic data are available for the conterminous United States, Alaska, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico. Because of the small compilation scale (1:250,000) of STATSGO maps, soil map units and polygons that appear on soil survey maps had to be combined and generalized. This procedure resulted in fewer soil map units and larger soil polygons. The STATSGO data base contains 9,555 unique map units and 78,507 polygons. The minimum polygon size is about 1,544 acres. The composition of each map units was coordinated so that the names and relative extent of each soil component would remain the same between survey areas and across political boundaries. In areas where detailed soil maps are not available, existing data were assembled, reviewed, and the most probable classification and extent of soils determined (USDA-Natural Resources C onservation Service, 1994). Larger scale, less generalized maps, which show in greater detail the spatial distribution of soil properties that influence the penetration depth and effectiveness of GPR, are prepared using the SSURGO data base. The SSURGO data base (USDA-Natural Resources C onservation Service, 1995) contains the most detailed level of soil geographic data developed by the USDA-NRC S. Soil maps in the SSURGO data base duplicate the original soil survey maps, which were prepared using national standards and field methods at scales ranging from 1:12,000 to 1:63,360 (with minimum delineation size of about 1.5 to 40 acres, respectively) (Soil Survey Staff, 1993). Base maps are USGS 7.5-minute topographic quadrangles and 1:12,000 or
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1:24,000 orthophotoquads. Tabular and spatial SSURGO data are available through the Soil Data Mart (http://soildatamart.nrcs.usda.gov/). The USDA-NRC S is presently compiling and digitizing data from additional soil survey areas. C ompletion of the SSURGO data digitizing is scheduled for 2011. A status map showing the digitized soil survey areas can be accessed at http://www.soils.usda.gov/survey/geography/ssurgo/.
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signal attenuation and penetration depths will vary. With a 200 MHz antenna, in soils with very high potential for GPR, the effective penetration depth has averaged about 16.5 feet. However, because of variations in textural layering, mineralogy, soil water content, and the ionic concentration of the soil water, the depth of penetration can range from 3.3 to greater than 50 feet. Areas dominated by mineral soils with 18 to 35 percent clay or with 35 to 60 percent clay that are mostly low-activity clay minerals have moderate potential (SI of 3) for GPR. Low activity clays are principally associated with older, more intensely weathered soils. In soils with moderate potential for GPR, the effective penetration depth with a 200 MHz antenna has averaged about 7 feet with a range of about 1.6 to 16 feet. Though penetration depths are restricted, soil polygons with moderate potential are suited to many GPR applications. Mineral soils with 35 to 60 percent clay, or calcareous and/or gypsiferous soils with 18 to 35 percent clay have low potential (SI of 4) for GPR. Areas with low potential are very depth restrictive to GPR. In soils with low potential for GPR, the depth of penetration with a 200 MHz antenna has averaged about 1.6 feet with a range of about 0.8 to 6.5 feet. Areas that are unsuited (SI >5) to GPR consist of saline and sodic soils. These soil map units are principally restricted to arid and semiarid regions and coastal areas of the United States.
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not yet inventoried or mapped (e.g., non project soil survey areas), or the soils have been mapped but the spatial data have not been digitized, archived, and available for public distribution through the Soil Data Mart. Also appearing as Not Digitized are areas where the soils were not inventoried, but polygons were assigned a descriptive map unit name (e.g., Access denied, Arlington National C emetery, Not mapped). Polygons shown as Not Rated contain missing soil property data in more than 50 percent of their area. These polygons are shown in gray on state GPR soil suitability maps. Most miscellaneous areas and some areas mapped at higher levels of soil classification (e.g., Ustorthents, Udifluvents) lack pertinent soil property data and are shown as Not Rated. Miscellaneous areas contain little or no soil and support little or no vegetation. Examples include areas of exposed parent rock (e.g., C inder land, Lava flows, Quarries, Rock outcrop, Rubble land), recently exposed or deposited materials (e.g., Badlands, Beaches, Rough broken land), and culturally modified materials (e.g., Borrow pits, Dumps, Earthen dams, Made land, Paved areas, Urban land). Some miscellaneous areas, because of intrinsic properties (Salt flats, Playas, Sand dune, Dunes, and Dune land), have been assigned index values. This was accomplished using a companion lookup table that contains keys, which overrides the programmed codes and adjusts the ratings. Some multi-component map units consist of soils and/or miscellaneous areas that have exceedingly different GPR index values. In these map units, the rating for the most extensive component is used. If the component percentages are identical, the most limiting rating is selected. Examples are the Isolde-Appian complex and the Dune land-Playas complex from Nevada. Isolde and Appian are recognized soil series and are members of the mixed, mesic Typic Torripsamments and the fine-loamy over sandy or sandy skeletal, mixed, superactive, mesic Typic Natrargids families, respectively. Dune land and Playas are two highly contrasting miscellaneous areas that have soil property data. In each of these soil map units, the named components occupy about 40 percent of the polygon and have C IVs of either 1 (Isolde and Dune land) or 6 (Appian and Playas). These units are assigned an SI of 6, based on the most limiting rating. An urban rule was introduced to provide some information for areas of Urban land that were mapped with at least one named soil component. For urban land map units, if named soil components make up 25 percent or more of the soil polygons, the C IV for the most extensive soil is used. If the extent of two or more soils is equal, the most limiting C IV is used (tie-rule). Because of changes in mapping concepts, the recognition of new soils, additional laboratory data and revised soil interpretations, changes in GPR soil suitability indices are evident along some county and soil survey borders. These discrepancies in GPR indices are artificial and represent the patchwork collection of soil data over time. Modern soil surveys conform to natural soil and physiographic features rather than political boundaries. Under modern soil survey concepts, common standards and quality control will be applied and soil polygons and interpretations will join across political boundaries. As soil surveys are updated, these mapping artifacts (soil boundaries that follow political rather than soil or physiographic boundaries) will be eliminated.
