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AN ANALYSIS OF THE M A D A M ROTOR POWER PLANTAN ALTERNATE METHOD FOR EXTRACTING LARGE AMOUNTS OF POWER FROM THE WtND
Volume 2. Technicid Report BY Dale H. Whitford John E. Minardi fjlaine S. West Robert J.Dominic
lune 1978

Work Performed Under Contract No. EX-76-SU1-2554

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University bf Dayton Research Institute Dayton, Ohio

U.S. Department of Energy

''Solar Energy

DISCLAIMER This report was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an agency of the United States Government. Neither the United States Government nor any agency Thereof, nor any of their employees, makes any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal liability or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any information, apparatus, product, or process disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe privately owned rights. Reference herein to any specific commercial product, process, or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise does not necessarily constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by the United States Government or any agency thereof. The views and opinions of authors expressed herein do not necessarily state or reflect those of the United States Government or any agency thereof.

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This report has been reproduced directly from the best available copy.
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DSE-2554-78/2(V01.2)
Distribution Category UC-60

AN ANALYSIS OF THE MADARAS ROTOR POWER PLANT ---- AN ALTERNATE METHOD FOR EXTRACTING LARGE AMOUNTS OF POWER FROM THE WIND

VOLUME 2

TECHNICAL MPORT
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DISCLAIMER

Dale H. Whitford John E. Minardi Blaine S. West Robert J. Dominic

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warranly. express or implied. or e n v m any legll liabilitv or raponribilily for the aaurecv. mmpleleness. or urefulnes o f any information. upparatus. pmduct. or eradirlored. or r g r m n t r lhal i ( l "re *auld not infringe o r i ~ l e l y owned righir Reference herein to any Specific mmmercial produo. process. or rervice by trade mme. trademrk. manufacturer. or orherwire. does mt net-rily mnrlixuic or imply irr endorrement. reammendation. or favorina by the United Staler Government or any agency thereof. The view and opinions of authors expreued herein do no! neeuarilv rtaicor reflect tho=of the Uniled Sieies Gwernment or any ageno thereof.

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UNIVERSITY OF DAYTON RESEARCH INSTITUTE 300 College Park Avenue Dayton, Ohio 45469 June 1978

PREPARED FOR THE UNITED STATES ENERGY RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION DIVISION OF SOLAR ENERGY FEDERAL WIND ENERGY PROGRAM

ERDA CONTRACT NO. E (49-18) -2554

PROJECT SUMMARY The purpose of the program was to analyze and up-date the design of the Madaras Rotor Power Plant concept that had been developed in the 1930's to determine the technical and economic conventional feasibility of this system to be competitive ~ 5 t h horizontal axis wind turbines. The,Madaras concept uses rotating cylinders, vertically mounted on flat cars, to react with the .wind like a sail and propel an endless train of connected cars around a closed . . track at constant speed. Electricity is,generated by alternators on each car that are .'geared. to the wheels. Electriaali power is transmitted from each car to the power house by a Lr-olley system.

A four-task program consisting of a series of wind tunnel tests,.an electro-mechanical analysis, a performance, analysis, and a cost analysis was conducted. Wind tunnel testEs were conducted to validate rotating cylinder data in the literature.and to obtain non-existing data that relates aerodjliamic performaqce to rotating cylinder (rotor) geometry. Supporting studies included'etructural design, mechanical component design, and 'an.electri~at,.system design to provide a realistic set of inputs t o ' a p.eurformance trade study.which provided the basis for selecting a single rotor configuration and set of operating conditions which were considered to represent a good', but not.necessarily an optimum,design. Studies to determine.the minimum spacing between cars'governed by inter-rotor aerodynamic interference also were conducted.
system were used to Drawings and, specifications o,f.the estimate costs, and cost/p8lformance computer runs were made to correlate plant cost, annual output, and energy cost as a function of plant,size parameters. These cost studies incorporated appropriate learning curves to account for reduction in cost resulting from improved production techniques and increased productivity.

Primary results of this study are:

a Madaras plants having circular track ,plan-forms probably will not be economically attractive, but those having .racetrack plan-forms appear to be of .interest. a Madaras racetrack plants appear to be competitive with a farm of MOD-1 horizontal axis machines of equal total power estimation generation capability (to within the overall accuracy'of * . .. for'both schemes) in cost per unit rated power and 'cost'per unit of energy delivered. Cost comparisons were based upon estimates made in this study and estimates made by ~ightower' and General ~ l e c t r i cfor ~ the MOD-1 machine. A Lubs'tantial economicbenefit favoring the Madaras scheme does not appear, althoug,hthhs possibility may exist (under more "optimal" designs determined through more detailed analysis.)

Madaras racetrack plants having rated capacities as high as 228 MW and annual energy outputs of 975 x l o 6 kW-hr/year were studied, and analyses indicated that even large,r,more efficient plants could be developed. Thus, Madaras plants can produce energy utility indushy. in the quantities of interest to the electric,
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a Madaras plants are more.complex,have higher electrical and mechanical losses, and hence will require higher operation and maintenance costs than horizontal axis machines. Further, a racetrack plant configuration for Madaras plants limits them to regions having generally unidirectional winds (including reciprocal directions) in which large expanses of relatively flat land aFe available. (However, similarly-sized HA-P?TG plants require twice the land area as Madaras plants.)

At this,stage of,the investigation, it is not .possible to . . state conclusively -whetheror not.the Madaras system will significantly out-perform a similarly-sized horizontal axis wind turbine system. The Madaras &stem seems to outperform horizontal axis systems in the areas of structural durability., economy of scale, amount and efficiency in use of land, and possibly energy cost. Therefore, in view of this potential, it appears that an in-depth optimal design study of the system is warranted.

TABLE OF SECTION I INTRODUCTION 1.1 Concept Description and Background 1.1.1. System Description' 1..1.2' History of the Madaras Project 1.1.3 Prior Research - Magnus Effect 1.1.4 Prior Research - Tracked Vehicle Airfoil Concept i Dayton Preliminary Studies University . of 1.2 of Madaras System 1.2.1 Performance Analysis 1.2.2 Preliminary Economic Comparisons Key.Features of the Madaras System 1.3
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1.5 I1

Unanswered Questions

OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE 2.1 2.2 Objectives and Scope Ground Rules

I11

WIND TUNNEL TESTS 3.1 Wind Tunnel Study Objectives 3.2 Wind Tunnel Test Plan 3.2.1 Test Matrix 3.2.2 Wind Tunnel ~escription 3.2.3 Test Model Development 3.2.4 Model Mounting in Wind Tunnel 3.2.5 Calibrations and Operational Cheeks 3.2.6 Atmospherjc Boundary Layer Simulation Study 3.2.7 Typical Cylindcr Tcct Procedure 3.3 Free Stream Test Results 3.3.1 Typical Set of Raw Free-Stream Data 3.3.2 Selection.of Test Reynolds Number 3.3.3 Basic Free Stream Data 3.3.4 Effect,of e/d Ratio Variation on CL and CD Effect of Aspect Ratio Variation 3.3.5 on CL and CD 3.3.6 Comparison of UDRI Aerodynamic Data with Pertinent Existing Data 3.3.7 Power Required to Rotate Cylinder

TABLE OF CONTENTS (~ontiinued) PAGE 3.4 IV Boundary Layer' Test Results

STRUCTURAL' .AND MECHANICAL DESIGN 4 .1. Ground Rules' DesTgn Loads 4.2 4.2'.1 Aerodynamic.Loading on .the Cylinder 4.2.2 : Aerodynamic Loading on the Cap 4.2.3. System Accelerat'ion Loads 4.2.4 Snow'and Ice Accumulation 4.2.5 Car Weight, Wheel Loads, and Restraining Loads 4.2.6 Fatigue 4.3 Structure 4.3.1 Rotor Cap 4.3.2 Rotor Cylinder 4.3.3 Rotor Bearings 4.3.4 Support Tower 4.3.5 Rotor Tower 4.3.6 Car Layout 4.3.7 Car Structure 4.3.8 Power Transfer Trolley 4.3.9 Inter-Car Coupling 4.3.10 ~ynamicBalancing of the Rotor 4.4 Design Modifications 4.4.1 Revised Rotor Configuration 4.4.2 Rotor Drive System 4.4.3 Rotor Bearings 4.5 Site Design 4: 5 . 1 Track and Roadbed Design 4.5.2 Plant Buildirlgs 4.6 Mass Summary.of Rotor Cars ELECTRICAL DESIGN Design Guidelines 5.1 5.2 Design Conditions 5.3 Rotor Spin System 5.3.1 Concept Selection 5.3.2 Spin System Sizing 5.3.3 Spin System Controller 5.4 Generator System
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued-)

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SECTION 5.5 Power 5.5.1 5 ' : s . 2 5.5..3

PAGE Plant 154 Primary System Controller 154 Secondary On-Car Controller 155 Radio Telemetry System 156 5 - - 5 . 4 Wind Sensor Network 157 5.5..5 Monitoring Instruments and Actuators157 5.5.6 Operator's Control Station 158 .stem Network Circuitry and Components 159 6.1 System Network Elements 159 159 6.2 Car Trolleys and Trolley Feeder Bus 5.6.3 Distribution r-ircr~it: to the 160 Trolley Feeder Loop 5 . 6 ,4 Synr:h r . r l r ~ c i ~ lReae s tors 161 5.6.5 Utility Feeder Circuits 162 5.6.6 Substation 162

PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS 6.1 6.2 .Mutual Interference Study Parametric Trade Study 6.2.1 Rotor Geometry and Size and Track Size 6.2.2 spin'~otor e.2.3 Track Speod and Gylinder RPM 6.2.4 Spin Motor Schedule 6.2.5 Rotor and Plant Configuration Selection Net Power and Anni.aal. Energy Out.put 6.3.1 Wind Duration curve 6.3.2 Determination of Net Plant Power Output 6.3.3 Development of Power .Duration Curves 165 173 177 181: 1.82 185

190 196 196

197
201

VII

ECONOMIC ANALYSIS 7 ..Z Cost Estimating Procedure CVE~ e r ~ ~ ~ i ~ l d r ~ ~ e / ~ l l a l ~ s i ~ 7.2.1 Unit Cost of Circular-Track Plant Configurations 7.2.2 Unit Cost of Racetrack Plant Configuration 7.2.3 Energy Cost 7.2'.3.1 Racetrack Configurations 7.2.3.2 Energy Cost Comparisons, Best Plant Combinations

204 204 209 209 213 218 219 222

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Concluded) SECTION 7.3 Effect of Land Cost and Learning Curves on Energy Cost 7.3.1 Land Cost Effect 7.3.2 Learning Curve Effect Direction Effect of Nonoptimum.,Wind Compar.ison of Madaras Plants with Horizontal Axis WTG Plants 7.5.1 Medicine Bow Plant Comparison 7.5.2 Comparison of Plants at Sites Having Mean Wind Duration Curves of 8.1 m/s at 9-m Height 7..5.3 .Summary of Madaras versus HA-WTG Plant Comparison
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'7.4 7.5

229 231 240 243 245 258 260

VIII

CONCLUSIONS VORTEX ANALYSIS

APPENDIX A:

APPENDIX C:
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ROTOR STRUCTURAL WEIGHT AND INERTIA SCALING EQUATIONS

395 399

REFERENCES

LIST O F ILLUSTRATIONS

VOLUME 2

FIGURE
1.1
Artist's

P A G E Concepti'on o f Madaras . P l a n t , Popular S c i e n c e Monthly, January 193'2. 3

5 12

Madaras P a t e n t .Diagram Rotor and Support Tower Used In!Madarasl T e s t s , B u r l i n g t o n , N e w J e r s e y , 1932. Comparison o f R o t a t i n g Cylinder Data from Various Wind T u n n o l ~ (Referent: 2Q)

' h .

Performance Comparison o f a ~ o t a t i n g Cylinder w i t h ' # W i 1 . y (Reference 2 3 ) for; TransLat.i.on Machines. Performance Comparison of a Madar.as System Used on a S t r a i g h t . o r a C i r c u l a r Track. Comparison o f Madaras and U D R I Performance Computations. E x t e r n a l P i c t u r e o f U n i v e r s i t y of Michigan Aerospace Department Wind Tunnel. Boundary Layer P r o f i l e P r e s s u r e Rake Array. Assembly D.rawing o f 152 m Dianteter C y l i n d e r . S i d e V i e w , 152 mm C y l i n d e r i n Tunnel w i t h Lower S t r e a m l i n e d F a i r i n g Only.
lo we^.

12

14

F r o n t View, 1 5 2 mm C y l i n d e r i n Tunnel w i t h Streamlined F a i r i n g and M i r r o r S t r u t . 152 mm Diameter C y l i n d e r aqd Car Ready f o r Simulated Boundary Layer T e s t , e/d = 3 %nd . P l a t e s , AR = 6. C a l i b r a t i o n Loading F i x t u r e f o r Wind Tunnel Balance System.
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Method o f S i m u l a t i n g Atmospheric Boundary Layers for 152 IIUII C y l i n d e r . Tunnel Boundary Layer. P r o f i l e P r i o r t o M o d i f i c a t i o n , . 9 7 m F r e e Stream V e l o c i t y , 1 1 m / s Above F l o o r . Curve 3 i s C e n t e r l i n e Profile.
viii

39

LIST: OF ILLUS.TRAT.1ONS(.C.ont inued

Simulated Atmospheric Boundary Layer for 152 mm Cylinder Having AR = 3'and AR ='6. Ekman-like Spiral Resultant Wind Relative to Different Sec'tions of the Rotor:Produced by Vector Aadition of Translatory Motion of Rotor Car and Wind Boundary Layer Near Earth's Surface. CL and Cp versus U/V for AR = 6, e/d = 3 , Lower Falring.only Plus Mirror Strut.
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PAGE 42

HP versus U/V for AR = 6, e/d = :3. Neither. Fairing Nor Strut has any Effect on Data. Study to Determine Test Reyno1d:s ~'urnber CD versus R for Various Values of U/V. 2 for Va&.ious AR, Two End Freestream CD versus CL Caps, e/d = 2. ~reestreamCL versus U/V for Various AR, Two End Caps, e/d '= 2. Freestream C versus CD for AR of 3 and 6 and e/d Ratios of 1. 5, -2,and 3, d = 152 mm.

Freestream CL and CD versus U/V, AR of 3 and 6, and e/d Ratios.of 1.25, 2, and 3, d = 152 mm. Freestream CL and CD versus U/V, AR of 3 and 6, and e/d Ratios of 1.25, 2, and 3, d = 152 mm. Comparison of UDRI ~xtrapolatedData with Klemin's Measured Data. Comparison of Interpolated UDRI Data with Gottingen Data.
e

Cross Plot of CD versus AR for e/d = 2. Used to Extrapolate UDRI Data'for AR = 6 to AR = 8 Data for Comparison with&lemin's Data. Cross Plot of CL ver'susAR for e/d = 2. Used to Interpolate UDRI ~ a for ~ AR a = 4 to AR = 4 . 7 for Comparison with the Gottingen Data.

LIST OF 1LLUST'RAT.IONS (Continued) FIGURE 3.23 Power Required to Rotate 'Cylinder: versus U/V and rpm for AR = 3 and'6 and for e/d of 1.25, 2, and 3 . ' Both Power Required in Still Air as well as Power Required at V , = 13.7 m/s are Given for the 'AR = 3 'Configuration,d = ,152mm. Comparison of Measured Power Required to Spin the 'Full-S'ized Madaras Rotor with Predicted Power .RequiredBased on Equations (2) and (3) PAGE 67

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72 75

~ o w c r / T J n i t T,ength versus ukameter uf R o k o r Having Two End Capsi c/d - 1.35, and RotatSnnal speed

of 120 rpm. CL and CD Data from Boundary Layer Tests for e/d Ratios of 1.25, 2, and 3, and for Aspect Ratios of 3 and 6, d = 152 mm. CL, CD Power versus U/V for Boundary Layer Tests for e/d Ratios of 1.25 and 2; one and two end Caps; and Aspect Ratios of 3 and 6, d = 152 mm. Comparison of Aerodynamic Coefficients for Configi.~,xa.l!.ions. Madaxas Considered to be Equivalent. Wind Duration Curve Uprated for 8 m/s Speed at 9 m.Wove Ground .to 8.8 m/s at 16.8 m/d m Above Ground. Wind Velocity Profile. mph) Mean Operational Design Loads for 8.0 m/s (-18 Design Wind Speed. Derived from Preliminary Spin Schedule of Figure 5.1, in whiah U/V was Varied at Each $ O Incremental Position Around Orbit, Such that FTAN. is Maximized at Each Increment. Ratio U/V versus Track Locations for 8.8 m/s Rated Wind Speed.
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76

77 80

83 85

86

Pressure Distribution Around the Center of a Rotating ,87 Cylihder at Various Values of U/V (Taken from Reference 13)

Madaras Rotor Cap Peak Pressure versus Radius. Rotor and Cap Construction.

88
94

LIST 'OF 1LLUS.TRAT.XONS (Continued) FIGURE Rotor Cap Truss Joint. Location of Circumferential Rings. Cap Module Radial View. Rotor Cylinder Internal Structure. 5 ' Segment of Circumferential Stiffener. Typical 4 Assembly Sketch of Rotor and Support Tower. Tower Base Segmentation Plan. Three-View Drawing of the Rotor Car. Rotor Car End Truck Assembly. Car Structural Plan. Sectional Elevations of Car Structural Layout. Miscellaneous Skin and Stiffener Section. Power Transfer Arm. Revised Rotor Car Configuration. Plant Layout. Typical Elevation of Madaras Plant, One Car on Track. Preliminary Estimate of Aerodynamically Optimum Rotational Speed Schedule. 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 Simplified Spin Schedule Used to Estimate Spin Motor Size. Rotor Steady-State Viscous and Bearing Friction r Load for Simplified Spin Schedule.
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95

97
98 101 102 104 108 109 111 113 114 115 117 120 123 124 131 135 135

Inertial Power Load, Ideal Performance, ~ o ' . ~ o s s e s 1'36 , Regenerative Braking, Simplified Spin Schedule. Total Power Load, Including Viscous Losses During Spindown, Regenerative Braking, Simplified.. 137

LIST OF ILLUS.TR?iT.XONS (Continued) FIGURE 5.6 Total Power Load, Including viscous Losses'During Spindown, Regenerative 'Braking,Aerodynamically Optimum Spin. percent'~ f f i c i e n c versus ~ Percent Rated Output Power for a Shunt-Wound dc Motor; Normal Operation. Percent Efficiency versus Percent'Rated Output Power for a Shunt-Wound dc Motor. Percent Efficiency and Percent No-Load Speed versus Percent Rated Output Power. Percent Efficiency versus percent No-Load Speed Motor Losses for a Shunt-Wound dc Motor. Modified Spin Schedule for Various Spin Motor Sizes. Plant Power Output versus Spin Motor Size, 3,000-ft Diameter Track, 186 rpm for Various Wind Speed. 5.13 5.14 5.15 6.1 Optimum Motor Size and Maximum Power Output/Rotor versus Track Diameter, 30 mph Wirld Speed. Optimum Motor Size and Maximum Power Output/Rotor versuc Track B~aiilefer,2fl 111ph Wirid a p e d . Electrical Sche'matic of Circuitry on Each Rotor Car. PAGE 139

141 142 142

143
146 147 148 149 163

Gross Power Output versus X for Various Wind 168 Speeds, One Rnt.nr Spinning at 183 rpm, 915 m Diameter Track. Professor Larsen's Vortex ~nalysis Accounts only for Aerodynamic Drag and Interference Losses. Gross Power Oi.lkput versus Vw for one Rotor Spinning at 186 rpm, 1524-m Diameter Track, Constant Track Speed of 13.4 m/s. Gross Power Output versus Number of Rotors for Various Wind Speeds for a Constant Rotor Speed of 186 rpm and Constant Track Speed of 13.4 m/s. 170

6.2

6.3

171

6.4

Mutual Interference Loss Factor versus Wind Speed 172 f ~ Various r Numbers of Car.. Constant Rotor Speed and Track Speed of 186 rpm and 13.4 Bij's,'respectively.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS ( C o n t i n u e d ) FIGURE 6.5

N e t Power f o r One Rotor v e r s u s C y l i n d e r

PAGE 178 D i a m e t e r a s . a F u n c t i o n o f e/d R a t i o and C y l i n d e r rpm f o r C o n s t a n t P r o j e c t e d A r e a , Wind Speed and Track 'Speed; e/d = 1 . 2 5 and 2.

6.6

N e t Power f o r One . R o t o r v e r s u s C y l i n d e r

rpm f o r C o n s t a n t A s p e c t R a t i o o f 8 b u t w i t h V a ' r i a b l e D i a m e t e r and V a r i a b l e P r o j e c t e d A r e a .

,

180

6.7

N e t Power O u t p u t f o r One Rotor v e r s u s

and C y l i n d e r rpm f o r V a r i o u s C y l i n d e r R o t a t i o n a l Speeds, Aspect R a t i o = 6 , e/d = ~ 2 . 6.8

N e t Power O u t p u t ' . . f o r One Rotor v e r s u s A and C y l i n d e r R o t a t i o n a l Speed, AR = 8 , e/d = 2.

183

184

6.9

N e t Power Output f o r One R o t o r , S p i n Motor

Power, and Motor rpm v e r s u s R o t o r P o s i t i o n on Track as A f f e c t e d by u s e o f V i s c o u s B r a k i n g , R e g e n e r a t i v e B r a k i n g , and a ThreeS t e p T r a n s m i s s i o n t o Vary t h e S p i n S c h e d u l e . 6 -10

N e t Power O u t p u t f o r o n e R o t o r f o r V a r i o u s

186

188

S p i n Motor Speeds v e r s u s Track P o s i t i o n a t Which ' E i t h e r Regeneratkve B r a k i n g or V i s c o u s Braking w a s 1 n i t i a t e . d . 6.11

N e t Power O u t p u t from o n e R o t o r v e r s u s Track

194

D i a m e t e r a s a F u n c t i o n o f Wind Speed. P e r formance f o r Both C i r c u l a r and R a c e t r a c k Configurations.

6.12
N e t Power O u t p u t from one R o t o r . v e r s u s A.

a F u n c t i o n o f Wind Speed. Performance i s P r e s e n t e d f o r Both a. 1372-m 'Diameter . C i r c u l a r Track and a ' R a c e t r a c k h a v i n g 1372-m D i a m e t e r Ends and 4878 m S t r a i g h t S e c t i o n s . 6.13 M o d i f i e d Design Wind D u r a t i o n Curve t o a t a .Rotor MidR e p r e s e n t Wind ' ~ o n d ' i t o n s H e i g h t o f 25 m , ( 8 2 f t ) Above Mean T e r r a i n Level

as

195

198

6.14 6.15

T y p i c a l N e t Power ' v e r s u s , V w Curve . f o r Two Racetrack-Configured P l a n t s . Power D u r a t i o n Curves f o r t h e Two' P l a n t s Shown in F i g u r e '6.14 Based o n the v=9.6 r i ~ / s Design Wind D u r a t i o n Curve a t 25-m H e i g h t ( F i g u r e 6.13)

202 202

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Continued) FIGURE 7.1 Generalized Geometric Plant Layout and Equations for Computing Plant Cost, Plant Output, and Installed Cost Rated Plant Power Capacity. Plant Cost versus Number of Rotors for Madaras Plants having Circular Track Configurations. Rated Power in Megawatts Indicated f o r Each Plant, Plants Having 1372-m and 1524-m Diameter Tracks were Studied. Unit Plant Cost versus Length of Straight 3 c c t i o n of Raoetrack . P l ilrrl.: ~ o n igurgtion f as a Function of Number,of Cars and InterCar Spacing. Track Speed : 8.9 m/s (20 mph) PAGE 208

.
216

Unit Plant Cost versus Length of Straight Section of Racetrack Plant Configuration as a Function of Number of Cars and InterCar Spacing, Track Speed: 13.4 m/s (30 mph). Unit Plant Cost versus Rated Power for Racetrack Configuration as a Function of InterRotor Spacing, Length of Straight Section of Track, and Number of Rotors. DOE Design 8.1 m/s @ 9 m. Wind Duration corve: V

217

Energy Cost versus Rated Power for Racetrack Configuration as a Function of Inter-Rotor Spacing, Length of Straight Section of Track, and Number of Rotors. DOE ~esign Wind Duration Curve: . = 8.1 m/s @ 9 m.

220

opt i m i i m Rot.na: Solidity Factor versus Length of Straight Track Section. . .

E c f e c t of Monoptinun Wind Qura.tion on Cost. of Madaras ~aeetrackPlank 49-60.

241

Typical ~ ~ c l o g i r windmill o a t a -Speed Ratio of h = 2. of One Blade. Trailing Vortex Sheet ~ r r a y Nondimensionalized Ideal Bound Vortex Strength Orbit as a Function of Phase Angle ~round'the for X = 2.

LIST.'OF ' X L L ' $ T R A T . I O N S FIGURE A. 4 Nondimensional.ized Ideal Bound Vortex Rate.of Shedding as a Function of Phase 'Angledue to Change'in Resultant Velocity at A ' = 2. Ideal Cyclogiro Blade Element Vector Diagram. Induced Velocity'.atan Arbitrary'Point Associated with a Finite straight Line Segment of Circulation, . r .
.

PAGE

Nondimensionalized Velocity ~istributionin anLOseenvortex and'potential Vortex., Primitive Vortex Model.

he or^

Rotor and Wake Array

'

Flow Field .of a Giromill at Maximum Power. Variation of the X-Component'of the Resultant Velocity as a Function of A for a.ThreeBladed Giromill. Rotor and'Wake Structure Assumed for Primitive Vortex Theory for a.Typica1 Cyclogiro.
. .

~cceleration-Deceleration Ramp Angle.

Nondimensional: Modulation schedule for.' a , V, or U/V. . . Ideal Blade Element Vector Diagram of.~yclogiro. Real Blade-Element vector ~ i a ~ r a of m Cy~~ogiro. Ideal Wake Structure-for a Three-Bladed and 0.5 when the Cyclogiro at a = .2.0;1.0, ~ake'~1iminates from the Blade Pivot Point, . Angle of Attack = OO.
,

Ideal Wake Structure for a Three-Bladed Cyclogiro Rotor at X =, 2'.0, 1.0, and 0.5 ~hen'the Wake Eminates from the Blade Trailing Edge, and the Blade is.Modulated from a'constantAngle.of Attack = '12O. Semirigid Wake Structure for a Three. Bladed Cyclogiro 1llustratin.g'Distributed' ,and Concentrated Vorticity.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Concluded) FIGURE A.19 A.20 Wake 'Structure'Assumed for the 'Improved Primitive Vortex Theo'ry. Gross Power'Output versus h for Various Windspeeds, One Rotor Spinning at 183 rpm, 915 m Diameter Track. Ideal and Real Flow Around a Circular Cylinder for Various Circulation from 0 to a Supercritical Value. Avcrage Gross Power Output from a Madaras P1an.L of Fourteen Rotating Cylinders versus X for Various Wind S p ~ ? w l s . Fourtesn'Rotating Cylinders, Aspect Ratio = 6, e/d = 2, Cylinder Area = 2000 ft2, Diameter = 18.20 ft, Track Radius 1500 ft, Cylinder Rotating at 183 rpm. Average Gross Power Output from Madaras Plant versus X for Various Wind Speeds. Sixteen Rotating Cylinders, Aspect Ratio = 6, e/d = 2, Cylinder Area = 2000 ft2, Diameter = 18.25 ft, Track Radius = 1500 ft.,Cylinder Rotating at 183 rpm. Average Gross Power Output from Madaras Plant versus X for Various Wind Speeds, Eighteen Rotating Cylinders, Aspect Hat.io = '6, e/d = 2, Cylinder Area = 2000 ft2, Diameter = 18.25 ft, Track Radius = 1500 ft, Cylinder Rotating at 183 rpm. PAGE

A. 21

A.22

A.23

A.24

xvi

LIST OF TABLES Table 3.1 Six-Inch (152 nun) Diameter Cylinder Free Stream Wind Tunnel Test Matrix Six-Inch (152 mm) Diameter Cylinder Simulated Atomspheric Boundary Layer Wind Tunnel Tests Free-Stream Data for Cylinder with Bottom Fairing Only Free-Stream Data for Cylinder with Both Mirror Strut and Bottom Fairing Free Stream CL Data Free Stream CD Data Variables Studied in Mutual Interference, Vortex Analysis Trade Study Variables Comparison of Candidate Rotor Configurations, 1372 m (4500 ft) Track Diameter, 450 kW Spin Motor Summary of Unit Cost Data Computation of Madaras Plant Annual Costs Cost and Performance of 20-Rotor Madaras Plants Having Circular Track Comparison of Plant performance and Cost Circular and Racetrack Configuration Effect of Land Cost
or^

Page 23

207 210

224 232

Plant and Energy Cost

238 Effect of Learning Curve and Land Cost on Energy Cost for Plants Sited Where = 8.1 m/s @ 9-mHETGHT
Effect. of Learning Curve and Land Cost onEnergy

239

Cost for Plants .Sited wher.e = 9.7 m/s at 9-m HEIGHT (Medicine Bow Sea Level Plants) Installed cost Breakdown of Madaras Plant 44-25M and 98,000 kW Bureau of Reclamation Plant Proposed for-MedicineBow, Wyoming 247

xvii

'LIST OF TABLES (Concluded) Table 7.9 Annual Cost Breakdown of .Madaras Plant 44-25M and 98,000 kW 'bureau of ,Reclamation HA-WTG Plant Proposed for Medicine 'Bow,' Wyoming Overall Comparison of Several Madaras and HA-WTG Plants at Two Wind Regions . . Madaras Versus HA-WTG Land Usage . . Effectiveness Page 251

7.10 7.11

x v i ii

F O R E W O R D

.'

This f i n a l r e p o r t d e s c r i b e s t h e s t u d y conducted by t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Dayton Resiearch I n s t i t u t e d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d from ) sponOctober 1976 t o Febiuary 1978 on C o n t r a c t ~ ( 4 9 - 1 8 -2554, Branch, D i v i s i o n o f S o l a r s o r e d by th.e Wind Energy Conversion. . . . Energy, United S t a t e s ' Energy Research 'and ~ e v e l o p m e n t Administration.
Dr.

Robert Thres'her . . was P r o j e c t Monitor.

The s t u d y was under d i r e c t i o n o f M r . Dale H . Whitford, who, w i t h D r . John E . Minardi, conducted t h e p r e l i m i n a r y p e r formance analyses', planned t h e wind t u n n e l t e s t s , and a n a l y z e d t h e wind t u n n e l t e s t d a t a . M r . Levere F. S t a r n e r and
M r . B l a i n e S. West were r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e s t r u c t u r a l a n a l y s i s

s t u d y , and M r . Robert J . Dominic conducted t h e e l e c t r i c a l analysis. The a u t h o r s wish t o e x p r e s s t h e i r a p p r e c i a t i o n f o r t h e e x c e l l e n t c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h i s program made by t h e p e r s o n n e l o f t h e Gas Dynamics L a b o r a t o r y , Aerospace E n g i n e e r i n g Department, U n i v e r s i t y o f Michigan. O v e r a l l guidance, a s s i s t a n c e i n d e v e l o p i n g t h e t e s t p l a n , development o f t h e method f o r gene r a t i n g t h e s i m u l a t e d atmospheric boundary l a y e r , and c o o r d i n a t i n g a l l a s p e c t s of t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Michigan e f f o r t was p r o v i d e d

by P r o f e s s o r William W . Willmarth. T e s t s u p e r v i s i o n and s c h e d u l i n g o f s u p p o r t f o r t h e t e s t s was p r o v i d e d by M r . David R. Glass. Mr. Danile 0 . S c h a r f was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r d i r e c t i n g t e s t s and p r o c e s s i n g t h e d a t a , and M r . C h a r l e s Hogan, M r . Leo G r i f f i n , and M r . C l e t u s I o t t were r e s p o n s i b l e f o r i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n , model i n s t a l l a t i o n , and o p e r a t i o n o f t h e wind tunnel.
W e a l s o want t o acknowledge o t h e r major o o n t r i b u t i o n s :

t h e v o r t e x a n a l y s i s s t u d y conducted by P r o f e s s o r Harold Larsen o f the A i r Force I n s t i t u t e o f Technology; t h e d e t a i l e d s t r u c t u r a l and mechanical d e s i g n l a y o u t done by M r . F r a n c i s Shannon o f

Maier and A s s o c i a t e s ; t h e economic a n a l y s i s conducted by

M r . John L . McClellan; and t h e aerodynamic c o n s u l t a t i o n

p r o v i d e d by D r . Frank L . Wattendorf. F i n a l l y , w e are e s p e c i a l l y a p p r e c i a t i v e o f t h e s u p p o r t o f t h e D e t r o i t Edison Company and t h e a s s i s t a n c e given by

M r . Walker L . C i s l e r , former Chairman o f t h e Board o f t h a t

Company; and t h e c o n s u l t a t i o n . p r o v i d e d by M r . R u s s e l l F. Hardy, former Chief Engineer o f t h e Madaras .Rotor Power P r o j e c t ; and D r . E .E. Lapin o f t h e Aerospace 'Corporation.

SECTION I INTRODUCTION The Madaras Rotor Power Plant concept was originally developed in the-periodfrom January 1930 .toApril 1934. This .Madaras,made use of the concept, conceived by Julius-D. 1 Magnus effect on a rotating circular cylinder to generate electrical power. 1.1 CONCEPT DESCRIPTION AND BACKGROUND

An artist's rendering .ofthe Madaras Rotor Power Plant, obtained from the January 19.32 issue of Popular Science, is presented in Figure 1.1, and a copy 03 Madaras' patent is presented in Figure 1.2.
The-Madarasproject ranks as one of the more significant wind power generation projects conducted in the United : (a) it was uniquely different from other States .because wind generation projects; (b) a full-scale rotor was designed, built, tested,.and proven successful; and (c) it showed the promise of generating the large quantities-ofelectric power (e.g., 100 megawatts e.lectric) in a single power plant. In view of the unusual method of wind energy conversion of this system and its promise of generating large amounts of power at energy cost below that of coal-fired plants in 1934, this study was conducted to determine-ifa modernized Madaras design would be economically competitive with horizontal axis wind energy conversion systems. The original concept.ofthe.Madarasplant consisted of a circular track, an endless train of rotor units mounted on streamlined flat cars, .a power collection and distribution system, 2 and a control and maintenance bui1ding;all located. on a 323,752m (80-acre) site. Des.ign.capacity,was18;000 kW for a 13.4 m/s rated wind speed and a 8.9 m/s constant track speed.l A brief description of the' 'systemproposed by Madaras is given as follows.

Big Electric Plant Run by Wind

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POINTS WHERETRAVEL

me mOToR RE GERMAN INVENTOR. P.ETTNER,/E5IGNED

THIS ROTOR WiNOMILL TO

.**07*48. A.P..t<k.10- 0/

,5 PARALLEL TO WIND

DIRECTION

GENERATE ELECTRICITY
PMOTOGRA LEFT ARE SPEE.DED AT TOP AND IMPEDED
ROTOm TO MOVE- TOWARD PARTIAL
vACUUM ABOVE

3
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SPINTANG ROTOR OF ALUMINUM ACTS AS

SAIL TO Pt,OPEL CAR

MODE RAS ROTOR FROM MA CURRENTS (N A WIND TUNNEL PH OF A MADA L

AT BOTTOM, As 5-0.1 ;STS 5.04 CAUSING CD

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.Wi POWER HOUSE , TEAM PLANT

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EAC H ROTO R 15 90 FT

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COLLECTS CURRENT
FROM AL-L ROTOR

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= ... ......=:F-=.......=: -I.======== #T -a- d.61...ir--r- - -12'026-**4%r OF 56PT OAOE ANO 5,000 eNDIAMETER,15 RAISED ON EM--. Lirl=ED BANIMENT TO 6,VE CLEAR SWEEP TO WHWO '4Jlil7 0TREAM 7>' CAR *CIRCWLAR TRACK. t
.
.

/:.124,42'.1-Spt= 1 12 f..

44

.
SMALL
ri ELECTRIC

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DRIVE SHAFT

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1 1 jojr,6,02.

CARS AND CONDUCTS

11 TO POWER HOUSE

POWER FROM THE

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1,;...K .h.,w. 1, ilee...1 ht,w t.,41.:.. r.,w:, plant will b, t,rialtil hy air *mwN /1,1,11 Will *trive /hi: 111 . 0..d.,% .r...,n-1 a ....... ....k '0 pr.'p.1 1.,rean,I..,1,1../.,, .01 1,i,!.2.,1,, fEI-',9, 44'12,1,7

7 . A.,

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WIEN CAR TRAVELS

AROUND TRACK

RODUCES PO/ER

EN MATBA

*4,
i

,'- "Io Acr

FEEDS POWER

FROM GENaRATOR & TO THIND RAIL

Scti:xcE Ato>:TitLY. Electricity from dying of the first $100.000 exirriniental n.1Now rising at West liurlingtc,n. 11.inins oil the rotor cars. moving at a fixect the wincl harness 1,1:int ti) 1-1 "ower N. J.. this seven-story-high shaft of alu- sirecl under automatic control, will lit to be incler. is soon energy for electrical collectecl by a third rail :incl concluct,,1 that l,rol,elle(l built. somewhere in the East, if final minum recalls the c)linclers ship" of a few to a substation for clistribution to the hur-rotor (;ermany's famous successful. prove tests now under wa>: rounding country. Since the rotors niust Twentv si,inning cylincirrs will rumhle years ago. Like them, it c,i,trates on the 1,(: spun artifici:lily, a sm,Ill electric mult,r around a track 3.000 feet in diameter in i,rincil,le of the so-called 'Alagnus effect' keri,s rach one turning, 1,ut it uses only an endless train. They will propel flatcars -that a cylincler st,un iii the wincl tends a small 1)rol,ortion of the power generated. to move al right angles to the breeze. and turn dynamos geared to the axles. With a twenty-eight-mile wind blowinBL The inventor. Julius D. Madaras. a Fantastic as the project sounds. promiIadaras estimates, the completect I,lant in Detroit. TeHungarian engineer living of have indorsed it. and six nent engineers the proposed power woulcl supply enough electricity for a city the most imponant power compalles in rcaled the cletails of with l'opt'LAR of 150,000 inhabitants. interview an iii +tation the buildlinancetl have the United States

7X

AM,jZIN(;

'nierry-go-rouncl '

JANUARY. 1932

37

Figure 1.1.

Artist's Conception of Madaras Plant, Popular Science Monthly. January 1932.

2

Figure 1.2.

Madaras P a t e n t Diagram.

1.1.1

System D e s c r i p t i o n Track :' A t w o - r a i l , s t e e l track of 1 1 m gage,

457.3 m i n d i a m e t e r wa's u s e d t o guide t h e t r a i n o f r o t o r c a r s . A s p u r t r a c k p e r m i t t e d t h e r e m v a l and exchange o f r o t o r c a r

u n i t s f o r maintenance. Cars: on four,two-wheel F l a t c a r s a b o u t 1 2 . 2 m l o n g , w e r e mounted The a x l e s were mounted r a d i a l l y w i t h

trucks.

r e s p e c t t o t h e c e n t e r o f t h e t r a c k , and t h e i n n e r wheels were s m a l l e r t h a n t h e ' o u t e r wheels t o e l i n u n a t e whcel s l i p p a g e . S i d e f o r c e s w e r e r e a c t e d by i d l e r wheels which r o l l e d on the r a i l s i d e s t o f u r t h e r reduce t r a c k f r i c t i o n . The c a r s w e r e streamlined t o minimize drag, arrd they c o n t a i n e d b a l l a s t . Lo p r e v e n t overt u r n i n g . Weight o f e a c h c a r and r o t o r was about 6 3 , 5 0 3 kg. The c a r s w e r e c o n n e c t e d i n an e n d l e s s t r a i n by s t e e l c a b l e s w i t h a

80.2 m c e n t e r - t o - c e n t e r
Rotors:

d i s t a n c e between the r o t o r s . E i g h t e e n r o t o r s , 27.4 m h i g h by 6 . 8 m

2

i n d i a m e t e r , h a v i n g a p r o j e c t e d a r e a o f a b o u t 185.9 m and i t s s u p p o r t tower i s shown i n F i g u r e 1 . 3 .

, were

1.1sed i n t h e b a s i c p l a n t . The g e n e r a l c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e r o t o r

Each r o t o r was

provided w i t h a m t o r f o r revolving it a t t h e proper speeds i n e i t h e r d i r e c t i o n . Twice e a c h r e v o l u t i o n of t h e t r a c k (at t r a c k p o s i t i o n s f 9 0 r e l a t i v e t o t h e wind) each r o t o r was b r a k e d b y t h e motor a c t i n g a s a g e n e r a t o r and t h e n was r o t a t e d i n t h e o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n i n o r d e r t h a t t h e cu~nponcnto f t h e Magnus f o r c e t a n g e n t t o t h e t r a c k would c o n t i n u o u s l y p r o p e l all v e h i c l e s i n a given d i r e c t i o n .
111 this way,
I ~ I C J So ~f

t.hc r o t a t i o n a l energy

d i s s i p a t e d d u r i n g b r a k i n g was assumed t o be conserved f o r use i n s p i n n i n g up o t h e r cars on khe o p p o s i t e s i d e o f t h e c i r c u l a r t r a c k . Change o f r o t a t i o n a l d i r e c t i o n was i n i t i a t e d a u t o m a t i c a l l y by a weather-vane-activated c o n t r o l system m u n t e d on t o p of t h e r o t o r .

A r l o t a t i r l y end p l a t e having a d i a m e t e r of a b o u t 1 0 . 1 m was mounted .on t o p of t h e c y l i n d e r t o improve t h e aerodynamic performance (by - i n c r e a s i n g c i r c u l a t i o n ; and hence l i f t ; and by r e d u c i n g induced d r a g b y . i n c r e a s i n g t h e e f f e c t i v e a s p e c t r a t i o of the cylinder)

Figure 1.3.

Rotor and Support Tower Used in Madaras' Tests, Burlington, New Jersey, 1932.

Power Generation: One induction generator was carried on each car, gear-connected to one of the axles, Generated power was delivered to contact wires arranged concentricially with the track, and through feeders to the switch mat. A synchronous condenser in the control house maintained a high power factor. Control and Maintenance Building: A small building on an 80-acre plant site housed, in addition to the synchronous condenser and a motor-generated set, the control switch board, instruments, supplies, and accommodations for the operators1 . 1 . 2 History of the Madaras Project

B.-.