References
Daniels, D. J., 2004. Ground Penetrating Radar, 2nd Edition. The Institute of Electrical Engineers, London, United Kingdom. Doolittle, J. A. and M. E. C ollins, 1995. Use of soil information to determine application of groundpenetrating radar. Journal of Applied Geophysics, 33:101-108. Doolittle, J. A., F. E. Minzenmayer, S. W. Waltman, and E. C . Benham, 2002. Ground penetrating radar soil suitability map of the conterminous United States. 7-12 pp. In: Koppenjan, S. K., and L. Hua (Eds). Ninth International C onference on Ground Penetrating Radar. Proceedings of SPIE Volume 4158. 30 April to 2 May 2002. Santa Barbara, C A. Grant, J. A. and P. H. Schultz, 1994. Erosion of ejecta at Meteor C rater: C onstraints from ground penetrating radar. 789-803 pp. In: Proceedings Fifth International C onference on Ground-Penetrating Radar. Waterloo C entre for Groundwater Research and the C anadian Geotechnical Society. June 1214, 1994, Kitchner, Ontario, C anada. Jackson, M. L., 1959. Frequency distribution of clay minerals in major great soil groups as related to the
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factors of soil formation. Clays and Clay Minerals 6: 133-143. McNeill, J. D., 1980. Electrical conductivity of soils and rock. Technical Note TN-5. Geonics Limited, Mississauga, Ontario. Saarenketo, T., 1998. Electrical properties of water in clay and silty soils. Journal of Applied Geophysics 40: 73-88. Smith, D. G. and H. M. Jol, 1995. Ground-penetrating radar: antenna frequencies and maximum probable depths of penetration in Quaternary sediments. Journal of Applied Geophysics 33: 93-1. Soil Survey Staff, 1993. Soil Survey Manual. US Department of Agriculture - Soil C onservation Service, Handbook No. 18, US Government Printing Office. Washington, DC . Soil Survey Staff, 1999. Soil Taxonomy, A Basic System of Soil Classification for Making and Interpreting Soil Surveys 2nd Edition. US Department of Agriculture - Natural Resources C onservation Service, Agriculture Handbook No. 436, US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC . U. S. C ensus Bureau, 2008a. C urrent C ounty and Equivalent, TIGER/Line 2008 (cartographic boundary file, tl_2008_us_county.zip). Available FTP: ftp://ftp2.census.gov/geo/tiger/TIGER2008/. [Accessed on February 20, 2009] U. S. C ensus Bureau, 2008b. C urrent State and Equivalent, TIGER/Line 2008 (cartographic boundary file, tl_2008_us_state.zip). Available FTP: ftp://ftp2.census.gov/geo/tiger/TIGER2008/. [Accessed on February 20, 2009] U. S. C ensus Bureau, 2008c. Urban Areas (generalized cartographic boundary file, ua99_d00_shp.zip). Available FTP: http://www.census.gov/geo/cob/bdy/ua/ua00shp/. [Accessed on February 20, 2009] USDA - Natural Resources C onservation Service, 1994. State Soil Geographic (STATSGO) Database - Data Use Information. Misc. Publication No. 1492. National Soil Survey C enter, Lincoln, NE. USDA - Natural Resources C onservation Service, 1995. Soil Survey Geographic (SSURGO) Database - Data Use Information. Misc. Publication No. 1527. National Soil Survey C enter, Lincoln, NE. U.S. Geological Survey, 1999. Major Roads of the United States: U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia. Available FTP: http://nationalatlas.gov/atlasftp.html U.S. Geological Survey, 2008. Analytical Hillshade computed from 1 kilometer National Elevation Dataset (NEDS) using the following parameters: 315 degrees altitude, 45 degrees azimuth, and z factor 1x. Prepared by USDA-NRC S-NSSC , Lincoln, NE.
Table 1. Soil properties and attribute index values (AIV) used to calculate soil component index values. CIV = (A + B + C).
A. Clay A1.1. Mineral Soils
Clay content 10 > 10 and 18 Attribute Index Value 1 2
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3 4 5
+1
+1
Table 2. Relative composition (%) and component index values (CIV) for a hypothetical map unit.
Component Number 1 Component Percent 21 CIV 5
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2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
19 21 17 1 4 13 3 1
3 4 4 3 3 2 3 3
Table 3. Relative proportion (%) of soil component with the same component index value (CIV) for a hypothetical soil map unit.
Sum Component Percent 21 38 28 13 CIV 5 4 3 2
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