The Madaras RuLor Fowcr Corp~ratinnwas incorporated under the laws of the state of Michigan in August 1928. By the end of 1929, seven public utility companies agreed to finance the development of the rotor plant. The utilities forming this group were:
The Detroit Edison Coo- Detroit, Michigan Middle West Utilities (20.- Chicago, Illinois North American Light and Power Coo-Chicago, XllinoiS Public Service Electric and Gas Co.-Newark, New Jersey Standard Gas and Electric orp para ti on-Chicago, IlLinois United Gas Improvement Coo-Philidelphia, Pennsylvania The United Light and Power Co.-Chicago, Illinois

A three-step program was planned: (1) conduct wind ti~nnelexperiments on the Magnus effect and perform plant perform-, ance and cost analyses based upon test results; ( 2 1 CanstrucL a full-sized rotor unit and test its performance; and (3) construct and test a commercial-sized plant of noL leas than 6,009 kW capacity. 2
The wind tunnel experiments were conducted at the New York University Guggenheim School of Aeronautics under the direction of Professor Alexander Klemin. Additional studies were conducted by Professor Klemin; Professor FelixPawlowski of

the University of Michigan, and Professor Theodore von Karman reviewed and concurred with the aerodynamic and performance analysis. Step 1 was completed on January 23, 1931 at a cost of $10,136.3 In May 1931, the design, fabrication, erection, testing, and analysis of data from a full-sized rotor began. The rotor was mounted on a stationary platform on the property of the Public Service Electric and Gas Corporation in Bwlington, New Jersey. Principal contributors to this work were Mr. Walker L. Cisler, Public Service Electric & Gas Company (recently retired as Chairman of the Board, Detroit Edison Co,) , Mr, RussellF. Hardy (Chief Engineer of the Madaras Rotor Power Corporation), and Messrs. Hirshfeld and Madaras. Consulting assistance in structural design was obtained from Professor John D. Akerman, University of Minnesota, and Professor Stephen Timoshenko, University of Michigan. Construction started in October 1931, and was completed ten months later; but a ten-month delay occurred as a result of difficulty in developing a satisfactory forcemeasuring system. Tests were conducted from June to October,1933. The cost of the second phase was $161,691. Thus total project cost was $171,827.4 Because of the severity of the depression and the lack of venture capital, the project was abandoned before the Thus, the economics and comprototype plant could materiali~e.~ plete operation of the Madaras concept was never fully evaluated. Very little information and no technical reports were published in the open literature on the project because of the strong desire of Madaras to protect his patents and the equally strong desire of the utility companies to make sure that the system was completely proven and that only completely reliable data be released publicly. They did not want informat-ionon cost of power at the plant boundary to be interpreted as cost to the consumer. Consequently, only carefully-controlled news releases were disseminated. Thus, the scientific community had

\
nothing with which to evaluate the program until recently when the University of Dayton was .giventhe entire report file by the I Detroit Edison Company. \ 1.1.3 Prior Re.search-MagnusEffeet
A
1
I

significant amount of work has been done to I study the Magnus effect. After the work of ~a~nus,'the first quantitative data on rotating cylinders was obtained by Lafay ' I from 1910-1912, r 7 As a result, Anton Flettner became interested; in the possibilities of this device for propelling,ships,and convinced Prandtl and others at GBttingen to conduct wind tunnel tests on cylinders. his work resulted in one of the classic ' sets of data .on the subject.8v9r10 Flettner was encouraged by 1 .. the results and convinced the directors of the Friedrich Krupp A,G. Germania-Werft to dutfit a boat with two vertically-mounted cylinders. These cylinders were 15.6 m high by 2.8 m in diameter, and were outfittedwitn end caps having a diameter 1.4 times that of the cylinder. Each cylinder was turned by its own 11 kW electric motor at a speed of 120.rpm.lo Flettner had two successful ocean' round trip ac.ross the Atlantic voyages, one in the 'North Sea 'and.one to New York. The rotors performed.wel1,and even in four or five days of dangerously stormy weather performed without malfunction' or damage. Flettner.said after the tests, "The trials of the Baden Baden have proved.that all expectations which were based on the GbZtingen experiments have been entirely fulfilled," A second ship, the Barbara, having three rotors also was built and successfully demonstrated.

Probably.themost complete work on rotating cylinders was done by Thorn at the University of Glasgow between effects of Reynolds numbers, end 1925 and 1935, He in~e~tigated plates, surface roughness, end conditions, and other variables. (Reference 11-16 inclusive.) The first significant contribution in the United in 1924. Later, in 1930, Klemin was States was that of ~eidl'l retained by the Madaras Company to conduct tests for use in predicting the performance of the Madaras power plant.

Klemin's work, described in Reference 2, included'windtunnel studies of 0.20 m diameter cylinders having lengths of 0.89, 1.14, 1.40, and 1.65 m. Tests were conducted without end plates and with end plates having diameters 0,38 and 0.45 m. . Peripheral-speed to wind-speed ratios from 0 to 6.6 at Reynolds numbers up to 3 x lo5 were used in the tests. Klemin concluded that the cylinder performance agreed well with that of ~Uttingen,Reid, and.Thom, .and.tha't the disturbance between adjacent cylinders is negligible beyond six diameters. He concluded that end plates were very beneficial and should be used for the Madaras system.' Unfortunately, Klemin.'s data were not published and we .have found only that for the.,1.65 m cylinder having only the 0.45 m end plates. In 1960, rotating cylinder studies at Reynolds 5 and 6.1 x 105 with end plate-to-cylinder numbers between 1.3 x 10. and by diameter ratios of 2.0 were conducted by ~atthewsl~ Griffiths in 1968 at the University of Wales.l9 Both of these studies agree well with the early data. An excellent survey of the old and recent data was reported by Swanson in 1960.20 Figure 1.4 is a.reproductionof lift coefficient curves showing all types of data with and without end plates. We have added. Klemin's data, labeled 1, for comparison. Swanson's contribution is probably the first truly infinite aspect ratio result that has been generated. He noted that .the addikion of end discs will yield maximum lift coefficients that are greater than those of a . two-dimensional infinite aspect ratio cylinder. This result is attributed to the super circulation caused by the.superposition of the flow around a finite rotating cylinder with that of'a rotating end disc. Thom's work has been recently validated by Dean R. Stuart in the laboratories of the University of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada.21 We infer from Swanson's and Stuart's modern studies that the work of Klemin agrees with the modern data trends. Since Swanson's findings indicate that Reynolds number effects on

lift and drag coefficients are negligible at cylinder rotational surface speeds greater than the wind speed, above the critical Reynolds number, and that it simulated very well the performance of the full-scale cylinder (27.4 m high x 6.8 m diameter) which operated at Reynolds numbers on the order of 6 x 106

1.1.4

Prior '~esearchTracked Vehicle Airfoil' Con'cept

compared a wing with a rotating cylinder for powering a tracked vehicle. The conclusion was that the winged vehicle will extract five times more power from the wind than a cylinder. This,conclusfon .was based upon inappropriate simplifying geometric and aerodynamic assumptions which permitted him to solve his equations of motion in a simple closed form. The basis. for our conclusion on Stalker's work can be seen from the following equation derived from the power output of a vehicle moving d0wn.a track:

where P is the output power, A is the projected area of the wing or cylinder, VR is the resultant velocity, Vw the wind speed, Vt the track speed, p is the air density, and, of course, CL and CD are the lift and drag coeff.icientsrespectively. The only .a wing and a cylinder having difference in per~rmance,between a siven area, A, for given values of Vw and Vt is the'lift coeificient and the CD/Ci ratio. The CL term of a cylinder overpowers that of a wing to such an extent (10:l ratio) that the superior CD/CL ratio of a wing over that of a cylinder does not compensate for this difference in CL at low values of track speed. As the values of VL become large,. the first bracketed term overcomes the cylinder's CLtadvantage and Lhe wing generates more power than a cylinder. The.CD term could include the losses due to rotating the cylinder as well as the other common losses

to both systems; so a.direct comparison of the lift-drag polars for the lifting surface does not tell'the whole story. To further substantiate this perf0rmanc.e comparison, our computer data is compared with that of a wing23 in Figure 1.5 for low track speeds. A recent, excellent study by ~ a ~ i also n * ~confirmed the superiority of a cylinder over a wing at low track speeds. We believe that this analysis clearly demonstrates why a cylinder-powered vehicle is a low speed translator and that while in its low speed regime, it should be superior to the tracked wing vehicle. This low-speed, high-performance feature is the key to the promising potential of the Madaras concept.

The University first became interested in the Madaras system as a result of discussions with Mr; Russell F. Hardy, who was'the Chief'Engineer responsible for the design, erection, and testing of the full-sized rotor system. The potential of t h e . . system .looked so attractive that the.University,of Dayton agreed to finance.a study o f theconcept. . This study included: (a) a literature search 'and evaluation; (b) the writing of a computer program for simulating the performance o f both the Madaras system and a tracked vehicle-airfoil system; (c) the running of some parametric studies to check Madaras results; and (d) a study of obtained. from Mr. Walker Cisler .of the data in:technical'reports Detroit Edison. . Th6 reports include the final reports for the Phase I wind tunnel-tests and performance 'analyses and the Phase I1 full-scale rotor test, as well as other supporting documents of consultants. (These documents are listed as' References 2, 3, 4, and 25 through '36.)

We have also discussed the Madaras p r o j e c t with Mr. Walker

L. Cisler, who was responsible for. the full-scale test support. He and Mr. Hardy believed that the system was proven to.be technically feasible, and that..amodernization of the design ,and a current economic analysisof its potential'should be conducted. They both have served as advisors on the present program.

Coi-a(at-~++w. of Power 0utputdra.m-Rota.t,i ng cy'l-i-nde-r and \:fl~ndvach w f i l a - p r o j e c t e d Area o f '186m2.

Straight T r a c k

Vt = Track Speed
Rotating, Cylinder (Univ. of Dayton Computations)'

i V , 10.3 m/s

t:
I

I I

I I I

I
C

I I I

I
I I /
a

/
/

Come Lnvo.tlg.tor
ra.udU

AIpeel htlo

Rdmllds Number

Ronux*.

Ide-1 I l v i d 12.5.26 13.3 4.7 8 5.7

5.

b
D

Tbom Reid

(5.3 to 8 . n h 1 o 3 (1.9 to 11.6).10~ 5.2 (0.16

End Plate. 3. syl-dl.. ~ o adt e . I. 7 a q l - d ~ a .

d
1

Gttingem
Tbom

= lo4
u a1u10'

1.6x10' (3 t o 9).lo4 ( 3 to ~ W I O ' 5.2 10' Unpubliohcd (Carno I n . % ) Continuou. End Sectloxu End Flates 1. 25 (5.4 urd 18)rlo4 5.10' 1.9 to 6.1a103 Rough Sanded S u r l a s o
SRM*
SUHSC.

.I0

z0

c.=*.... mrn
mom Cb'ningm Sch-niberg
Swanmom

(4.5;

h
1 j

4.7
4.5 2 5.7

(lY.9) Wind Speed. Vw+mph (m/s)

Performance COmpar,i,so,n n f a. Rotating Cylinder w i t h a Wing ( R e f e r e n c e 2 3 ) f o r 'l'ransl a t i o n Machines.

( L C ! ) .(1y.4)

laomin
Wtthor.

4.4 to 8. l ( 0 . 9 to 3. l t a 1 0 ~

= -1-dia
5)

Figure 1.5.

S u t i o n . ~End Plate*

i .syi-Ji.;
.(..m.

..

-8".

F i g u r e 1.4'.

Comparison o f ~ o t a t i n g C y l i n d e r Data from Various Wind T u n n e l s ( R e f e r e n c e 2 0 )

1 .2 -1

Perfo:rmanc'e Analysis

Figure 1.6 contains power output curves we calculated for various wind and track speeds for a circular track and a straight track. We found that we had sufficient data to follow and critique the Madaras computations, and our independent computations using Madaras' dataagrees closely with Madaras' results, as shown in Figure 1.7. As a result of our preliminary studies, we were unable to find any statement or evidence that the system had been proven either technically or economically unsound. 1.2.2 Preliminary Economic Comparisons

The foundation for our preliminary analysis of the Madaras system was the cost and performance analysis conducted by Madaras and the utilities in 1931 and our computer study. In the 1931 study, the consulting firm of Stevens and wood3 was retained to work with engineers from the public utility compan'ies, and not under the direction of Madaras. A set of checks and balances were established by utilities.to prevent the inventor from being carried away by his enthusiasm. The estimators prepared preliminary designs, obtained equipment quotes, and then priced all manufactured parts. The utility companies reviewed the costs, and reported that "the estimates are liberal andthat the total would easily cover the plant cost. ,I 3 The Madaras performance analysis predicted the gross rotor power generation performance based on Klemin's wind tunnel tests at various wind speeds, and deducted track losses; axle, bearing, and friction losses; electrical generator losses; and losses due to the power required to.rotate and reverse the rotors. These data on net power generated were then used by Madaras in conjunction with -threewind duration curves, of which the most favorable curve was nearly identical to the V = 8.0 m/s curve specified by NASA for the General Electric and Kaman studies. Estimates also were made for annual.operating and maintenance charges, which were developed and approved by the utility companies.

AVERAGE NET POWER OUTPUT PER CYCLE MEGAWATTS

AVERAGE POWER, PAW( mw)

h ,

P U I
0
I
I

in

From this analysis it was predicted that a plant with a rated output of 18,000 kW at a rated wind speed of about 13 m/s could be constructed at a cost of $38.50/kWr and that electric power cost at the busbar would be 1.22 mills/kWh. This was based upon the wind duration curve which yielded a specific output of 4425 It should be noted that in 1934 this cost was considerably lower than that of coal-fired steam plants in the Pittsburgh area, where the costs for the Duquesne Light Company varied from 4 to 5 mill/kWh for newer plants to 6 to 7 mills/kWh for the total system. In fact, coal costs in 1934 were from 1.25 to 1.5 mill/kWh. 29

w.

By scaling this early Madaras cost data to the 1945 and 1975 time periods, we were able to compare the Madaras system economic predictions with those of the Smith-Putnam37 horizontal axis wind turbine. These and General comparisons indicated that the Madaras system could provide energy at lower cost than all of the above horizontal axis machines, and hence the Madaras system was potentially attractive from an economic standpoint.

~lectric- ama an^*

1.3

POTENTIAL FEATURES OF THE MADARAS SYSTEM a System shows potential for power production in large quantities at least in the range of 10-100 MW. Concept can capitalize on economy of scale; large systems are generally more economical than small systems. Simplicity and ruggedness of rotor structure will permit scaling up to large sizes with fewer structural problems than for long, flexible rotor blades Rotor has extremely high lift coefficients (10 times greater than an airfoil)

a
a

a a

Rotor can generate high power output at low track speeds. Systemdoes not need expensive towers to elevate and structurally support both the conversion unit and the heavy transmission-generation equipment high above the ground.

Previous full-scale tests on the 27.4 m high by 6.8 m diameter rotor as well as wind tunnel tests have proven the technical feasibility of the concept.
e

The cost of further development has been reduced because of the wealth of technical information that has been completed, the understanding of the system and its problems by the proposed staff ; subcontractors, and consultants, and the computer software that already .has been developed.
'

Historical cost estimates by independent consultants and the one included herein indicate the system is competitive with fossil-fueled systems. 1 . 4
MAJOR ISSUES

Potential issues that have caused some people to question the Madaras system are: The concern that the early wind tunnel data on the Magnus effect were not valid and that-performance estimations based on this data may be overstated.
e

The opinion that the total of aerodynamic, mechanical, and electrical losses would be excessive. The opinion that the Burlington tests did not provide the economic basis for successful competition with other forms of power generation.

The f a o t that f o r n r s are ~ilour~ttd elouc to the gsoiinrl in the zone of friction retardation of the winds.
The fact that there has been little publi'shed technical data in the open literature concerning the early experiments and analysis arid Lhe absence of a hardware delll~n~trati~n of a total igadaras electric power generation system. The concern that since the Flettner rotor ship was not considered an economio GUGCBSEY the Madaras system aleo would not be a success.

1.5

UNANSWERED QUESTIONS

We believe that w e answered most of the above issues in our preliminary study. ow ever, four important questions remained that had not been answered to our satisfaction. These questions were:

What is the fewest number of rotors required to extract as .nearly as possible the theoretical maximum amount of power per'unit area from the wind? What aerodynamic performance can be expected from fullsized cylinders operating in the lower levels of the atmospheric boundary layers in terms of the various geometric and operational design variables which affect performance. What are the design requirements for structural, electrical and mechanical.subsystems;and what performance of a Madaras.system can be expected when modern, commercially-available electrical and mechanical components'are used? What is the capital cost and the cost of electric power generated by modernized Madaras plants of different sizes in vari0u.s climatic areas of the United States?

SECTION I1 OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE 2.1 OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE

The primary objective of this program was to demonstrate the degree in which Madaras power plants having capacities in the 10 MW to 200 MW range are competitive with horizontal axis wind turbines. This objective was achieved by addressing the four unanswered questions stated in Paragraph 1.5, These objectives and the major questio~iswere addrc~sed in a four-phase study. These phacos were:
8

An aerodynamic study which included wind tunnel testing to deternine the aerodynamio performanr:~ of a rotating cylinder as a function of geometry, free stream flow conditions, and boundary layer profile

An electromechanical study aimed at updating the structural, mechanical, and electrical.components to present-day technology and design criteria.
e

A performance analysis involving the use of va~iouscomputer simulation codes to determine the performance of various sizes of Madaras plants for various geometries and wind conditions.
An economic analysis to determirle the eost of installation, and the cost of electric power.

2.2

GROUND RULES

The following ground rules, as stated at the bagi.nning of the study, will further define the scope and nature of this investigation.
e

The project was a conceptual design study which analyzed the basic Madaras system with only those changes which could be incorporated simply with no major development efforts nor efforts to develop an optimized design, Analysis techniques, design approaches, and equipment will reflect the current state-of-the-art.that is commercially available.

Madaras s y s tern performance w i l l b e compared--w'ith t h e b e s t a v a i l a b l e s t u d i e s o f h o r i z o n t a l - a x i s wind t u r b i n e s without storage. Wind s i t i n . g , wind d u r a t i o n c u r v e s , a n d d e s i g n l o a d and l i f e criteria w i l l be i n accordance w i t h t h a t d a t a s p e c i f i e d f o r General E l e c t r i c s t u d i e s . C o s t s w i l l be g e n e r a t e d i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h a c c e p t e d p u b l i c u t i l i t y p r a c t i c e , a n d c o s . t s w i l l b e b a s e d on p r o d u c t i o n l o t s of 1, . a n d 100 p l a n t s .
,.

SECTION 111 WIND TUNNEL TESTS The performance o f t h e Madaras r o t o r i s c o m p l i c a t e d by t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f t h e a t m o s p h e r i c boundary l a y e r w i t h t h e flow f i e l d o f t h e s p i n n i n g r o t o r . The i n t e r a c t i o n r e g i o n r e p r e s e n t s a complicated problem i n three-dimensional, nonuniform flow. The s e p a r a t e d flow i n t e r a c t i o n i s g r e a t e r n e a r t h e ground a t t h e base of the cylinder. The flow i n v o l v e s t h e i n t e r a c t i o n , s t r e t c h i n g , and d i f f u s i o n o f t h e v o r t i c i t y i n t h e a t m o s p h e r i c boundary l a y e r and t h e v o r t i c i t y p r o d u c e d by t h e f l o w f i e l d o f t h e spinning rotor. Although r e f e r e n c e s tu Lhe lna jor c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o r o t a t i n c j c y l i n d e r performance l i t e r a t u r e were g i v e n i n P a r a g r a p h 1 . 1 . 3 , a s t u d y ' o f t h e s e d a t a i n d i c a t e t h a t a c o m p l e t e s e t of d a t a w i t h a s p e c t r a t i o s and end p l a t e s i z e s measured i n modern f a c i l i t i e s d i d n o t e x i s t . F u r t h e r , a l l o f t h e a v a i l a b l e d a t a were measured under u n i f o r m , u p s t r e a m f l o w c o n d i t i o n s f r e e from a boundary l a y e r ; hence no i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e e f f e c t s o f t h e e a r t h ' s boundary l a y e r p r o f i l e 24 o n c y l i n d e r p e r f o r m a n c e was a v a i l a b l e . Lapin was p a r t i c u l a r l y c o n c e r n e d a b o u t b o t h t h e q u a n t i t y and v a l i d i t y o f t h e d a t a o b t a i n e d i n t h e 1920-1935 t i m e p e r i o d , and recommended t h a t new wind t u n n e l t e s t s be r u n . H e was p a r t i c u l a r l y c o n c e r n e d t h a t t h e v a l u e s of

CD i n t h e o l d e r d a t a seemed t o be t o o s m a l l .
Since t h e t h r e e - d i m n s i o n a l flow f i e l d around a r o t a t i n g c y l i n d e r imrnersed i n t h e l o w e r l e v e l s o f t h e e a r t h ' s b u u r ~ d a r y l a y e r i s s o complex t h a t i t c a n n o t b e efficiently d ~ l d l y z e dLy a n a l y t i c a l t e c h n i q u e s , a n d s i n c e no wind t u n n e l d a t a h a s been d e v e l o p e d f o r t h i s c u r i c l i t i u r ~ , i L was decided t o modcl t h e boundary l a y e r f l o w f i e l d a n d p e r f o r m measurements o f t h e p e r t i n e n t aerodynamic f o r c e s i n a wind t u n n e l t e s t program d e s i g n e d s p e c i f i c a l l y t o a n a l y z e t h e Madaras s y s t e m . Existing analytical t e c h n i q u e s s u c h a s t h e v o r t e x a n a l y s i s t e c h n i q u e d e v e l o p e d by P r o f e s s o r Larsen o f t h e A - r F o r c e I n s t i t u t e o f Technology

(described i n Reference 3 9 ) , w e r e t h e n used t o s t u d y t h e

mutual i n t e r f e r e n c e a n d minimum s p a c i n g q u e s t i o n t h a t was r a i s e d in. Paragraph 1.5. s e c t i o n 6. 3.1

W I N D TUNNEL STUDY 0BJECTI.VES

T h i s a n a l y s i s w i l l be d e s c r i b e d i n

Th,e ob j , e c t ' i v e s o f . t h e aerodynamic s t u d y were t o : O b t a i n a complete s e t o f f r e e - s t r e a m r o t a t i n g c y l i n d e r aerodynamic d a t a a s a f u n c t i o n o f r a n g e s o f g e o m e t r i c a l p a r a m e t e r s p e r t i n e n t t o t h e Madaras s y s t e m . O b t a i n a complete s e t o f aerodynamic g e o m e t r i c d a t a on r o t a t i n g c y l i n d e r s i n a s i m u l a t e d a t m o s p h e r i c boundary l a y e r p r o f i l e . O b t a i n d a t a on power r e q u i r e d t o r o t a t e t h e c y l i n d e r under a l l flow and g e o m e t r i c c o n d i t i o n s . Determine t h e v a l i d i t y o f e x i s t i n g r o t a t i n g c y l i n d e r d a t a , e s p e c i a l l y t h a t used by Madaras f o r h i s p e r formance c a l c u l a t i o n s . Determine by a n a l y t i c a l methods t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between v a r i o u s boundary l a y e r p r o f i l e s and aerodynamic c o e f f i c i e n t s . I n a l l o f t h e above t e s t s , flow c o n d i t i o n s were d e s i g n e d t o r e p r e s e n t a d e q u a t e l y t h o s e o f a f b l l - s i z e Madaras r o t o r . 3.2
W I N D TUNNEL TEST PLAN

The wind t u n n e l program c o n s i s t e d o f t h r e e p a r t s :

o s

Developing methods f o r s i m u l a t i n g a t m o s p h e r i c boundary l a y e r s f o r two s i z e s o f c y l i n d e r s . Conducting e x p l o r a t o r y f r e e - s t r e a m and boundaryl a y e r t e s t s on a 2-inch ( 5 1 mm) d i a m e t e r c y l i n d e r h a v i n g a g e o m e t r i c a s p e c t r a t i o o f 4 and e n d p l a t e ( e / d ) o f 1 , 2 , and 3. t o diameter r a t i o s Conducting e x t e n s i v e f r e e - s t r e a m a n d b o u n d a r y - l a y e r t e s t s on a s e r i e s o f 6-inch (152 mm) d i a m e t e r c y l i n d e r s h a v i n g g e o m e t r i c a s p e c t r a t i o s o f 3, 4 , 5 , a n d 6 ; a n d end p l a t e t o d i a m e t e r r a t i o s ( e / d ) o f 1 . 2 5 , 2, and 3.

One o f t h e i m p o r t a n t f e a t u r e s o f t h i s t e s t p l a n w a s t h a t e a c h t e s t was c o n d u c t e d a t a c o n s t a n t wind s p e e d ( V ) t h r o u g h o u t t h e U/V r a n g e ( U i s t h e p e r i p h e r a l s p e e d o f t h e c y l i n d e r r e s u l t i n g from i t s r o t a t i o n ) . T h i s i s a unique f e a t u r e o f t h i s t e s t plan. I n t h e p a s t , e x p e r i m e n t e r s have d e c r e a s e d V i n o r d e r t o o b t a i n h i g h e r U/V v a l u e s b e c a u s e o f motor s p e e d and power
_I

limitations.

However, f o r t h i s program, motor s e l e c t i o n was

b a s e d upon i t s a b i l i t y t o p r o v i d e s u f f i c i e n t power a n d s p e e d s o t h a t maximum U/V v a l u e s o f 6 o r more c o u l d b e o b t a i n e d a t a l l t e s t wind speeds. The t e s t p l a n i s described

irl

the f o l l o w i n g paragraphs.

The b a s i c wind t u n n e l t e s t m a t r i x f o r t h e 6-inch ( 1 5 2 mm) c y l i n d e r i s p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e s 3 . 1 and 3 . 2 which shows

a l l c o m b i n a t i o n s o f t e s t , 'model, and flow c o n f i g u r a t i o n s t e s t e d .

reduced, and analyzed, n o t . c o u n t i n g r e r u n s o r s p e c i a l tests. The r e s u l t i n g d a t a i s t h e most c o m p l e t e s e t o f r o t a t i n g c y l i n d e r d a t a a v a i l a b l e i n the literature.

The 51-mm cy'l.i.nder t e s t s were p r i m a r i l y e x p l o r a t b t l y

A t o t a l o f 106 basic t e s t s were c o n d u c t e d ,

i n v e s t i g a t i o n s t o d e f i n e t h e d e s i g n a n d t e s t r e q u i r e m e n t s , probl e m areas, and t h e r a n g e s o f v a r i a b l e s w e would w a n t t o t e s t i n o u r more c o m p l e t e s i x - i n c h c y l i n d e r t e s t s e r i e s . Thus, p r i m a r y e m p h a s i s was p l a c e d upon t h e s i x - i n c h c y l i n d e r t e s t s , whereas t h e two-inch c y l i n d e r d a t a w e r e u s e d as a back up and a s arl i n d e p e n d e n t means f o r c h e c k i n g r e s u l t s and t r e n d s i n t h e six-inch c y l i n d e r data.
3.2.2
so^ Of

Wind Tunnel D e s c r i p t i o n

The s u b s o n i c wind t u n n e l o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f M i c h i g a n ' s Aerospace E n g i n e e r i n g Department was u s e d f o r t h i s program. T h i s t u n n e l i s a c l o s e d c i r c u i t , s i n g l e r e t u r n t u n n e l w i t h a n e s s e n t i a l l y r e c t a n g u l a r t e s t s e c t i o n 2 . 1 m wide by 1 . 5 m h i g h by 7.6 m l o n g . The c o r n e r s o f t h e t e s t s e c t i o n are f i l l e t e d

TABLE 3 . 1 SIX-INCH ( 1 5 2 mm) DIAMETER CYLINDER FREE STREAM WIND TUNNEL TEST MATRIX

TABLE 3.2 SIX-INCH (152 mm) DIAMETER CYLINDER SIMULATED ATMOSPHERIC BOUNDARY LAYER WIND TUNNEL TESTS

.
!Description 3 pspect Ratio 5 6 3 4 5
b

Test Conflguratlon CY 1 Car None Track None NO. End Plates None e/d AR None None Approx. hef v 1 elgh? 30 38 46 53

Run Number 400-14A

Slodel Locatlon None

Run Conditions ref. I Q, C Y ~ vel. IR Helght m/s ~ U / Vcm 13.7 1.43

1

1
'same as Above

Game as Above

3 4 5 6

Tare Test Boundary Layer Tests Tare Test Boundary Layer Tests Tare Test Boundary Layer Tests . Tare Test Boundary Layer

400-14C 400-ldD 400-14E 1/2 Car in 400-l4P Ftenz o f 406-14G I Rakes 4~0-14# , 6 0 0 - 1 4 ~ 1/2 car on 600-14B 1/2 of Track 606-14C in Front Qf 600-14D Rakes Cyl. 6 Car 531-00 on Balance 531-14 531-14A Free From 531-148 Track or Floor

'1

.. 52 . .
30
W X X X X

46

v
0 13.7 0 1.43

\ I X X X None

\1/

2 2 1 1
3 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1 1
2

\/ 1.25

! ::
3 3

38

- -6
38 38 38 30

4
X X X X X X X X X X X XX X X X X X None X X X None X X X 2.0

1
1

30 30

Tes LS
Tare Test game B/L as in Tests 541-XX Boundary ests

532-00 532-14 532-14A 532-146 533-00 533-14 533-14A 533-14B 541-00 541-14 541-14A 541 - L O P r,/ Cyl Elevated 542-00 542-141) Car on 542-14C Floor

38 38 38 30 38 38 38 30

3.0
V

0 13.7
L/ 38

0 1.43

J
0 13.7
0 1.43

1.25

- m e
None None None X X None

2.0

--.__

46 38

38

2 2 2 1 1
\J/

56 56 46

X Cyl & Car 542-14 X 542-14A ion Balance X 542-14B Free from T~ack. B Floor
543-00 j ~ y l .Elev., 543-14D Car on 543-14C Floor 543-14
313-14A

38 3.0 4
38

X
X X X
X

Nono
None None X

Ref. ests 541-XX

2 2 2
2 1 1
2

0 13.,7

1.43

56 5G 46 46 46 30
57

543-14B 551-14 551-1421 551-14B 552-14 552-14A 552-14B 553-14 553-14A 553-148

Cyl. & Car UII bolanaa Free From Track & Floor

X
None
X

X
X

\I
1.25

.J
5

d
46

1
V' 13.7
kt

1093

x
X X
X X

X None X X None X X None

1 1 2 1 1 3
1

53
46 53 53 43 53
53

I
3.0
i

\J

46

TABLE 3.2 (Concluded) SIMULATED ATMOSPHERIC BOUNDARY LAYER WIND TUNNEL TESTS

.
I

Test Confiquration CY 1 Car Track NO. End Plates e/d

IAR

Test Description

I
I

Run Number 561-14 i 561-14A 1561-14B ! 562-14 1562-1411 1562-14B 1563-14 1 563-14A . 1563-14B 1642-05
s

Model Location

Approx. Ref.Ve1. , Height

I
d
Cylinder and Car Free from Floor

1i :
1

X X X I None I X X 2 1 1
'

I i:
X X ' X X X X

\/

Cylinder Static CD Versus R runs in Boundary Layer

642-20

i 642-25

1642-30 642-35 642-40 .. . 1642-45 642-50 642-14 2 Spinning 643-14 end plates 662-14X one end plate on top, 662-14X one end plate in center of ,cylinder

x
X X X X X

2 2 2 2

2.0 3.0 2.0 3.0

4 4 6 6

38 53 53

Run Conditions Ref R M a x $ Cyl Vel lom5 .U/V Height m/s 1 13.7 1.43 6 61 61 i ' i 53 i . 61 61 53 61 61 \J \i/ 53 \J 38 0.48 4.6 0.96 9.1 1.44 13.7 1.92 18.3 2.40 22.9 27.4 2.88 3.36 32.0 3.84 36.6 4 1 4.32 1.80 42.7 4 13.7 1.44 6 38 13.7 1.44 6 38 13.7 1.44 6 38 13.7 1.44 6 38

- '

0.2 m up each w a l l , t h u s r e d u c i n g t h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a t o 2 a b o u t 3.2 m S e v e r a l f i n e mesh s c r e e n s i n t h e s e t t l i n g chamber

combined w i t h t h e h i g h c o n t r a c t i o n r a t i o ( 1 5 : l ) r e s u l t i n u n u s u a l l y low t u r b u l e n c e i n t h e t e s t s e c t i o n . The t u n n e l i s c a p a b l e o f c o n t i n u o u s o p e r a t i o n a t

t e s t s e c t i o n v e l o c i t i e s o f up t o 67 m/sec (150 mph) w i t h a model 2 3 h a v i n g an e f f e c t i v e blockage o f a b o u t 0.28 m ( 3 f t ) Somewhat h i g h e r v e l o c i t i e s a r e a t t a i n a b l e with l e s s blockage.

The f r o n t s i d e o f t h e t u n n e l h a s many windows i n i t a n d a few windows age i n t h e t o p of t h e t u n n e l . The s i d e windows e s p e c i a l l y p r o v i d e r e l a t i v e l y good o p p o r t u n i t y f o r v i e w i n g o r p h o t o g r a p h i n g t h e model. A d d i t i o n a l windows can be p r o v i d e d where s p e c i f i c a l l y needed. The wind t u n n e l f a c i l i t i e s have i n s t r u r e n t a t i o n s y s t e m s f o r measurement and r e c o r d i n g o f a l l n e c e s s a r y q u a n t i t i e s . The f o r c e and moment d a t a a r e o b t a i n e d from t h e wind t u n n e l p y r a m i d a l s t r a i n gage b a l a n c e system. T h i s b a l a n c e i s mounted below t h e t u n n e l t e s t s e c t i o n w i t h t h e s t i n g (7.6 mm i n d i a m e t e r ) p a s s i n g through t h e t u n n e l f l o o r f o r a t t a c h m e n t t o t h e model. Force c a p a c i t y i s 2670 N (600 l b ) l i f t , 980 N s i d e , and 980 N

d r a g . The s i d e and d r a q f o r c e and a l l t h r e e components o f m o m n t were used f o r t h i s tesl; s e r i e s . A hollow s t i n g i s used t o f a c i l i t a t e t h e r o u t i n g o f f l e x i b l e t u b i n g from t h e model p r e s s u r e t a p s t o t h e p r e s s u r e measuring system. This b a l a n c e It provides can s u p p o r t a m d e l o f g r o s s w e i g h t o v e r 136 kg. f8r t h e measurement of a l l t h r e e moments, e a c h having an a c c u r a c y of f 2 i n - l b (0.226 N-m) by means of v a r i o u s combinations o f s t r a i n gages. The s i x s t r a i n gage s i g n a l s , c o r r e s p o r ~ d i ~ t~ oy e a c h o f t h e s i x components, a r e d i g i t i z e d and f e d i n t o variable
gain amplifiers. The o u t p u t s a r e d i s p l a y e d by d i g i t a l p a n e l voltreters. The t u n n e l dynamic p r e s s u r e and t e m p e r a t u r e a r e a l s o d i s p l a y e d on d i g i t a l p a n e l meters. A l l t h e s e d i s p l a y e d v a l u e s can b e r e c o r d e d manually i f d e s i r e d , b u t a l l t h e meters a r e e q u i p p e d t o o u t p u t t o a D i g i t e c punched p a p e r t a p e r e c o r d i n g system. Thus, s i m u l t a n e o u s r e a d i n g s o f a l l meters can be

recorded on paper tape whenever a record o f test data i s desired. The paper t a p e can then be f e d i n t o a computer t o provide a t a b u l a r p r i n t o u t o r graph of t h e d e s i r e d parameters. A p i c t u r e o f t h e wind tunnel, t h e balance system, and t h e d a t a console i s presented i n Figure 3.1. One o f t h e 152 mm models being t e s t e d can be seen through t h e window. The boundary l a y e r p r o f i l e s were measured by f i v e pressure rakes nrounted behind t h e model a t various s t a t i o n s across t h e tunnel a s shown i n Figure 3.2. Velocity measurements w e r e obtained a t nine h e i g h t s above t h e tunnel f l o o r a t each rake p o s i t i o n . Velocity d a t a from a l l 45 readings w e r e recorded instantaneously on a scanner valve using a S a t r a systems pressure transducer and then was punched i n t o paper tape, and reduced automatically on the computer. Data obtained during each t e s t included tunnel speed, dynamic pressure, atmospheric conditions, c y l i n d e r r o t a t i o n a l speed (by means o f a p h o t o e l e c t r i c c e l l ) , and measurements of lift, drag, moments due t o l i f t and drag, and motor torque (yaw mment) from t h e s i x component balance. 3.2.3
T e s t Model Development

The general requirements f o r t h e design of both t h e 51 nun and t h e 152 mm diameter t e s t model designs were t h a t they must be: (1) adaptable t o t h e University o f Michigan s i x component balance system; ( 2 ) capable o f being r a i s e d and supported a t various h e i g h t s above t h e tunnel f l o o r f o r f r e e stream tests and t h e e a r t h ' s boundary l a y e r t e s t s ; (3) dynamically balanced over a speed range from 0 t o 20,000 r p m (0 t o 12,000 rpm f o r the e/d = 3 end p l a t e s ) ; ( 4 ) a b l e t o be configured f o r end p l a t e t o c y l i n d e r diameter ratios of about 1, 2 , and 3; and ( 5 ) t h a t t h e c y l i n d e r s be driven by motors housed within them t o minimize model whipping which could occur from an e x t e r n a l l y mounted motor. I n a d d i t i o n , t h e 152 mm c y l i n d e r design was required t o provide f o r a s p e c t r a t i o v a r i a t i o n s of 3, 4 , 5, and 6; whereas t h e 51 mm c y l i n d e r design was f i x e d a t an a s p e c t r a t i o of 4.

Figure 5.1- r1xtrmal Picture of University of Michigan Aerospace Department Wind Tunnel.

Figure 3 . 2 .

Boundary Layer P r o f i l e Pressure Rake Array.

An assembly drawing of the 152 mm diameter cylinder This cylinder was configured in much is presented in Figure 3.3. the same way as the 51 mm cylinder, but its size, the tremendous centrifugal forces generated on it, and the requirement to change sleeves in order to make aspect ratio changes required more care in both design and manufacture in order to insure safety and vibration-free operation. Both manual stress computations and finite element computer analyses were used to confirm the structural integrity of this large cylinder.

A Tech Development, Incorporated pneumatic motor was used to drive the cylinder. This is a four-stage turbine capable of delivering 37.3 kW at 15,000 rpm. Under lighter loads, maximum speeds of 20,000 rpm were attained. This motor, which weighed 4 . 5 kg and was 82.5 mm diameter by 16.5 mm long, was leased by the University of Dayton for the tests. The air supply and exhaust was fed through the tunnel sting extension, and the air hoses were routed so that no net force was exerted on the balance system by the air impulse. Maximum compressed air flow rate required was 0.45 kg/s (1 lb/sec) at 1.38 MPa (200 psi). Air supply was provided by the University of Michigan's filtered, pressurized tank system which was capable of providing air for one day of testing before repressurizing was required.
Four, 152 mm diameter sleeves were made having varying lengths from 457 mm to 914 mm. Thus, geometric aspect ratias of 3 , 4, 5, and 5 were available for tests. Thessu ler1gC1.re were selected to bracket the AR of 4 used for the original Madaras cylinder design and to bridge between the AR = 8 cylinder tested by Klemin for Madaras. Three sets of end plates having diameters varying from 29.5 mm to 456 mm provided end plate to diameter ratios of 1.25, 2, and 3. All rotatinq components were made of aluminum and the support structures are made of steel. High-speed, precision ball bearings were used at each end of the cylinder

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and these were oiled by an oiling device wnlcn automatically pumped oil into each bearing every 20 seconds. The oil lines were led inside the support sting beside the air hose. The 152 mm cylinder was manufactured by Tech Development, Incorporated in Dayton, the manufacturer of the air turbine motor used to drive the cylinders. Tolerances and concentricity were carefully held; however, the larger size, centrifugal forces, and the requirement to utilize one set of end plates on each of the four cylinder sleeves necessitated dynamically balancing all end-plate, cylinder combinations. Care was taken in providing match marks to assure the cylinders bere kepein the balanced configuration during reassembly. After balancing, each cylinder sleeve with all end plate combinations was instrumented and spun up in a test cell to check operation under still air conditions. These tests were completely successful, and the cylinders were then released for wind tunnel testing. Thc mod01 car was rectangular in plan form with dimensions of 383 mm long, 295 mm wide, by 38 mm thick. All sides were streamlined with approximately a 45' wedge angle rounded at the top surface. As with the 51 mm cylinder, the car was capable of being mounted to the balance system, free from the floor, so that the influence of car drag would be included in the measured results.
3-2.4

Model Mounting i n Wind Tunnel

Since for the free stream tests, it was necessary to elevate the aylinder about 30.5 mm above the tunnel floor with a relatively large-diameter, rigid sting, it was necessary to provide a streamlined housing around but free from the sting in order to prevent drag loads on the sting from being transmitted to the balance system. A typical photograph of the tower fairing used for the 152 mm cylinder is shown in Figure 3.4

I n view of t h e s i z e o f t h e housings i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e c y l i n d e r s , it was thought t h a t t h e t e s t d a t a would be a f f e c t e d by t h e presence of t h e housing. Therefore, a mirror image streamlined s t r u t was designed t o extend from t h e c e i l i n g o f the test s e c t i o n down t o , b u t n o t touching the c y l i n d e r . Each streamlined housing and mirror s t r u t was c a r e f u l l y a l i g n e d r e l a t i v e t o t h e tunnel c e n t e r l i n e a s w e l l a s r e l a t i w t o each o t h e r . Clearance between the streamlined members and t h e c y l i n d e r was of t h e o r d e r o f 3 m o r less. A p i c t u r e showing t h i s test s e t u p i s presented i n Figure 3.5. Tests w e r e run f o r each c y l i n d e r and p l a t e comb i n a t i o n with t h e lower housing only and with both t h e lower housing and t h e mirror s t r u t . Any d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e d a t a noted was then used t o c o r r e c t the aerodynamic d a t a f o r t h e e f f e c t of the lower housing s o t h a t free stream c y l i n d e r d a t a would r e s u l t . much simpler procedure was used f o r m u n t i n g t h e c y l i n d e r and c a r f o r the a t m ~ s p h e r i c boundary l a y e r tests. The c a r was constructed s o it could be clamped t o t h e s t i n g extension o f the balance system a t t h e p o i n t where t h e s t i n g extension e n t e r e d t h e tunnel f l o o r . About 3 mm clearance between t h e c a r and the f l o o r was provided t o prevent f r i c t i o n between the car and the tunnel f l o o r . The c y l i n d e r a l s o was mounted on t h e s t i n g w i t h minimal clearance between t h e c a r and t h e c y l i n d e r . Figure 3.6 d e p i c t s this mounting arrangement f o r t y p i c a l 152 mm c y l i n d e r s . Both t o p p l a t e only and t o p p l u s bottom end p l a t e configurations were used f o r t h e s e tests.
A

The preceding m u n t i n g configurations w e r e those used f o r t h e primary d a t a a c q u i s i t i o n e f f o r t , Additional tests n o t l i s t e d i n t h e t e s t matrix, were used t o o b t a i n background data. Some o f t h e s e tests included t h e use o f one revolving and one s t a t i o n a r y end p l a t e under f r e e stream cond i t i o n s ; a t t a c h i n g t h e c a r t o t h e f l o o r b u t l e t t i n g it f l o a t f r e e from the c y l i n d e r , mounti.ng t h e c y l i n d e r on t h e f l o o r witho u t the c a r ; mounting the c a r alone i n f r o n t of t h e pressure rakes

Figure 3 . 4 .

Side V i e w , 152 mm Cylinder i n Tunnel With Lawer Streamlined Fairing Only.

Figure 3.5

Front V i e w , 152 nun Cylinder i n Tunnel With Lower Streamlined Fairing and Mirror S t r u t .

Figure 3 . 6 .

152 m Diameter Cylinder and Car Ready f o r Simulated Boundary Layer T e s L , eJd = 3 End P l a t e s , AR = 6 .

a t v a r i o u s angles o f a t t a c k t o study t h e e f f e c t on t h e v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e o f t h e car; mounting an e l e v a t e d t r a c k model i n f r o n t o f the r a k e s ; and m u n t i n g t h e c y l i n d e r and c a r on an e l e v a t e d t r a c k t o determine t h e a m u n t o f low a l t i t u d e v e l o c i t y enhancem n t t h i s arrangement would make.

3.2.5

C a l i b r a t i o n s and Operational Checks

Standard f o r c e c a l i b r a t i o n techniques w e r e used t o c a l i b r a t e t h e balance systems. A c y l i n d r i c a l extension w a s mounted on t h e balance system s t i n g , and v a r y i r ~ y s la Lic loads w e r e a p p l i e d a t v a r i o u s h e i g h t s and d i r e c t i o n s by means o f a l o a d i n g f i x t u r e a s shown i n Figure 3.7. Outputs o f each d a t a channel w e r e recorded on the automatic d a t a a c q u i s i t i o n system, and m a t r i x a n a l y s i s techniques w e r e used t o c o r r e c t f o r l o a d i n t e r a c t i o n s . The c a l i b r a t i o n d a t a obtained w e r e found t o be l i n e a r and r e p e a t a b l e over t h e e n t i r e range o f i n t e r e s t .
A f t e r a l l c a l i b r a t i o n s w e r e completed and a l l

computerized d a t a p r o c e s s i n g and p l o t t i n g r o u t i n e s w e r e checked, a n o v e r a l l o p e r a t i o n a l check was conducted. With one o f t h e 152 mm c y l i n d e r s mounted on the balance system, loads o f t h e o r d e r o f 222 N and 155 N w e r e a p p l i e d i n d i v i d u a l l y a t the t o p , c e n t e r , and bottom o f t h e c y l i n d e r i n bath the l i f t and drag d i r e c t i o n s . The balance response t o each l o a d w a s recorded on the d a t a a c q u i s i t i o n system, punched i n t o paper t a p e , and then t h e t a p e was computer reduced and p l o t t e d . The r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e d accuracy o f about 1 p e r c e n t and &ikoasLraked t h a t t h e e n t i r c system was o p e r a t i n g s a t i s f a c t o r i l y .
No further checks w e r e done f o r the 51 mm c y l i n d e r , b u t the t e s t procedure for t h e 152 rruu c y l i n d e r w a s approached c a u t i o u s l y , one s t e p a t a t i m e because o f t h e p o t e n t i a l s a f e t y hazard a s s o c i a t e d w i t h s t r u c t u r e f a i l u r e of t h i s cylinder.

A f t e r the 152 mm c y l i n d e r was mounted on t h e b a l a n c e system, t h e c y l i n d e r was spun throughout i t s range with no t u n n e l a i r blowing t o make s u r e t h a t t h e c y l i n d e r d i d n o t

Figure 3.7.

Calibration LoadFng Fixture f o r Wind Tunnel Balance System.

e x c i t e any resonances i n t h e balance system, which was less r i g i d than the f l o o r o f t h e t e s t c e l l i n which t h e c y l i n d e r had been run-up previously. These tests showed t h a t c y l i n d e r operation over t h e range from 0 t o 19,000 rpm w a s e n t i r e l y s a t i s f a c t o r y . During this run, d a t a were recorded and processed t o a s s u r e o u r s e l v e s t h a t no undesirable t a r e loads r e s u l t e d from t h e incoming and exhausting a i r used i n d r i v i n g t h e t u r b i n e . N o problems w e r e observed. F i n a l l y , a c y l i n d e r having an a s p e c t r a t i o of 4 and end p l a t e t o c y l i n d e r diameter r a t i o of 2 (e/d = 2 ) was given a preliminary t e s t over i t s e n t i r e r o t a t i n g speed range a t f r e e s t r e a m Fteynolds numbers varying from 0 .5 x 10' t o 2.9 x 105 Results i n d i c a t e d t h a t a test lbynolds nurtlber of 1.45 x 105 would provide d a t a t h a t could be e x t r a p o l a t e d r e l i a b l y t o f u l l s i z e c y l i n d e r s . This is comparable t o a tunnel speed of 45 f t / sec (13.7 m/s)

3.2.6

A t m s p h e r i c Boundary Layer Simulation Study

During t h e period when t h e mdels w e r e being developed, University of Michigan personnel developed t h e methods t o be used f o r generating an a r t i f i c a l l y thickened boundary l a y e r beginning a t t h e t w n e l which simulated t h e e a r t h ' s atmosp h e r i c boundary l a y e r . The p r o f i l e s e l e c t e d , obtained from Reference 40, w a s t h a t t y p i c a l o f wind blowing over f l a t , grassy p l a i n s i n which wind speed v a r i e s a t h '*18. ~ l t h o u g ht h i s p r o f i l e i s s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t from t h e h p r o f i l e l i s t e d i n our design c r i t e r i a , w e b e l i e v e it simulates r e a l conditions c l o s e l y , $ad hence i s s a t i s f a c t o r y f o r this study. The methods used f o r boundary l a y e r simulation were s i m i l a r t o those used by Professor W i l l m a r t h a t t h e University o f Michigan f o r s t u d i e s of wind loads on b u i l d i n g s . A photograph of t h e e x p e r i ~ n t a l s e t u p f o r t h e 152 xWn c y l i n d e r s Boundary l a y e r s of up t o 0 .6 m i s presented i n Figure 3.8. t h i c k were obtained by t h i s method f o r t h e wind tunnel speeds planned f o r t h e t e s t s .

Figure 3 . 8 .

lkthod of Simulating A t m o s p h e r i c B o u n d a r y Layers for 1 5 2 mm C y l i n d e r .

As can be seen in Figure 3.8, beginning at the point where the entrance cone enters the test section, three rectangular strips having a 127 nun high by 12.7 mm wide crosssection were spaced on 457 mm centers across the tunnel floor. From there on, twelve, 12.7 nmn diameter rods followed by six, 19 m quarter round mldings spanned the tunnel floor at 0.3 m intervals. In order to assure a uniform boundary layer profile across the entire tunnel width, auxiliary fans directed toward the tunnel walls were placed in the entrance cone of the tunnel. Excellent results were achieved. Tests were conducted and data were reduced in a form that would permit the test director to specify a value of Voo which would provide the desired profile and the desired reference wind velocity at a given reference height above the floor. The reference height selected was that at the midpoint of the cylinder when munted on a car. Typical results are plotted in Figuree 3.9 and 3.10a. Figure 3.9 depicts the standard tunnel boundary layer which demonstrates that our free-stream tests for both the 51 nun and 152 mm cylinder were conducted in a uniform vleocity field. In all free-!Stream tests Lhe bottom of the cylinder vaa elevated 12-inches (305 nrm) above the tunnel floor. The reader should note that although the 51 mm cylinder and the 152 mm cylinders having aspect ratios of 3 and 4 were completely immersed in the variable boundary layer, the longer aspect ratio cylinders (5 and 6) were partially in free stream flow. This test condition was beyond the control of the University of Michigan because a 0.6 m thick boundary layer was the maximum that could be generated. One of the primary reasons for conducting the boundary layer test.series was to help validate the air load model used in our Madaras system performance simulation computer program. The following paragraphs describe this air load model.

0.0
Figure 3.9.

0.2

0.4 0.6 0.8 VELOCITY RATIO

1 .O

1.2

Tunnel Boundary Layer Profile Prior to Modification, 11 m/s Free Stream Velocity, .97 ilt Above Floor. Curve 3 is Centerline Profile.

AR = 6

0.0

0.2

0.4 0.6 0.8 VELOCITY RATIO

1.0

1.2

0.0

0.2

0.4 0.6 0.8 VELOCITY RATIO

1.0

1.2

Figure 3.10a.

Simulated Atmospheric Boundary Layer for 152 mm Cylinder Having AR = 3 and AR = 6.

RESULTANT LOCAL WIND RELATIVE TO ROTOR

GROUND LEVEL

RELATIVE T O TRACK

" T R A C ~ -TANGENT

TO TRACK

Figure 3.10b.

Ekman-like Spiral Resultant Wind Relative to Different Sections of the Rotor Produced by Vector Addition of Translatory Motion of Rotor Car and Wind Boundary Layer Near Earth's Surface.

Two airload distributions are imposed on a rotor which is moving alona a track at a speed, Vt: (1) a uniform airload versus rotor height caused by rotor car motion along the track; and (2) a nonuniform atmospheric boundary layer airflow distribution versus rotor height caused by the wind blowing over the surface of the earth at an angle @ relative to the track. The combination of these two flows yields a resultant velocity envelope along the height of the rotor that somewhat resembles an Ekman spiral* as shown in Figure 3.10b. Since this combination of air flows cannot be obtained in a conventional wind tunnel, it became necessary to develop an empirical model to predict the spira.1-likeairload distribution on the rotor. Our computational procedure first included the determination of the magnitude and direction of the resultant local wind velocity vector VR versus rotor height as a function of: (1) the free-stream wind vslocity, VW relative to the track at any given track location; (2) the wind boundary layer distribution; and (3) the constant track speed of the rotor car, Vt. Then, for a given rotor size (aspect ratio, rotor diameter, end plate size, and number of end plates) and the appropriate value of U/VR~ (ratio of rotor surface speed to resultant wind speed at height h) we computed the spiralof lift and drag as s like airload vector distxihi~t.ions function of height. These distributions were integrated relative to rotor height to obtain the total lift and total drag forces, and then the centroids and lines of action of the total lift and total drag forces relative to the line of tangency to the track were computed.

Ekman - Theory first applied to slow currents at ocean die Beinflussung floor - large scale plus coriohis effect " ~ b e r von Windbahnen durch Gegirge" - Bietr. Phys. ~tmosphare19: 272-274; 1932.

The final step was to resolve the total lift ant total drag vectors to determine the net normal and tangential force components relative to the track caused by the two airload distributions. These normal and tangential values were then used in our Madaras performance simulation computer program to compute rotor loads and power output. The aerodynamic data obtained from our boundary layer tests were used as an independent means for validating our ability to reliably compute the total lift f o r c e , the total drag force, and the centroid of these forces caused by the nonuniform boundary airload distribution alone. Using actual measured boundary layer velocity profiles for a given cylinder size (such as that in Figure 3.10a for a cylinder having an aspect ratio = 6) and using CL and CD versus U/V data from freestream wind tunnel tests, we computed resultant values of CL, CD, and centroid locations of these forces using the approach described above for the condition of a stationary rotor car (i.e., Vt = 0). Direct comparisions were made of the computed CL, C ~ and f centroid data with respective data measured under comparable conditions during the simulated boundary layer flow tests. This comparison indicated that errors in the computed force and centroid data were less than 3 percent. Therefore, the model described above' was considered to be satisfactvry for use in our performance computations.
3.2.7

Typical Cylinder Test Procedure

A brief description of a typical free stream test is given to assist the reader in understanding the test conditions and the resulting data. Nearly the same procedure was used for the boundary layer tests.

A f t e r t h e c y l i n d e r was mounted i n t h e t u n n e l and a l l f a s t e n e r s were checked, t h e i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n a m p l i f i e r s

w e r e adjusted t o t h e i r p r e t e s t positions.

Instrumentation

c i r c u i t s were normally l e f t e n e r g i z e d a t a l l times, even overn i g h t , s o t h a t a l l systems would be t h o r o u g h l y warmed up and stabilized prior t o the t e s t . Barometric p r e s s u r e r e a d i n g s were t a k e n from a p r e c i s i o n mercury b a r o m e t e r , and p r e t e s t z e r o r e a d i n g s w e r e t h e n r e c o r d e d on punched p a p e r t a p e . A t e s t l o g was k e p t throughout t h e t e s t by t h e t e s t d i r e c t o r . Two o t h e r o p e r a t o r s were r e q u i r e d : one t o o p e r a t e t h e t u n n e l and one t o r e g u l a t e t h e a i r flow which drove t h e c y l i n d e r t u r b i n e . Next, t u n n e l a i r was a c c e l e r a t e d t o t h e d e s i r e d speed, s t a b i l i z e d , and d a t a r e a d i n g s from a l l c h a n n e l s were. r e c o r d e d on p a p e r t a p e . T h i s t e s t p o i n t r e p r e s e n t e d t h e z e r o rpm f o r c e measurement on t h e c y l i n d e r . The i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n s y s t e m " f r e e z e s " a l l r e a d i n g s a t t h e i n s t a n t a "Read" b u t t o n i s p r e s s e d i n o r d e r t o p r o v i d e c h o r o n o l o g i c a l l y c o i n c i d e n t r e a d i n g s from s e v e r a l measurements, which were t h e n punched i n t o t h e paper t a p e . D i g i t a l r e a d o u t s on p a n e l v o l t meters were a l s o a v a i l a b l e t o v i s u a l l y m n i t o r each measurement a t any t i m e . From t h i s p o i n t on, t h e c y l i n d e r motor a i r was tiimed o n , and c y l i n d e r speed was c a r e f u l l y r e g u l a t e d and s t a b i l i z e d n e a r a speed c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o U/V = 0 . 5 . (The v e l . n c i t y , U, i s t h c c i r c u m f e r e i ~ L f d 1speed ( 2 r r n ) and tr i s t h e f r e e s t r e a m t u n n e l s p e e d . ) When t h e r p s c o u n t e r i n d i c a t e d speed had s t a b i l i z e d , t h e "Read" b u t t o n was p r e s s e d , and d a t a were recorded a s before. The c y l i n d e r speed was s u c c e s s i v e l y i n c r e a s e d i n U/V increments o f 0.5 up t o a t l e a s t U/V = 5 o r p o s s i b l y h i g h e r i f it appeared from t h e p a n e l r e a d i n g s t h a t c y l i n d e r s t a l l had n o t o c c u r r e d . During t h i s e n t i r e p r o c e d u r e , t h e t u n n e l o p e r a t o r c a r e f u l l y r e g u l a t e d h i s p r o p e l l e r speed t o m a i n t a i n c o n s t a n t q, a s r e a d from a manometer. Thus, each d a t a set was

o b t a i n e d a t n e a r l y c o n s t a n t q o v e r t h e e n t i r e U/V range. Caref u l a t t e n t i o n had t o be p a i d t o t u n n e l q, because t h e 152 mrn c y l i n d e r s c a u s e d c o n s i d e r a b l e t u r b u l e n c e , e s p e c i a l l y when t h e e/d

= 1.25 e n d p l a t e was used.
A s end p l a t e s i z e i n c r e a s e d ,

the

t u r b u l e n c e o v e r t h e t o p o f t h e c y l i n d e r d e c r e a s e d , and t u n n e l f a n b l a d e s t a l l was n o t as much o f a problem. Upon r e c o r d i n g d a t a a t t h e maximum r p m , t h e c y l i n d e r was p e r m i t t e d t o d e c e l e r a t e t o z e r o rpm, and a complete d a t a s e t a t z e r o rpm and a t t e s t wind s p e e d was t a k e n . The t u n n e l was t h e n s h u t down, and when q dropped t o z e r o , a p o s t t e s t z e r o was r e c o r d e d . C o n f i g u r a t i o n changes such a s a d d i n g o r removing t h e m i r r o r s t r u t o r changing t h e e n d p l a t e s were made, a n d t h e n t h e p r o c e d u r e was r e p e a t e d .
L

A f t e r a l l r u n s a t a given a s p e c t r a t i o and a l l e n d p l a t e s i z e s were completed, t h e d a t a were computed, p l o t t e d , and analyzed. I f a l l appeared s a t i s f a c t o r y , a p p r o v a l was given t o change t o t h e n e x t a s p e c t r a t i o .
3.3
FREE STREAM TEST RESULTS

I n U r i s and t h c f o l l o w i n g pab-agraphs, w e wili prceserit t h e more i m p o r t a n t r e s u l t s o f t h e wind t u n n e l t e s t s .

The primary c o n c l u s i o n s drawn from t h e s e tests were:
A 1 1.
i

t e s t models operdlad s a t i o f a c t o r i l y .

T ~ G g e n e r a l arrangement and t e s t procedure w a s s a t i s f a c t o r y , and t h e method for g e n e r a t i n g the

s i m u l a t e d atmospheric boundary l a y e r was s a t i s f a c t o r y .

T e s t r e s u l t s were s a t i s f a c t o r y , and CL and Cu ourves

c o r r e l a t e d well with those i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e . The d a t a a r e s a t i s f a c t o r y f o r computing f o r c e s on full-sized cylinders. S i n c e t h e 152 mm d a t a s e t was t h e r r m s t r e l i a b l e and e x t e n s i v e , . o n l y t h i s d a t a w i l l be p r e s e n t e d .

3.3.1

T v ~ i c a lS e t o f Raw Free-Stream Data

The i n i t i a l o u t p u t o f t h e s e tests from t h e comp u t e r c o n s i s t e d o f a number o f d a t a t a b u l a t i o n s and Cazcomp p l o t s o f t h e d a t a . During d a t a p r o c e s s i n g , t h e d a t a were r e a d i n t o t h e computer by means o f punched p a p e r t a p e , and t h e r e s u l t s were s t u d i e d by t h e o p e r a t o r u s i n g a CRT d i s p l a y . A t t h i s s t a g e a d d i t i o n a l i d e n t i f y i n g i n p u t s were e n t e r e d , and d a t a e d i t i n g was done. The approved e d i t e d d a t a was t h e n s t o r e d , f i n a l computations were made, and o u t p u t was t a b u l a t e d and p l o t t e d . .The f i n a l r e s u l t s were a l s o s t o r e d on d i s c .
A s e t o f f i n a l raw d a t a o u t p u t i n c l u d e s :

F i n a l Data T a b u l a t i o n p l o t , o f CL v e r s u s U/V P l o t o f CD v e r s u s U/V P l o t o f H P v e r s u s U/V

A t y p i c a l s e t of these data f o r t h e free-stream

t e s t 363-14 and 363-14A a r e p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e s 3.3 and 3.4 and i n F i g u r e s 3.11 and 3.12. Orlly one r o t a t i o n a l .horsepower p l o t i s p r e s e n t e d (Run 36 3-14) because t h e r e was no d i f f e r e n c e between i t and 363-14A. and 3.2. These and a l l o t h e r t e s t s a r e l i s t e d i n T a b l e s

3.1

From t h e d a t a p r e s e n t e d , t h e r e a d e r can s e e t h a t t h e e x p e c t e d l a r g e CL v a l u e s have been v e r i f i e d , and a t y p i c a l drag bucket i s a l s o evident. orderly. The d a t a t r e n d s seem smooth and

The raw d a t a w e r e c o r r e c t e d f o r t h e s t r u t e f f e c t t o o b t a i n t h e n e t f r e e s t r e a m d a t a by a d d i n g o r s u b t r a c t i n g t h e d i f f e r e n c e between o r d i n a t e s o f two comparable c u r v e s a t a given U/V, a s a p p r o p r i a t e . Thus, f o r t h e CL c u r v e a t U/V = 5 , s i n c e t h e a d d i t i o n o f t h e sccond ( m i r r o r ) s t r u t (363-14A) caused an a p p a r e n t i n c r e a s e i n CL d a t a from t h a t when o n l y t h e lower f a i r i n g was used (363-14)

t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e two

c u r v e s a t U/V = 5 was s u b t r a c t e d from t h e v a l u e o f 363-14 t o o b t a i n the c o r r e c t e d f r e e s t r e a m c u r v e .

TABLE 3 . 3 FREE-STREAM DATA FOR CYLINDER WITH BOTTOM F A I R I N G ONLY

RUN 36314 PM 1?/3? I?: 7?: 7? 4TM PRESSURE 74.80 CM HG CYLINDER HEIGHT 36. 000 IN DIfiMETER 6. 000 IN E/'D 3. 000 CL
CD

CENTER LINE

HEIGHT 30. 500 IN VELOCITY 43. 000 FT/SEC REYCIOLDS FlClMBEE 14% th1
Y ( MD) /D
CIP

U/V

CHL

CMD

Y ( tlL)J'D

REV/GEC

U/V

LIFT LB

DRAG LB

ML IN-LB

M b IN-LB

TEIVlV

DENSITY

P3

VEL

TABLE . 3 . 4
FREE STREAM DATA FOR CYLINDER WITH

BOTH MIRROR STRUT AND BOTTOM FAIRING

RUN 36314A FM 1?/3? I?: 7?: 7? ATM PRESSURE 74.80 CM HG CYLINDER HEIGHT 36.000 IN DIAMETER 6.000 IN E/D 3. 000 CL CD CML CMD CENTER LINE HEIGHT 30. 500 IN VELDCITY 45. 000 FT/SEC REYNOLDS NUMBER 145161. Y(MD)/D HP REV/GEC

U/V

Y(RL)/D

U/V

LIFT LB

DRAG LB

ML IN-LB

MD IN-LB

TEMP F

DENSITY

FS VEL

9 1
t

I
I

'

+.
4

+ Lower Fairing
=D

Odly

8 Lower Fairing P l u s

Mirror Strut

Figure 3 . 1 1 .

CL and CD versus U/V f o r AE = 6 , e/d = 3, Lower F a i r i n g o n l y and Lower F a i r i n g Plus Mirror S t r u t .

Ficnre 3 . 1 2 .

HP versus U/V f o r AR = 6 , e/d = 3.

Neither Fairing Nor S t r u t Has any E f f e c t on Data.

A s i m i l a r t e c h n i q u e was used t o c o r r e c t t h e CD

c u r v e , b u t t h e p r o c e s s was r e v e r s e d : t o t h e 363-14 CD c u r v e .

t h e d i f f e r e n c e was added

N o c o r r e c t i o n s f o r t h e horsepower c u r v e w e r e r e q u i r e d . Note t h a t i t t o o k a b o u t 5.2 h p t o d r i v e t h i s c y l i n d e r a t 8,640 rpm (184 r p s ) Our method f o r d e v e l o p i n g e q u a t i o n s f o r s c a l i n g t h e s e power d a t a t o a r o t o r o f any geometry and s i z e i s

p r e s e n t e d i n P a r a g r a p h 3.3.7. S e l e c t i o n o f T e s t Reynolds Number swanson20 d e t e r m i n e d t h a t free stream Reynolds number, R , was. n o t t h e g o v e r n i n g . p a r a m e t e r f o r f l o w s i m i l a r i t y f o r a r o t a t i n g c y l i n d e r a s it i s f o r an a i r f o i l .

H i s experiments

on a n i n f i n i t e a s p e c t r a t i o c y l i n d e r i n c l u d e d a c q u i s i t i o n o f d a t a a t v a l u e s o f R r a n g i n g from 0.36 x l o 5 t o 5 x l o 5 and f o r U/V v a l u e s from 0 t o 1 7 . H e d e t e r m i n e d t h a t beyond U/V v a l u e s , o f a b o u t 1 . 0 , t h e r e a p p e a r e d t o b e v i r t u a l l y no d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e CL v e r s u s U/V and CD v e r s u s U/V d a t a a s a f u n c t i o n o f R. A s t h e U/V , i n c r e a s e s beyond 1, t h e r o t a t i n g c y l i n d e r
i s g r a d u a l l y immersed i n a n a i r f l o w t h a t i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r i n s p e e d t h a n t h a t i r l t h e f r e e s t r e a m , and hence i t i s

t h i s l o c a l flow r e g i o n t h a t governs flow s e p a r a t i o n and transition. I n view o f Swanson's e x p e r i e n c e , w e a n t i c i p a t e d t h a t i t would n o t be n e c e s s a r y t o c o n d u c t o u r e x p e r i m e n t s a t a f r e e - s t r e a m Reynolds number a t o r beyond t h e c r i t i c a l Reynolds number o f a s t a t i o n e r y c y l i n d e r i n an a i r s t r e a m ( o f t h e o r d e r o f 5 3.5 x 10 ) Tests a t t h i s speed would havc pushed the speed and power r e q u i r e m e n t s , a n d t h e wind t u n n e l b a l a n c e s y s t e m beyond

p r a c t i c a l limits. Thus, w e c o n d u c t e d a s i m p l e series o f t e s t s t o check Swanson's o b s e r v a t i o n s a n d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e v a l u e o f f r e e

s t r e a m R beyond which C D v e r s u s U/V d a t a would b e r e l a t i v e l y

u n a f f e c t e d by f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e s i n R. The r e s u l t s o f t h i s s t u d y are p l o t t e d i n F i g u r e 3.13. Data from b o t h t h e 5 1 mm d i a m e t e r a n d 152 mm d i a m e t e r c y l i n d e r s w e r e u s e d where a v a i l a b l e . W e a l s o o v e r l a y e d CL a n d

C D d a t a from a d j a c e n t d a t a s e t s t o check e f f e c t s o f changes i n

R.

FrQm t h i s s t u d y w e d e t e r m i n e d t h a t a d e q u a t e t e s t r e s u l t s

w o u l d be o b t a i n e d a t R = 1.45 x
t i - l n n e l speed o f about 13.7 m/s.
-

lo5,

which was e q u i v a l e n t t6

i~

Thus, t h e e n t i r e t e s t program w a s r u n a t a Reynolds number o f a b o u t 1 . 4 5 x PO 5 ~ u r t k e r ,to

p r e s e r v e t h i s d e s i r e d r u n n i n g c o n d i t i o n , care w a s e x e r c i s e d t o ruri a l l t e s t s a t c o n s t a n t dynamic p r e s s u r e . T h e r e t o r e , since Reynolds number ef fect.s have b e e n p r o p e r l y c o n s i d e r e d , w e w i l l b e a b l e t o scale t h e wind tunnel data d i r e c t l y t o full-sized configurations over the e n t i r e t e s t r a n g e s o f U/V, e / d , and AR.
3.3.3

B a s i c Free --

Stream. Data

The c o m p l e t e set ul f r e e s t r c a m aerodynamic d a t a

i s summarized i n T a b l e 3.5 a n d T a b l e 3 . 6 .

T h i s d a t a i s unique

i n t h a t it i s t h e most c o m p l e t e i n f o r m a t i o n o n r o t a t i n g c y l i n d e r aerodynamic p e r f o r m a n c e i n terms o f g e o m e t r i c v a r i a t i o n s t h a t e x i s t s i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e t u d a y . 'I'he s d d i t i o i i of t . h e boundary l a y e r d a t a ( d e s c r i b e d i n Paragraph 3 . 4 ) makes t h e data e v e n more c x t e n s i v e

.
A t y p i c a l CD versus C
2

p l o t a119 i t s accompanyL i n g CL v e r s u s u/V p l o t a r e p r e s e n t e d i n F i g u r e s 3.14 and 3.15, r e s p e c t i v e l y , f o r end caps having diameters t w i c e t h a t o f t h e c y l i n d e r d i a m e t e r ( e / d = 2 ) . The ~iumberedp o i n t s o n the c u r v e r e p r e s e n t t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g u/V values of those points.

F i g u r e 3.13.

S t u d y t o Determine T e s t Reynolds Number CD v e r s u s R for v a r i o u s V a l u e s of U/V.

TAELE 3 . 5

FREE STFXAM C , DATA

TABLE 3 . 6 FPXE STREAM C, DATA

F i g u r e 3.14.

F r e e s t r e a m CD v e r s u s End Caps, e / d = 2 .

cL2 f o r

V a r i o u s AR, Two

F i g u r e 3.15.

F r e e s t r e a m CL v e r s u s U/V End Caps, e / d = 2 .

f o r V a r i o u s AR, Two

A l l d a t a s e e m t o f i t smooth c u r v e s w i t h minimal s c a t t e r e x c e p t

f o r t h e AR = 5 c u r v e a t U/V v a l u e s o f 4 and 5 .

S i n c e t h e s e most

inaccurate points a r e e i t h e r within f6 percent of t h e corresponding CD v a l u e o r w i t h i n +3 p e r c e n t o f t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g CL v a l u e , we b e l i e v e t h a t t h e d a t a s e t i s w e l l w i t h i n a c c e p t a b l e F u r t h e r , t h e f a i r e d d a t a t r e n d s were checked accuracy l i m i t s . i n o t h e r c r o s s p l o t s a s a f u n c t i o n of AR and e / d r a t i o , and t h e s e t r e n d s w e r e found t o be c o n s i s t e n t w i t h i n t h e complete d a t a s e t . I t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e l a r g e r e r r o r s meritioned above were t h e r e s u l t o f i ~ l c o ~ s i s t e n be t h a v i o r d u r i n g the o n s e t o f s t a l l and t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e s u p e r - c i r c u l a t i o n phenomena. E r r o r band's due t o t h e i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n were no l a r g e x than i1p e r c e n t . The u n i f o r m i t y o f the p l o t t e d r a w d a t a t r e n d s i n F i g u r e s 3.11 and 3.12 a l s o i s i n d i c a t i v e t h a t t h e d a t a a r e 1 reliable.

In view o f t h e s a t i s f a c t o r y t r e n d s i n t h e data s e t as a whole, w e b e l i e v e t h e d a t a can be used c o n f i d e n t l y i n

performance s i m u l a t i o n s o f f u l l - s i z e d Madaras systems. O t h e r d a t a c r o s s p l o t s w i l l be p r e s e n t e d i n p a r a g r a p h s which follow.
3 -3.4

E f f e c t o f e / d R a t i o V a r i a t i o n on CL and CD . T y p i c a l p l o t s o f CL v e r s u s CD, CL v e r s u s U/V,

and CD v e r s u s U/V f o r a l l v a l u e s o f e / d r a t i o a r e p r e s e n t e d Data f o r a s p e c t r a t i o s 3 and 6 i n F i g u r e s 3.16 and 3.17.

w e r e s e l e c t e d t o show the effect of e/d r a t i o f o r t h e bj-miting v a l u e s o f t h e a s p e c t r a t i o range s t u d i e d .

One of t h e f i r s t o b s e r v a t i o n s one makes

after

s t u d y i n g F i g u r e s 3.16 and 3.17 i s t h a , t CL m x d r a l ~ L i c a l l y i n c r e a s e s a s e / d r a t i o i n c r e a s e s , and t h a t t h e i n c r e a s e i n CL

max c a u s e d by changing e / d r a t i o from 1.25 t o 2.0 i s much more s i g n i f i c a n t t h a n f o r changing e / d r a t i o f r o m 2 . 0 t o 3 . 0 . F u r t h e r as a s p e c t r a t i o i n c r e a s e s , t h e i n c r e a s e i n CL max c a u s e d by e / d changes from 2.0 t o 3.0 becomes l e s s s i g n i f i c a n t .

F i g u r e 3.16.

Freestream CL versus C f o r AR of 3 and 6 and e/d R a t i o s of 1.25, 2, and 3, d = 1 5 8 mm.

U/V

U/V

5
CD

0 0

F i g u r e 3.17.

u/v U/V F r e e s t r e a m CL and CD v e r s u s U/V, A R of 3 and 6', and e/d R a t i o s o'f 1 . 2 5 , 2, and 3, d = 152 mm.

Thus i t would a p p e a r t h a t a n optimum d e s i g n p o i n t may o c c u r n e a r e / d = 2 i n view o f t h e t r a d e o f f between t h e small CL max v e r s u s t h e l a r g e i n c r e a s e i n power r e q u i r e d t o s p i n t h e c y l i n d e r when end p l a t e r a t i o i s i n c r e a s e d from 2 t o 3. be presented later.) F o r t h e CD curves, t h e e f f e c t o f aspect r a t i o (Power d a t a w i l l

o r i n d u c e d d r a g i s a p p a r e n t , and o n e c a n see a s m a l l r e d u c t i o n i n CD w i t h i n c r e a s e d e / d up u n t i l s t a l l o c c u r s . Beyond s t a l l , b o t h l i f t and d r a g o f t h e e / d = 1.25 c u r v e s i s e s s e n t i a l l y unchanged. Although CD f o r t h e e / d = 1.25 c u r v e s l o o k s s m a l l a t U/V v a l u e s beyond s t a l l , t h e L/D r a t i o i s small a n d so i s power o u t p u t .
It

s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t t h e maximum CD v a l u e f o r an e / d r a t i o o f 3

i s less than t h a t f o r an e/d r a t i o of 2 f o r a l l a s p e c t r a t i o s , b u t t h a t t h e i n c r e m e n t a l change i n CD i s a b o u t t h e same f o r e a c h aspect r a t i o studied. T h i s d i f f e r e n c e i n CD a l s o g i v e s w e i g h t

t o o u r p r e v i o u s o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t t h e r e may n o t be enough improvement i n aerodynamic performance t o j u s t i f y end p l a t e r a t i o s much g r e a t e r t h a n 2. 3.3.5 E f f e c t o f A s p e c t R a t i o V a r i a t i o n on CL and C n F i g u r e 3.18 p r e s e n t s f o r e / d r a t i o s o f 1.25 , 2 , and 3 , a s e t o f c u r v e s r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e v a r i a t i o n o f CL v e r s u s
U/V

a n d C D v e r s u s U/V

f o r each o f t h e a s p e c t r a t i o s t e s t e d .

The l i f t c u r v e s l o p e s a r e c o n s i s t e n t , a n d t h e pronounced d r a g b u c k e t s o b s e r v e d . i n e x i s t i n g r o t a t i n g c y l i n d e r d a t a are p r e s e n t i n o u r d a t a . There i s a d e f i n i t e i n c r e a s e i n CL max w i t h AR i n c r e a s e f o r a given value of e/d. However, i t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t t h e e f f e c t o f a s p e c t r a t i o on CL max d e c r e a s e s a s e / d i n c r e a s e s u n t i l t l e r e i s v e r y l i t t l e e f f e c t on CL max c a u s e d by a s p e c t r a t i o f o r e / d = 3.0. aspect ratio. On t h e o t h e r hand, a s would be e x p e c t e d , a s p e c t r a t i o i n c r e a s e s i n t h e .range t e s t e d c a u s e d marked r e d u c t i o n s i n These c u r v e s a g a i n show t h a t CL max i s a f f e c t e d more s t r o n g l y by e / d r a t i o t h a n by

59

Figure 3.18.

Freestream CL and CD versus U/V, AR of 3 to 6, and e/d Ratios of 1.25, 2, and 3 ; d = 152
- 0

a s a r e s u l t o f decreasing induced drag.

L a t e r , w e w i l l show

t h a t t h e i n c r e a s e d power r e q u i r e d t o r o t a t e t h e c y l i n d e r w i t h i n c r e a s e d a s p e c t r a t i o i s n o t a p p r e c i a b l e , s o t h a t a good a e r o dynamic d e s i g n p o i n t s h o u l d f a v o r u s e o f a h i g h e r a s p e c t r a t i o . The improved wind s p e e d n e a r t h e t o p o f t a l l e r c y l i n d e r s a l s o f a v o r s a h i g h a s p e c t r a t i o ; however, t h e r e s u l t i n g i n c r e a s e i n c a r w e i g h t t o compensate f o r t h e r e s u l t i n g i n c r e a s e i n o v e r t u r n i n g moment may l i m i t t h e magnitude o f t h e a s p e c t r a t i o .
I t i s an i n t e r e s t i n g h i s t o r i c a l n o t e t h a t t h e

o r i g i n a l Madaras d e s i g n proposed by P r o f e s s o r Klemin o f N e w York U n i v e r s i t y was f o r a c y l i n d e r 125 f e e t h i g h by 16 f e e t d i a m e t e r ( A R = 7.8) However, P r o f e s s o r Pawlowski o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Michigan c o n v i n c e d Madaras t o r e d u c e t h e c y l i n d e r p r o p o r t i o n s t o 27.4 m h i g h by 6 . 8 m i n d i a m e t e r i n o r d e r t o r e d u c e b e n d i n g moments and o v e r t u r n i n g moments. 2 S i n c e w e showed ( P a r a g r a p h 1 . 1 6 , E q u a t i o n 1) t h a t t h e Madaras s y s t e m i s i n f l u e n c e d l a r g e l y by CL and n o t s o much by CD/CL b e c a u s e t h e s y s t e m i s a low s p e e d t a n s l a t o r , d e s i g n p o i n t s f a v o r i n g t h e h i g h e r l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t s a t t h e expense o f h i g h e r drag c o e f f i c i e n t s could r e s u l t i n a more,'favorable o v e r a l l system d e s i g n . T h i s i s t h e t y p e o f compromise P r o f e s s o r Pawlowski p r o b a b l y made i n 1931. S i n c e aerodynamic performance o f t h e c y l i n d e r w i t h AR = 3 i s s o much below t h a t o f t h e o t h e r c y l i n d e r s , an a s p e c t r a t i o o f 3 probably w i l l n o t be competitive. However, a o y l i n d c r h a v i n g a n aspecL r c l t i u i n t h e 4 t o 6 r a n g e w i t h a n e / d r a t i o o f 2 a p p e a r e d t o be a t t r a c t i v e .
3.3.6

Comparison o f U D R I Aerodynamic Data w i t h P e r t i n e n t E x i s t i n g Data

W e b e l i e v e t h a t t h e wind t u n n e l d a t a g e n e r a t e d

by Klemin f o r Madaras and t h a t g e n e r a t e d by B e t z , e t a l , ( W t t i n g e n ) f o r t h e F l e t t n e r r o t o r s h i p a r e t h e most p e r t i n e n t s e t s o f e x i s t i n g d a t a w i t h which t o compare o u r d a t a . f o r AR = 8 . 1 w i t h e / d r a t i o o f 2.25. Unfort u n a t e l y , o n l y o n e o f K l e m i n ' s c u r v e s h a s been found, a n d it i s The G a t t i n g e n d a t a were f o r

t h r e e c o n f i g u r a t i o n s a l l of AR = 4 . 7 w i t h e / d r a t i o s o f 1. O , and 2.0.
A s a means o f p r o v i d i n g checks o f t h e d a t a

1.7,

r e p o r t e d h e r e i n , we s e l e c t e d Klemin's d a t a and t h e Gbttingen d a t a h a v i n g t h e e / d r a t i o of 2 f o r comparison. These comparisons

are p r e s e n t e d i n F i g u r e s 3.19 and 3.20.

The comparison w i t h Klemin's d a t a i s i n t h e form o f l i f t - d r a g p o l a r s o f Klemin's d a t a and U D R I d a t a e x t r a p o l a t e d t o a s p e c t r a t i o of 8 f o r e/d = 2. For s i m p l i c i t y , o u r e x t r a p o l a t e d method accounted o n l y f o r t h e d e c r e a s e s i n induced d r a g c a u s e d by a s p e c t r a t i o . N o a c c o u n t was made for t h e i n c r e a s e d Nor was CD
CL which would r e s u l t from t h e e / d i n c r e a s e from 2 t o 2.25 and

due t o t h e a s p e c t r a t i o i n c r e a s e from 6 t o 8 . o u r extrapolation i s conservative.

d e c r e a s e d due t o t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n e/d r a t i o . Thus, we b e l i e v e

Our e x t r a p o l a t i o n was accomplished by two i n d e p e n d e n t methods. F i r s t , a c r o s s p l o t was made o f t h e CD f o r a l l e/d = 2 . T h i s From t h i s p l o t , a p p r o p r i a t e t r e n d s o f d a t a v e r s u s AR f o r v a r i o u s v a l u e s o f U/V

i s shown i n F i g u r e 3.21.

C D v a r i a t i o n v e r s u s AR a t v a r i o u s U/V l e v e l s were e s t a b l i s h e d .
Seconriiy, t h e decrease In induced d r a y cdused by changing a s p e c t r a t i o from 6 t o 8 was computed by t h e w e l l known induced d r a g e q u a t i o n :

I n t h i s computation, t h e CL v a l u e used f o r each v a l u e o f U/V from 0 t o 6 was t h a t o b t a i n e d from Run 362 ( A R = 6, e / d = 2 )

A f t e r computing t h e v a l u e s o f C D ( a s p e c t r a t i o s o f 8 ) f o r U/V v a l u e s from 0 t o 6 by Equation 2, t h e computed d a t a were p l o t t e d on the c r v s s p l o t , F i g u r e 3.21. Then t h e d a t a t r e n d s and t h e computed d a t a were c r o s s checked. A s can be s e e n , t h e t r e n d s and t h e computed d a t a a g r e e e r a t h e r w e l l . The comp u t e d d a t a t h e n w e r e used t o p l o t t h e e x t r a p o l a t e d l i f t - d r a g p o l a r on F i g u r e 3.19.

F i g u r e 3.19.

Comparision o f UDRI E x t r a p o l a t e d Data w i t h Klemin's Measured Data.

F i g u r e 3.20.

Comparison o f I n t e r p o l a t e d U D R I Data w i t h G a t t i n g e n Data.

I
3

I
4

I
5

I
6

I
7

I
.8

Aspect Ratio
Figure 3 . 2 1 .

Used to C r o s s P l o t o f CD versus AR for e / d = 2 . E x t r a p o l a t e ITDRI D a t a .for AR = 6 t o AR = 8 D a t a for C o m p a r i s o n w i t h K l . e m i n ' s D a t a . . , -

The r e s u 1 . t ~ i n F i g u r e 3.19 a r e q u i t e encouraging. Klemin's d a t a shows lower d r a g t h a n t h e UDRI d a t a i n t h e r e g i o n This r e s u l t i s v a l i d because Klemin r a n h i s below U/V = 2.5.

tests a t v a r y i n g Reynolds numbers i n o r d e r t o o b t a i n t h e d e s i r e d U/V v a l u e s because o f motor speed l i m i t a t i o n s . H i s lower U/V ranges s t a r t e d a t R = 3.1 x l o 5 compared t o o u r t e s t Reynolds number o f 1.45 x 104 Thus a t z e r o o r low r o t a t i o n a l s p e e d s , h i s CD d a t a s h o u l d be lower t h a n o u r s . On t h e o t h e r hand, o u r c o n s e r v a t i v e l y e x t r a p o l a t e d d a t a h a s h i g h e r L/D r a t i o s t h a n Klemin's above U/V v a l u e s o f 2.5.

A second comparison o f o u r d a t a was made w i t h

t h e Gd'ttingen r o t a t i n g c y l i n d e r d a t a d e r i v e d from t e s t s o f a c y l i n d e r h a v i n g an a s p e c t r a t i o o f 4.7 and an e/d r a t i o o f '2.0. UDRI d a t a were i n t e r T h i s comparison i s ' s h o w n o n ' F i g u r e 3.20. p o l a t e d from t h e c r o s s p l o t s shown i n F i g u r e s 3.21 and 3.22 t o o b t a i n t h e c u r v e which would be comparable t o t h e W t t i n g e n d a t a . Thus, c o r r e c t i o n of b o t h U D R I ' s CL and CD d a t a were made, and t h e r e f o r e a d i r e c t comparison was p o s s i b l e . The i n t e r p o l a t i o n procedure was s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d . F i g u r e 3.21, was used t o i n t e r p o l a t e v a l u e s o f C D v e r s u s U/V a t AR = 4.7, and CL v e r s u s U/V d a t a a t AR = 4.7 was o b t a i n e d i n a s i m i l a r manner from F i g u r e 3.22. W e b e l i e v e t h e d a t a c o r r e l a t e very w e l l , and a s i n t h e Klemin comparison, o u r d a t a a p p e a r s t o have lower CD v a l u e s and h i g h e r CL v a l u e s t h a n G s t t i n g e n ' s , e s p e c i a l l y a t h i g h e r U/V v a l u e s . The f a c t t h a t o u r d a t a were o b t a i n e d a t a Reynolds number which was t h r e e t i m e s h i g h e r t h a n t h a t o f t h e Gd'ttingen t e s t s may account f o r t h e lower d r a g below U/V = 1 . 5 . 3.3.7 Power Required t o R o t a t e C y l i n d e r

P l o t s o f horsepower r e q u i r e d t o r o t a t e c y l i n d e r s Both graphs h a v i n g AR o f 3 and 5 a r e p r e s e n t e d i n F i g u r e 3.23. p r e s e n t power r e q u i r e d a t t h e t e s t wind speed (13.7 m / s ) v e r s u s U/V, I n a d d i t i o n , t h e AR = 3 graph p r e s e n t s c u r v e s f o r power r e q u i r e d t o r o t a t e t h e c y l i n d e r s i n s t i l l a i r ( r e f e r t o t h e rpm

Anpect R a t i o

F i g u r e 3.22.

Cross P l o t o f CL versus. AR f o r e/d = 2. Used . t o I n t e r p o l a t e UDRI Data f o r AR = 4 t o AR = 4.7 f o r Comparison w i t h t h e Gb'ttingen Data. (The a p p a r e n t c u r v a t u r e shown by e x p e r i m e n t a l p o i n t s f o r CL = CL(AR) f o r U/V > 3.0 c o u l d e x i s t , o r it c o u l d r e p r e s e n t d a t a scatter. More s t u d y i s r e q u i r e d t o s o l v e t h i s anomaly. )

F i g u r e 3.23.

Power and 6 Still Given

Required t o R o t a t e C y l i n d e r v e r s u s U/V and rpm f o r AR=3 Both Power Required i n and f o r e / d o f 1 . 2 5 , 2 , and 3 . A i r as W e l l as Power Required a t Vw = 1 3 . 7 m / s a r e f o r t h e AR = 3 C o n f i g u r a t i o n , d = 152 mm.

scale).

Note t h . a t more power i s r e q u i r e d i n s t i l l a i r t h a n i s This r e s u l t i s

'

r e q u i r e d i n the' 'wind f o r a g i v e n v a l u e o f r p m . 17 c o n s i s t e n t w i t h ' ' d a t a from Reid.

An i m p o r t a n t t r e n d t o n o t i c e i n t h e d a t a i s t h e marked amount o f power r e q u i r e d t o r o t a t e a c y l i n d e r w i t h a n e / d = 3 e n d p l a t e r a t i o v e r s u s a c y l i n d e r w i t h a n e / d = 2 end plate ratio. Based on o u r c a l c u l a t i o n s , t h e power r e q u i r e d

t o t u r n a c y l i n d e r w i t h o u t end p l a t e s a.L a speed of 10,000 rpm

v a r i e s from 224 W f o r a 152 mm c y l i n d e r h a v i n g an a s p e c t r a t i o

o f 3 t o o n l y 447 W f o r t h e s a n e d i a m e t e r c y l i n d e r h a v i n g a n aspect r a . k i u of G
'

The c a l c u l a t e d v a r i a t i o n o f power r e q u i r e d w i t h e n d p l a t e s i z e i s a n o t h e r m a t t e r , a s i s shown i n F i g u r e 3.4. F o r o u r e x p e r i m e n t , t h e c a l c u l a t e d power f o r two d i s c ( e n d p l a t e s ) w i t h o u t a c y l i n d e r r e v o l v i n g a t 10,000 r p m i s as f o l l o w s :

So, i t can b e s e e n t h a t i t i s d e f i n i t e l y t h e e r ~ dp l a t e s and not

t h e c y l i n d e r t h a t a b s o r b most o f t h e power. T h i s comparison s u b s t a n t i a t e s o u r e a r l i e r c o n t e n t i o n , t h a t t h e d e s i g n e r p a y s a l a r g e p e n a l t y i n power a b s o r b e d i n t u r n i n g t h e c y l i n d e r for a small g a i n i n performance when one

s e l e c t s an e / d o f 3.0 i n s t e a d o f a n e / d of 2.0 f o r e n d p l a t e
size. Our computer program which s i m u l a t e s Madaras power p l a n t performance r e q u i r e s i n p u t d a t a t o account f o r t h e viscous a n d b e a r i n g l o s s e s c a u s e d by r o t a t i n g t h e c y l i n d e r . l o s s e s f o r any geometry d e s i r e d . This input must b e c a p a b l e o f a c c o u n t i n g f o r f u l l - s i z e d c y l i n d e r power Although t h e p o w e r - r e q u i r e d d a t a p r e v i o u s l y d e s c r i b e d a r e a d e q u a t e f o r model-sized c y l i n d e r s ,

w e needed t o d e v e l o p a r e l i a b l e method f o r s i m u l a t i n g performance

of full-sized cylinders.

Our method made u s e o f a s e t o f

e m p e r i c a l e q u a t i o n s d e v e l o p e d by Theodorsen a n d ~ e ~ i ea r nd ~ l t o i n d e p e n d e n t l y check t h e p r e d i c t i o n c a p a b i l i t y o f t h e s e e q u a t i o n s by o u r wind t u n n e l r e s u l t s and t h e f u l l - s i z e d c y l i n d e r r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d by Madaras i n t h e 1930 I

s .

Theodorsen a n d R e g i e r c o n d u c t e d a series o f a n a l y t i c a l s t u d i e s and t e s t s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e t o r q u e r e q u i r e d t o revolve d i s c s , c y l i n d e r s , and s t r e a m l i n e d rods a t c o n s t a n t s p e e d . The p u r p o s e o f t h i s work w a s t o o b t a i n d a t a a t s p e e d regimes h i g h e r t h a n t h o s e s t u d i e d e a r l i e r by Von Karman, P r a n d t l , A c k e r e t , and T a y l o r . Theodorsen and R e g i e r ' s d a t a v e r i f i e d t h e e a r l i e r work and a l s o p r o v i d e d i n f o r m a t i o n a p p l i c a b l e t o Mach numbers up t o 1 . 7 a n d Reynolds numbers up t o 7,000,000. Since t h e s e t e s t s e x t e n d e d t h e e a r l i e r r e s u l t s up t o and beyond t h e r a n g e . o f Reynolds number o f i n t e r e s t t o t h e Madaras . s t u d y , w e f e l t t h a t t h e r e s u l t i n g e q u a t i o n s s h o u l d b e v a l i d and u s e f u l f o r o u r computer s i m u l a t i o n . These e q u a t i o n s f o r computing power r e q u i r e d t o overcome v i s c o u s l o s s e s a r e :

F o r one e n d p l a t e ( d i s c ) i n t u r b u l e n t flow: Power r e q u i r e d = CM

1 z pa5
w

(3

where

F o r one c y l i n d e r i n t u r b u l e n t flow:

4 3 Power - r e q u i r e d = CD r p r w 9 .
where

In these equations, CM is the disc moment coefficient, p is the air density, . a is the disc radius, w is the angular velocity, CD is.the cylinder drag coefficient, R is Reynolds number based on free stream velocity and cylinder (or disc) radius, r is cylinder radius, R is the cylinder length, and M is the coefficient of viscosity. By appropriately combining these equations, an empirical relationship for a cylinder of any diameter and length and having either 0, 1, or 2 end plates was generated. These equations were used to compute power required to turn each of our 152 mm diameter rotor models, and the computed results were compared with the wind tunnel test data. Comparisons for all cylinder AR and e/d combinations were made using both 1 and 2 end plates mounted on a rotor car in a simulated atmospheric boundary layer. The comparison showed good agreement between measured and computed values, with a 3 a error of less than about 10 percent for all U/V values and for all of the 24 configurations studied. One final check was made to validate the use of the preceding equations to predict power required to rotate full-sixed rotors. The equations were used to compute power requjred to turn the fill-sized Madaras rotor (27.4 m high by 6.8 m diameter) and to coinpute power'required for the rotors to rotate on three of Flettner's rotor ships. The Madaras data, obtained from Reference 4, is plotted with'our cumputed data in Figure 3.24. The Flettner data were ubtained from several sources, principally from Reference PO, Lhe accsunto by Flettner of his work. Power required data from all of these large cylinders (including one of the large configurations analyzed for this present study) were scaled to a rotor configuration having 2 end caps with an e/d ratio of 1.35 and a 120 rpm motor speed. These scaled results were plotted in terms of power/ unit length of rotor versus rotor diameter and are presented in Figure 3.25.

RPM Figure 3 . 2 4 . Comparison of Measured Power Required t o Spin t h e F u l l - S i z e d Madaras Rotor w i t h Predicted Power Required Based on Equations ( 2 ) and ( 3 )

ROTOR
0 MADARAS + BADENBADEN 8 BARBARA @ SMALL YACHT 0 PRELIM UDRl DESIGN

HEIGHT HEIGHT FT (m) FT (m) 90.0 (27.4) 22.2 (6.8) 51. 1 (15.6) 9 . 1 (2.8) 58.4 (17.8) 13.1 (4.0) 19.0 (5.8) 3.6 ( 1 . 1 ) 109.5 (33.4) 18.2 (5.5)

ALL ADJUSTED T O: e / d = 1-35 2 END PLATES 120 RPM

CYLINDER DIAMETER- FT (m)

Figure 3.25.

Power/Unit Length v e r s u s .Diameter of Rotor Having Two End Caps, e/d = 1 . 3 5 , and R o t a t i o n ' a l Speed of 1 2 0 rpm.

The Madaras d a t a were measured a f t e r t h e end cap was blown o f f by h i g h winds, s o t h e computation i n F i g u r e
3.24 was made f o r t h e c o n d i t i o n o f AR = 4.05 and e / d = 1.0.

One can s e e i n F i g u r e 3 . 2 4 t h a t t h e computed r e s u l t s p r e d i c t lower power r e q u i r e m e n t s t h a n t h o s e measured.

W e b e l i e v e t h i s d i f f e r e n c e i s p r i m a r i l y due t o t h e b e a r i n g

f r i c t i o n and d r i v e g e a r l o s s e s o f t h e l a r g e Madaras c y l i n d e r . These l o s s e s were n e g l i g i b l e f o r o u r 152 mm d i a m e t e r t e s t models which used ABEC-7 m i n i a t u r e p r e c i s i o n b a l l b e a r i n g s and no d r i v e g e a r i n g . S i n c e b e a r i n g manufacturers have a s s u r e d us t h a t f r i c t i o n i n l a r g e d i a m e t e r b e a r i n g s w i l l b e much g r e a t e r ( r e l a t i v e l y ) t h a n o u r s m a l l b e a r i n g s , we assumed t h a t t h e b e a r i n g s w e would u s e on o u r p r e s e n t s t u d y would have f r i c t i o n o f t h e magnitude r e q u i r e d t o s h i f t o u r computed c u r v e upward u n t i l it c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e Madaras curve. Thus, o u r computed power r e q u i r e d c u r v e would c o i n c i d e w i t h t h e o r i g i n a l Madaras r e s u l t s . W e b e l i e v e t h i s adjustment w i l l y i e l d conservative performance p r e d i c t i o n s i n t h e l i g h t o f t h e advancements i n b e a r i n g manufacturing t h a t have been made s i n c e 1933.' T h i s increment of b e a r i n g power r e q u i r e d v e r s u s rpm o b t a i n e d from F i g u r e 3.24 was added t o each c y l i n d e r we a n a l y z e d d u r i n g o u r performance computations. The 'comparison of powers r e q u i r e d t o r o t a t e t h e v a r i o u s F l e t t n e r and Madaras r o t o r s , shown i n F i g u r e 3.25 f i t s v e r y w e l l t o an o r d e r l y p a t t e r n t h a t approximates' a f u n c t i o n which v a r i e s a s t h e f o u r t h power of the' diameter', a s t h e o r y p r e d i c t s . T h e r e f o r e , we b e l i e v e t h a t the' 'use o f t h e p r e v i o u s power-required e q u a t i o n s w i t h a p p r o p r i a t e a d d i t i v e ' f a c t o r s f o r mechanical and e l e c t r i c a l l o s s e s i s a r e l i a b l e 'method f o r p r e d i c t i n g r o t a t i o n a l power r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r a l a r g e Madaras-type r o t o r of any geometry. 3.4
BOUNDARY LAYER TEST RESULTS

The boundary l a y e r t e s t s conducted were t h o s e h a v i n g 500 s e r i e s numbers i n t h e test m a t r i x i n Table 3.2 which

purpose of this tes't.series follows Paragraph 3.2.1. The 'pr'imary was to obtain aerodynamic data for che'cking our.empirical model which 'describes the 'combined air flow that .strikes.the cylinder The''tes'ts also enabled us to determine (see Paragraph '3.2.6) whether or not one 'of the'MadarasVbas.ic assumptions were correct: i.e., Madaras assumed that his wind tunnel aerodynamic coefficients could be used without modifications to predict the performance of rotor plant, even though the'conditionswere not the same in both cases. A comparison of comparable conditions is shown below.

Item Air Flow

W %n'd Tu'n'n'e 1 --Constant V with rotor heigk

Roto'r' ' i ' n ' Potuer Pl'an t Variable (boundary layer) Vw with rotor height 1.3 1 on Top Assumed none Actuallv 10 ft

e/d Ratio 2 No. Rotating End Plates Gap Between Rotor N/A Free stre'am and Ground Plane,.'

This set of tests also provided insight into the effect of the tradeoff between aerodynamic coefficient magnitude and power required to spin the cylinder in a boundary layer flow as a function of number of rotating end plates. These boundary layer tests were run at s free stream Reynolds number of 1.45 x lo5, the same as that used for the free stream tests. Typical boundary layer data are presented in Figures 3.26 through 3.28, inclusive. Also, a typical data tabulation showing forces, coefficients, and points of application of each force as a function of U/V is shown in Table 3.6. As with the free stream data, the data trends and accuarcy are satisfactory. Also, the data verified our prediction of the lift and drag force and their centroids obtained from our model which combines the boundary layer wind distribution with the uniform velocity caused by rotor car speed down the track.

ROTOR ON CAR 2 END PLATES BOTH ROTATI N G

ROTOR ON CAR I END PLAT AT T O P ROTATING

Figure 3.26.

and CD Data from Boundary Layer T e s t s f o r efd R a t i o s o f 1 . 2 5 , 2 , and 3 , and f o r Aspect R a t i o s of 3 and 6 .

F i g u r e 3.27.

CL.

Power v e r s u s U/V f o r Bounda,ry Layer T e s t s f o r e/d R a t i o s o f 1 . 2 5 and 2; o n e and two end Caps; and A s p e c t R a t i o s o f 3 and 6 , d = 152 mm.
CD,

-AR= 6,
---

e/d = 2 , 2 Moving end plates, free stream A R = 3, e/d = 2 , I Moving end plate at top, plus car, boundary layer

Figure 3.28.

U/V Comparison of Aerodynamic Coefficients for Configurations Madaras Considered to be Equivalent.

Figure 3.28 as well as 'Figures 3.'26 and 3..27 indicate that he could use directly his Madaras' assumption wind tunnel data for his plant performance 'computationwas in error, and hence his performance computat5ons ba'sed on these assumptions were overstated. The end plates function as air pumps which not only reduce induced drag in the classical end plate sense; but also they aid in developing additional circulation. Thus, at a g,iven value of U/V, generally in the range of U/V > 2 ) a rotor with a larger end plate will have a higher life coefficient. This effect is more pronounced at the smaller aspect ratios than at larger ones. See Figures 3.17 and 3.26 which demonstrate ,thisobservation. Most of the conclusions drawn from the free stream data apply to the boundary layer data; however, as expected, the maximum lift coefficient in the boundary layer flow is lower than that in free stream flow for similar geometrical configurations. Some of the more important observations are: The use of two end plates instead of one provides significantly higher lift coefficients at the expense of higher drag coefficients and higher motor power to spin the cylinder. The small increase in CL resulting from the use of end plates having an e/d ratio greater than 2 is not justified in view of the power consumed. Aspect ratio has very little effect on power consumption but increasing aspect ratio markedly improves lift/ drag ratio and C max at e/d ratios of about 2 (see Figure 3.27f. It appears that the optimum geometry in the range tested will be at an aspect ratio of 6 and at an e/d ratio of 3 or leas,

SECTION I V STRUCTURAL AND MECHANICAL DESIGN The o b j e c t i v e s o f t h i s s t r u c t u r a l - m e c h a n i c a l study w e r e t o : D e f i n e l o a d s t h e s t r u c t u r e must w i t h s t a n d . Develop a r e a l i s t i c d e s i g n b a s e d on t h e o r i g i n a l Madaras c o n f i g u r a t i o n which w i l l f u l f i l l a l l d e s i g n c r i t e r i a s p e c i f i e d i n P a r a g r a p h 2 . 3 , and w i t h s t a n d a l l loads defined herein. Specifv s t r u c t u r a l configuration, a n d p u r c h a s e d components. fabrication techniques, design

The d e s i g n r e s u l t i n g from t h i s s t u d y i s b e i n g d e v e l o p e d as a means f o r d e f i n i n g s y s t e m f e a s i b i l i t y , and as s u c h i s n o t t h e l e v e l o f d e s i g n which one would d e v e l o p f o r p l a n t f a b r i c a t i o n . Hence, t h e development o f an optimum d e s i g n c o n f i g u r a t i o n and, d e t a i l e d s p e c i f i c a t i o n s was beyond t h e s c o p e o f t h i s s t u d y .
4.1
GROUND RULES

The o b j e c t i v e o f t h i s p o r t i o n o f t h e s t u d y was t o d e f i n e t h e s t r u c t u r e a n d t h e methods o f f a b r i c a t i o n . The s t u d y was governed by t h e ground r u l e s l i s t e d below. The dimensions o f t h e r o t o r were s i m i l a r t o t h e r o t o r t e s t e d i n 1934; however, t h e s e dimensions do n o t n e c e s s a r i l y r e p r e s e n t t h e optimum r o t o r a s p e c t ratio.
1.

Rotor Rotor H e i g h t = 27.4 m (90 f t ) Rotor Diameter = 6.8 m (22.2 f t ) Cap H e i g h t = 0 . 9 1 m ( 3 f t ) Cap Diameter = 10.2 m ( 3 3 . 3 f t )

2.

Design Wind a n d O p e r a t i n g C o n d i t i o n s
o

Wind d u r a t i o n c u r v e h a v i n g a mean wind of 8 . 1 m / s a t an a l t i t u d e o f 9 m e t e r s above t h e t e r r a i n . This c u r v e w i l l b e u p - r a t e d by t h e 0.167 power law t o

p r o v i d e a d e s i g n d u r a t i o n c u r v e having a mean wind speed of 8.8 m / s a t r o t o r mid-height (16.8 m above t e r r a i n ) , a s shown i n Figure 4.1. S t r u c t u r e must w i t h s t a n d s t e a d y winds o f 53.6 m/s with r o t o r i n t h e nonoperational s t a t e . S t r u c t u r e must w i t h s t a n d wind g u s t s o f 26,.8 m / s w h i l e o p e r a t i n g a t r a t e d wind speed. The assumption i s made t h a t t h e r o t a t i o n a l v e l o c i t y o f t h e r o t o r w i l l be d e c r e a s e d f o r winds e x c e e d i n g t h e man r a t e d wind v e l o c i t y such t h a t t h e power o u t p u t f o r t h e mean r a t e d c o n d i t i o n s i s m a i n t a i n e d ( i . e . , t h e aerodynamic l o a d i n g a t any s t e a d y wind o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n w i l l n o t exceed t h e aerodynamic l o a d i n g f o r t h e mean d e s i g n o p e r a t i w n c o n d i t i o n ) . System l a n d s p e e d w i l l be nominally c o n s t a n t a t 8 . 9 i~t,/s (20 mph)

The r o t a t i o n a l v e l o c i t y of t h e r o t o r s w i l l be v a r i e d a s a f u n c t i o n o f t r a c k p o s i t i o n and wind Dower outwut. velocitv t o o ~ t i m i z e For the r a t e d wind s p e e d and nominal c a r speed d e f i n e d above, t h e maximum . r o t a t i o n a l v e l o c i t y o f t h e r o t o r i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 185 rpm.

3.

L i f e and Envi,ronmental C r i t e r i a Design l i f e o f t h e c a r e x c l u d i n g t h e r o t a t i n g c y l i n d e r and bearings i s 50 y e a r s . Design l i f e o f t h e r o t a t i n g c y l i n d e r i s 30 y e a r s . Design l i f e of t h e b e a r i n g s i s 30 y e a r s .

Design l i f e u f the t r a c k , ' road bed, and. r e s t r a i n i n g s y s t e m i s 50 y e a r s .

The s e r v i c e l i f e l o a d i n g s p e c t r u m s h a l l be & f i l l e d o n a b a s i s o f d e s i g n wind c o n d i t i o n s and wind duration curves.

U l t i m a t e and y i e l d f a c t o r s o f s a f e t y w i l l b e a p p l i e d t o a l l d e s i g n l o a d s . These f a c t o r s w i l l be c o n s i s t e n t w i t h a p p l i c a b l e d e s i g n code requirements

The s y s t e m must w i t h s t a n d h a i l up t o 1-inch i n d i a m e t e r , o p e r a t e i n a t e m p e r a t u r e range o f -51C (-60F) t o 4gC ( 1 2 0 F ) , and o p e r a t e i n snow, rain, l i g h t n i h g , i c i n g , s a l t vapor, windblown s a n d , and d u s t .

HOURS IN YEAR
Figure 4.1. Wind D u r a t i o n Curve U p r a t e d f r o m 8 m / s 8.8 m/s a t 16.8 m Above Ground. Speed a t 9 m Above Ground t o

4.

Sytem C r i t e r i a .Track c o n f i g u r a t i o n

c i r c u l a r o r racetrack.

a
a

Power o u t p u t compatible w i t h r e q u i r e m e n t s o f e x i s t i n g p u b l i c u t i l i t y networks. F a i l s a f e automatic p l a n t operation. No power s t o r a g e c a p a b i l i t y . One complete s p a r e r o t o r c a r p e r p l a n t . Met-hod f o r removing a c a r from t h e t r a c k f o r maintenance and r e p a i r s .

a a
a

4.2

DESIGN LOADS The i n p o s e d f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e system have beell

c a t e g o r i z e d a s follows : a Aerodynamic f o r c e s r e s u l t i n g from t h e Magnus e f f e c t . Body f o r c e s r e s u l t i n g from t h e r o t a t i o n o f t h e c y l i n d e r and t r a n s v e r s e motion o f t h e c a r . S t r u c t u r e dead weight. Loads due t o snow and i c e accumulation.
'

a a
a

III a d e s i g n effort: d i r e c t e d toward act.1.1a1 pliir~Lc o n s t r u c t i o n ,

c o n s i d e r a b l e a t t e n t i o n w i l l have t o be given t o t h e dynamic response o f t h e system. However, such an a n a l y s i s i s c o n s i d e r e d beyond the s c o p e of t h i s f e a s i b i l i t y s t u d y .

4.2.1

Aerodynafnia Loading on the^. C y l i.nder The v a r i a t i o n i n wind v e l o c i t y w i t h alt.it1l.de is

i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 4.2

f o r t h e r a t e d wind speed a t t h e r o t o r

m i d h e i g h t of 8.8 m/s ( 1 9 . 7 mph)

The s t r u c t u r e a l s o must w i t h s t a n d g u s t s t o 26.8

m/s

( 6 0 mph) w h i l e o p e r a t i n g a t r a t e d c o n d i t i o n s . For t h e w o r s t -

c a s e c o n d i t i o n s , the d i r e c t i o n of t h e g u s t v e c t o r w a s assumed t o d i f f e r by 180' from t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e r o t o r c a r v e c t o r a s t h e c a r t r a v e l e d a l o n g t h e t r a c k . Thus, t h e r e s u l t i n g maximum r e l a t i v e wind s p e e d f o r an o p e r a t i n g r o t o r c a r would be 35.6 m / s ( 8 . 8 m/s

Figure '4.2.

Wind Velocity Profile.

wind + 26.8 m/s gust) the normal and tangential forces are listed below. These loads could occur at any track location, depending upon wind direction variation, as shown in Figure 4.3.

= 583,930 N (131,280 lb) Fresultant These forces are also dependent on the linear velocity of the cylinder surface (U) as shown in Figure 4.4, which is a simplification of the spin schedule shown in Figure 5.1. The nonoperational wind condition (53.6 m/s) results in a drag load of 114,180 N. This load is significantly less than the operational gust condition. Figure 4.5 shows the effect of cylinder rotation on the cylinder pressure coefficients. This data illustrates the relative insignificance of the nonoperational condition for the static analysis of the system. Figure 4.5 is based on data taken from Reference 13. These c o m e t s on the insignificance of the nonoperational condition apply only to the static analysis of the system. Any analysis relating to the dynamic response of the system should reconsider L l i e nsnopcrstional ccrndi.tion.

on the Cap The peak positive and negative pressures on the underside of the cap have been defined as a function of radial location for both the mean design wind condition and the operational gust condition. The nonoperational gust condition is judged ,Lo be less severe than the operational gust condition and will not be considered further as a static load condftion. These pressure distributions are shown in Figure 4.6. The peak positive and peak negative pressures aeeur at circumferential locations which are diametrically opposed. The peak pressures have been assumed to act on all 0r.a portion of the cap in such a manner as to create a must critical load condition with regard to the structural members in the cap and the attachment of the cap to the cylinder.

+ - DEG
Figure 4.3. Operational Design Loads for 8.0 m/s (18 mph) Mean Design Wind Speed. Derived from preliminary Spin Schedule of. Figure 5.1, in which U / V was Varied at Each 5 O Incremental Position Around Orhit, Such that Ftan is Maximized.at Each Incremgnt.

5.00I

U =LINEAR VELOCITYOF THE CYLINDER SURFACE V = VELOCITY OF THE RELATIVE WINO VECTOR

U v
CO

c n

1 .oo , -

Figure 4,.4.

Batic U / V versus Track Locations f - ~ 8 r . 8 m/s Rated Wind Speed.

u
v
p

= = = =

R e s u l t a n t Wind V e c t o r Linear Velocity of t h e Cylinder Surface Mass D e n s i t y o f A i r Pressure

Figure 4.5.

P r e s s u r e D i s t r i b u t i o n Around t h e C e n t e r o f a R o t a t i n g C y l i n d e r a t V a r i o u s V a l u e s o f U/V (.Taken from R e f e r e n c e 1 3 )

20- (9.6)

GUST 60 MPH WIND

1 1 . 0
(3.4

12.0
(3.7)

13.0
(4.0)

14.0

15.0

16.0
(4.9)

(4.3) (4.6) RADIUS FT. ( m )

STEADY WIND DESIGN 20 MPH ( 8.9

n5/3)

20 -

( 9.6)

-12.0
(3.7)

1 1 . 0
(3.4)

13.0
(4.0).

14.0

(4.3) (4.6) RADIUS FT. ( m

15.0

(4.9)

16.0

Figure 4.6.

'Madaras Rotor Cap Peak Pressure versus Xadius.

4.2.3

System A c c e l e r a t i o n Loads

The system a c c e l e r a t i o n l o a d s a r e t h o s e l o a d s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e r o t a t i o n a l m t i o n o f t h e c y l i n d e r and t h e t r a n s v e r s e motion o f t h e c a r a l o n g t h e t r a c k . The normal a c c e l e r a t i o n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e r o t a t i o n o f t h e c y l i n d e r i s equal t o t h e product of t h e radius and t h e s q u a r e o f t h e r o t a t i o n a l v e l o c i t y . A t a r o t a t i o n a l v e l o c i t y o f 186 rpm, t h e normal a c c e l e r a t i o n a t t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e c y l i n d e r i s 130.8 g, and a t t h e o u t e r r a d i u s o f t h e r o t o r cap, 196.2 g. The maximum r a t e o f r o t o r spin-up, f o r d e s i g n purposes, i s d e f i n e d by a c o n s t a n t a c c e l e r a t i o n from 0 rprn t o 186 rpm o v e r a 15-degree a r c o f t h e c a r t r a c k assuming t h e c a r i s t r a v e l i n g a t a r a t e o f 8.9 m/s. T h i s spin-up r e s u l t s i n a t a n g e n t i a l a c c e l e r a t i o n of 0.97 g. The normal o r r a d i a l a c c e l e r a t i o n a s s o c i a t e d .with t h e motion o f t h e c a r around a 457.3 m (1500 f t ) d i a m e t e r c i r c u l a r t r a c k i s 0.036 g. The t a n g e n t i a l a c c e l e r a t i o n s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h changes i n c a r v e l o c i t y a r e n e g l i g i b l e and w i l l n o t be c o n s i d e r e d a s a d e s i g n l o a d . 4,.2.4 Snow and I c e Accumulation The l i k e l i h o o d o f l o c a t i n g t h e Madaras Power P l a n t i n a t e m p e r a t e zone i s r a t h e r c e r t a i n ; t h u s , l o a d i n g due t o snow and i c e accumulation i s a concern. Snow accumulation d u r i n g o p e r a t i o n . w i l l probably n o t be s i g n i f i c a n t f o r t h e following reasons. The cap i s l o c a t e d i n a r e l a t i v e l y windswept environment w h i l e i n o p e r a t i o n . The r a d i a l a c c e l e r a t i o n due t o r o t o r r o t a t i o n i s q u i t e h i g h . A t 186 rpm, t h e r a d i a l a c c e l e r a t i o n o f t h e o u t e r e x t r e m i t y o f t h e r o t o r cap ( R = 5 . 1 m) , the i ~ o r ~ n a al c c e l e r a t i o n i s 196.2 g. Thus, t h e r a d i a l a c c e l e r a t i o n s h o u l d p r e v e n t snow accumulation e x c e p t i n the extreme c e n t e r o f t h e r o t o r cap. The o u t e r p o r t i o n of t h e r o t o r c a p w i l l be s l o p e d l i k e a r o o f a t an a n g l e o f 20 t o 30 d e g r e e s , which w i l l a i d i n t h e p r e v e n t i o n o f snow accumulation.

I n t h e c a s e of s e v e r e storms d u r i n g which t h e power p l a n t might be s h u t down, a s i g n i f i c a n t snow accumulation could occur.

A s t h e system i s r e s t a r t e d , t h e p o i n t a t which t h e

motion o f t h e r o t o r would remove most of t h e snow i s somewhat hard t o d e f i n e because of t h e tendancy of snow t o a d h e r e t e n a c i o u s l y t o a.structure.
A t t h e same t i m e ,

o p e r a t i o n f o r moderate l e n g t h s of

time w i t h s i g n i f i c a n t l y unbalanced l o a d s on t h e t h r u s t b e a r i n g s c o u l d have a v e r y d e t r i m e n t a l e f f e c t on b e a r i n g l i f e . Snow l o a d s 2 (80 p s f ) i n some c o u l d r e a c h 2.39 k ~ / m (50 ~ p s f ) t o 3.83 kN/m In r e g i o n s of t h e United S t a t e s ( a s d e f i n e d i n Reference 4 2 ) . l i g h t of t h e d e t r i m e n t a l e f f e c t h i g h snow l o a d s can have on b e a r i n g l i f e , the f o l l o w i n g p o s i t i o n s have been t a k e n r e g a r d i n g snow a c c u m u l a t i o n .
0

The s y s t e m wj..I..l.be d e s i g n e d t o accommodate a moderate snow l o a d o f 0.4 8 klJ/m2. his amount

o f snow accumulation would p e r m i t r e s t a r t s a f t e r s e v e r e snow storms w i t h o u t p r o v i s i o n s f o r snow removal i n most a r e a s o f t h e United S t a t e s where t h i s t y p e o f power p l a n t i s l i k e l y t o be s i t u a t e d . I n t h o s e a r e a s where snow accumulation c o u l d exceed uring a severe storm, provisions f o r 0.48 k ~ / md~ snow removal p r i o r t o restart must be p r o v i d e d .

A comment w i l l be made h e r e r e g a r d i n g snow accumulation i n t h e

nonopexa.tiona1 s t a t e . The snow l o a d c a p a b i l i t y o f t h e r o t o r cap w h i l e s t a t i o n a r y w i l l be s i g n i f i a a n t l y greater t h a n 0 . 4 8 k ~ / m ~ s i n c e t h e s t r u c t u r a l members i n t h e r o t o r cap w i l l be s i z e d p r i m a r i l y by t h e body f o r c e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e normal a c c e l e ~ a t i o n r e s u l t i n g from r o t o r r o t a t i o n . L i m i t a t i o n o f snow l o a d s i n t h e o p e r a t i o n a l s t a t e i s r e q u i r e d t o p r o v i d e a more d e s i r a b l e b e a r i n g l i f e ; however, s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r snow accumulations w i l l be permitted i n the nonoperational s t a t e . I c e a e e u m u l a t i o i ~on the cap and c y l i n d e r m u s t be The l i k e l i h o o d o f cap i c e accumulation e x c e e d i n g

considered.
2

0.48 kN/m i s r a t h e r remote; however, a r a t h e r s m a l l depth o f ice accumulation can i n d u c e s i g n i f i c a n t l o a d s i n t o t h e s t r u c t u r a l e l e m e n t s of t h e c y l i n d e r and c a p when c o n s i d e r i n g t h e r a d i a l a c c e l e r a t i o n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h r o t o r r o t a t i o n . Also, some concern e x i s t s r e l a t i v e t o t h e dynamic unb.alance which would r e s u l t i f

t h e cap o r c y l i n d e r would s h e d a p o r t i o n of t h e accumulated i c e . The p o s s i b i l i t y o f r o t o r unbalance would have t o be c o n s i d e r e d i n a dynamic a n a l y s i s . 4.2.5 Car Weight, Wheel Loads, and R e s t r a i n i n g Loads

The aerodynamic l o a d i n g on t h e c y l i n d e r r e s u l t s i n a s i g n i - f i c a n t o v e r t u r n i n g moment about t h e b a s e o f t h e c a r . When t h e o v e r t u r n i n g momnt exceeds t h e r e s t o r i n g moment o f t h e c a r , s t a b i l i t y w i l l be maintained. This o v e r t u r n i n g s t a b i l i t y can be p r o v i d e d ' e i t h e r by v e r t i c a l r e s t r a i n t and/or by t h e w e i g h t of the r o t o r car. The d e s i g n r e s t r a i n i n g l o a d s , wheel l o a d s , and c a r weight a r e governed by one o r more of f o u r d e s i g n r e q u i r e m e n t s . a. b.

/ s with O p e r a t i o n a t t h e d e s i g n wind c o n d i t i o n ( 8 . 3 m t h e c a r t r a v e l i n g a t a t r a c k speed o f 8.9 m / s )

O p e r a t i o n a t t h e g u s t c o n d i t i o n which i n t h i s w o r s t c o n d i t i o n a n a l y s i s was assumed t o be e q u i v a l e n t t o a r e s u l t a n t c o n s t a n t wind speed of 35.8 m / s a l o n g t h e ( L i f t load t r a c k w i t h t h e r o t o r t u r n i n g a t 186 rpm. normal t o wind c a u s e s t h e g r e a t e s t o v e r t u r n i n g l o a d . ) Nonoperation of t h e p l a n t w h i l e s a t i s f a c t o r i l y w i t h s t a n d i n g winds h a v i n g s p e e d s of. 53.6 m / s . P r o v i s i o n o f wheel t r a c t i o n under t h e most s e v e r e wind l o a d s which w i l l provide s u f f i c i e n t t o r q u e t o d r i v e a 1 MW g e n e r a t o r geared t o t h e wheels. Our s t u d i e s i n d i c a t e d t h a t c o n d i t i o n d ( t h e

c. d.

t r a c t i o n r e q u i r e d t o t u r n t h e g e n e r a t o r ) governs t h e d e s i g n c a r weight and wheel l o a d s ; t h a t t h i s d e s i g n weight w i l l be s u f f i c i e n t t o ove'rcome a l l o v e r t u r n i n g c o n d i t i o n s ; and t h a t no v e r t i c a l r e s S i n c e t h e c a r wheels w i l l have i n s u f f i c i e n t t r a i n t w i l l be r e q u i r e d . c a p a b i l i t y t o r e a c t , t h e r a d i a l aerodynamic f o r c e (wheels w i t h o u t f l a n g e s w i l l be used) f r o n t and r e a r l a t e r a l r e s t r a i n t s i n t h e form o f i d l e r wheels a c t i n g on t h e s i d e s o f t h e r a i l s w i l l be required. Assuming an e i g h t wheel c o n f i g u r a t i o n (1 p a i r o f wheels a t each c o r n e r o f t h e c a r ) , and assuming t h a t each p a i r o f W g e n e r a t o r , a g r o s s c a r mass o f 327,950kg wheels w i l l d r i v e a 250 k

(723,000 l b ) i s r e q u i r e d t o develop t h e n e c e s s a r y t r a c t i v e f o r c e . ( T h i s i s b a s e d on a c o e f f i c i e n t o f f r i c t i o n o f 0.07 a t t r i b u t e d t o a s t e e l wheel r o l l i n g on a s t e e l t r a c k . ) For t h i s c a r , maximum wheel l o a d s w i l l be 556,000 N (,125,000 l b ) , and maximum h o r i z o n t a l r e s t r a i n i n g f o r c e s w i l l be 580,900 N (130,600 l b )

.
I

T h i s h o r i z o n t a l r e s t r a i n t w i l l be d i v i d e d between f o u r r e a c t i o n p o i n t s , two l o c a t e d a t t h e f r o n t and two a t t h e r e a r o f t h e c a r .

4.2.6

Fatigue

The Madaras Power P l a n t must o p e r a t e w i t h a h i g h d e g r e e o f r e l i a b i l i t y . On t h e o t h e r hand, v a r i o u s s t r u c t u r a l members w i l l underqo an e n o r m u s number o f stress c y c l e s i n me' Assuming t h e average r o t a t i o n a l v e l o c i t y o f t h e r o t o r i s 90 rpm, t h e l o a d c y b l e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h one r o t o r r e v o l u t i o n w i l l be a p p l i e d 5.6 x 10 8 t i m e s i n a 30 y e a r l i f e , b a s e d on a 40 p e r c e n t p l a n t f a c t o r . Of c o u r s e , t h e s e l o a d c y c l e s w i l l be a p p l i e d a t v a r i o u s l o a d l e v e l s . The l o a d s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h r o t o r spin-up w i l l be a p p l i e d t w i c e p e r t r a c k r e v o l u t i o n . Assuming c o n s t a n t o p e r a t i o n a t 8.9 m/s, t h e number o f c y c l e s f o r t h e 30 y e a r l i f e o f t h e r o t o r 6 is 2.3 x 1 0 The c o r r e s p o n d i n g number o f c y c l e s f o r t h e 50 y e a r l i f e o f t h e c a r i s 3.9 x 106 l i f e o f . t h e system. Consider t h e r o t o r .

E x i s t i n g design codes such a s t h e " S t e e l Cons t r u c t i o n Manual" p u b l i s h e d by t h e American I n s t i t u t e o f S t e e l C o n s t r u c t i o n a r e n o t b a s e d on s t r u c t u r e s which e x p e r i e n c e such-ta h i g h number o f l o a d a p p l i c a t i o n s . These e x i s t i n g codes can be used i n a f e a s i b i l i t y s t u d y o f t h i s t y p e ; however, t o i n s u r e a h i g h degree o f r e l i a b i l i t y i n t h e c a s e o f a f i n a l d e s i g n , a more s o p h i s t i c a t e d approach i s recommended. A cumulative f a t i g u e damage ( d u r a b i l i t y ) o r a c r a c k p r o p a g a t i o n s t u d y should be conducted based on t h e s e r v i c e l i f e l o a d i n g spectrum. S t a t i s t i c a l methods s h o u l d be a p p l i e d t o d e t e r m i n e a r e q u i r e d mean l i f e t o i n s u r e a d e q u a t e r e l i a b i l i t y w i t h i n t h e s e r v i c e l i f e of t h e s t r u c t u r a l components.

4.3.

STRUCTURE

I n i t i a l c o s t s f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n and assembly a r e e x p e c t e d t o r e p r e s e n t a s i g n i f i c a n t p o r t i o n o f t h e c o s t s f o r t h e Madaras Power P l a n t . These c o s t s m i g h t v e r y w e l l have t h e s t r o n g e s t i n f l u e n c e on t h e f e a s i b i l i t y o f such a s y s t e m . The r o t o r c a r s a r e l a r g e enough t h a t complete assembly i n a f a c t o r y i s n o t

r e a l i s t i c . On t h e o t h e r hand, f i e l d f a b r i c a t i o n and assembly o f t h e e n t i r e car would r e s u l t i n a much more c o s t l y s t r u c t u r e . Thig c o s t p i c t u r e s u g g e s t s t h e u s e o f a modular c o n s t r u c t i o n approach whereby segments o f t h e s t r u c t u r e would be f a b r i c a t e d i n t h e f a c t o r y and o n l y f i n a l assembly would b e r e q u i r e d a t t h e p l a n t s i t e . T h i s c o n c e p t does n o t e l i m i n a t e t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r a f i e l d s h o p ; however, it does minimize t h e assembly e f f o r t r e q u i r e d a t t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n s i t e . The modules s h o u l d be made as l a r g e as p o s s i b l e w h i l e k e e p i n g s h i p p i n g c o s t s a t a r e a s o n a b l e level.

G e n e r a l d e t a i l s r e l a t i n g t o t h e r o t o r c a p are i l l u s t r a t e d i n Figure 4.7. The p r i m a r y l o a d c a r r y i n g members are

8 t r u s s s t r u c t u r e s which are p o s i t i o n e d r a d i a l l y on 4 5 d e g r e e

centers.

The t r u s s e s are a t t a c h e d t o a s t i f f c y l i n d r i c a l s h e l l

a t t h e c e n t e r o f t h e r o t o r c a p . The o u t s i . d e d i a m t e r o f t h e c y l ' i n d r i c a l s h e l l i s 0 . 9 m. Both t h e upper a n d l o w e r c h o r d s o f t h e - . t r u s s are a t t a c h e d t o a v e r t i c a l r o t o r t r u s s a t t h e r o t o r - c a p i n t e r f a c e . . . T h i s i s t h e o n l y c o n n e c t i o n which a t t a c h e s t h e r o t o r cap t o t h e r o t o r s t r u c t u r e . The u p p e r and l o w e r c h o r d s o f t h e c a p t r u s s w i l l c o n s i s t o f a "T" s e c t i o n . The d i a g o n a l and v e r t i c a l members w i l l The v e r , t i c a l The j o i n t s b e a t t a c h e d t o t h e s t e m o f t h e "T" s e c t i o n s u s i n g welded c o n n e c t i o n s .
A t y p i c a l eanncctian i s illus,tra.ked i n Figure 4.8.

and d i a g o n a l members c o n s i s t o f s t r u c t u r a l t u b i n g .

w i l l b e d e t a i l e d such t h a t t h e c e n t e r l i n e s o f t h e v e r t i c a l a n d d i a g o n a l mexrbers i n t e r s e c t a t t h e c e n t r o i d o f t h e t r u s s c h o r d
which w i l l minimize b e n d i n g moments i n the t r u c ~ members.

SECTION "D"

SClN

SECTION " E "

: j
HOLLOW TUBING

E h

TYPIC& CAP

rma

Figure 4.7.
-*

Rotor and Cap Construction.

Figure 4.8.

R o t o r Cap Truss J o i n t .

A s shown i n F i g u r e 4.7,

t h e modular c o n s t r u c t i o n

o f t h e r o t o r c a p w i l l c o n s i s t o f 8 s e c t i o n s , each s e c t i o n cons i s t i n g o f a 45-degree segment.

A s t r u c t u r a l a n g l e w i l l be

l o c a t e d a t t h e boundary o f e a c h module on b o t h t h e upper and lower surfaces. The f l a n g e o f t h e a n g l e w i l l be t u r n e d outward s o t h a t i t mates w i t h t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g a n g l e o f t h e a d j a c e n t module t o form a "TI' s e c t i o n . connection. Adjacent modules w i l l be connected w i t h b o l t s t h r o u g h t h e "T" s e c t i o n s t e m and/or by a welded A d d i t i o n a l members which have s t r u c t u r a l s i g n i f i c a n c e

are shown i n F i g u r e s 4 . 9 and 4 -10. F i g u r e 4 . 9 i l l u s t r a t e s t h e l o c a t i o n o f c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l members. A r i n g w i l l b e l o c a t e d a t e a c h j o i n t on the upper and lower c h o r d of t h e t r u s s . Members

K , E, E,

and ( F i g u r e 4.10) w i l l form a t r u s s network i n 'the c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l d i r e c t i o n which w i l l p r o v i d e a l o a d p a t h t o t h e and CD w i l l be s t r u c t u r a l t u b i n g . radial truss. Members Members EF and ?%w i l l b e s t r u c t u r a l a n g l e s . A segment of t h e

heavy c y l i n d r i c a l s h e l l w i l l be a t t a c h e d t o each module a t t h e i n n e r radius. T h i s c o n c e p t i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n V i e w B on F i g u r e 4.7. The m a t e r i a l a l t e r n a . t i . v e s c o n s i d e r e d i n t h i s f e a s i b i l i t y s t u d y a r e s t e e l and aluminum. S o m advantages and d i s a d v a n t a q e s o f each are l i s t e d below.
1.

S t e e l i s more e a s i l y welded. Aluminum weighs less which i s advantageous from t h e v i e w p o i n t o f b e a r i n g l o a d s and r o t o r spin-up efficiency. R a d i a l body forces associated w i t h r o t o r r o t a t i o n are s i g n i f i c a n t l y less f o r aluminum ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 / 3 of t h e va.bl~e f o r s t e e l ) . Some g r a d e s o f s t e e l would r e q u i r e pel'iodic maintenance t o provide corrosion protection. S t e e l c o s t s l e s s t h a n aluminum.

..

3*

4. 5.

Aluminum m a t e r i a l c o s t s a r e . approximately f i v e t i m e s t h e c o s t o f ASTM A-36 s t e e l and a b o u t f o u r times t h e c o s t o f a c o r r o s i o n r e s i s t a n t s t e e l such as A S T M A-242. Thus, from a m a t e r i a l c o s t s t a n d p o i n t , s t e e l i s much more d e s i r a b l e . However, the c a n d i d a t e

Figure 4.9.

Location of Circumferential Rings.

N O T T O SCALE C A P SKIN N O T SHOWN

Figure 4 ..lo.

Cap Mod.ule Radial View.

s t r u c t u r a l g r a d e s t e e l s and aluminurns have r e l a t i v e l y comparable s t r e n g t h s y e t t h e d e n s i t y o f s t e e l i s a p p r o x i m z t e l y 2.85 t i m e s t h e d e n s i t y o f aluminum. Body f o r c e s r e s u l t i n g from c y l i n d e r r o t a t i o n r e p r e s e n t by f a r t h e most s i g n i f i c a n t s o u r c e o f s t r u c t u r a l l o a d i n g . Since one p r i m design goal i s t o provide a h i g h l y r e l i a b l e s t r u c t u r e , an aluminum s t r u c t u r e can b e d e s i g n e d w i t h l o w e r nominal stresses as compared t o a s t e e l s t r u c t u r e and, as a r e s u l t , w i l l be less s u s c e p t i v e t o f a t i g u e problems. In addition, the l o w e r w e i g h t aluminum s t r u c t u r e w i l l r e d u c e t h e a x i a l l o a d on t h e upper b e a r i n g a n d t h e power r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r r o t o r spin-up. I n i t i a l c o s t o f aluminum s h o u l d be o f f s e t somewhat by r e d u c e d maintenance a n d r e p a i r c o s t s . I n l i g h t o f t h e s e d e s i g n c o n s i d e r a t i o n s and t h e lower maintenance c o s t o f aluminum, t h e material s e l e c t e d f o r t h e c a p was 2024-T4 A l c l a d aluminum a l l o y . 4.3.2 Rotor C y l i n d e r

Details r e l a t i n g t o the rotor construction also a r e shown on F i g u r e 4.7. The r o t o r w i l l have 8 l o n g i t u d i n a l t r u s s s t i f f e n e r s which e x t e n d t h e e n t i r e l e n g t h o f t h e c y l i n d e r . These l o n g i t u d i n a l members w i l l be l o c a t e d on 45-degree c e n t e r s . The c y l i n d e r w i l l a l s o have 9 c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l s t i f f e n e r s . The l o w e r 25.6 meter p o r t i o n o f t h e c y l i n d e r w i l l c o n t a i n 8 s t i f f e n e r s l o c a t e d on 3.66 meter c e n t e r s . The r e m a i n i n g s t i f f e n e r w i l l b e l o c a t e d a t t h e t o p o f t h e c y l i n d e r w i t h a 1 . 8 3 meter s p a c i n g between t h e s t i f f e n e r and t h e c y l i n d e r ' s t o p e n d , Both t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l and c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l s t i f f e n e r s w i l l b e t r u s s s t r u c t u r e s . The c h o r d s o f t h e t r u s s e s w i l l b e e i t h e r t u b i n g o r a n g l e s . U t i l i z i n g a 'IT" s e c t i o n f o r t h e t r u s s chord has t h r e e d i s t i n c t advantages : the o u t e r flange provides a means f o r a t t a c h i n g t h e s k i n ; t h e i n n e r f l a n g e p r o v i d e s a means for a t t a c h i n g i n t e r n a l ' s t r u c t u r a l members which t r a n s m i t l o a d s t o t h e b e a r i n g s ; a n d t h e s t e m o f e a c h "T" s e c t i o n p r o v i d e s a means f o r a t t a c h i n g t h e r a d i a l and d i a g o n a l members. The r a d i a l and d i a g o n a l members w i l l c o n s i s t o f s t r u c t u r a l t u b i n g when p o s s i b l e ; however, t h e modular f a b r i c a t i o n w i l l p r o h i b i t t h e use o f s t r u c t u r a l t u b i n g i n some i n s t a n c e s .

The modular f a b r i c a t i o n c o n s i s t s o f f a b r i c a t i n g s e m i - c y l i n d r i c a l segments 3 . 6 6 meters i n h e i g h t w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f t h e t o p c y l i n d r i c a l s e c t i o n which w i l l b e 1.83 m e t e r s ( 6 - f t ) i n height. F i e l d assembly c o n s i s t s o f m a t i n g two s e m i - c y l i n d r i c a l Each 180 d e g r e e segment s e c t i o n s t o form a c y l i n d r i c a l s e c t i o n .

w i l l have v e r t i c a l t r u s s s t r u c t u r e s l o c a t e d a t t h e 45, 90, and 135 degree l o c a t i o n s . These t r u s s l o c a t i o n s a r e i l l u s t r a t e d The t r u s s e s a r e e n l a r g e d i n t h e schematically i n Figure 4.11. f i g u r e r e l a t i v e t o t h e c y l i n d e r d i a m e t e r t o show g r e a t e r d e t a i l . The a n g l e s a t 0 a n d 180 d e g r e e s w i l l mate w i t h t h e a n ~ g l e so f t h e a d j a c e n t s e m i - c y l i n d r i c a l nlodule t o form a t r u s s c h o r d at t h e juncture. The r a d i a l a n d d i a g o n a l members a t t h e 45, 9 0 , a n d 135 d e g r e e l o c a t i o n s w i l l b e t u b i n g ; h u ~ e v e r ,a n g l e s a w r q u i x e d a t t h e 0 a n d 180 d e g r e e l o c a t i o n s . The "T" s e c t i o n of t h e c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l s t i f f e n e r w i l l be formed hy m a t i n g t h e a n g l e s of a d j a c e n t c y l i n d r i c a l s e c t i o n s . The r a d i a l and d i a g o n a l members o f t h e c y l i n d r i c a l s t i f f e n e r s w i l l b e a n g l e s t h r o u g h o u t . Some d e t a i l s of the circumferential stiffeners are i l l u s t r a t e d i n An a d d i t i o n a l f l a n g e c o u l d be sandwiched between Figure 4.7. a n g l e s o f a d j a c e n t modules where a d d i t i o n a l s t r u c t u r a l c a p a b i l i t y i s r e q u i r e d . The s e m i - c i r c u l a r p o r t i o n of a c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l s t i f f e n e r c o u l d b e a s s e n b l e d from subassembl.ies u f 45 o r 90 degree s e g m e n t s . A t y p i c a l 45 d e g r e e segment i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 4.12.
The s k i n of t h e c y l i n d e r w i l l b e c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l l y c o r r u q a t e d b e c a u s e t h i s c o n f i g u r a t i o n p r o v i d e s e f f i c i e n t circumf e r e n t i a l s t i f f e n i n g and b e c a u s e it i s a c o s t / e f f c c t i v e p r o d u c t i o n technique. Where l o n g i t u d i n a l seams a r e reyuircd, t h o o v e r l a p

w i l l b e s u f f i c i e n t s o t h a t t h e c o r r u g a t i o n c o n t i n u e s t o a c t as a hoop. I n a d d i t i o n , c o r r u g a t i u n o v e r l a p i n the l o n g i t u d i n a l d i r e c t i o n may b e r e q u i r e d a t t h e j u n c t u r e of a d j a c e n t c y l i n d r i c a l s e c t i o n s . The c o r r u g a t i o n c o u l d b e e i t h e r welded o r r i v e t e d t o t h e s t i f f e~iers.

OVERLAP

O0

Figure 4.11.

Rotor Cylinder Internal Structure.

Figure 4-12.

Typical 4 5 '

Segment of Circumferential Stiffener.

Practical fabrication tolerances could result in some rotor ovalization, and the aerodynamic loading also could cause rotor ovalization. If ovalization becomes a problem, a spoke assembly could be incorporated inside the rotor to maintain the required circular aross-section. However, it was decided to control ovalization by stiffening the circumferential truss members, since this approach seems less labor intensive and therefore should reduce cost. As for the rotor cap, 2024-T4 Alclad aluminum alloy was selected for the rotor because the source of structural loading to the rotor cylinder is the body force resulting from cylinder rotation. Rotor Bearings Rotor bearings need to be very large, and hence represent a significant cost to the Madaras Power Plant. Thus, it was necessary to select this component carefully. The Madaras test and both Flektner ship rotors used two ball bearings. The bearing locations and internal cylinder structure are illustrated in Figure 4.13. The upper &nd the lower bearings are located at elevations of 21.9 m and 7.3 m above the base of the cylinder, respectively. An early decision was made to transmit all of the rotor weight to the tower through the upper bearing. If the weight were transmitted through the lower bearing, the structural weight and the aerodynamic suction loads on the under side of the cap would combine and subject the longitudinal stiffeners to combined compressive and bending loads. However, if the upper bearing supports the rotor weight, a significant portion of the longitudinal stiffener will be subjected to combined tensile and bending loads, and improved elastic stability and reduced weight is the result. The axial location of fhe bearings was governed primarily by the need to minimize the radial loading, but also to provide a suitable load path for transmitting loads from the cylinder to the bearing.

Preliminary Assembly Sketch of Rotor and Support Tower.

Two factors limited the size range of the lower bearing. The lower limit on the bearing diameter is governed by the bending stresses in the tower due to the aerodynamic loading on the cylinder. The upper limit on the lower bearing diameter is dependent on the diameter of the cylinder. Thus, in order to maintain a reasonable thickness of the cylindrical tower shell, the minimum inside diameter should be about 3 m. The maximum practical outside diameter should be about 4.6 m, a diameter which is dependent upon the cylinder diameter and the size of the circumferential truss structure. The upper bearing shares the same upper limit on the outside bearing diameter; however, the tower stresses due to aerodynamic loading are significantly less at the upper location. Thus, the inside diameter of the upper bearing could be less than 3 m,. The specified bearing life at both locations is 30 years. However, with regard to fatigue damage, this life can not be met with a spherical roller bearing. Only two bearing types are acceptable for this use: a cylindrical roller bearing or a double row tapered roller bearing. Basedon cost estimates, the cylindrical roller bearing is found to be the most economical choice for the lower bearing location. At the upper location, the more flexible inner diameter size permits the use of a double row tapered roller bearing which can be selected from stock sizes currently in production. This selection results in d significant cost saving. A B-10 life of at least 20 years is believed to be easily attainable. Whether or not a B-10 life of 30 years is attainable is somewhat less certain. Manufacturers indicated bearing life may be governed more by environmental factors than by fatigue.

Very little information is available on3 m diameter bearings rotating at an angular speed of 186 rpm. Most bearings of this size are used in heavy construction equipment (cranes, etc.) which rotate at a relatively low speed. Vibration

and other dynamic problems could exist at the high rotational speeds. However, data on successful use of smaller diameter bearings at higher speeds, and hence higher linear speeds than those of the Madaras application are encouraging. Nevertheless, bearing selection has been designated as an area needing further study prior to constructing a plant. Full scale bearing tests may be necessary. As an indication of the state of the art of . large bearing manufacturing and design, the design torque equations of two major manufacturers did not contain the same variables (in fact, one equation did not contain a speed ,term). Also, one rnanufa~~~~rer said actual bearing torque could vary by a factor of five from his equations, and the variability of torquc between.bearingsof a given type was large.
4.3.4

Support Tower

The rotor is suppor.ted on a nonrotating tower which is attached to the deck of the car. The tower must support axial loading, transverse Loading, and a torsional moment. The axial loading is a result of rotor structure dcad weight, snow and ice accumulation on the cap, and the sumnation of the aerodynamic forces on the upper and lower Surfaces of the rotor cap. RQtdr spin-up will induce a torsional moment in the tower, and aerodynamic loading on the cylinder surface is the source of transverse loading. The transverse loading was found to be the most significant in sizing the to we^ cross-section.
4.3.5

Rotor Tower

The rotor and bearings are supported by a nonrotating tower which is attached Lo the dcuk of the car. The tower must support axial loading, transverse loading, and a torsional moment. The axial loading is a result of rotor structure dead weight, snow and ice accumulation on the cap, and the net aerodynamic forces on both sides of the rotor cap. Rotor spin-up will induce a torsional moment in the tower, and aerodynamic loading on the cylinder surface is the source of

transverse loading. The transverse loading is most significant in sizing the tower cross-section. A two-piece tower is envisioned. The tower would consist of a welded cylindrical monocoque structure supported at the base by a truncated conical section. Since weight was of less concern for this nonrotating structure, it was decided to construct the tower from ASTM A-242 steel. Although ASTM A-242 steel costs about 25 percent more than ASTM A-36 steel, the A-242 alloy was considered the better choice since its corrosion resistance would reduce life cycle cost. The total tower height will be about 23 m, with the cylindrical section being 3m in diameter by 17 m high. The truncated conical section will be about 6 m in height and 4.6 m in diameter at the base. The thickness of the cylinder and cone will be in the range af 9.5mm to 12.7 mm. Additional stiffness may be required in the region of the bearings to prevent ovalization and undue stresses on the inner bearing races. The cylindrical section of the tower can be completely fabricated in a factory and shipped to the site in one piece. However, the truncated conical section would be. shipped to the construction site in three pieces. An illustration of the fabrication' breakdown of the tower base is shown in Figure 4.14. Field assembly of the tower would consist of weldinq the conical ~cgmentsto form the truncated cone followed by welding the conical portion to the cylindrical portion. The tower could be either welded or bolted to the car deck. A sketch of the tower is shown in Figure 4.13.
. I

4.3.6

Car-Layout

External views of the car are shown in Figure 4.15. With the streamlined contour of each edge overhanging the wheels, tne overall dimensions of the car are:

Figure 4.14.

Tower Base Segmentation Plan.

Figure 4.15.

Three-View Drawing of Rotor Car.

Length: 19.2 m (63 f t ) Width: 17.4 m (57 f t ) Height: 2.3 m (9.5 f t ) Deck Height Above Track: 3.8 m (12.5 f t ) The suspension system c o n s i s t s of f o u r , 2-wheel t r u c k s l o c a t e d a t each c o r n e r of t h e car. The l o n g i t u d i n a l s p a c i n g of t h e t r u c k c e n t e r l i n e i s l l m and t h e two 1.2 rn diameter wheels i n each t r u c k a r e spaced 1.8 m a p a r t . The wheels, which have a 279 mm wide t r e a d , a r e forged from AISC 1045 steel hardened The l a t e r a l spacing of t o a d e p t h o f 25 mm t o Rockwell C-46. the t r u c k s i s 1 1 meters, which w i l l permit t h e u s e of a lf-meter t r a c k gage (36 f t ) as w a s used by Madaras. curved p a r t s of t h e t r a c k . The wheels i n each t r u c k a r e coupled t o g e t h e r by a c h a i n d r i v e system, and from t h e r e through a f l e x i b l e coupliny t o a 9.3:l speed i n c r e a s e r , through a second f l e x i b l e coupling, and f i n a l l y t o a 250 kW, 4160 V, i n d u c t i o n g e n e r a t o r having a r a t e d speed of 1150 rpm a t a n 8 . 9 m / s t r a c k speed. Some of t h e o t h e r d e t a i l s of t h e end t r u c k assembly a r e shown i n Figure 4.16.

Each t r u c k i s f r e e t o

p i v o t about i t s v e r t i c a l c e n t r o i d a l a x i s t o f a c i l i t a t e n e g o t i a t i n g

The i n a l i n e d wheel housing on t h e forward and read s i d e s of t h e f r o n t and rear t r u c k s sexves two f u n c t i o n s : it p r o v i d e s a means f o r s c r a p i n g f o r e i g n o b j e c t s off t h e track ( l i k e t h e cow c a t c h e r on a steam locomotive) and it s e r v e s a s a mount f o r f o u r i d l e r wheels, two on each s i d e of t h e r a i l f o r each t r u c k . There a r e s i x t e e n of t h e s e 127 mm-diameter, i d l e r wheels (four i d l e r s on each of f o u r wheel h o u s i n g s ) , hence e i g h t of t h e s e i d l e r s a r e always a v a i l a b l e t o r e a c t t h e r a d i a l aerodynamic load f o r a l l wind d i r e c t i o n s r e l a t i v e t o t h e power p l a n t t r a c k . More a n a l y s i s on t h e s i z i n g and s u p p o r t o f t h e s e wheels i s needed.
Each wheel is supported by i t s own 203 mmdiameter a x l e and two p i l l o w blocks, s o t h a t wheels on t h e i n s i d e and o u t s i d e r a i l can t u r n independently.

Figure 4-16.

R o t o r C a r End Truck Assembly.

4.3.7

Car Structure

The structural plan of the car is illustrated in Figure 4.17. This layout is based upon the use of a series of deep, built-up, longitudinal and lateral box beams positioned in such a way to provide the required bending stiffness. Closed section box beams made from welded steel plates were selected because the closed section yields considerable torsional stiffness compared to an open section and because use of a closed section eliminates the need for inter-beam bracing, Two beam sizes were selected. The side beams, those to which the tower is fastened, and other longitudinal interior members are made from 0.9 m deep by 0.4 m wide steel plate (Section C-C). The forward and rear members, which transmit the radial bending moments to the wheels, will be even larger: 1.22 m deep by 0.41 m wide (Section D-D). All of these beams will be fabricated from 19 mm thick steel plate welded alonq all edges. Sectional elevatinn~ of this structural member layout are presented in Figure 4.18. The streamlined fairing of the car extends at a 45O angle downward from the main frame on all four sides. This fairing is stiffened by eight closed tube sections on each side that are 305 mm deep, 76 nun wide, and 6 nun thick. The fairing is reinforced at each corner by 12.7 mm x 12.7 mm by 6.3 mm thick diagonal tubes. The bottom perimeter of the fairing is stiffened by a 152 mm-diameter, Schedule 46 steel pipe. The top deck and fairing framework is completed with a network of longitudinal and lateral stringers made of rectangular tubes varying in depth from 152 mm to 25 mm. The frame is covered by a stressed .--:-skin - * . covering of the tape deck and fairing by panels fabricated b'7---from 3 m-thick Corten steel, which will pruvide a corrosion- ,,&< .. resistant weather surface. The use of Corten steel for the tower and car was recommended by U.S. Steel for this project. Figure 4.19 contains some of these miscellaneous skin and stiffener sections.
L .
I

"

The bottom floor of the car provides the final structural detail. The floor, not shown on the drawings, will be flush with the bottom of the streamlined housing, and will provide

Norr :
I

. CLCVATIOY~O* IS C N S Q l J W - l l M U C U ONLY W 8-C OF ROTOR 1 m P OF LOWlll

IS A T POTATIS40 CCC.

P L A N

Figure 4 . 1 7 .

Car Structural Plan.

LRkr~l~6 b3.s?, 2100 -7

Flgcre 4.15.

Sections1 Elevations of Car Structural Layout.

(ILl.HD U P X W

I2 n r o ' e / ~ u r ~

# LOCI W A 5 a R

'WILLIAMS CATLO

or nonrLco -. eu

TYP INCLINE PANCL(ROTATLD 45.1

%A=

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{TIP.) FRONT 6 REARPANL CONNLCTIOU To' IT- 3"* .~~-TVDE

acAlr a'= % '* I

Z C U C . ON

TOP W Y LTYP.1

Figure 4.19.

Miscellaneous Skin and Stiffener Section.

an enclosed compartment about 2.9 m high in areas that are not obstructed by main beams, etc. The floor will be stiffened by tubes, as was the top deck, and appropriate cut-outs for trucks, etc. will be provided. The compartment thus formed will have three major functions. First, it will provide environmental protection for the expensive motors, generator, gearing, and other electrical and electronic control and instrumentation equipment. It also will provide safe working space which can be occupied by maintenance personnel even while the car is in motion. Russell F. Hardy, Madarasl Chief Engineer, indicated noise inside the rotor was not objectionable. Finally, the floor will provide additional structural rigidity as well as a means for supporting a pre-cast concrete slab if ballast is required. The mechanical drive system for the rotor (partly shown in Figure 4.15) will be described in paragraph 4.4.2. The electrical and electronic components mounted in the car will be described in Section 5. 4.3.8 Power Transfer Trolley

The electrical power output from each car will be transferred to an overhead trolley rail by one, spring-loaded, trolley arm attached to each car as shown in Figure 4.20. The trolley arm, located on the side of the car facing the inside of the track, provides support for three collector brackets and shoes, one for each electrical phase. Each of these shoes, which have two contactors, ride on collector rails and the contactor rails are fastened to expanded steel joists which are 0.4 m deep. The joists are supported by municipal-type, metal An lighting poles spacinq 12.2 m apart (see Figure 4.20). electrical description of the trolley rails is presented in Paragraph 5 . 6 . 2 .
4-3.9

Inter-Car Coupling

The cars will be coupled together into a n 8 x endless train by steel cables attached by a pin-and-clevis arrangement at the mid-point of the front and rear of each car.

--5

. .
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IWDIA. ANCKIR~

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CAR

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MAlER h ASSOCIATES, INC. OHD "0 nn*

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HADARAS POWER P L L U T

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Figure 4.20

, , . . z m . * ,

. . -.. 4 . .2 7

Power Transfer Arm.

The cable is attached, as shown in Figure 4.18, to the main, 1.22 m deep lateral beam with cable loads fed into the 0.91 m deep longitudinal beams by a closed tube having a rectangular cross section of 203 mm by 305 nun and a wall thickness of 10 mm. The point of cable attachment is 3 m above the top of the track. This is ample height to allow for the 1.22 m catenary deflection expected in the cable. Each inter-car connection cable will consist of two wire ropes, each having a diameter of 70 mm. The length of the cable will be determined by the minimum spacing between Cars, which is discussed in Section 6, Performance Analysis. Cables will be tensioned after train assembly to improve rigidity of the train system. 4.3.10 Dynamic Balancing of the Rotor

The rotor will be balanced dynamically after it is assembled in the on-site assembly building, which is described The procedure used will be essentially later in Paragraph 4.5.4. the same as that used by Madaras. 5 Assembly of the structure will be checked at all stages to insure that required circular concentricity of the tower and rotor is maintained. This maintenance of concentricity will be particularly important at the bearing locations to improve bearing life. Dynamic balancing then will be accomplished by slowly rotating the rotor by its motors measuring the degree of imbalance, and then distributing lead weights along the length of the rotor in the longerons and frames as required. This process will be repeated until the rotor is operating smoothly above the rated speed. The Madaras rotor was so well balanced that, at a speed of 160 rpm, oscillations on a machinist's dial indicator applied to the measuring apparatus were barely noticeable. 5 4.4 DESIGN MODIFICATIONS

~ u r i n gthe course of the program, results from our various studies and information received at the ERDA Third Wind Energy Workshop indicated that it would be advisable to change some of the original design criteria presented in Paragraph 4.1. These

changes and the basis for these changes are as follows: 1. Rotor Configuration: changed from Madaras configuration to Aspect Ratio 6, e/d Ratio = 2, two end caps, area unchanged. A rotor having the following size: Height: 33.4 m (109.5 ft) Cylinder Diameter: 5.6 m (18.25 ft) a End Cap Diameter: 11.1 m (36.5 ft) Basis: Results of wind tunnel tests and performance analyses indicatedgross output would improve significantly.
2.

Rated Wind Speed:

Change from 8.18 m/s to 13.4 m/sec

Basis: Madaras selected this rated speed figure and we wanted to correlate with his computations. Also, our performance analyses indicated this level would be attractive. 3. Gust Criteria: changed from 26.8 m/s to 15.6 m/sec. This is the incremental gust over and above rated operating conditions. Basis: This condition designed the structure and car weight. Inasmuch as GE in their MOD 1 design reduced their gust speed to 15.6 m/s, we also changed to have a more equitable basis for comparing the Madaras and the GE systems. 4. Track Configuration: changed from circular to racetrack. Basis: Computer studies indicated improved performance for winds that fluctuated no more than + 45O from the design direction. Since there is no penalty for reciprocal wind direction changes, we noted that a racetrack configuration could be used in many parts of the country quite effectively. Also, the larger amount of track will permit use of more cars and will enable plant capacity to be increased at an improved economy of scale. The effects of these criteria changes were evaluated, and the results of these evaluations are presented in the following paragraphs. 4.4.1 Revised Rotor Configuration

The revised rotor mounted on its rotor car is shown in Figure 4.21. Other than the geometric aspect ratio and e/d ratio of the rotor, the most important change is the addition

Figure 4.21.

Revised Rotor Car configuration.

of the lower end cap. Note that the lower end cap is inverted in order to permit a continual, orderly flow of air over the streamlined fairing of the car into the rotor cylinder. This same configuration was used by Flettner on all of his rotor ships. The lower cap was made 37% thinner than the top cap in order to smooth air inflow even more. Notice also that the tower diameter was decreased from 3.04 m to 1.82 m in order to reduce rotor inertia, bearing size, bearing outer race speed, bearing lubrication problems, bearing inertia, and cost. No changes were made to the design of the rotor car or described in Paragraphs 4.3.5 and 4.3.6. After reanalyzing the loads for the new conditions, it was concluded that the load changes would have no effect on the governing design structural concept. The required modifications were made to provide realistic data for costing and appropriate inputs to our simulation program. The car weight previously computed was sufficient to prevent overturning and to provide traction for power generation; hence, no change in car weight was made. 4.4.2 Rotor Drive System

After studying the initial rotor-spin-motor, drive system, the decision was made to relocate the motor from the position near the upper bearing, which was about 32 m above ground to the position shown in Figures 4.15 and 4.21 on the floor of the rotor car. This position was selected to facilitate motor and drive unit changes and to simplify routine maintenance and servicing of these components. Although this second approach will require the addition of a long drive shaft, which will increase first costs, it was believed that the life cycle cost will be reduced by incorporating this change. Drive methods which eliminate the shaft should be considered further, however. The drive system consists of a 450 kW, 1150 rpm, 500 vdc motor coupled to a right-angle speed reducer having a 2.25/1 gear ratio. The speed reducer is then conncctcd to a 29 m long by 203 mm diameter, vertical, drive shaft, which is

composed' of 5 s e c t i o n s , each 5.8 m long.

The d r i v e s h a f t i s F l e x i b l e couplings supported along i t s l e n g t h by s i x bearings.

w i l l be used t o j o i n a l l d r i v e s h a f t and motor-gearbox connections. The t o p end of t h e d r i v e s h a f t i s connected t o a 254 mm t h i c k , hardened-steel, pinion,spur gear having a 0.6 m p i t c h diameter. ,Through a mating i n t e r n a l spur g e a r , which has a 1.66 m p i t c h diameter and which i s f a s t e n e d t o t h e r o t o r s t r u c t u r e , torque from t h e d r i v e s h a f t a t a f u r t h e r speed reduction of 2.77/1 i s
transferred t o drive the rotor. achieved.
4.4.3

Thus, through t h e bottom and t o p

speed reducers, an o v e r a l l motor speed reduction of 6.22/1 i s

R o t o r ncarinq~

I n view of t h e decrease i n support tower diameter and t h e i n c r e a s e i n r o t o r height over t h e o r i g i n a l design, bearing changes were made. The new bearing l o c a t i s n s , shown on Figure 4 . 2 1 a r e 13.9 m and 32 m above ground. A s before, t h e upper bearing, a 2.6 m OD r o l l e r bearing, r e a c t s a l l of t h e r o t o r weight and p a r t of t h e r a d i a l load; whereas a 3.4 m diameter lower bearing r e a c t s only r a d i a l loads. The r a t e d c a p a c i t i e s of t h e s e bearings

is w e l l above t h e load requirements of t h e governing design c r i t e r i a .

4.5 SITE DESIGN The l a y o u t p l a n for o u r version of a Madayas Rotor Pmer P l a n t u t i l i z i n g a race t r a c k r a i l configuration i s presented i n Figure 4.22. For t h e purpose of t h i s drawing, a t r a c k having a 229 m (750 f t ) end radius and a 6 1 2 m straight-away was s e l e c t e d . The t o p of each t r a c k r a i l is 1.2 m above mean ground l e v e l . The a c t u a l s i z e o f t h e t r a c k recommended w i l l be described i n Section
VI,

s i n c e t h e t r a c k r a d i u s a f f e c t s s p i n motor p e r r o r m n c e s i g n i f i -

c a n t l y . A n e l e v a t i o n drawing o f t h e p l a n t with one r o t o r c a r on t h e t r a c k i s shown i n Figure 4.23. The t o t a l a r e a of 0.65 k m2 (160 a c r e s ) is r e q u i r e d f o r the c o n f i g u r a t i o n shown. The p l a n t c o n s i s t s of t h e 1 1 m (36-ft) gauge t r a c k with a s p u r t r a c k t h a t can be used t o t r a n s f e r a r o t o r c a r from t h e a c t i v e t r a c k area t o t h e maintenance b u i l d i n g and v i c e versa.

I!! ?

! In

F i g u r e 4.22.

P l a n t Layout.

~ W I ~ % O Q 9-

Figure 4.23.

T y p i c a l E l e v a t i o n of lladaras P l a n t , One C a r on T r a c k .

Surrounding t h e o u t s i d e o f t h e t r a c k i s a 7.6 m wide, r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e r o a d which w i l l e n a b l e s e r v i c e v e h i c l e s t o g a i n a c c e s s t o any r o t o r c a r i n the t r a i n . A 4.6 m c l e a r a n c e s p a c e i s provided between t h e i n s i d e edge o f t h e r o a d and t h e outer r a i l of t h e track. The power c o l l e c t i o n t r o l l e y , p r e s e n t e d a s F i g u r e 4.20 and a l s o shown i n F i g u r e 4.23, i s l o c a t e d 5.5 m i n b o a r d o f t h e i n s i d e t r a c k , s u p p o r t e d by metal, municipal-type l i g h t p o l e s t h a t a r e 6.5 m h i g h and form a complete l o o p i n s i d e o f and p a r a l l e l t o t h e t r a c k loop. Paragraphs 5.6.2 T h i s power c o l l e c t i o n s y s t e m i s d e s c r i b e d i n and'.5.6.3.

The a r e a i n s i d e t h e t r a c k i s a v a i l a b l e f o r any use t h a t does n o t d i s t u r b t h e a i r f l o w . Obviously,' s i n c e t h e t o p of t h e r o t o r c a r deck ( t h e bottom o f t h e r o t o r ) i s 5 m above ground, t h e use o f t h e i n t e r n a l a r e a f o r any farm c r o p o r g r a z i n g would n o t i n t e r f e r e w i t h p l a n t o p e r a t i o n . The formation of a l a k e o r w a t e r r e s e r v o i r i n t h i s a r e a a l s o c o u l d be a t t r a c t i v e . However, most u s e s o f t h i s l a n d would r e q u i r e a t u n n e l under t h e t r a c k f o r a c c e s s . E f f e c t i v e use o f t h i s i n t e r n a l a r e a , o r t h e s i t i n g o f a p l a n t a t a l o c a t i o n where t h e l a n d i s n o t u s e f u l w i l l improve p l a n t economics.
4 -5.1

Track and Roadbed Design F i g u r e 4.22 i l l u s t r a t e s some d e t a i l s o f t h e

t r a c k and roadbed s t r u c t u r e . A w e l l - c o n s t r u c t e d r o a d bed i s an important f a c t o r influencing t h e l i f e of t h e t r a c k . Railroad r e s e a r c h p e r s o n n e l whom w e c o n t a c t e d recommended' s t r o n g l y t h a t e v e r y p r e c a u t i o n ' s h o u l d be t a k e n t o p r o v i d e a sound t r a c k f o u n d a t i o n i n o r d e r t o minimize r e p a i r and replacement c o s t s . The c a r wheels run on f l a t s t e e l r a i l s made o f p l a t e s h a v i n g a w i d t h o f 5 1 cm and a t h i c k n e s s o f 10 cm. Each s t e e l p l a t e w i l l rest on a s e p a r a t e , c o n t i n u o u s , s t e e l r e i n f o r c e d , c o n c r e t e pavement t h a t i s 2.. 4 m wide by 35.5 cm t h i c k . In o r d e r t o assure t h a t l e v e l t r a c k s u r f a c e i s achieved, t h e t r a c k

w i l l be shimmed b y , a 5 cm-thick l a y e r o f g r o u t h a v i n g s t r e n g t h o f

68-MPa(10,OOO p s i ) .

The s t e e l r a i l w i l l t h e n be b o l t e d t o t h e

c o n c r e t e r o a d bed by two countersunk b o l t s , 3 . 1 cm i n d i a m t e r by 43 cm l o n g e v e r y 1 . 2 m o f t r a c k l e n g t h . The s u p p o r t i n g pavement w i l l be s t e e l '.:reinforced concrete. S i n c e r e p l a c e r r e n t o f a l l o r p a r t o f t h e pavement would b e a v e r y c o s t l y o p e r a t i o n i n terms o f m a t e r i a l , l a b o r , and l o s t r e v e n u e , a f a c t o r o f s a f e t y o f f i v e i s recommended. The b a l l a s t l a y e r which s u p p o r t s t h e c o n c r e t e pavement c o n s i s t s o f a mixture o f c o a r s e a g g r e g a t e and f i n e s t h a t m u s t be p r o p e r l y b a l a n c e d . An i n s u f f i c i e n t p r o p o r t i o n of f i n e s could r e s u l t i n excessive abrasion of t h e aggregate with repeated Load a p p l i c a t i o n s , whereas t h e a g g r e g a t e t e n d s t o f l o a t i n t h e f i n e s i n a case of excessive fines. This l a t t e r s i t u a t i o n could r e s u l t i n poor compaction o f t h e b a l l a s t l a y e r . I n a d d i t i o n t o a p r o p e r mixture o f a g g r e g a t e and f i n e s , a s o i l s t a b i l i z a t i o n admixture s h o u l d be mixed w i t h t h e f i n e s t o i n s u r e a maximum degree o f compaction, t o r e t a r d c a p i l l a r y a c t i o n , and t o a v o i d p o t e n t i a l problems' w i t h f r o s t . (20,000 l b / f t 2 ) The s t a b i l i z e d b a l l a s t s h o u l d have a n u l t i m a t e b e a r i n g c a p a c i t y o f 958 KPa

Assuming a p o i n t l o a d on t h e t r a c k and a s h e a r

l a g a n g l e o f 45 d e g r e e s , t h e b e a r i n g p r e s s u r e on t h e b a l l a s t would

Le 197 IZPB (4125 l b / f C 2 ) ,

T h u ~ , f o r a factor of s a f e t y o f 5 .(I, 2 t h e a l l o w a b l e p r e s s u r e would be 1 9 1 KPa ( 4 0 0 0 l b / f t ) The

b a l l a s t l a y e r f o r e a c h r a i l i s a b o u t 6 . 3 m wide by 2 . 1 m deep w i t h a 1 i n 2 s l o p e f o r d r a i n a g e . T h e bottom of t h e b a l l a s t rests o n a s o i l f o u n d a t i o n e x c a v a t e d 0.9 m below g r a d e . The f o u n d a t i o n bed s h o u l d be well-compacted, granular material.
A s i n t h e case of t h e b a l l a s t layer, a factor

o f s a f e t y o f 5.0 i s d e s i r a b l e . I f t h e p l a n t s i t e i s l o c a t e d i n a r e g i o n o f c l a y and/or s i l t y s o i l s , an adequate p o r t i o n o f t h i s m a t e r i a l s h o u l d be e x c a v a t e d and r e p l a c e d w i t h a s u i t a b l e g r a n u l a r m a t e r i a l . The s u s c e p t i b i l i t y o f c l a y t o c a p i l l a r y a c t i o n when exposed t o m i s t u r e can r e s u l t i n a l o s s o f b e a r i n g c a p a c i t y , c x c e s s i v e h y d r o s t a t i c p r e s s u r e , and volume changes a l l o f which

c o u l d be very d e t r i m e n t a l t o t h e l i f e o f t h e t r a c k and t o t h e The compacted g r a n u l a r m a t e r i a l s h o u l d 2 have an u l t i m a t e b e a r i n g c a p a c i t y o f 4 7 9 ~ ~ (10,000 a lb/ft ) operation of the f a c i l i t y .

Two, 30 cm porous d r a i n t i l e s w i l l be used t o d r a i n w a t e r from each t r a c k r a i l f o u n d a t i o n . 4.5.2 Plant Buildinas Two t y p e s o f b u i l d i n g s a r e r e q u i r e d : maintenance b u i l d i n g and a c o n t r o l b u i l d i n g . The assembly-maintenance b u i l d i n g w i l l be b u i l t during t h e e a r l y stages o f p l a n t construction i n order t o provide t h e n e c e s s a r y f a c i l i t i e s t o assemble t h e r o t o r and r o t o r c a r s from t h e f a c t o r y - f a b r i c a t e d segments t h a t a r e s h i p p e d t o t h e s i t e . The p l a n form o f t h i s b u i l d i n g w i l l be about 30 m wide by 50 m long. The assembly b u i l d i n g w i l l have two r o o f h e i g h t s . The f i r s t 25 m o f b u i l d i n g l e n g t h w i l l have a c l e a r c e i l i n g h e i g h t of about 4 2 m t o p e r m i t t h e complete assembly o f a r o t o r on a c a r i n s i d e t h e b u i l d i n g . The second h a l f o f t h e b u i l d i n g w i l l have a c e i l i n g h e i g h t o f a b o u t 9 m i n o r d e r t o p r o v i d e room f o r assembling p a r t s o f a c a r a l o n e . Thus, t h e r e i s room f o r a two-car assembly l i n e i n s i d e t h e b u i l d i n g . While one c a r i s b e i n g a s s e m b l e d , t h e r o t o r can be assembled and mounted on t h e second c a r . The c a r s an assembly-

w i l l be assembled on an e x t e n s i o n o f t h e s p u r t r a c k i n s i d e t h e b u i l d i n g t o permit e a s y t r a n s f e r o f completed r o t o r c a r s t o t h e o v a l t r a c k . An overhead, 30-ton b r i d g e c r a n e and two 15-ton j i b c r a n e s a s w e l l a s welding and o t h e r f a b r i c a t i o n equipment w i l l complimnt t h e building. O f f i c e s p a c e , t o o l rooms, and supply rooms a l s o w i l l be provided.
A f t e r c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e p l a n t i s completed, t h i s b u i l d i n g w i l l t h e n s e r v e a s a r e p a i r f a c i l i t y and w i l l house one complete s p a r e r o t o r c a r . The c o n t r o l b u i l d i n g w i l l be 15 m l o n g by 9 m T h i s b u i l d i n g w i l l be b u i l t a g a i n s t t h e edge wide by 4 m h i g h . o f t h e assembly b u i l d i n g n e a r e s t t h e t r a c k . This building w i l l

house t h e o p e r a t o r ' s c o n t r o l s t a t i o n , t h e ' c e n t r a l p r o c e s ' s o r , and t h e t e l e m e t r y system.

An e x t e r n a l s u b s t a t i o n w i l l c o n t a i n t h e

equipment r e q u i r e d t o i n t e r f a c e the' 'power'from t h e Madaras p l a n t w i t h t h e u t i l i t y s y s t e m power g r i d . See S e c t i o n V f o r a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e s e c o n t r o l and i n t e r f a c e components. P r o v i s i o n s have been made i n t h e c o s t a n a l y s i s f o r a prime mover t o push t h e c a r s around t h e p l a n t a r e a d u r i n g

car assembly, t r a i n assembly, and maintenance.

4.6 M A S S S U M M A R Y O F ROTOR CAR

The f o l l o w i n q t a b l e p r e s e n t s a summary of t h e mass o f t h e m a j o r components o f e a c h r o t o r c a r .

COMPONENT C a r , Motor, Speed Reducer End Trucks, Speed Reducers, Generators, ( 4 each) Tower
~ b t o j tCylf nder

M a s s

kg

lb 513,000 72,000 82,000 18,900 10,000 3,000 24,100 723,000

232,700 32,700 37,200 8,600 4,500 1,400 10,900 328,000

Rotor End Caps ( 2 e a c h ) M i s c e l l a n e o u s E l e c t r i c a l Components B a l l a s t ( C o n c r e t e on Car F l o o r ) TOTAL M A S S

SECTION V ELECTRICAL DESIGN

The o b j e c t i v e s o f t h i s s t u d y were t o d e f i n e e l e c t r i c a l r e q u i r e m e n t s , d e f i n e and s p e c i f y e l e c t r i c a l components, and determine e l e c t r i c a l l o s s e s . a.

b.

The e l e c t r i c a l d e s i g n i n c l u d e s

c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e f o l l o w i n g components : Rotor s p i n system Generator system

c . C o n t r o l and i n s t r u n a t n t a t i o n system d. E l e c t r i c c i r c u i t r y t o i n t e r f a c e t h e s e t h r e e systems w i t h each o t h e r and t o d e l i v e r o u t p u t power t o t h e o u t s i d e power grid. 5.1 DESIGN G U I D E L I N E S

G u i d e l i n e s given were t o d e s i g n a system o f maximum e f f i c i e n c y and minimum c o s t . C o n s i d e r a t i o n s under c o s t would i n c l u d e b o t h i n i t i a l c a p i t a l i n v e s t m e n t and maintenance c o s t . Whenever p o s s i b l e , s t a n d a r d marketplace components were t o be utilized. 5.2
D E S I G N CONDITIONS

The f o l l o w i n g design c r i t e r i a had a major e f f e c t on t h e designs : a. C i r c u l a r t r a c k o f 1500 f t (approximately 457m)

d i a m e t e r ( l a t e r i n c r e a s e d t o 3000 f t o r g r e a t e r ) . b . Eighteen e q u a l l y spaced c a r s l i n k e d on t h e t r a c k . c. d. e.

f.

Track speed o f 8.9 4 s . Rated g r o s s g e n e r a t o r o u t p u t o f 1 MW p e r c a r 2 Rotor r o t a t i o n a l i n e r t i a o f 61,820 Kg-m Maximum r o t o r r o t a t i o n a l speed l i m i t o f 186 rpm Speed c o n t r o l of r o t o r r e q u i r e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e c a r ' s

g.

traverse of the c i r c u l a r track. h. Reversal o f t h e r o t o r ' s d i r e c t i o n o f r o t a t i o n a t two d i a m e t r i c a l l y o p p o s i t e p o i n t s on t h e t r a c k .

i. Wind direction and velocity measurements required at various points along the track.
j. Rotor viscous friction and rotor bearing loss load in accordance with equations in Paragraph 3.5.

k. Preliminary motor rpm schedule shotm in Figure 5.1 obtained by varying speed at each 5O increment of track position (9) such that power extracted is maximum at each track position. 1. Compatibility of power generated with utility company power grid. 5.3 ROTOR SPIN SYSTEM 5.3.1 Concept Selection

The rotor spin system has some very serious constraints imposed on it by the design conditions. The most serious constraints are the requirements: (1) for continuously variable speed control; (2) for a direction reversal approximately every 80 seconds for the given track size and track speed; and (3) the high rotational inertia of the rotor. These constraints limit the system to direet current motor nr to a constant speed motor driving through a continuously variable speed transmission and revessihg gear s y s b c m . Thc latter prohah1.y wvuld have to include a brake system to stop the rotor motion for reversal. The transmission andebrake system was discarded because of cost, inefficiency, and maintenance considerations for a system of adequate size.

A direct c u ~ ~ e rnokor n t drive has advantages in that regenerative braking is available to recover part of the inertial energy of the rotor during spindown and because motor hardware and controller hardware are commercial catalog items. However, the 80 second period for spinap, spindown,and direction reversal (based on track speed of 8.9 m/s and track diameter of 457 m) requires the motor to operate in its most inefficient mode of operation: a constant start-stop duty cycle which causes heat load and high power losses. very high niotor int&nal Several alternatives were considered to replace or supplement an electric motor drive.

8 (DEGREES).
Figure 5.1. Preliminary Estimate of Aerodynamically Optimum Rotational Speed Schedule.

Two a l t e r n a t . i v e s t o an e l e c t r i c d r i v e were c o n s i d e r e d : a n a i r m o t o r and a h y d r a u l i c motor d r i v e . Each would be b e s t implemented by having a l a r g e e l e c t r i c motor d r i v i n g " a compressor. The a i r s t o r a g e t a n k s r e q u i r e d f o r t h e a i r volume In
.

needed t o s p i n up t h e ' r o t o r would be l a r g e and expensive.

a d d i t i o n , t h e c o s t of t h e l a r g e a i r m o t o r and compressor, a v a l v i n g system t o r e v e r s e r o t a t i o n a l d i r e c t i o n , and t h e c o s t of i n c r e a s e d i n e f f i c i e n c y of an a i r system o v e r an e l e c t r i c a l system l e a d t o t h e co~clusion t h a t an a i r system would be i n f e r i o r t o an e l e c t r i c . system. system. The same r e a s o n i n g h o l d s t r u e f o r a h y d r a u l i c motor s p i n

. .%

I n a d d i t i o n , a h y d r a u l i c system might r e q u i r e h e a t i n g f o r s t a r t - u p on c o l d w i n t e r days and c o o l i n g on warm o r h o t days. F u r t h e r , no h y d r a u l i c motors a s l a r g e a s t h e s i z e r e q u i r e d are a v a i l a b l e a s s t a n d a r d i t e m s , and a developmental program would .be needed t o o b t a i n them. Thus, c o s t and t e c h n i c a l u n c e r t a i n t i e s t o r u l e these alternatives out a s solutions a t t h i s t i m e . .,.,.,~eemed ..
Flywheel systems were c o n s i d e r e d a s a l o a d l e v e l i n g means t o improve t h e e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e e l e c t r i c a l s p i n motor system.
A f l y w h e e l much l a r g e r t h a n any p r e v i o u s l y c o n s t r u c t e d would be

r e q u i r e d f o r t h e e x p e c t e d s p i n u p l o a d . The i n e r t i a o f t h e Madaras s y s t e m r o t o r i s v e r y h i g h , b u t a flywheel would be o p e r a t e d a t a much h i g h e r r o t a t i o n a l v e l o c i t y . Modern f l y w h e e l s have been d e s i g n e d f o r such u s e s a s l o a d l e v e l i n g and d e c e l e r a t i o n l o a d r e c o v e r y on commuter t r a i n s and b u s e s , and on h e l i c o p t e r mounted h i g h - c a p a c i t y l i f t i n g c r a n e s . Most sue11 devices have used an e l e c t r i c motor-generator t o t r a n s f e r energy i n t o and o u t o f t h e i n e r t i a wheel. R e l i a b i l i t y o f t h e s e d e v i c e s is v e r y much i n q u e s t i o n w i t h a few hundred h o u r s a L b e s t b e i n g q u o t e d a s t h e mean t i m e between f a i l u r e s . Energy r e c o v e r y e f f i c i e n u y i s not v e r y h i g h , 30 t o 40 p e r c e n t , because o f t h e same problem t h a t p l a g u e s an e l e c t r i c motor s p i n system; i . e . , low e f f i c i e n c y o f e l e c t r i c motors o r g e n e r a t o r s a L speeds v c r y much below o r above t h e i r design speeds. The development c o s t , purchase p r i c e , and
I

maintenance problems and c o s t s o f f l y w h e e l s s e e m d s u f f i c i e n t r e a s o n t o r u l e them o u t o f c o n s i d e r a t i o n d u r i n g t h i s c o n c e p t u a l design study.

Consequently t h e d e c i s i o n was made t o s e l e c t t h e system u t i l i z i n g a d i r e c t c u r r e n t s p i n motor d r i v i n g t h e r o t o r s h a f t through a g e a r t r a i n . The use o f r e g e n e r a t i v e b r a k i n g f o r energy recovery d u r i n g t h e r o t o r spindown segment of t h e s p i n c y c l e was a l s o c o n s i d e r e d f o r t h i s system. This i s by f a r t h e s i m p l e s t and l o w e s t c o s t system t o implement i n t h e r e q u i r e d power range.
,

5.3.2

Spin System S i z i n g

The s p i n system motor s i z e i s s e n s i t i v e t o t h e a n g u l a r a c c l e r a t i o n demanded and t h e motor speed a t which t h i s a c c e l e r a t i o n o c c u r s . Although o u r c a l c u l a t i o n s i n d i c a t e d t h e W a t 186 rpm, t h e l o a d r o t o r ' s s t e a d y - s t a t e maximum l o a d was 350 k W a t 0 rpm t o t h e upper 350 k W limit. a c t u a l l y v a r i e s from 0 k Howe v e r , t h e r o t o r p r o v i d e s a c o n s t a n t s t e a d y - s t a t e motor l o a d a t any c o n s t a n t r o t a t i o n a l speed. Thus, a s a minimum, t h e s p i n system must be This load, a b l e t o d e l i v e r a 350 k W load t o t h e r o t o r s t r u c t u r e .

w i l l be a p p l i e d t o t h e r o t o r through a gearbox o r an e q u i v a l e n t g e a r i n g system; and a g e a r i n g l o s s must be a s s i g n e d t o t h i s function. I f a four percent gearing l o s s i s estimated, i n accordance w i t h o t h e r wind t u r b i n e d e s i g n programs, 39 the l i m i t s t e a d y - s t a t e l o a d becomes 365 k W a t t h e motor s h a f t .
The a c c e l e r a t i o n l o a d requirement on t h e s p i n d r i v e s y s t e m i s caused by t h e r o t o r i n e r t i a , . t h e r o t a t i o n a l s p e e d s c h e d u l e , . a n d t h e maximum r o t a t i o n a l v e l o c i t y . A t a t r a c k s p e e d o f 9 d s e c a time i n t e r v a l of 40 seconds i s r e q u i r e d t o t r a n s v e r s e 90 d e g r e e s o f a 457-meter-diameter, c i r c u l a r t r a c k . F i g u r e 5.1 shows .a r o t o r a c c e l e r a t i n g t o approximately 186 rpm i n t h i s t i m e p e r i o d . . For a c o n s t a n t a c c e l e r a t i o n s c h e d u l e , t h e 2 r o t a t i o n a l a c c e l e r a t i o n would be 0.472 r a d / s e c ; and t h e i n p u t power r e q u i r e d t o a c c e l e r a t e t h e r o t o r t o 186 rprn would be 568

kW. Adding t h e f o u r p e r c e n t g e a r i n g l o s s , a motor which d e l i v e r s 592 kW t o t h e motor s h a f t i s r e q u i r e d . Thus, f o r t h e given d e s i g n c o n d i t i o n s ( s c h e d u l e i n F i g u r e 5.1) , t h e motor must be s i z e d t o W a c c e l e r a t i o n l o a d , b u t a l s o i t must overcome n o t o n l y t h i s 592 k p r o v i d e .Wle s t e a d y - s t a t e viscous and b e a r i n g l o a d of 365 k W at

186 rpm.

Consequently, under t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s , a 958 k W

m t o r i s r e q u i r e d t o a c c e l e r a t e and m a i n t a i n r o t a t i o n o f each c y l i n d e r a c c o r d i n g t o t h e s c h e d u l e i n F i g u r e 5.1. The t i n r e h i s t o r y o f t h e s p i n motor l o a d can be deduced from t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e two p r e v i o u s l y - d e s c r i b e d ( s t e a d y - s t a t e v i s c o u s and b e a r i n g r o t o r l o a d s . The f i r s t l o a d

l o a d ) i n c r e a s e s a s a c u b i c f u n c t i o n o f rprn and r o t o r b e a r i n g l o a d i n c r e a s e s l i n e a r l y w i t h rpm. F o r o u r purposes h e r e , t h e t e s t d a t a curve d e v e l o p e d by Madaras ( F i g u r e 3 . 2 4 ) f o r a r o t a t i n g b u t n o t t r a n s l a t i n g c y l i n d e r , a s m o d i f i e d by o u r own wind t u n n e l test

data w i l I be used (see Paragra'ph 3.3.7)

Thc seoond load

( a c c e l e r a t i o n l o a d ) i n c r e a s e s a s a q u a d r a t i c f u ~ l c t i o no f rpm d u r i n g s p i n u p and spindown.

I n o r d e r t o s i m p l i f y t h i s d i s c u s s i o n of t h e r o t o r ' s r o t a t i o n a l s c h e d u l e , we w i l l modify t h e Figure '5.1 r o t a t i o n a l

s c h e d u l e i n t h e form o f a l i n e a r l y i n c r e a s i n g o r d e c r e a s i n g rpm ( c o n s t a n t a c c e l e r a t i o n and d e c e l e r a t i o n ) f o r each q u a d r a n t o f t r a c k , a s shown .in F i g u r e 5.2. I t s h o u l d be' r e c o g n i z e d t h a t t h i s s i m p l i f i e d s p i n r o t a t i o n a l schedule w i l l generate considerably

less power from t h e c y l i n d e r t h a n t h e optimum r o t a t i o n a l s c h e d u l e p r e s e n t e d i n F i g u r e 5 . 1 ; hence t h e l i n e a r i z e d ayGtem would not. be used i n an o p e r a t i n g system.
The s t e a d y - s t a t e l o a d requirement f o r a 180' t r a v e r s e o f t h e t r a c k w i t h t h e s i m p l i f i e d s p i n s c h e d u l e would approximate t h a t shown i n F i g u r e 5.3. Figure 5 . 4 , The a c c e l e r a t i o n l o a d arid i d e a l i n e r t i a l energy r e c o v e r y would approximate t h a t shown i n and would i d e a l l y r e s u l t i n n o n e t e n e r g y expended
'

d u r i n g each r e v o l u t i o n of t h e t r a c k . Thus, f o r t h i s s i m p l i f i e d s p i n s c h e d u l e t h e t o t a l motqr s h a f t l o a d would be t h a t shown i n F i g u r e 5.5, (summation o f F i g u r e 5 . 3 and F i g u r e 5 . 4 ) which a c c o u n t s f o r t h e v i s c o u s energy l o s s e s d u r i n g spindown. Unfortunately, t o maintain t h i s r o t a t i o n a l s p i n s c h e d u l e , a v e r y l a r g e and c o s t l y s p i n system motor must be used, and t h e r e a r e v e r y s e r i o u s a d d i t i o n a l s p i n system m t o r i n e f f i c i e n c : l o s s e s . These w i l l b e c o n s i d e r e d l a t e r i n t h i s s e c t i o n .

SCHEDULE 18MPH WIND CIRCULAR TRACK

s a 120. c

90

120

150

180

210

240

270

F i g u r e 5.2.

S i m p l i f i e d S p i n S c h e d u l e d Used t o ~ s t i m a t e . S p i n Motor S i z e .

500-

400

STEADY STATE POWER LOAD FOR SIMPLIFIED SPIN SCHEDULE

300

---

. .

200

100

o/
90

ROTOR VISCOUS FRICTION AND DEARING FRICTION POWER LOSSES

I

120

150

180 DEGREES

210

240

2 70

F i g u r e 5.3.

R o t o r S t e a d y - S t a t e V i s c o u s and B e a r i n g F r i c t i o n Load f o r S i m p l i f i e d S p i n Schedule.

8 DEGREES

Figure 5.4.

I n e r t i a l Power Load, Spin Schedule.

I d e a l Performance, N o

Losses, R e g e n e r a t i v e B r a k i n g , S i m p l i f i e d

8 DEGREES

F i g u r e 5.5.

T o t a l Power Load, I n c l u d i n g . V i s c o u s L o s s e s During Spindown, R e g e n e r a t i v e Braking, Simplified.

I t can be s e e n from F i g u r e 5.5 t h a t no more than

4 2 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l s p i n motor s h a f t i n p u t power can be

r e c o v e r e d by r e g e n e r a t i v e b r a k i n g d u r i n g spindown f o r t h e s i m p l i f i e d s p i n s c h e d u l e , assuming no motor i n e f f i c i e n c y l o s s e s d u r i n g s p i n u p and spindown. F o r t h e aerodynamically-optimized s p i n s c h e d u l e ( F i g u r e 5.1) t h e r e s u l t i s less e n c o u r a g i n g a s shown i n F i g u r e 5.6. T h i s f i g u r e shows recovery o f o n l y 20 p e r c e n t o f t h e s p i n u p e n e r g y d u r i n g r e g e n e r a t i v e b r a k i n g because o f t h e h i g h e r l o s s e s (compared t o t h o s e o f t h e F i g u r e 5.2 s i m p l i f i e d s c h e d u l e ) . These added l o s s e s a r e caused by t h e h i g h e r v i s c o u s - f r i c t i o n power, load-schedule d u r i n g t h e major p o r t i o n of t h e spindown p e r i o d . Thus, t h e v i s c o u s - f r i c t i o n - p o w e r l o a d consumes mosc of t h e i n e r t i a l e n e r g y i n p u t t o t h e r o t o r , even w i t h o u t c o n s i d e r i n g motor e l e c t r i c a l l o s s e s d u r i n g b o t h t h e s p i n u p and spindown p o r t i o n s of t h e schedule. The a n a l y s i s above shows that use o f a 4 5 7 m d i a m e t e r t r a c k r e q u i r e s a l a r g e , e x p e n s i v e , s p i n motor which con-

sums an u n a c c e p t a b l e amount o f power. F u r t h e r , we f i n d t h a t very l i t t l e s p i n u p power i s r e c o v e r a b l e , e s p e c i a l l y f o r t h e aerodynmically optimum s p i n s c h e d u l e ( F i g u r e 5.1) T h e r e f o r e , it a p p e a r s t h a t w e must minimize b o t h t h e i n e r t i a l l o a d and v i s c o u s load requiremnts

U n f o r t ~ m a t - e l y ,given a r o t o r s i z e and rpm s c h e d u l e ,

w e have l i t t l e c o n t r o l o v e r t h e s t e a d y - s t a t e l o a d o t h e r t h a n by r e d u c i n g s t r u c t u r a l i n e r t i a . However, w e c a n n o t reduce c y l i n d e r i n e r t i a a p p r e c i a b l y because o f s t r e n g t h r e q u i r e m e n t s . T h e r e f o r e , t h e o n l y means f o r r e d u c i n g a c c e l e r a t i o n l o s s e s a r e by i n c r e a s i n g t h e t r a c k d i a m e t e r a n d by changing t h e s p i n u p s c h e d u l e . W e e v a l u a t e d t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e s e c o n c e p t s i n a computerized s t u d y o f t h e Madaras s y s t e m o p e r a t i o n ; b u t b e f o r e we d i s c u s s t h e s e r e s u l t s , it i s a p p r o p r i a t e t o d i s c u s s t h e e f f i c i e n c y losses i n t h e s p i n motor.

8 ' DEGREES

Figure 5.6.

Total Power Load, Including Viscous Losses During Spindown, Regenerative Braking, Aerodynamically Optimum Spin.

F i g u r e 5 . 7 i s an e f f i c i e n c y v e r s u s power o u t p u t c u r v e f o r a shunt-wound . d c motor , t h e t y p e o f s p i n . s y s t e m motor t h a t must be used i n o r d e r t o rec'over e n e r g y ' b y r e g e n e r a t i v e b r a k i n g . T h i s c u r v e i s f o r a motor r u n n i n g n,ear r a t s d speed. .However, f o r the s p e e d s c h e d u l e o f a m t o r which would be used i n t h e Madaras s p i n s y s t e m , t h e e f f i c i e n c y v e r s u s power o u t p u t c u r v e I f w e p l o t t h e corresponding would be t h a t shown i n F i g u r e 5.8. s p e e d v e r s u s power o u t p u t d a t a w i t h , t h a t o f F i g u r e 5.8,
5.9 is obtained.

Figure

Then, i f e f f i c i e n c y v e r s u s speed a t * g i v e n power The

l e v e l s a r e c r o s s - p l o t t e d from F i g u r e 5.9 t h e e f f i c i e n c y f o r a c o m p l e t e Madaras s p e e d s c h e d u l e appears 9 s i n F i g u r e 5.10. shown i n F i g u r e 5.10. s p e e d - e f f i c i e n c y range f o r normal usage o f l a r g e motors a l s o i s

Large motors are r a t e d for t h i s usage a t

n o more t h a n two s t a r t s p e r h o u r ; whereas, t h e Madaras s p i n motor would have t o s t a r t 45 times p e r h o u r ( b a s e d ' o n a 457-m d i a m e t e r , c i r c u l a r t r a c k , a n d a 8.9 m / s t r a c k s p e e d ) Thus, t h e Madaras s p i n motor i s used i n a very s e v e r e and u n f a v o r a b l e mode from a m t o r d e s i g n and e f f i c i e n c y s t a n d p o i n t and would r e q u i r e coding. The magnitude o f t h e power l o s s e s f o r a r e g e n e r a t i v e 5.10. For t h i s s p i n s c h e d u l e a r e a l s o s t a t e d on ~ i g u r e

schedule, 100 p e r c e n t power i s immediately s u p p l i e d t o t h e motor and s p e e d b u i l d s up a s shown i n t h e c u r v e . Speed i n c r e a s e s a s

motor power overcomes i n e r t i a and v i s c o u s l o a d s . Unfortunately, h i g h motor l o s s e s i n t h e form o f h e a t a l s o a r e r e a l i z e d . Cons e q u e n t l y , a b o u t 56 p e r c e n t o f t h e e l e c t r i c a l energy i n p u t t o t h e motor w i l l be l o s t through h e a t i n g o f t h e m u t u ~ , arid an a d d i t i o n a l f o u r p e r c e n t o f t h e s h a f t o u t p u t w i l l be l o s t because o f r o t o r q e a r i n q . Thus a s shown i n F i g u r e 5.10, regenerative braking during spindown o f t h e r o t o r c a n r e c o v e r o n l y 40 p e r c e n t o f t h e i n e r t i a l e n e r g y i n the s p i n n i n g r o t o r less t h e power consumed by t h e g r a d u a l l y d e c r e a s i n g s t e a d y - s t a t e v i s c o u s l o a d d u r i n g spindown. S i n c e o n l y 40 p e r c e n t o f t h e powek i n p u t t o t h e motor remains a f t e r s p i n u p , and s i n c e t h i s red:hihs i n e r t i a l energy i s r e g e n e r a t e d a t o n l y 40 p e r c e d t & f f i c i e l i c y , o n l y 0.40 x 0.40 o r 1 6 p e r c e n t o f t h e e l d c t r i c i l eiii?rw i n i t i a l l y i n p u t t o t h e motor
4.l
0 1

% RATED POWER OUTPUT

Figure 5.7. P e r c e n t E f f i c i e n c y v e r s u s P e r c e n t Rated O u t p u t Power f o r a Shunt-Wound d c Motor, Normal O p e r a t i o n .

'10 RATED OUTPUT POWER

F i g u r e 5.8.

Percent Efficiency versus Percent Rated O u t p u t Power f o r a ShuntWound . d c ' ~ o t o r

F i g u r e 5.9.

100 200 300 '10 RATED OUTPUT POWER P e r c e n t E f f i c i e n c y and P e r c e n t No-Load Speed v e r s u s P e r c e n t Rated Output . Power.

RANGE, NORMAL MOTOR USAGE--/+

100

RANGE SHOWN FIGURE 5 . 7

I
w

56% HEATING LOSS PLUS 4% SPEED REDUCER LOSS

W

LL L W

40% SHAFT INPUT POWER USED

20
F i g u r e 5.10.

40

60

80

100

% NO LOAD SPEED
Percent Efficiency versus Percent No-Load Speed Motor L o s s e s f o r a Shunt-Wound d c Motor.

d u r i n g s p i n u p can be s a v e d by r e g e n e r a t i o n , and t h e n t h i s amount must b e d e c r e a s e d by t h e s t e a d y - s t a t e spindown energy demand. With o n l y 20 p e r c e n t o f t h e s p i n u p energy a v a i l a b l e f o r r e g e n e r a t i v e b r a k i n g b e c a u s e o f v i s c o u s l o s s e s d u r i n g spindown, a s was shown i n F i g u r e 5 . 6 , t h e n o n l y 20 p e r c e n t o f 16 p e r c e n t , o r 3 . 2 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l s p i n u p e n e r g y c o u l d be r e c o v e r e d d u r i n g s p i n down. T h e r e f o r e , i t i s obvious t h a t t h e F i g u r e 5.1 s p i n s c h e d u l e w i t h r e g e n e r a t i v e b r a k i n g i s n o t p r a c t i c a l f o r a 457-m-diameter t r a c k (which governs t h e s p i n u p , spindown a c c e l e r a t i o n time p e r i o d ) , o r f o r t h e r o t o r geometry s t u d i e d . Thus, a s e r i e s of computer r u n s were made t o determine a better d e s i g n . The Madaras s y s t e m computer program e v a l u a t e s t h e power o u t p u t from a s p i n n i n g c y l i n d e r a t 5 O increments around a c i r c u l a r t r a c k f o r any r o t o r c o n f i g u r a t i o n and w e i g h t , t r a c k d i a m e t e r , wind s p e e d , and t r a c k speed. Power and aerodynamic f o r c e s a r e computed a t e a c h p o i n t , and t h e n power i s accumulated and a v e r a g e d t o g i v e t h e a v e r a g e power o u t p u t l e v e l p e r c i r c u i t of t h e track. T h i s program a l s o c o n t a i n s r o u t i n e s t o e v a l u a t e t h e s p i n motor power r e q u i r e m e n t s and t o a s s e s s l o s s e s f o r o t h e r m c h a n i c a l and e l e c t r i c a l components o f t h e system. Losses o t h e r t h a n t h o s e o f t h e s p i n motor s y s t e m amount t o 2 7 p e r c e n t o f t h e c y l i n d e r o u t p u t power. These l o s s e s i n c l u d e : 15 p e r c e n t g e n e r a t o r l o s s e s 4 percent generator gearing losses
1 p e r c e n t wheei b e a r i n g l o s s e s
.

5 p e r c e n t synchronous condenser l o s s e s
2 percent t r o l l e y ,

c o n t r o l , and o t h e r m i s c e l l a n e o u s

losses.

I n addi Lion, l o s s e s due t o mutual i n t e r f e . r e n c e , aerodynamic d r a g , and r a i l f r i c t i o n a r e i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t h e aerodynamic comput5ations and a r e a d d i t i v e t o t h e s p i n motor l o s s e s and t h e above m i s c e l l a n e o u s l o s s e s .
The folLowing d e s i g n c o n d i t i o n s were s t u d i e d i n o u r s p i n motor computer a n a l y s i s .

Track s p e e d : Wind s p e e d :

8.9 m / s 8.9 and 13.4 m/s 457, 915, 1372, 1830 m 450, 675, 900, 1200 k W

Track d i a m e t e r : S p i n motor s i z e : Motor e f f i c i e n c y

s p e e d c u r v e a s i n F i g u r e 5.10

fibtor s p i n schedule C o n s t a n t s p i n motor power a t r a t e d l i m i t ' a p p l i e d d u r i n g s p i n u p and spindown Maximum r o t o r s p e e d o f 186 rpm a t power l e v e l r e q u i r e d t o maintain constant r o t o r speed R e g e n e r a t i v e b r a k i n g b e g i n n i n g a t t h e p o i n t where 8 = 240.
9

See F i g u r e 5 . 1 1 f o r power and s p e e d s c h e d u l e s used T h i s i s n o t an optimum f o r v a r i o u s motor s i z e s . s c h e d u l e , b u t i t i s s a t i s f a c t o r y f o r motor s i z i n g s t u d i e s . The motor i s s i z e d f o r t h e i n i t i a l a c c e l e r a t i o n a t 8 = 90'. These computer r u n s y i e l d e d d a t a which w e r e The optimum s p i n motor

p l o t t e d i n t h e form shown i n F i g u r e 5.12.

s i z e a n d t h e maximum power o u t p u t f o r e a c h s e t o f c o n d i t i o n s was t h e n s e l e c t e d from F i g u r e 5.12 and t h e s e optimum p o i n t s w e r e

/ s p l o t t e d versus t r a c k diameter ' f o r t h e 13.4 m

(30 mph) a n d 8.9

m / s (20 mph) wind s p e e d s a s shown i n F i g u r e s 5.13 a n d 5.14 respectively. F i g u r e s 5 . 1 3 a n d 5.14 show t h a t t h e o r i g i n a l Madaras d e s i g n f o r a 457-m-diamter t r a c k would e i t h e r consume
power o r a t b e s t y i e l d n e g l i g i b l e n e t power. The o n l y d e s i g n c o n d i t i o n t h a t c a n b e changed w i t h o u t d i r e c t l y r e d u c i n g t h e power o u t p u t f o r a c y l i n d e r i s t r a c k diameter. That is, t r a c k speed o r r o t a t i o n a l speed r e d u c t i o n s r e d u c e o u t p u t power d i r e c t l y , and r e d u c t i o n o f r o t a t i o n a l i n e r t i a r e q u i r e s reduction o f r o t a t i o n a l speed because o f s t r e n g t h requirements

I n c r e a s i n g t r a c k d i a m e t e r , however, r e d u c e s

c y l i n d e r a c c e l e r a t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s d i r e c t l y w i t h n o e f f e c t on c y l i n d e r aerodynamic o p e r a t i o n . Track d i a m e t e r i n c r e a s e s i m p a c t u n i t p l a n t power c o s t o n l y s l i g h t l y i f number o f c a r s i n c r e a s e s with t r a c k . s i z e , provided t h a t t h e proper c a r spacing i s maintained;

i .e.,

car c o s t p e r u n i t o f t r a c k r e m a i n s t h e same and p l a n t c o s t

p e r u n i t o f power i s i n c r e a s e d o n l y s l i g h t l y b e c a u s e o f t h e c o ' s t

1000 900 KW MOTOR

800
Y

3
I

675 KW MOTOR ------------

600
KW . . 450 ... . . . MOTOR . . . . . . . .. 400
.*

ILI W

3 H
W

I -

V)

$ , 200.
Ei -

a m

-2 0 0
-400

8 ' V A R I A B L E WITH MOTOR AND TRACK S l Z E AS I S SPINDOWN POWER L E V E L AND PROFILE

90F i g u r e 5.11.

SPINUP

* 8'VARlABLE WITH MOTOR AND TRACK SIZE 8 DEGREES

240-270 SPINDOWN

Modified Spin Schedule f o r Various Spin Motor S i z e s .

400.

TRACK DIAMETER = 3 0 0 0 F T ( 9 1 5 m ) RPM = 186

300

Vw = 3 0 M P H -

SPIN MOTOR SIZE

KW

Vw=20MPH ( 8.9 m/s)

Figure 5 . 1 2 .

P l a n t Power Output v e r s u s Spin l . ~ o t o r S i z e , 3 , 0 0 0 - f t Diameter Track# 1 8 6 rpm for Various Wind Speeds.

Lcyl= llO FT (33.5m)

,

Dcyl = 1 8 F T (5.5 m) Icyl = 45,592 SLUG- FT* ( 6 3 0 5 m-Kg-sec2)

1400-

Wmax= 186 RPM Vw = 30 MPH (13.4m /s)

I ROTOR

1200 -

1000F

OPTIMIJM MOTOR SIZE

800 -

3
Y

600cr
W

400-

TRACK DIAMETER
F i g u r e 5.13.

FEET (m)

Optimum Ilotor S i z e and Plaximum Por~rer Output/ Rotor v e r s u s Track Diameter, 30 mph Wind Speed.

Lcyl = IlOFT(33.5m)

1400-

Dcyl = 1 8 FT(5.5m) Icyl = 45,592 SLUG- FT* (6305m-~g-sec2) Wmax=186 RPM Vw = 2 0 MPH (8.9 m/s)
I ROTOR

1200-

10008 0 0-

OPTIMUM MOTOR SIZE

3
Y

2
[ r

600-

,400-

MAXIMUM NET POWER OUTPUT

1830
1 I

(2440)
I
I

TRACK DIAMETER
Figure 5.14.

- FEET (m)

Optimum Motor Size and Maximum Power Output/Rotor versus Track Siameter, 20 mph Wind Speed.

o f t h e g r e a t e r a r e a o f unused l a n d i n t h e c e n t e r o f t h e t r a c k . However, s p i n motor s i z e , c o s t , and power assessment a g a i n s t the power o u t p u t o f t h e c y l i n d e r a r e g r e a t l y reduced because a c c e l e r a t i o n ,power r e q u i r e m e n t s b e c o m a d e c r e a s i n g p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e s p i n motor power . l o a d . a s t r a c k s i z e i n c r e a s e s . F i g u r e 5 ..I3 shows t h a t f o r t h e given o p e r a t i n g

c o n d i t i o n s , optimum s p i n motor s i z e a p p e a r s t o be approaching an asymptote of 425 k i l o w a t t s a t v e r y l a r g e t r a c k d i a m e t e r , s a y 3 km, o r 1 0 , 0 0 0 - f e e t , and maximum o u t p u t power i s approaching an asymptote o f a b o u t 350 k i l o w a t t s . T h i s means t h e g r e a t e s t power t h a t can / s wind and t h e b e o b t a i n e d from a c i r c u l a r track f o r a 13.4 m g i v e n r o t o r c o n f i g u r a t i o n , s p e e d l i m i t , and s t r u c t u r a l S t r e n g t h i s 350 k i l o w a t t s p e r c a r . S i m i l a r l y , F i g u r e . 5.14 shows an
<

asymptote a p p r o a c h i n g 400 k i l o w a t t s f o r t h e optimum s p i n motor s i z e and an asymptote approaching z e r o n e t o u t p u t power from t h e n e g a t i v e power l e v e l f o r a 8 . 9 m / s wind. That i s t o s a y , f o r a wind s p e e d o f 8 . 9 m / s , no n e t power can be produced by t h e r o t o r d e s i g n on any c i r c u l a r t r a c k s i z e . I t i s e x p e c t e d t h a t performance improvement c o u l d b e o b t a i n e d on l a r g e d i a m e t e r t r a c k s by a l l o w i n g t h e r o t o r t o c o a s t down i n rpm. on t h e upwind s e c t i o n of t h e t r a c k a n d t h e r e b y c o n s e r v i n g a p o r t i o n o f t h e s t e a d y - s t a t e power r e q u i r e ment. Then, a small amount o f dynamic b r a k i n g , i n s t e a d o f regenera.

t i v e b r a k i n g , would be a p p l i e d j u s t p r i o r t o s p i n d i r e c t i o n r e v e r s a l s i n c e m o s t o f t h e a n g u l a r momentum would have been d i s s i p a t e d d u r i n g t h e coastdown. F i q u r e 5.13 shows t h e t r a c k d i a m e t e r s h o u l d be g r e a t e r t h a n . 1220 m (4000 f t ) f o r r e a s o n a b l e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e g i v e n system i n a 13.4 m/s wind; and a t r a c k d i a m e t e r o f 1830 m (6,000 f t ) i s r e q u i r e d t o o b t a i n maximum power o u t p u t w i t h a 450 k W (600 hp) motor. F i g u r e 5.14 shows a t r a c k d i a m e t e r o f 915 m (3000 ' f t ) shou1.d be t h e minimum d i a m e t e r c o n s i d e r e d f o r a 8.9 m / s wind, and t h a t t h i s i s n e a r l y t h e minimum d i a m e t e r f o r ' which optjmum o p e r a t i o n can be o b t a i n e d w i t h a 450 k W s p i n motor. L a r g e r d i a m e t e r t r a c k s w i l l g i v e s l i g h t l y b e t t e r performance w i t h t h a t same & t o r .

~ h u s ,w e concluded t h a t a 4 5 0 k W

,.

:500. v o l t d c

s p i n motor would be used f o r o u r f i n a l a n a l y s e s , and t h a t t h e minimum t r a c k d i a n e t e r s h o u l d be 13.72 m. S t u d i e s of. t h e s p i n s c h e d u l e a r e p r e s e n t e d i n Sec'tion' VI. This s t u d y a l s o confirrtled i n i t i a l f i n d i n g s t h a t r e g e n e r a t i v e b r a k i n g was o f n e g l i g i b l e v a l u e t o t h e Madaras system. W e confirmed t h a t r e g e n e r a t i v e b r a k i n g under any o f t h e speed s c h e d u l e s s t u d i e d would r e c o v e r less t h a n 5% o f t h e energy i n p u t t o the s p i n motor. F u r t h e r , r e g e n e r a t i v e b r a k i n g i s n o t n e c e s s a r y t o d e c e l e r a t e t h e c y l i n d e r , because v i s c o u s f o r c e s are s o l a r g e t h a t power a c t u a l l y must be s u p p l i e d t o m a i n t a i n t h e d e s i r e d s p i n s c h e d u l e d u r i n g spin-down. Finally, a cost penalty

i s r e a l i z e d through use o f r e g e n e r a t i v e b r a k i n g . T h i s p e n a l t y r e s u l t s from t h e need f o r more expensive motor c o n t r o l s ( a dc-ac c o n v e r t e r ) , l a r g e r c i r c u i t b r e a k e r s , and l a r g e r t r o l l e y bus b a r s .. . t o d i s t r i b u t e t h e regenerate.d e l e c t r i c i t y t o t h e system. Thus, we decided t o use c o n t r o l l e d motor spin-down followed by resistor-activated.dynamic . . b r a k i n g a t very low speeds t o b r i n g t h e c y l i n d e r t o a complete s t o p .
Spin System C o n t r o l l e r
A commercial dc motor c o n t r o l l e r was s e l e c t e d t o

control t h e r o t o r s p i n motor.

Units s e l e c t e d w i l l provide both The c o n t r o l

speed and dynamic b r a k i n g c o n t r o l on each c a r . S i l i c o n C o n t r o l l e d R e c t i f i e r s (SCR's)

system c o n s i s t s o f a three-phase t r a n s f o r m e r f e e d i n g a s e t o f

The S C R ' s can be f i r e d

by c o n t r o l c i r c u i t s o v e r any p o r t i o n of t h e i r c o n d u c t i v e h a l f o f t h e i n p u t a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t c y c l e t o c o n t r o l t h e motor a r m a t u r e power. Dynamic b r a k i n g w i l l b e r e s i s t o r c o n t r o l l e d , and d i r e c t i o n r e v e r s a l w i l l be a c h i e v e d by r e v e r s i n g t h e p o l a r i t y o f power l e a d s

t o t h e armature,
Speed c o n t r o l w i l l be a c h i e v e d by b a l a n c i n g t h e i n p u t power l e v e l t o t h e armature a g a i n s t t h e demand of t h e c o n t r o l function s i g n a l .
A motor v o l t a g e ,

c u r r e n t , power, , o r

s p e e d p r a f i l e t i m e h i s t o r y can be used a s a motor c o n t r o l f u n c t i o n , o r an e x t e r n a l c o n t r o l s i g n a l can be f u r n i s h e d t o t h e controller. S i n c e t h e c o n t r o l f u n c t i o n can n o t o b t a i n more power from t h e t r a n s f o r m e r - r e c t i f i e r power supply t h a n i t i s c a p a b l e o f d e l i v e r i n g , t h e c o n t r o l u n i t s must be s i z e d g r e a t e r t h a n t h e maximum demand f o r motor t e r m i n a l i n p u t power. T h e r e f o r e , we s e l e c t e d c o n t r o l u n i t s s i z e d f o r a 450 kW, 500 v o l t motor. One c o n t r o l l e r w i l l be mounted on each r o t o r c a r . Modern c o n t r o l l e r s r e p r e s e n t a s i g n i f i c a n t advance i n motor use technology. T h e i r l o s s e s a r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y less t h a n t h e l o s s e s i n c u r r e d by t h e former methods o f r e s i s t o r , v o l t a g e c o n t r o l , a u t o t r a n s f o r m e r - r e c t i f i e r v o l t a g e c o n t r o l , o r motor-generator voltage control. They a r e more f l e x i b l e , respond m r e q u i c k l y t o c o n t r o l i n p u t s , and c o s t no more t h a n many o f t h e o l d e r c o n t r o l methods. I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e c o n t r o l l e r system, a magnetic d i s c o n n e c t and o v e r l o a d . c i r c u i t b r e a k e r o r f u s i n g would be r e q u i r e d f o r t h e s p i n motor. These e l e m e n t s would normally be p l a c e d on t h e power l i n e s i d e of t h e c o n t r o l l e r i n p u t t r a n s f o r m e r .
5.4
GENERBTOR SYSTEM

The g e n e r a t o r system was s i z e d a t 1 MW r a t e d o u t p u t by t h e e l e c t r i c a l s y s t e m d e s i g n r e q u i r e m e n t s . The f o l l o w i n g p a r a g r a p h s d i s c u s s t h e g e n e r a t o r o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s and t h e approach t o g e n e r a t o r s e l e c t i o n . The g e n e r a t o r s e l e c t i o n was l i m i t e d t o t h r e e b a s i c t y p e s o f g e n e r a t o r s : synchronous g e n e r a t o r s o f t h e t y p e used by m s t u t i l i t y companies; i n d u c t i o n g e n e r a t o r s a s planned f o r use by Madaras; o r d i r e c t c u r r e n t g e n e r a t o r s . The f i r s t two t y p e s a r e 60 Hz a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t machines. The t h i r d would r e q u i r e some t y p e o f i n v e r t e r s y s t e m t o c o n v e r t i t s o u t p u t t o power g r i d f r e q u e n c y w i t h a c o n c u r r e n t c o s t and e f f i c i e n c y p e n a l t y .

Synchronous g e n e r a t o r s c o u l d b e o p e r a t e d a t 90 t o 95 percent e f f i c i e n c y , b u t with considerable penalty i n operational problems and c o s t . The o p e r a t i o n a l problems would c o n s i s t o f a l i g n i n g and m a i n t a i n i n g a l l t h e g e n e r a t o r s p r e c i s e l y i n phase w i t h t h e o u t p u t power g r i d frequency.. S i n c e c u r r e n t p l a n s a r e t o i n s t a l l f o u r 250 k W g e n e r a t o r s on each c a r , t h e i n i t i a l alignment o f t h e t o t a l system would be a l a r g e problem. Speed c o n t r o l of t h e system, s p e e d changes between c a r s due t o s t r e t c h i n g and c o n t r a c t i o n o f i n t e r c o n n e c t i n g l i n k a g e s , and speed changes on a c a r due t o wheel s l i p p a g e would a l l cause c i r c u l a t i n g c u r r e n t power l o s s e s . Because o f t h e s e problems, synchronous g e n e r a t o r s were e l i m i n a t e d from c o n s i d e r a t i o n f o r t h i s study.
'

I n d u c t i o n g e n e r a t o r s a r e n o t i n wide usage a t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e , however a number o f s m a l l e r wind t u r b i n e s a r e u s i n g them. The g e n e r a t o r c o n s i s t s o f an i n d u c t i o n motor connected t o a power g r i d w i t h t h e s h a f t b e i n g d r i v e n above synchronous speed by an e x t e r n a l m c h a n i c a l power s o u r c e . The generator/motor t h e n f e e d s power i n t o t h e g r i d a t synchronous n induction generator frequencyf' and a t a l e a d i n g power f a c t o r . A would a c t a s a governor on . t h e Madaras system. A s more power becomes available from t h e r o t o r s , t h e c a r s would s p e e d up s l i g h t l y , produce more power from t h e g e n e r a t o r s , and hence l o a d It is believed down t h e i n p u t s h a f t t o l i m i t t h e s p e e d i n c r e a s e . t h e g e n e r a t o r s woi11d nperate, a t 80 t o 85 p e r c e n t e f f i c i e n c y a t a power f a c t o r o f 0.8 t o 0.9 l e a d i n g . The power f a c t o r would be c o r r e c t e d by a synchronous r e a c t o r s y s t e m a t t h e c o n t r o l house d i s t r i b u t i o n s t a t i o n . I n d u c t i o n g e n e r a t o r s would be purchased a s 250 k W i n d u c t i o n motors, f o u r t o a c a r , and 72 f o r an 1 8 - c a r p l a n t . A s wind d e c r e a s e s from t h e r a t e d v a l u e , i n d i v i d u a l g e n e r a t o r s c o u l d be dropped o f f t h e l i n e t o e n a b l e t h e remaining connected u n i t s t o o p e r a t e a t peak e f f i c i e n c y . Magnetic c o n t a c t o r s and f u s e s o r c i r c u i t b r e a k e r s would be required f o r each generator, four s e t s t o a c a r . generator. 3% power. N o controls would be r e q u i r e d e x c e p t t h e magnetic c o n t a c t o r f o r each W g e n e r a t o r would p r o v i d e 4160V, 60 Hz, Each 250 k

5.5

P O W E R PLANT The c o n t r o l s y s t e m c o n s i s t s o f t h e f o l l o w i n g components : primary c o n t r o l l e r i n t h e c o n t r o l house. A microcomputer-based c o n t r o l l e r on each c a r .

A two-wayradio
A minicomputer-based

o
0

telemetry system t o l i n k a l l the c a r u n i t s t o t h e primary c o n t r o l l e r .

A wind s e n s o r network d i s p e r s e d around t h e t r a c k and h a r d w i r e d underground t o t h e primary c o n t r o l l e r .

Monitoring i n s t r u m e n t s and c o n t r o l a c t u a t o r c i r cuits . on each c a r and on s y s t e m network components.

An o p e r a t o r s s t a t i o n i n the c o n t r o l house c o n s i s t i n g

o f m n i t o r i n g i n s t r u m e n t s and manual o v e r - r i d e s o f t h e primary c o n t r o l l e r . These components a r e d i s c u s s e d i n t h e s e c t i o n s which follow. 5.5.1 Primary System C o n t r o l l e r The primary c o n t r o l l e r ' would be based on a minicomputer of t h e PDP 1 1 f a m i l y , probably one of t h e medium c a p a b i l i t y sizes. The computer would be p r o g r a m e d f o r complete a u t o s a t i c c o n t r o l of t h e e n t i r e 'system i n c l u d i n g r o t o r speed c o n t r o l and a c t u a t i o n of c o n t r o l d i s c o n n e c ' t s on t h e c a r s ; t h e i n t e r c o n n e c t i n g power network w i t h i n t h e s y s t e m ; and t h e i n t e r f a c e w i t h t h e e x t e r n a l power g r i d . Rotor speed c o n t r o l s o f t w a r e would be f l e x i b l e t o p e r m i t s i m p l e m o d i f i c a t i o n t o o b t a i n optimum r o t o r performance c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s based on c a r p o s i t i o n and wind speed and d i r e c t i o n around t h e ' t r a c k . However, it i s b e l i e v e d t h a t an 'improved v e r s i o n of F i g u r e 5.11 spin-up p r o f i l e would be used d u r i n g t h e major p o r t i o n of spin-up t o minimize s p i n motor s i z e . Wind d a t a from a network of wind s e n s o r s d i s p e r s e d around t h e t r a c k would be r o u t e d i n t o t h e computer t h r o u g h a d e d i c a t e d m u l t i p l e x e r , a s would d a t a from t h e i n t e r c o n n e c t i n g power network s e n s o r s . Data from and t o t h e moving c a r s would be communicated t h r o u g h a c e n t r a l r a d i o t e l e m e t r y s t a t i o n which would have i t s own m u l t i p l e x e r i n t e r f a c e .

The c o n t r o l f u n c t i o n would i n c l u d e s y s t e m s a f e t y m o n i t o r i n g and c o n t r o l a s w e l l a s performance m o n i t o r i n g and c o n t r o l . P a r a m e t e r s such a s v o l t a g e s , c u r r e n t s , phase a n g l e s , b e a r i n g and motor t e m p e r a t u r e s , n o i s e and v i b r a t i o n l e v e l s , d i s c o n n e c t s t a t u s , and p o s s i b l y o t h e r s would be monitored. A p p r o p r i a t e s t e p s , such a s d i s c o n n e c t i n g equipment, dropping l o a d by l i m i t i n g r o t o r rpm, o r s h u t t i n g down t h e s y s t e m would be performed a s s p e c i f i e d i n t h e c o n t r o l program by e i t h e r s a f e t y o r operational algorithms. remainder o f t h e system. C o n t r o l o u t p u t s i g n a l s would be t r a n s m i t t e d by t e l e m e t r y t o t h e c a r s and by h a r d w i r e t o t h e
An o p e r a t o r would have c o n t r o l over-

r i d e s t o s h u t down t h e system i n segments and i n i t s e n t i r e t y f o r s a f e t y r e a s o n s a s i n d i c a t e d by h i s own s e t o f m n i t o r i n g The primary c o n t r o l l e r would be backed up by a s p a r e system o r an a l t e r n a t e o p e r a t i n g mode, o t h e r w i s e t h e t o t a l s y s t e m would be n o n f u n c t i o n a l when a c o n t r o l l e r f a i l u r e o c c u r r e d .
5.5.2

instrmnts.

Secondary on-Car C o n t r o l l e r

Each c a r would have a microcomputer-based, on-board c o n t r o l l e r t o t r a n s m i t d a t a s i g n a l s from t h e c a r t o t h e c e n t r a l c o n t r o l l e r and t o r e c e i v e c o n t r o l s i g n a l s and a c t on them. M u l t i p l e x e d two-way r a d i o t e l e m e t r y would p r o v i d e t h e Primary d a t a from t h e c a r , such a s l o c a t i o n , communication l i n k .

r o t o r r p m , motor and g e n e r a t o r and l i n e v o l t a g e s and c u r r e n t s would be d i g i ' t i z e d and t r a n s m i t t e d a t d i s c r e t e i n t e r v a l s . . S a f e t y f u n c t i o n s such a s t e m p e r a t u r e and v i b r a t i o n l e v e l s .might be examined by t h e l o c a l p r o c e s s o r and o n l y maximum-v a l u e s o r s e l e c t e d samples would be s e n t o u t . . S u f f i c i e n t c a p a c i t y c o u l d , b e provided i n t h e p r o c e s s o r t o c o n t r o l r o t o r rpm on t h e c a r b a s e d on wind d a t a f o r t h e c a r l o c a t i o n , a s r e c e i v e d from t h e c e n t r a l c o n t r o l l e r . The d i v i s i o n o f f u n c t i o n s between the two c o n t r o l l e r s would depend on t h e i r r e l a t i v e c a p a c i t i e s and t h e c a p a c i t y o f t h e t e l e m e t r y l i n k . Complete d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e s e systems i s n o t p o s s i b l e w i t h o u t a c o m p r e h e n s i v e ~ s t u d ywhich i s much beyond t h e scope o f t h e p r e s e n t program.

The c o n t r o l l e r w i l . 1 have t o i n c l u d e c o n t r o l o u t p u t i n t e r f a c e s and c o n t r o l a c t u a t o r d r i v e c i r c u i t s t o o p e r a t e t h e s p i n motor s p e e d c o n t r o l s y s t e m and t h e o p e r a t i o n a l and s a f e t y d i s c o n n e c t s . Disconnects w i l l be p r o v i d e d f o r t h e s p i n motor c o n t r o l l e r and f o r e a c h o f t h e f o u r g e n e r a t o r s a s a minimum. Manually o p e r a t e d c i r c u i t . b r e a k e r s w i l l a l s o be p r o v i d e d f o r each 'of t h e s e f u n c t i o n s and f o r t h e c a r primary lines. C o n t r o l l e r c i r c u i t s would b e o r g a n i z e d on a modular b a s i s s o . t h a t c i r c u i t b o a r d s o r . equipment components c o u l d be r e a d i l y r e p l a c e d from a s t o c k o f s p a r e s . The onboard c o n t r o l l e r program would be r e s i d e n t i n a ROM o r EPROM memory b o a r d i n

the p r o c e s s o r which c o u l d b e r e p l a c e d o r reprogrammed.

5.5.3

Radio T e l e m t r y System

The r a d i o t e l e m e t r y system would c o n s i s t o f a c e n t r a l receiver-transmitter s t a t i o n located a t t h e c e n t e r of t h e t r a c k and h a r d w i r e d t o t h e c e n t r a l p r o c e s s o r .

A receiver-,

t r a n s m i t t e r would be m u n t e d on each c a r and connected t o t h e onboard c o n t r o l l e r . I t h a s n o t been determined y e t i f a. s i n g l e o r m u l t i p l e c a r r i e r r a d i o beam would be r e q u i r e d . In e i t h e r case, t h e s i g n a l from t h e c e n t r a l s t a t i o n would be t r a n s m i t t e d on a f u l l - t i e b a s i s , w i t h coded d i g i t a l command t r a n s m i t t e d v i r t u a l l y s i m u l t a n e o u s l y t o a l l . c a r s . The t r a n s m i t t e d beam would i n c l u d e a s y n c h r o n i z i n g code t o a c t i v a t e t h e t r a n s m i t t e r s on t h e v a r i o u s c a r s s e r v i c e d by . t h e c a r r i e r on a s e q u e n t i a l b a s i s . s i g n a l r e c e i v e d back would t h e n be a c o n t i n u o u s s i g n a l from a s . e r i e s of a d j a c e n t c a r s . The c e n t r a l a n t e n n a s could be c o n t r o l l e d t o . r o t a t e i n synchronism w i t h t h e e a r s , i f n e c e s s a r y ,
I t i s e x p e c t e d t h a t seven o r e i g h t - b i t d i g i t a l

The

d a t a s i g n a l s would g i v e s u f f i c i e n t r e s o l u t i o n of t r a n s m i t t e d analog data. Some d a t a might be t r a n s m i t t e d i n fewer b i t s , f o r i n s t a n c e , d i s c o n n e c t o r s w i t c h c l o s u r e s c o u l d be t r a n s m i t t e d i n a single b i t . Data t r a n s m i t t a l r a t e r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e n o t e x p e c t e d , t o b e hi'gh ' a t t h e ' planned c a r speed o f 8 . 9 m / s . Telemetry s y s t e m o v e r a l l r e q u i r e m e n t s cannot b e f i n a l i z e d u n t i l

t r a c k s i z e and c o n f i g u r a t i o n and c a r s p a c i n g are e s t a b l i s h e d . Commercial equipment i s r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e f o r most components o f t h e s y s t e m , b u t t h e m u l t i p l e x i n g scheme might r e q u i r e development depending on t h e f i n a l s i z e o f t h e s y s t e m . A s p a r e c e n t r a l u n i t should be provided. Wind S e n s o r Network The wind s e n s o r network would c o n s i s t o f an a r r a y o f s t a n d a r d vane and cup i n s t r u m e n t s mounted on p o l e s a r o u n d t h e i n s i d e and o u t s i d e p e r i p h e r y o f t h e t r a c k l i n e , b u t o u t s i d e t h e immediate f i e l d o f i n f l u e n c e o f t h e r o t a t i n g c y l i n d e r s . A s p a c i n g between 152 m and 3 0 4 m, depending on p l a n t s i z e , s h o u l d p r o v i d e a d e q u a t e c o v e r a g e o f t h e wind p a t t e r n i m p i n g i n g on t h e upwind s i d e s o f t h e t r a c k . The d i r e c t i o n and v e l o c i t y s e n s o r s would b e h a r d w i r e d t o a m u l t i p l e x e r i n p u t s t a t i o n o f t h e central controller. The s e n s o r d a t a would b e p r o c e s s e d t o d e f i n e t h e c h a n g i n g wind flow f i e l d , and t h e i n d i v i d u a l r o t o r s p e e d s would be c o n t r o l l e d a c c o r d i n g l y t o produce optimum power o u t p u t from e a c h car. The wind s e n s o r network would p r o v i d e t h e p r i m a r y d a t a f o r . s t a r t u p and shutdown o f t h e s y s t e m a n d . f o r c o n t r o l l i n g
it d u r i n g i t s o p e r a t i o n . C o m r i c a l s e n s o r s adequate f o r use i n t h e network a r e a v a i l a b l e .

5.5.5

Monitoring Instruments and Actuators M o n i t o r i n g i n s t r u m e n t s and a c t u a t o r s needed f o r

t h e s y s t e m axe r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e as commercial items.

The

complement o f a c t u a t o r s would c o n s i s t o n l y o f m a g n e t i c c o n t a c t o r s
A t l e a s t n o o t h e r t y p e h a s been i d e n t i f i e d as a r e q u i r e m e n t t o

date.

M o n i t o r i n g i n s t r u m e n t s would i n c l u d e v o l t m e t e r s , ammeters,

p h a s e a n g l e o r power f a c t o r m e t e r s , v i b r a t i o n and n o i s e s e n s o r s , thermocouples o r t h e r m i s t o r s , microswitches detectors. The u s e o f t h e s e s e n s o r s i s s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d . a n d ' r e q u i r e s very l i t t l e explanation. M i c r o s w i t c h e s would b e u s e d t o measure wheel r o t - a t i o n a l v e l o c i t y , t r a c k s p e e d , t r a c k p o s i t i o n ,

and p o s s i b l y smoke

a c t u a t o r c l o s u r e s , r o t o r rpm; and occupancy o f a c a r . P r o c e s s i n g o f microswitch codes o r c l o s u r e r a t e s would b e performed by t h e onboard.computer t o develop r e q u i r e d s i g n a l s o r c o n t r o l f u n c t i o n s . P h o t o c e l l c i r c u i t s might be used more cheaply and r e l i a b l y f o r some o f t h e s e e v e n t d e t e c t i o n o p e r a t i o n s .
I t i s e x p e c t e d t h a t t h e system o r onboard com-

p u t e r s would have no d i f f i c u l t y . h a n d l i n g t h e s i g n a l s from any o f t h e r e q u i r e d s e n s o r s if s u i t a b l e s i g n a l c o n d i t i o n i n g i s provided. Many o f t h e i n s t r u m e n t s can b e purchased w i t h a c c e s s o r y ' d i g i t a l l y coded o u t p u t s . ~ l g o r i t h m scan be r e a d i l y provided f o r t h e proc e s s o r o p e r a t i o n s r e q u i r e d t o a n a l y z e . t h e d a t a s i g n a l s and t o t x a n s m i t a s e l e c t e d s u b s e t and a c r i t i c a l s u b s e t t o t h e c e n t r a l p r o c e s s o r . A s e l e c t e d s e t o f d a t a a l s o would be p r o v i d e d t o onboard d i g i t a l d i s p l a y i n s t r u m e n t s f o r use i n maintenance and A c o n t r o l l e r interrogation s e t with display r e p a i r operations. c o u l d be p r o v i d e d t o a c c e s s a l l t h e d a t a i n t h e c o n t r o l l e r a t not too great a cost. These o p t i o n s would be d e f i n e d i n t h e f i n a l d e t a i l e d d e s i g n o f t h e o p e r a t i o n a l system.

An o p e r a t o r ' s c o n t r o l

s t a t i o n con sol.^! wni?Ld he

This s t a t i n n would have

p r o v i d e d i n the s y s t e m c o n t r o l house.

i n s t r u m e n t s d i s p l a y i n g a l l t h e system o p e r a t i o n a l p a r a m e t e r s , i n c l u d i n g m o n i t o r s o f t h e c e n t r a l p r o c e s s o r and t e l e m e t r y system. Also, any d a t a i d e n t i f i e d by t h e c e n t r a l c o n t r o l l e r as q u e s t i o n able o r c r i t i c a l fromthe c a r s , the system network, o r t h e wind s e n s o r network would be d i s p l a y e d w i t h i d e n t i f i c a t i o n data on a s e t o f warning d i g i t a l r e a d o u t d i s p l a y s .
A computer c o n t r o l

c o n s o l e w i t h cH1l' d i s p l a y and hardcopy c a p a b i l i t y would b e f u r n i s h e d t o i n t e r f a c e w i t h ' t h e c e n t r a l c o n t r o l l e r and t o o b t a i n d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n on: t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e system.

A running

a n a l y s i s of t h e e n t i r e system o p e r a t i o n c o u l d be provided on t h e hardcopy u n i t a s t h e major p a r t ' o f t h e bookkeeping o p e r a t i o n .

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e d i s p l a y s d e s c r i b e d above, . t h e o p e r a t o r ' s s t a t i o n would c o n t a i n s w i t c h e s t o o v e r - r i d e t h e cont r o l l e r t o s h u t down any c a r o r t h e e n t i r e system. t e l e m e t r y systems w i t h s p a r e u n i t s . 5.6 SYSTEM NETWORK CIRCUITRY AND COMPONENTS Switches would be a v a i l a b l e a l s o t o r e p l a c e t h e c o n t r o l l e r and c e n t r a l

The system network c i r c u i t r y and components a r e t h e e l e c t r i c a l components r e q u i r e d t o i n t e r f a c e t h e e l e c t r i c a l u n i t s d e s c r i b e d i n t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n s o f t h i s s e c t i o n w i t h e a c h o t h e r and w i t h t h e o u t p u t commercial e l e c t r i c a l power l i n e g r i d . 5.6.1 System Network Elements The s y s t e m network e l e m e n t s i n c l u d e t h e f o l l o w i n g : a. b. c.
d.

Car t r o l l e y s and t r o l l e y f e e d e r bus D i s t r i b u t i o n c i r c u i t t o t h e t r o l l e y f e e d e r bus Synchronous r e a c t o r s f o r power f a c t o r c o r r e c t i o n U t i l i t y feeder c i r c u i t s Substation

e.

The system network components l i s t e d i n items a , b , c , above would a l l be 4160V, 6 0 Hz, 3% equipment. Transformers t o i n t e r f a c e t h e 4160V system network t o t h e commercial power g r i d and t o produce 480V, 3% and 120V, 1% u t i l i t y c i r c u i t s fox t h e l i g h t i n g and e q u i p m n t c i r c u i t s o f i t e m d would be i n c l u d e d i n t h e s u b s t a t i o n l i s t e d under i t e m e above. 5.6.2 Car T r o l l e y s and T r o l l e y Feeder Bus The c a r t r o l l e y s would c o n s i s t o f three s l i d i n g
shoe trolleys o p e r a t i n g on. a 4160V, 3% t r o l l e y b u s .

The c a r

ground would c o n s i s t o f ground b r u s h e s and t h e c a r wheels r u n n i n g on t h e grounded s t e e l t r a c k . Each o f t h e c a r t r o l l e y s would r e q u i r e

a c u r r e n t c a p a c i t y o f 70 amperes minimum f o r incoming c u r r e n t t o e n e r g i z e t h e r o t o r s p i n motors d u r i n g system s t a r t u p . T h i s f i g u r e assumes c u r r e n t l i m i t i n g i n t h e s p i n motor c o n t r o l l e r t o l i m i t

motor c u r r e n t t o 1000 amperes RMS, and no use o f t h e i n d u c t i o n g e n e r a t o r s a s motors . t o a s s i s t i n s t a r t u p . The l i m i t i n g d e s i g n c o n d i t i o n , however, would o c c u r ,with t h e g e n e r a t o r s a t f u l l o u t p u t d u r i n g a h i g h wind c o n d i t i o n w i t h t h e s p i n motor c o a s t i n g . The t r o l l e y c u r r e n t t h e n would be 140 amperes o u t o f t h e c a r . W e have d e c i d e d t o u s e a 500 ampere t r o l l e y arm manufactured by Insul-8, I n c . because o f t h e h i g h v o l t a g e c a p a b i l i t y o f t h e i r T h i s w i l l p r o v i d e l o n g - l i v e d t r o l l e y shoes t r o l l e y feeder bus.

a s w e l l a s considerable capacity f o r regenerative braking, i f desired.

A 4160V,

3 g r 500 ampere t r o l l e y bus system manu. .

f a c t u r e d by I n s u l - 8 ,

I n c . would be s u p-p o r t e d from p o l e s around

t h e i n s i d e p e r i p h e r y o f t h e t r a c k system. T h i s 3% bus would form a complete l o o p i n s i d e and p a r a l l e l t o t h e t r a c k loop. The t r o l l e y s h o e s w i l l b e s u p p o r t e d from t h e c a r by a r t i c u l a t e d s u p p o r t i n g arm d e v i c e s a l s o manufactured by I n s u l - 8 , s k e t c h o f t h e t r o l l e y a r m i s shown i n F i g u r e 4.20. 5.6.3 Inc.
A

D i s t r i b u t i o n C i r c u i t t o t h e T r o l l e y Feeder Loop
A d i s t r i b u t i o n c i r c u i t i s required t o connect t h e

t r o l l e y f e e d e r b u s loop t o t h e syst.em 4160V, 3% t r a n s f o r m e r c i r c u i t . W i t h a maximum c a r o u t p u t c u r r e n t c a p a c i t y o f 140 amperes a n d a 500 ampere t r o l l e y l o o p , t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n c i r c u i t w i l l have t o b e c o n n e c t e d t o t h e t r o l l e y l o o p c o n d u c t o r bus b a r s w i t h i n a d i s t a n c e o f t h r e e and one-half c a r s p a c i n g s . A t h r e e

c a r s p a c i n g f o r i n t e r - c o n n e c t i o n s would p r o v i d e a c a p a c i t y f o r 1 . 2 MW o u t p u t per car, which s h o u l d b e more t h a n adequate.

The d i s t r i b u t i o n c i r c u i t c o n n e c t o r s around t h e t r o l l e y f e e d l o o p c o u l d be s u p p o r t e d from t h e p o l e s t h a t s u p p o r t S u p p o r t i n g them from t h e o p p o s i t e t h e t r o l l e y feed bus b a r s . s i d e o f t h e p o l e s would t e n d t o b a l a n c e t h e s i d e o v e r t u r n i n g moment l o a d on t h e p o l e s . The d i s t r i b u t i o n c i r c u i t would be f e d i n t o t h e l o o p a t a p o i n t on t h e loop a c r o s s t h e t r a c k from t h e 4160V s u b s t a t i o n . The f e e d would b e s t b e p l a c e d underground

t o cross the track. o r startup current.

I t would t h e n branch r i g h t and l e f t around

t h e l o o p , e a c h s i d e c a r r y i n g h a l f o f t h e system o u t p u t c u r r e n t The conductors c o u l d be t a p e r e d down from t h e branch p o i n t t o t h e o p p o s i t e p o i n t on t h e l o o p a t a r a t e o f 500 ampere d e c r e a s e i n conductor c u r r e n t c a p a c i t y a s each interconnection p o i n t t o t h e t r o l l e y loop i s passed. The main f e e d e r would have t o c a r r y b o t h branch c u r r e n t s and s h o u l d be r a t e d a t 170 amperes p e r phase f o r each c a r on t h e system. The branch c o n d u c t o r s and t h e 4160V t r a n s f o r m e r and i t s s w i t c h g e a r can a l l be s i z e d from t h e f i n a l c a p a c i t y o f t h e 'feeder c i r c u i t . f e e d e r c i r c u i t s h o u l d be p r o t e c t e d w i t h a c i r c u i t b r e a k e r . The Also,.

a magnetic c o n t a c t o r s h o u l d be p r o v i d e d t o t u r n t h e e n t i r e t r o l l e y system on and o f f .

5.6.4

Synchronous Reactors The r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r synchronous r e a c t o r s s e e m s

t o be a dubious p r o p o s i t i o n .

I f t h e Madaras power became a

s i g n i f i c a n t p o r t i o n of t h e g r i d power, c o r r e c t i o n would be n e c e s s a r y t o b a l a n c e t h e l i n e more c l o s e l y t o t h e normal power l o a d . I n t h i s c a s e i t would be b e t t e r t o f u r n i s h t h i s c o r r e c t i o n i n o r d e r t o preempt r e s i s t a n c e t o t h e u s e of u t i l i t y company lines. Synchronous r e a c t o r s p r o v i d e t h e c a p a b i l i t y t o produce l a r g e v a l u e s of r e a c t i v e l o a d i n g f o r a s m a l l e x p e n d i t u r e i n power l o s s e s . F u r t h e r , t h e r e a c t i v e l o a d i s e a s i l y c o n t r o l l a b l e by c o n t r o l l i n g t h e f i e l d of what i s g e n e r a l l y an i n - l i n e , s e l f I f r e a c t o r s a r e provided e x c i t e d , r e a c t o r f i e l d DC g e n e r a t o r . t h e y can be s i z e d from t h e c a p a c i t y of t h e system and t h e f a c t t h a t t h e i n d u c t i o n g e n e r a t o r s would normally be o p e r a t e d a t 0.8
it would r e q u i r e a synchronous r e a c t o r c a p a c i t y of 45 p e r c e n t of t h e system r a t e d

t o 0.85 l e a d i n g power f a c t o r .

A t 0.8 P.F.

power o u t p u t c a p a c i t y t o c o r r e c t t h e system o u t p u t t o 1 . 0 P.F. The r e a c t o r s would o p e r a t e a t about 98 p e r c e n t e f f i c i e n c y , producing a b o u t 1 . 5 p e r c e n t e f f i c i e n c y p e n a l t y a g a i n s t t h e system r a t e d o u t p u t . They would be s e a l e d , hydrogen f i l l e d u n i t s . An e x c i t e r f i e l d c o n t r o l p o t should be provided on t h e o p e r a t o r ' s

console and a disconnect magnetic contractor operable by the operator or by the automatic controller also should be provided. An overload circuit breaker sho'uld be 'installed in the 3fl reactor lines. 5.6.5 Utilitv Feed'er 'Circuits

Feeder circuits to operate lights and equipment shoulh be provided for the control house and repair areas of the system. These circuits must provide power for lighting, heating, air-conditioning, controls and for power tools and other utility equipment. The' circuits must provide 480V-3% and 120V-1% power. If a sizable crane is needed for the repair area, a h i y h e r voltage cixcuit might be provided for that purpose. These utility circuits could all be powered as branch circuits from transformers loaded on the secondary of the system 4160V-3fl transformer in parallel with the trolley feeder distribution circuit. Each transformer would require a primary circuit breaker. Secondary circuits would be protected in distribution panels located in the control house and repair area. In addition to the building utility circuits lightinq, control, and utility equipment powcr would be required on the operating cars of the system. A lighting transformer and distribution panel would be provided on each car. This would be the last major component of the car electrical equipment. An electrical schematic of the car cirnilitry is shown in Figure 5.15.

The system substation will provide the interface between the system and the high voltaqe commercial power grid lines. The direct interface components would be a high voltage circuit breaker protecting the input to the primary of a step down transformer which would provide 4160V-3% power for the operation of the Madaras system. The transformer would be wye-configured with a grounded centertap. The rail system and all stationary equipment should be tied to that grounding system and a heavy earth ground should be provided.

Telemetry Antenna

4 each I nduction Gen. 4160V, 30 , 250 KVA

Main & Branch Breakers, Circuits, etc, 120 Vac, 10 10 each - 20 Amp Circuits

4160V, 30 , 150 Amp

Lighting Transformer 81 Breaker 24001120 Vac 20 KVA, 10

4160V, 30, 75 Amp

416015OOV, 30 WYI

Ground Brushes To Tracks Tracks Must Be Grounded To Power System Grid Ground

F i g u r e 5.15.

E l e c t r i c a l S c h e m a t i c of C i r c u i t r y on Each Rotor C a r .

The secondary of the 4160V transformer would be fed to the trolley feeder distribution circuit through a circuit breaker and magnetic contactor sized for the maximum capacity of the generator system. The synchronous reactors would be attached to the transformer secondary with their own circuit breakers and magnetic contactors. Likewise, the utility circuit transformer would be fed at that point through its own primary circuit breaker or fusing. If a high voltage crane circuit were required, it would also emanate from the s u b s t . a t i o n , Control circuits for the magnetic cnnt.antnrs and f o r the synchronous reactor field exciter would have to be fed to the substation. The substation should be located outside the track and adjacent to the control house. This will simplify and shorten all the feeder circuits.

SECTION VI PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS The objectives of this analysis were to: Predict the performance of the Madaras system as a function of geometry, major operating parameters, and losses inherent in the system. Conduct trade studies to determine candidate plant configurations and sizes for use as inputs to the economic analysis. Compute rated power output and annual energy output for various plant configurations using the best system selected. As was stated before, the determination of an optimum . ..design for a Madaras system is beyond the time and budgetary scope of this program. However, it is believed that the results of trade studies conducted in this section of the report will isolate the important design parameters and will provide a sufficient1.y efficient design to permit an objective evaluation of the Madaras Power Plant concept. Three basic studies were included in this performance analysis:
a

.
.

A vortex analysis conducted to determine the mutual interference between rotor cars and hence define the effect of rotor car spacing on gross plant output.
A trade study of the geometric and operational variables of a Madaras plant and their combined effects on aerodynamic, electrical, and mechanical losses and on net plant output.

The determination of net power outputversus wind' speed and annual energy production for various plant sizes. 6.1 MUTUAL INTERFERENCE STUDY

The mutual interference study made use of the vortex analysis technique developed by Professor H.C. Larsen of the Air Force Institute of Technology for the Giromill vertical axiswknd turbine currently under study by the McDonnell Aircraft Company. Since the Giromill and the Madaras system are essentially comparable in

system concept, and since McDonnell's wind tunnel tests have recently verified the analytical technique, the proven analysis was modified for use on this study. A detailed description of Professor Larsen's analysis as it was developed for the Giromill and as it was modified and used for this Madaras program is given in Appendix A. Thus, the balance of this section will be used to present the results of using the vortex analysis to determine gross power output of Madaras plants. By gross power output we mean that the predicted power data obtained from Professor Larsen's computer program accounts only for the losses attributed to the aerodynamic drag of the rotor (but not the rotor car) and the losses attributed to the induced airflow caused by the interaction of the wind and the vortices shed by each cylinder as it travels around the track. All other types of losses associated with plant performance are addressed.in the trade studies of Paragraph 6.2, and the computation of net power output which accounts for the combination of all types of losses is presented in Paragraph 6.3. A list of the variables and ranges of the variables studied to determine inutual interferenceeffects is presented in Table 6.1. TABLE 6.1 . VARIABLES STUDIED IN MUTUAL INTERFERENCE, VORTEX ANALYSIS
-

AR

/
2
2 2
2

d
m 5.6 5.6 5.6 5.6 5.6 5.6 4.9 4.9

Traak Diamotor m
915 9 15 1220 1524 1829 2392 1372 1524

No. Cylinders
n 1 6-18 6- 16 8-14 16-18 16 1-20 1-20

nmga

OaliSiLy
a

"tlvw

Rar~ye

Ra~~yt! vw

Speed

kiorbr

nd/D
0.006 0.037-0.110 0.028-0.073 0.029-0.051 0.049-0.055 0.038-0.041 0.004-0.071 0.003-U.Ub4

6
6 6
b

---

m/s 8.9-13.4 8.9-13.4 8.9-13.4 8.9-13.4 8.9-13.4 8.9-13.4 7.8-13.4 4.5-13.4

-- .rpm
183 183 183 1113 183 183 186 186

6 6 8 8

2 2 2 2

0.1-2.5 0.1-1.5 0.1-1.5 0.0-1.5 0.8-1.5 0.1-1.5 0.5-1.5 0.3-1.5

S i n c e t h e p r o h i b i t i v e number o f o v e r 161,000 computer r u n s would b e r e q u i r e d t o s t u d y a l l c o m b i n a t i o n s o f a l l v a r i a b l e s i n t h e r a n g e o f i n t e r e s t , w e c o n d u c t e d a number o f p r e l i m i n a r y r u n s o f boundary cases t o d e t e r m i n e t h e s e n s i t i v i t y o f t h e v a r i o u s variables.

his work, c o n d u c t e d by P r o f e s s o r L a r s e n , i s d e s c r i b e d

i n Appendix A. W e a l s o u s e d t h e r e s u l t s of o u r t r a d e s t u d y r u n s as i n p u t t o t h e s e l e c t i o n o f t h e v a r i a b l e s l i s t e d i n T a b l e 6.1.
A t y p i c a l p l o t o f t h e c o m p l e t e performance map o f a s i n g l e

r o t o r s p i n n i n g a t a c o n s t a n t s p e e d o f 183 rpm i s p r e s e n t e d i n F i g u r e 6.1. T h i s p l o t shows t h e optimum v a l u e of X (Vt/Vw) f o r e a c h wind s p e e d . One can see t h a t optimum v a l u e o f X i n c r e a s e s

as Vw d e c r e a s e s ; however, a t l e a s t f o r t h i s case, o p e r a t i o n a t a c o n s t a n t t r a c k s p e e d of a b o u t 10.6 m / s ( 3 5 mph), would p e r m i t o p e r a t i o n n e a r optimum A f o r a l l wind s p e e d s .

W e want t o emphasize t h a t t h e r e s u l t s from t h e Appendix A

a n a l y s i s ( F i g u r e s 6 . 1 , 6 . 2 , and 6.3) a c c o u n t o n l y f o r t h e r o t o r d r a g l o s s e s and t h e i n t e r f e r e n c e l o s s e s c a u s e d by t h e i n f l u e n c e on t h e wind by t h e v o r t i c e s shed by t h e v a r i o u s r o t o r s i n a Madaras p l a n t . . T h u s , t h e o u t p u t from t h e v o r t e x a n a l y s i s h a s been d e f i n e d as . t h e g r o s s , o u t p u t . By d e f i n i n g t h e l o c a t i o n and n a t u r e of t h e peak v a l u e o f h on t h e s e t o f r u n s i n F i g u r e 6.1., it w a s n o t n e c e s s a r y t o r u n c o m 9 l e t e performance n a p s f o r a l l c o n d i t i o n s . Some examples o f t h e o t h e r d a t a from t h e f i r s t s e t of r u n s i s p r e s e n t e d i n Appendix A. From t h e s e s t u d i e s a s w e l l as o u r s t u d i e s c o n d u c t e d on t h e v a r i o u s l o s s mechanisms ( P a r a g r a p h 6 . 2 ) , w e c o n c l u d e d t h a t a 1372-m (4500 f t ) t r a c k d i a m e t e r w a s n e a r l y optimum, and t h a t p r o b a b l y no more t h a n 20' r o t o r s s h o u l d be . u s e d on a 1372-m t r a c k . T h i s d e n s i t y i s e q u i v a l e n t t o a n i n t e r - c a r s p a c i n g o f 215 m. W e a l s o l e a r n e d t h a t t h e power o u t p u t / r o t o r car w a s e s s e n t i a l l y c o n s t a n t when from one t o e i g h t r o t o r s a r e u s e d on a 1372-m t r a c k ; and t h a t t h e power p e r r o t o r d r o p s as t h e number o f c a r s i n c r e a s e s beyond e i g h t . Thus, o u r l a t e r s t u d i e s w e r e c o n c e n t r a t e d on t r a c k d i a m e t e r s of 1372 m and 1524 m and w i t h i n t e r - c a r s p a c i n g v a r y i n g f r o m ' t h a t a s s o c i a t e d w i t h e i g h t t o t w e n t y c a r s on a g i v e n t r a c k
.

AR = 6

z
I 3

Rotor Diameter = 5.6m Rotor Height =33.4m Rotor S p e e d = 183RPM T r a c k D i a m e t e r =915m

0
U) U)

X =

v, /v,

Fisure 6.1.

G r ~ s s 2ower O u t p ~ tv e r s u s X fox Various Wine m e e d s , One Rotor S p i n n i n g a t 183 rpm, 9 1 5 m Diamecer T r z c k . P r o f e s s o r L a r s e n ' s Vortex Anzilysis Accounts Only f o r Aerodynamic Drag and I n t e r f e r e n c e Losses.

diameter. For each track diameter',. the'performance of a 1-rotor plant was first computedto provide a basis for defining a maximum output condition. our subsequent runs indicated that there was virtually no difference in performance between plants utilizing 1372-m and 1524-m diameter tracks. Therefore, since the larger diameter track would increase plant cost without performance benefits, the smaller diameter track was selected for all subsequent studies. Typical results of our later computations are shown in Figures 6.2, 6.3, and 6.4. Figure 6.2 presents the gross power generated'by one car, and data from it is used in developing the mutual interference loss factor in Figure 6.4. Gross power generated by plants utilizing from 8 to 20 cars, inclusive, on a 1524-m diameter circular track is presented in Figure 6.3. The effect of mutual interference on cut-in speed is quite pronounced as the number of cars increases. Note that cut-in wind speed for 1 car (Figure 6.2) is about 3.3 m/s; whereas for 10 cars and 18cars, cut in wind speed is about4.4 m/s (10 mph) and 7.8 m/s (17.5 mph), respectively. Thus, as one would expect, as the number of.cars increases (while track diameter and track speed are held constant) the cut-in wind speed increases and the mutual interference loss increases. The effect of increasing the number of cars, N, on power loss is demonstrated more dramatically in Figure 6.4, where . . mutual interference loss factor fn for a given wind speed is defined by

where P

is the gross power generated by an N-car p.lant at wind Vw and track speed Vt (from Figure 6.3), and P is the gross power generated by a 1-car plant at the same 1 wind speed Vw (From Figure 6.2) and track speed Vt. Separate s e t ' of f , loss factors were computed for each value of Vt, hence f was considered to be a function of both Vw and Vt. n

Fiqure 6.2.

G r o s s ?or?er O u t p u t Versus Vn f o r o n e R o t o r Spinning a t 1 8 6 r p n , 1524-n Diameter Track, Constant T r a c k Speed o f 1 3 . 4 m/s.

Figure 6.3.

Gross Power Output versus FJumber of ' Rotors f o r Various Wind' .Speeds.f o r a Constant Rotor S p e e d , o f 186 rpm and Constant Track Speed of 13.4 m/s. 171

1 .o

0.9

I
I
N=8

1
1 1 /

I
I

I
I
I
#I

(L

r-

0.5

I I I I
I

AR=8 e/d = 2
Rotor Rotor Rotor Track Track Diameter = 4 . 9 m =39.2 m Height Speed =186RPM Speed .=13.4 m/s Diameter =1372m to 1524m

2
V)

I
I
0.4 I I

V)

0
W 0

z
0.3
W LL
(L

I
I

I
I

I
0.2.

z
-1

I
101
1

a
5 I

3 I2

I
20

0.1 l4 1 6 121

C
Y.

1 8 1

1 I

-O 5
I
I

1 0 I 4
I

20 l5 VW-MPH I 6
I

25

30

V,-

8 m/s

1 1 0

1
12

I
1 4

F i g u r e 6.4.

Mutual I n t e r f e r e n c e Loss F a c t o r v e r s u s Wind Speed f o r Various Numbers of C a r s . Constant Rotor Speed and Track Speed of 1 8 6 r p m and 13.4 m / s , r e s, p e c t i v e
172

The cut-in speed in Figure 6.4 for each value of N is the VW value at which each curve terminates near the x-axis. At wind speeds lower than these terminal points, the power rapidly becomes negative. The loss in power for an 8-car plant isnegligible until Vw decreases below 5.6 m/s (12.5 mph), and 75 percent of the power per car of a 1-car train will be available at wind speeds of about 3.6 m/s (8 mph). However, a 20-car plant does not operate as efficiently. At a wind speed of 13.4 m/s (30 mph) each of the 20 cars will produce only 90 percent of the power of a onecar train; and at the cut-in speed of 8.0 m/s (18 mph) only 5.5 percent of the power from a 1-car plant would be generated by each car of the 20-car plant. Interference loss factors like those shown in Figure 6.4 will be used in the computations described. in Paragraph 6.3 to develop the power duration curves and to determine net rated power output of a power plant. Values of fn for the 1372 m (4500 ft) track diameter are presented in Figure 6.4.

6.2

PARAMETRIC TRADE STUDY

The computer program used in Section v to determine the spin motor power requirements was used for this trade study. This program simulates the performance of a 1-rotor plant taking into account all losses except for the mutual interference losses. Thus, by combining the results from the vortex interference analysis with those from this trade study analysis, net Madaras plant output accounting for all losses was obtained. The program was written in very general format to permit flexibility in conducting parametric studies of both cylinder- . driven and wing-driven cars as well as provisions for analyzing both circular and race track configurations. The program is designed for automatic, interactive computations of average power output. Input to the program includes:

Cylinder and end cap geometry in terms of AR, e/d, cylinder diameter, and cylinder projected area. Aerodynamic lift, drag, and center of pressure data corresponding to the geometry as a function of U/VR where U is the surface speed of the cylinder and VR is the resultant wind derived from the wind speed and track speed at all points around the track orbit. Frontal area of car and height of the car above ground. Track gage and diameter. Design rpm of the cylinder. Spin schedule

a a a
a

rotor rpm can be varied or held constant.

a a
a

Spin.motor, size. Spin motor speed-efficiency characteristic curves. Track speed.

a Wind speed.
Internal to the program are special routines which compute:
i

Rotor weight,and moment of inertia corresponding to inputs.

Total vehicle wcight.

a Wind speed distribution with height representing the wind boundary layer flow.
Mean resultant aerodynamic velocity vector obtained by cnmhiniag the unilurxi~hluw along thc length of the cylinder caused by rotor motion down the track with the nonuniform boundary layer distribution.
Gross power and loads on the rotor at any point on the
tr~ck.

a All losses except for mutual interference losses at any point on the track.
a

Net pbwer (excluding interference effects) at any point on the track.

0 0

Spin history of the rotor. Average net power per cycle for a circular track. Average net power per cycle for race tracks having sides varying in length from 610 m to 18,300 m with wind direction varying at 7 different angles between O0 to 90 relative to the straight track section. Thus, power for racetracks having all combinations of 40 lengths of straight tracks and 7 wind directions (280 racetrack length-wind combinations) is computed on each computer run.

Losses accounted for in the program are: Cylinder aerodynamic drag loss.

Rotor car aerodynamic drag loss.

o Vertical and lateral friction losses of the rotor car main wheels and idler wheels rolling on the track.
e

Wheel bearing losses. Gearing losses associated with the step-up gear box required to drive the generators by the wheels. Generator losses.

a
0

Power conditioning, conversion, and transmission losses described in Section 5. Rotor spin motor efficiency vs. speed (Fig. 5.10) during acceleration, steady state, and deceleration operational modes. Motor power required to overcome the inertia of the rotor during rotor spin-up. Motor power required to overcome viscous drag bearing, and rotor drive system losses at all times during plant operation.
.

A summary of the computer runs made during this trade study is presented in Table 6.2, which indicates the general types of analyses that were conducted:

o
e

Cylinder geometry Spin motor size Track speed and cylinder rpm Spin motor schedule Plant configuration selection.

TABLE 6 . 2
TRADE STUDY VARIABLES
Trsck Dia. Rotor Speed rpm 186 Range V t /Vw Range vw Range Viscous Braking degrees Range Regen. Braking degrees 240 Spin Motor Size k W 450 Transmission none

AR

e/d

Study Category

4 5
Cylinder Geometry

6 8 8 8 8 8 6 6 6 6 6 8 8 6 6 8 8 6 6 8 8 8 8 8

m mL 1,256.8186 7,3 6.1 5.5 4.9 v 1.25 6.1 297 5.5 241 4.9 186 4.3 146

m 1372

1.5

13.4

m/s

1 v

v
240 609

Spim Motor Size Track Speed and Cylinder

450-1200 none

Spin Motor Sche~ule

1.25 5.5 1 6 2 5 -5 1 - 2 5 4.9 z 4.9v 1-25 5.5 186 2 5.5 1.25 4.9 2 4.9 1.255.5 2 5.5 1.25 4.9 2 4.9 2 4.9 'J
2 2

1829 1372

120-186 150-200

0.7-2.3

6.7-13.4

1
1372

I v
150-200 0.3-2.7 6.7-13.4

none

240

450

none

v
220260

220-260

II

450

none

Te
I v
V
V
none none none
V 450 450

V
186

\/

V
5.6-13.8 5.6-13.a

Plant Configuration Salectlon

4.9 186

i524

0.5-2.8 0.5-2.8

2 50 250 250

3-step none none

Note:

For e a c h o f t h a above r u n s , n e t power was ccmputed f o r a c i r c u l a r t r a c k a s well a s f o r a r a c e t r a c k h a v i n g s t r a i g h t s e c t i o n s v a r y i n g from 610 m t o 18,300 m and wind d i r e c t i o n r e l a t i v e t o t h e s t r a i g h t s e c t i o n s v a r y i n g from 90' t o 180.

The results of these computer studies are presented in the paragraphs which follow. 6.2.1 Rotor Geometrv and Size

Three studies were conducted. The first study analyzed rotor power output as a function of 15 combinations of aspect ratio (3,4,5,6, and 8), and end plate size ratio (e/d values of 1.25, 2, and 3). All cylinders had an area of 186 m2, and track and wind speed were held constant at 8.9 m/s and 13.4 m/s, respectively. The results of this study indicated that the large end plate required more power than was available to turn it by a 450 kW motor, and hence the consideration of an e/d ratio of 3 was dropped from .the study. We also learned that an aspect ratio from 6 to 8 was of greatest interest and that e/d ratios of 1.25 and 2 should be considered further. See Appendix C for rotor size and operational condition sealing used in all paramet'kic studies. The second study considered the variation of diameter and cylinder rpm while holding area constant. The results of this study are presented in Figure 6.5, which shows power output versus cylinder diameter for rotors having e/d ratios of 1.25 and 2. The decreasing of diameter has three effects. First, as diameter decreases with area being held constant, AR and hence aerodynamic efficiency increases. This effect improved power output, especially.for AR = 8, e/d = 2. The second effect in decreasing diameter is to reduce rotor weight and moment of inertia which improves net power output. The third effect causes power loss: as diameter decreases so does cylinder surface speed, U, and hence CL decreases with the resulting decrease of U/V. This last effect is.beginning to show itself for the e/d = 1.25 data, whereas the larger end plate (e/d = 2) is improving aerodynamic efficiency sufficiently well to overcome the effect of decreased U/V. Apparently, an AR > 8 would yield better performance, however since the AR = 8 data were extrapolated, we decided to stop this study at that point.

2 E n d Caps e/d = 1.25 A r e a = Constant = 2 0 0 0 f t 2 (186m2) V = 3 0 MPH (13.4 m/s) . V+ = 2 0 MPH ( 8 . 9 m / s ) 0 - 1 8 6 RPM x - 150 RPM Track Diameter = 4 5 0 0 f t (1372m)

DIAMETER

. .

I2

IG

E0
DIAMETER

CYLINDER

J
2 fl

24

Ft

2 End

Caps

e/d
4 0 0 ~
Y AR

=2

200\

Area = Constant = 2 0 0 0 ft2(186m2) V, = 3 0 MPH (13.4 m / s ) V, = 2 0 MPH(8.9m/s) 0 -.I86 RPM x I 5 0 RPM Track Diameter = 4500 f t (1372 m )

m. 1003

-2001

12

16

20

CYLINDER

DIAMETER

24

28

Ft

Figure 6.5.

Net Power for One Rotor versus Cylinder Diameter as a Function of e/d Ratio and Cylinder rpm for Constant Projected Area, Wind Speed and Track Speed; e/d = 1.25 and 2.

The d e c r e a s e i n performance a s d i a m e t e r e x c e e d s 18 f t (5.5 m) i s s e v e r e , a n d l o s s e s exceed o u t p u t a s AR approaches 5. T h i s l o s s i s caused by i n c r e a s e d c y l i n d e r weight and i n e r t i a r e s u l t i n g from d i a m e t e r i n c r e a s e a s w e l l a s l o s s of aerodynamic efficiency. Thus, c y l i n d e r s having a s p e c t r a t i o s l e s s t h a n 6 were e l i m i n a t e d from f u r t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n . The e f f e c t o f v a r y i n g c y l i n d e r rprn was n o t a s marked, a l t h o u g h t h e reduced U f o r AR = 8 ( s m a l 1 , d i a m e t e r c y l i n d e r ) r e s u l t e d i n l o s s of power o u t p u t whereas a s m a l l i n c r e a s e i n power o c c u r r e d a t AR = 6 a s rprn was d e c r e a s e d . T h i s l a t t e r o b s e r v a t i o n was caused by reduced c y l i n d e r weight and i n e r ' t i a , b e c a u s e rprn i n f l u e n c e s t h e s e v a r i a b l e s markedly. Although t h e l a r g e r diameter c y l i n d e r causes U t o increase, t h e decreased rprn d e c r e a s e s U by t h e same p e r c e n t a g e . Thus, t h e improved performance a t AR = 6 i s t h e r e s u l t of d e c r e a s e d weight caused by lower s t r u c t u r a l s t r e s s e s i n a c y l i n d e r d e s i g n e d t o o p e r a t e a t 150 rprn v e r s u s 186 rpm. . S i n c e an a s p e c t r a t i o of e i g h t looked promising, t h e t h i r d s t u d y analyzed t h e e f f e c t . o f v a r y i n g c y l i n d e r d i a m e t e r and cylinder projected a r e a while holding constant aspect r a t i o . S i n c e t h e end p l a t e a b s o r b s a l a r g e amount of motor power and i n c r e a s e s i n e r t i a s i g n i f i c a n t l y , w e s e l e c t e d an e/d r a t i o of 1.25 t h i n k i n g t h a t t h e improved aerodynamic e f f i c i e n c y of AR=8 would o f f s e t some of t h e l o s s caused by t h e s m a l l end p l a t e . T h i s compromise combined w i t h t h e improved weight and i n e r t i a of t h e s m a l l e r end p l a t e seemed a t t r a c t i v e . The r e s u l t s of t h i s s t u d y a r e p r e s e n t e d i n F i g u r e 6 . 6 .
A l l of t h e e f f e c t s of changing d i a m e t e r and speed mentioned

previously a r e exemplified.

I n a d d i t i o n , one can o b s e r v e t h a t t h e power o u t p u t i n c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s e d d i a m e t e r (and a r e a )

a t t h e lower r o t a t i o n a l speeds (150 rprn). However, a s rpm i n c r e a s e s , t h e e f f e c t of i n c r e a s e d c y l i n d e r weight, i n e r t i a aerodynamic d r a g , and v i s c o u s .drag t h a t o c c u r s as d i a m e t e r i n c r e a s e s r e s u l t s i n h i g h e r s p i n - m o t o r l o a d s , and t h e r e s u l t

i s reduced power o u t p u t .

Vt = 2 0 mph (8.9 m/s) SPIN MOTOR POWER = 4 5 0 kW TRACK DIAMETER = 4500ft ( 1372m)

=1 4 (4.3m)

I10

120

140

160

180

200

CYLINDER RPM

Figure 6.6.

Net Power for One Rotor versus Cylinder rpm for Constant Aspect Ratio of 8 but with Variable Diameter' and Variable 'Projected Area.

This effect is significant for the 20-ft (6.1 m) diameter cylinder; however, the 16-ft (4.9 m) and 18-ft (5.5 m) diameter cylinders have reached peak performance at about 186 rpm. It appears that peak performance of the largest cylinder will be at rotational speeds below 140 rpm. The loss in area resulting from reducing cylinder diameter below 16 ft (4.9 m) is so significant that no further consideration was g.iven to a cylinder this small. Thus, the 16 ft, 18 ft, and 20 ft cylinders having AR=8 and e/d =1.25 were retained for further study. 6.2.2 Spin Motor and Track Size

The computer trade study conducted to determine spin motor size is described thoroughly in Paragraph 5.3.2, and the graphical results of these studies are presented in Figures 5.12, 5.13, and 5.14. The Figure 5.13 plot of motor size and net power output vs track diameter is particularly significant. If track diameter is too small, the motor power requirements become excessive in order to accelerate'the rotor ' rapidly enough to effectively generate power before it is time to decelerate the rotor. As track diameter increases, more time is available for rotor spin-up (assuming a given track speed) and hence motor power requirements decrease. At a track diameter of 1372 m , a near optimum motor size is shown to be about 450kW for plant operation at the 13.4 m/s (30 mph) rated plant capacity. ~lthoughfurther reductions in motor size could be achieved by increasing track diameter to track would 1830 m , it was thought that the increased cost offset motor cost savings, and that the minor improvement in plant output would be insufficient to offset this added cost. Therefore, i,t was decided to restrict further studies to track diameter in the 4500 ft (1372 m) to 5000 ft (1524 m) range and to use a 450kW motor in all further studies.

6.2.3

Track Speed and Cylinder R P M

A summary of our results from studying combined track speed and cylinder RPM effects for a 4500 it (1372 m) tfack diameter and a 450kW spin motor are presented in Figures 6.7 and 6.8. The improvement in performance of the rotor having an aspect ratio of 8 over that having an aspect ratio of 6 is significant. Also, the indication that a 150 rpm rotational speed produces significantly more power than a 186 rpm speed for the aspect ratio 6 cylinderfagain shows the importance of the diameter-speed relationship'discussedpreviously. The improved low wind speed performance of the aspect ratio 8 cy.lj.nc-3er is particularly important because this power output improvement will increase significantly the annual energy yield of the plant. As in Figure 6.1, the data shows that peak power occurs at approximately the same track speed (25 mph) for both of the wind speeds studied,eventhough the peak occurs at a different value of A. This feature is quite advantageous in that it is necessary to operate the plant at a given track speed for all wind speeds. Although peak power occurs at different rpm values as wind speed decreases from its rated value of 13.4 m/s, our control system is designed to sense wind speed and adjust rotational speed to its optimum value. .It also should be noted that when we indicate a particular run was made at n rpm, we also infer that the structure was designed to withstand a rotational speed of n rpm. Thus, once this design variable is fixed, it cannot be increased. Therefore.,one cannot.operate a rotor at design rpm at one wind speed and then operate the rotor above the designrpm a t another wind speed. Of course, one can always operate below the design rpm, if desired. In fact, decreasing rpm is the means used for "feathering" the rotor during wind conditions greater than the 13.4 m/s rated speed.
I

3.. 0.4
t

h ~ = 6 e/d=2 DIAMETER = 18ft (5.5m/s) TRACK DIAMETER = 4 5 0 0 f t (1 372 m) I ROTOR

I -

I -

2 0.2a
W

a..
I W

0.
2 0 mph ( 8.9m/s)

-0.2 0.3

0.5

0.7

0.9

I .I

1 . 3

1.5

n- CYLINDER RPM:
Figure 6 . 7 .
N e t Power Output f o r 0ne"Rotor v e r s u s h and

Cylinder rpm f o r Various Cylinder Rotational Speeds, Aspect Ratio = ,6, e / d = 2 .

I AR=8
3
0.6
t

I 3

e/d = 2 DIAMETER = 16ft (4.9 m ) TRACK DIAMETER =4500ft(1372m) I ROTOR

0
I W

n
Z

8.2,
( 8.9 m/s)

0
0.5 0.7
0.9
1.1

I
1.3 1.5 1.7

0.62
1

5 0.4 n
I 3

\A

= 0.83

a
W

g 0.2
n

. Vw 20rnph(0.3 m / ) ~
.

-X

= 1.25

b Z

0 1 20

140

160 180 n -CYLINDER RPM

200

Figure 6 . 8 .

N e t 'Power Output f o r One 'Rotor. versus. A and Cylinder Rotational Speed, ' A R =' 8 , e/d = 2 .

This study shows a clear superiority of an aspect ratio 8 configuration over that of aspect ratio 6, not only because of the improved power output at rated wind speed, but also because of vastly improved performances at low wind speed even when operating at the design rpm (186) which.provides It also was maximum power at rated wind speed (13.4 m/s) evident that maximum power at both wind speeds will be achieved while the plant is operating at a track speed of about 25 mph (11.2 m/s).

..

6.2..4

Spin Motor Schedule

The characterization of the spin motor schedule, the motor's performance requirements, and losses were discussed in Paragraph 5.3. Since spin motor losses are so significant, a brief trade study was conducted to determine ways in which the spin schedule could be varied in order to improve performance. The study was restricted to the use of an electric motor.although other sources of power (hydraulic, air motors, and flywheels) were considered in a cursory manner. Within these ground rules, then, we studied the use of different forms of braking to.improve the deceleration portion of the cycle,and we simulated the use of a three-step transmission (gear box and clutch) in our computer program,to improve the acceleration portion of the cycle. The results 0% our studies of the mid-portion of the cycle were presented earlier in Paragraphs 6.2.,1, 6.2.2, and 6.2.3. typical performance plot in terms of motor power required, motor rpm, and instantaneous net power output as a function of rotor position on a circular track is presented in Figure 6.9. The cycle shown,in this figure represents only onehalf of an entire cycle, however the remaining half is similar to the portion of.the c y E k shown in Figure 6.9.
A

Our initial cycle incorporated regenerative 3 5 ' . (shown by the solid l.ines). Then.,we braking beginning at:2 modified the cycle by turning off the motor at various points between 2 1 5 ' and 265' and then Petting viscous friction decelerate

V , = l3A.mh AR = $

n = 1 8 RPM

TRACK DIAMETER = 1372 m

INSTANEOUS POWER GENERATED

MOTOR POWER REQUIRED

-----*****--

INITIAL CYCLE WITH REGENERATIVE BRAKING : 380 kW CYSLE WITH BEST VISCOUS BRAKING EFFECT OF USING 3 - STEP TRANSMISSION AND IMPROVED VISCOUS BRAKING
1 I t

I I 90 1 0 0

12 0

140 160 180 ROTOR POSITION ON TRACK

200 220 6 DEGREES

240

260 270

Figure E.9.

Elet Power Output f o r One Rotor, Spin Motor Power, and Motor rpm v e r s u s Rotor p o s i t i o n on Track a s Affect2d by u s e o f Iriscous Braking, Regenerative Braking, and a Three-Step Tran~.mission +-#DVery t h e Spin Schedule.

the cylinder naturally (shown by the dashed lines). Similar studies were conducted for regenerative braking. Note that both of these studies affect only the deceleration portion of the cycle. The results of using the transmission during the spin-up portion of the cycle are depicted by the dotted lines. The results of the braking studies are shown in Figure 6.10. As we noted before, at the 8.9 m/s wind speed, more power can be obtained at the 170 rpm rotational speed; and a significant improvement in spin cycle performance is obtained by the proper application of either viscous or regenerative braking. Viscous braking at the 245 degree point appears to be the better solution not only because of its 6-kW edge in power output, but also because of the added cost of the heavier trolley components, increased complexity in circuit design, and wear on the motor which would result in use of regenerative braking. The poor performance that occurs when regenerative braking is initiated earlier than its optimum time is attributed to its ability to stop the rotation too quickly (shown in Figure 6.9). By applying I regenerative braking at 235O, the rotor is stopped by the time it reaches 250, and from there on the non-spinning rotor presents itself as a large drag producer which must be driven by the train. This situation was improved considerably by initiating regenerative 6 0 ' . braking at 2 As can be seen in Figure 6.9, the net extra eilergy regenerated is w r y sma31. (the small triangular section in the negative region on the power curve). as was predicted in Section 5, since viscous'drag and motor losses consume much of the power regenerated. The increase in average power per orbit .of the track of only 2 kW (0.5%) was gained from the regenerative cycle shown, and an average increase per orbit of only 11 kW (3%) was developed for the best regenera.ti;ve cycle. This best case adds only 1 percent to the total energy (kW-hr) generated in this best cycle.

----- 0

REGENERATIVE BRAKING VlSCOUS BRAKING DENOTES PEAK VALUE

AR=8 e/d = 2 DIAMETER = 1 6 f t ( 4 . 9 m ) TRACK DIAMETER =4500ft ( 1 3 7 2 m ) Vw NOTED Vt = 2 5 m p h ( I 1.2m/s) I ROTOR

0.5

I
436.2 kW
w

3. 2
1

430.5 kW

2 0.4 a
t3 0 E

--.

0-

325kW

318kW
4

)Vw=30mph ( 13.4m/s
I

0.3
0

a
Z

F
W

0.2 -

Vw=20mph ( 8.9 m/s)

0.I

0 210

220

230

248

250

260

270

TRACK POSITION AT START OF BRAKING

F i g u r e 6.10.

-8

N e t Power O u t p u t f o r One R o t o r f o r V a r i o u s S p i n l l o t o r Speeds v e r s u s Track P o s i t i o n a t ?!hi& R e g e n e r a t i v e B r a k i n g o r V i s c o u s Bralcing v ~ a o Initiated.

braking at 245

Therefore, it was decided to utilize viscous for all future runs.

The use of .a transmission in conjunction with optimum viscous braking resulted in an increase of average power generated of about 16 percent. This is a significant improvement in performance, and the reason for a transmission's effectiveness is shown in Figure 6.9. The primary benefit derived from use of a transmission is to reduce the start-up load on the motor. This load reduction permits the rotor to accelerate more rapidly and thereby increases cylinder surface speed, U. The resulting increase in U/V ratio over the go0-160' portion of the orbit produces increased lift and consequently produces increased power as shown in Figure 6.9. In addition, since a rotor equipped with a transmission reached operating RPM (186 rpm in this case) 6 0 ' ) there is a small reduction in earlier (140' instead of 1 power consumed by the motor (See the motor power curve in Figure 6.91. Unfortunately, time was not available to study the effects of various types of transmissions or performance as well as to evaluate the life cycle cost and maintenance problems associated with transmission use. All that can be said at this time is that transmissions can have a significant effect on performance, as shown in Figure 6.9 , and that further study of liransm~ss.ion.s is in order. One interesting result of our study of transmissions was that transmissions are justified only. for Madaras plants having a circular track configuration. For racetrack-type plants, the power generated on the straight section is so much greater than that on the circular ends, that the improved performance on the ends is hardly discernable in the overall output.

6.2.5

Rotor and Plant Configuration Selection

A total of six rotor configurations, selected as candidates for the final analysis, are itemized in the upper section of Table 6.3. These were the rotor-operating-condition combinations which appeared to be the most competitive of all that were studied. The figure of merit upon which initial screening was based was the rotor mass per kW generated at rated wind speed, listed in the las'tcolumn of Table 6.3. This figure of merit was selected as a cost/performance indicator because of the close relationship that.exl.st.sbetween aoct and weigh,t 01 send-rr~onoeaque st.rncture like the rotor.

'

Of the six rotors listed, Configurations 1, 2, and 4 were considered to be the most attractive. Of the three, Configuration 2 had clearly the better performance figure of merit for a circular track (18.3 kg/kW vs. 22.2 kg/kW for Configuration 4). .However, Configuration 2 is a very large rotor having a height of 4 8 . 8 m (160 ft), a diameter of 6.1 m (20 ft), and a projected axea of 298 m 2 Since this cylinder was about 60 percent larger than that for which loads and stress analyses had been conducted, and since time was not available to conduct another iteration nf our design and concepts, Lhe decision was made to eliminate Configuration 2 from further consideration on this study. Should the Madaras system look attractive, an investigat.ion of larger rotor of this size certainly would be recommended.

This f i r s k screening left Configurations 1 and 4. Both are the same size as the rotors analyzed; however Configuration 1 has an end cap ratio of 2, whereas configuration 4 has an end cap ratio of 1.25. These two Configurations were re-run using viscous braking instead of regenerative braking (used for the initial comparisons) and the results are listed in the middle section of Table 6.3. Notice that this second comparison considered

TABLE 6.3 COMPARISON OF CANDIDATE ROTOR CONFIGURATIONS 1372 m (4500ft) TRACK DIAMETER, 450 KW SPIN MOTOR Configuration Number AR eid d h m Area 2 m vw m/s Vt m/s n rpm
P kw

Mass ks-

ks/kW
.

m
8 8 8 8 6 6 2 1.25 1.25 1.25 1,25 2 4.9 6.1 5.5 4.9 5.5 5.5

ka-m2

Circle

1 2 3 4 5 6

With ~egenerativeBraking 13.4 11.2 186 38.1 186 13.4 8.9 150 48.8 298 43.9 2-41 13.4 8.9 186 38.1 186 13.4 15.6 186 33.5 184 13.4 11.2 186 33.5 184 13.4 11.2 150

380 8773 41,663 526 9646 60,350 400 10284 52,G50 324 7189 28,556 222 8162 40,761 280 7164 43,787

23.1 18.3 25.7 22.2 27.8 25.6

I
I
1 8 2

Screened Configurations

Viscous Braking

Selected Configurations, Optimum Viscous Braking 4.9 38.1 186 13.4 8.9 11.2 11.2

*
20.1 40.6

186 436 8773 41,663 170 '216

*Optimum Viscous Braking is initiated at the 245

point in the orbit.

both the 13.4 m/s rated speed performance as well as performance at the wind speed of 8.9 m/s. This second comparison showed that Configuration 4 had a 15 percent lower value of kg/kW at the rated wind speed than Configuration 1; although Configuration 1 provided about 6 percent more power at the rated condition of 13.4 m/s. Configuration 1 was clearly superior at the 8.9 m/s speed with a kg/kW value that was about 60 percent smaller than that of Configuration 4. This means that a Configuration 1 rotor would generate more power . at low wind speeds, and since the lower wind speeds occur more often during the period of a year, Configuration 1 probably would provide considerably mnre kw-hr of anexqy per ycar than would Configuration .4. Finally, our computer studies indicated that.Configuration 1 would generate more power than Configuration 4 at rated wind speed if used in a racetrack plant layout. Thus, in view of its superior low-wind-speed performance and the high probability that a racetrack layout would prove to be the more cost effective, we selected Configuration 1 for the final analysis. Slight improvements in Configuration 1 performance were obtained by optimizing the viscous braking routine, as shown in Figure 6.10. The results of this optimization are shown in the lower part of Table 6.3.
*

Having selected the rotor configuration, we next directed our attention to the selection of the most appropriate track configuration and size. Figure 6.11 presents a performance plot of the power output from one rotor car of the size previously ,. 2 selected (AR=8, e/d=2, d=4.9mt Area = 186 m ) vs track diameter for various wind speeds. Performance on both circular tracks and racetracks having a 4878-m (16,000 ft) straight sides is presented. For illustration, these data were plotted for operation at a design rotor speed of 186 rpm for all wind speeds at a Vt/Vw ratio ( A ) that will optimize performance for the racetrack. This selection was made because it is very likkly that a racetrack configuration will be the more feasible. Should a circular-track-

plant appear attractive, the optimum track speed data are available, so this selection is not irreversible. Figure 6.11 demonstrates clearly the trend that we have noted in our previous analyses of this data: the most attractive track size is in the 1372 m (4500 ft) to 1524 m (5000 ft) diameter range. Further, one can see that there is very little difference in performance in selecting either of the two track sizes. The 1372-m size is slightly favored for a racetrack configuration, and a 1524-m circular track will provide a small increase in output over that having a 1372-m diameter. Our cost analysis will govern the final selection; however, at this time it appears that a 1372-m diameter racetrack will prove to be the most cost-effective. It is also important tonoteagain here that mutual interference effects described in Paragraph 6.1 become more pronounced as track diameter decreases, and from these studies we determine that interference losses would become excessive if track diameter were decreased below 1219 m (4000 ft). Figure 6.12 presents an overall performance map of the selected rotor operating on a 1372-m (4500 ft) diameter circular track and on a racetrack having 1372-m diameter ends and 4878-m (16,000 ft) straight sections. Figure 6.12 depicts two principal advantages of the racetrack over the circular track: (1) power output at a given Vw is nearly 2.5 times greater; and ( 2 ) power can be generated at lower wind speeds. Of course, the racetrack has two principal disadvantages: (1) for optimum operation, the wind direction should remain constant; and (2) it requires much more land. The 4878-m straight length has been selected arbitrarily at this point. Our computer program currently provides power vs straight section length in 150-m increments from 610.mto 18,300 m, and it can be modified easily to provide any length desired. In our cost analysis we will study the effect of varying straight section length on plant efficiency and energy costi

.- - .
TRACK DIAMETER

ft

Figure 6.11.

Net Power Output from One Rotor versus Track Diameter as a Function of Wind Speed. Performance for Both 'Cylinder and Racetrack Configurations.

1 .z /
,

1.0 .
/

/
1

/r-\,!w=
/

AR= 8

/
/

3
2
b 3
k

0.8
/

/
f

30 rnp! (13.4 r n / ~ ) ~ = '~ DIAMETER = 1 6 f t (4.9 m ) TRACK DIAMETER = 4500 f t (1372 m ) \ 86 RPM \ ROTOR \ 25 ( 11.2) CIRCULAR TRACK RACETRACK WITH 16,000 f t SIDES / (4878 m) \ 20 (8.0)

--- -

- - I

0.6.

8 I

a
a
W

/
0.4 (13.4 m/s) = V , 30 mphY7
d

o
I -

S I,'

(6.7)

z
(I1.2) 25

0
/ 0

-.-

-- \,

12.5 (5.6)

0.2
/ - - - -

-0.2.

0.4

0.8

1.2

1.6

2 .O

2.4

2.8

3.2

3.6

X = vt
Figure 6.12.

/v,

Net Power Output from One Rotor versus A as a Function of Wind Speed. Performanze is Presented for Both a 1372-m Diameter Circular Track and a Racetrack having 1372-n~ Diameter Ends and 4 8 5 8 m Straight Sections.

6.3

NET POWER AND ANNUAL ENERGY OUTPUT

The results and discussion pertaining to plant performance that have been presented prior to this section of the report have considered the mutual interference effects for plants composed of N rotor cars and the net power output from one rotor car after considering all losses except for mutual interference losses. The purpose of this portion of the report is to: Develop wind duration curves appropriate for the mid-height of the rotor selected for this study. Describe the methods used to determine the net output power of an N-ruLur-~ar p l a ~ i tas a function of wind speed. Demonstrate how power duration curves were developed from wind duration curves. The results of this study will then be used in the economic analysis in Gection VII. 6.3.1 Wind Duration Curve ........ . . . . . . , . . , . .
-..,.,A\\-..,.

.w-.~,",..

-,-

,..-

The rotor selected for this final analysis has the following geometric characteristics:
. .

A R = 8

Diameter = 16 ft (4.9 m) Cylinder Length = 125 ft (38.1 m) e/d ratio = 2 End Cap Diameter = 32 ft (9.8 m)
Figure 4.23 indioatoc that thc top of thc track

rail is 4 ft (1.2 m) above mean terrain level, and the distance from the top sf the rail to the bottom of the cy.l.j.nder, shown in Figure 4.15, is 15.5. ft (4.7 m). Here, we define the bottom of the cylinder as the lower point of intersection between the cylindrical surface and the inclined, inside surface of the end cap. Thus, according to Figure 4.15, the bottom of the cylinder is 3 ft (0.9 m) above the top surface of the rotor car.

Using the above dimensions, the height above ground of the mid-point of the rotor is:

The design wind duration curve is that used by ~rulle in ~ his ~ Giromill study. This curve, which has a mean wind speed, V = 18 mph (8.1 m/s) at a height 29.5 ft (9.0 m) above ground, was specified by ERDA for use in the design of the MOD-1 WTG. This design curve was specified for only a 9-meter height,.whereas the center of the proposed Madaras rotor design is 25 meters above ground. Thus, the wind duration curve corresponding to the 25-meter height was ratioed from the basic design.curveusing the conventional method:

Where wind speeds V2 andVl are functions of t hours, and the subscripts 1 and 2 refer, respectively, to the original 9-meter design curve and the modified 25 m design curve. The modified design curve, having a = 9.6 m/s at 25 m, also is presented in Figure 6.13. The third wind duration curve presented in Figure 6.13 is that corresponding to average wind conditions at a 25-meter height at Medicine BOW, Wyoming. These data were obtained from the paper by Hightower and Watts contained in the Proceedings of the Third Wind Energy Workshop.43 The Medicine Bow data are presented because that location would be an ideal candidate site for a Madaras plant.
6.3.2

Determination of Net Plant Power Output

The net power output as.a function of wind speed was computed for about 100 differently-sized Madaras plantc using the data developed in Paragraphs 6.1 and 6.2 in the following equation :

CUMMULkTlVE HOURS 2 GIVEN WIND SPEED OCCURS

Figure 6.13.

Modified Cesign Wind Duration Curve to Represent Wind Conditions at a Rotor Mid-Height of 25 n (82 ft) Above Mean Terrain Level.

where Pv is the net plant output for wind speed V, p1 is the net power output for one car not corrected for mutual interference effects, fn is the mutual interference correction factor for p , which varies with the spacing between cars and wit6 wind speed, and track speed, and
N

is the tota-lnumber of cars in a Madaras plant.

Values of pl were obtained as a function of Vw and Vt for all combinations of the following conditions: Rotor configuration described at beginning of Paragraph 6.3.1 Track diameter = 1372 m (diameter of circle and of racetrack ends) Rotor speed = 186 rpm Track speed = 8.9 and 13.4 m/s Wind speeds varying from 3 m/s to 13.4 m/s Circular track as well as racetracks having straight sections varying from 610 m to 18,300 m.

The appropriate mutual interference factors were obtained from Figure 6.4 for the above rotor and operating conditions, and for rotor spacings varying from 215 meters to 540 m. Since specific mutual interference factors correspond to a particular combination of Vw, Vt, and b (rotor spacing), our computation of net power as a function of wind speed does not assume that power varies as a function of Vw 3, as is usually assumed for most WTG computations. This assumption does not hold for the Madaras system (and probably does not hold strictly for some other wind turbine systems) because the mutual interference and other system 3 l o s s e s cause a power variation different from a ' V ratio variaW tion. Figure 6.14 is indicative of the variation of net power output vs wind speed for two, large, racetrack-configured

Madaras plants. Both of these plants are of the same physical size and h a v e a e same number of cars. The only difference in capacity is caused by differences in track speed. Notice that a lower cut-in speed and a lower rated capacity is realized as a result of reducing track speed. Thus, Plant la would be more effective than Plant 1 in a region having a wind duration curve with a lower mean wind speed. Both plants are designed to operate up to a cut-out speed of 29.1 m/s (65 mph). Constant power output in the region from 13.4 m/s to 29.1 m/s is maintained by means of reducing rotor rpm to "spill the wind". This '. practice i s comparable to varying blade angle on horizontal axis WTG. In computing the data for the net plant power o u t p i ~ tv s wind speed curve, the assumption was made that the mutual interference factor fn for a given wind speed, track speed, and inter-rotor spacing would be the same for both a circular track and a racetrack having the same end diameters. Actually, the fn factors were derived from Professor Larsen's vortex analysis for a circular track. No attempt was made to revise the vortex analysis to consider a racetrack because both the time required to revise the programs and computer run times woula be prohibitive. After studying the interference problem, we believe that our assumption probably will yield smaller power values than one would compute from a more rigorous analysis, and hence, the end results of the study should be conservative. The vortex analysis for the circular track includes effects of the interaction of the vortices shed from each car in the train on every other car in the train. Thus, all combinations of the vortices shed from N uara are cunsidered. However, when a racetrack pattern is adopted, mutual interference should be reduced'because the rotors on the average are more widely separated than those in a circular pattern. The rotors on one semi-circular end are much farther from the rotors on the other

semi-circular end than they would be if the track were circular. Also, all of the rotors on the straight sections are at the maximum upwind-downwind distance that rotor cars would'reach in a circular pattern. Since for large plants, many more of the cars would be on the straight sections than on the curved sections, it is reasonable to expect interference would be, at most, equal to that for a circular track and probably would be less. Finally, in comparing the 1372-m separation distance proposed for this Madaras study with the separation proposed for the 3.9 MW MOD-2 WTG, which has a 107 m diameter blade, the Madaras separation is greater. A separation distance of 10 diameters in a triangular (HEX)" arrangement was proposed for "parks" of these large 44 machines in the Lockheed study. On the other hand, the upwind-downwind spacing between rotors on the straight track sections of the proposed Madaras plant would be 36 rotor heights, and the minimum lateral spacing would be 44 rotor cylinder diameters (or 22 end cap diameters). Therefore, we believe the rotors on the straight track sections are realistically spaced and that our method for computing mutual interference for the present analysis of a racetrack-configured Madaras plant will not cause an overstatement of the results. Development of Power Duration Curves and Energy Output Power duration curves like those presented in Figure 6.15 were developed in the usual manner by cross-plotting the data from Figures 6.13 and 6.14, and the annual amount of energy generated was obtained by integrating each curve. The characteristics of the two plants shown are the same as those described for Figure 6.14, the power-versus wind speed curves. In addition, we found that Plant 1 will generate 343 million kW-hr of energy annually: about 6.7 percent more energy than that of Plant la, whereas the load factor for Plant la is about 56 percent compared to 49 percent for Plant 1. Since both plants would cost

PLANT

@ PLANT @
/ - - - - -

3
r60t

----------V ,
= 29.1 m/s

I-

2 I 240-

s 8
z
W

1372m DIAMETER BOTH PLANTS 6 0 3 4 m STRAIGHT 76 ROTORS @ 80 MW RATED, Vt = 13.4 m/s

I
20-

66 MW RATED, Vt = 8.9 m/s

I -

/ I

+-vCl I
0 1 0 (4.5
I

= 6.5 m/s
I

l - ~ ~= 8.b ~ m/o
20 (0.01 30 (13.4) ROTOR

50 40 (17.9) (22.4) WIND SPEED mph (m/s)

60
(2b.U)

70

(31.3)

Figure 6.14.

T y ~ i c a lNet Power versus Vw Curve f o r Two RacetrackConfigured Plants,

80.

PLANT l
--

PLANT l a

3
l I3

60-

s 40LL

I I I -

g
a

c 20-

z
0. 0
2000

1 YEAR 8 7 6 0 HR

8000 4000 6000 HOURS I N ONE YEAR

10000

Fi5;urc 6.15.

Power Duration Curves far the Two Plants Shown in = 9.6 m/s Design Wind Figure 6.14 Based on the Duration Curveat 25-m Height (Figure 6.13).

the same (the only difference being that Plant 1 is.operated at a 13.4 m/s track speed compared to an 8.9 m/s track speed for Plant la), it appears that Plant 1 would provide the lowest energy cost. These are only two of the .97 plant configurations studied. Our comparison of the power output and annual energy production of all plants analyzed is presented in Section VII, which follows.

SECTION VII ECONOMIC ANALYSIS A specific geometric configuration and operating condition for a single rotor and our method for combining these rotors into complete power plants were discussed in Section VI. The purpose of this section of the report is to present the methods used to compute the cost of a Madaras plant as a function of plant size variables, to present the results of the cost trade studies that were computed to investigate the effects of land cost and learning curves on plant efficiency, and to compare the plant configuration that appears to be the most efficient Madards p l a n t with convcntional hurizontal axis wind turbine plants. Finally, a discussion of the feasibility of the Madaras concept will be presented. 7.1 COST ESTIMATING PROCEDURE

Our basic approach to cost estimating was to develop unit costs for the variable items which affected plant s i z b and energy capacity; to combine these items so that a resonable estimate of Madaras plant costs will be obtained; and to present the costs in a form that wvuld facilitate comparison with conventional Rorizontal Axis Wind Turbine Generator (HA-WTG) plant. The basic approach to cost estimating was to develop unit costs for a Madaras plant and then to xatio the unit. c o s t s by appropriate size factors to obtain costs of various s i z e s of Madaras plants. The following criteria were used to develop the unit cost data: Wind duration curve specified by ERDA for the large HA-WTG (Figure 6.13) up-rated to the appropriate height for the Madaras Rotor. Rotor having an aspect ratio of 8, an e/d. ratio of 2, a 4.9-m diameter by 39.2-m height, a design midheight of 25 m, a rotor rotation speed of 186 rpm, a 450-kW spin motor incorporating viscous breaking at the 245' point on the orbit.

Overall structural and electrical design details as specified in Section IV and V. Detailed plant and mechanical design layout as specified in the drawings included as Figures 4.15 to 4.23, inclusive. Initial plant size as shown in Figures 4.22 and 4.23 having a race-track 'pattern, 457 m diameter ends, 610 m straight sec'tions,and 28 rotor cars. Basic cost estimating work was done by M.L. McClellan and Company, a professional engirieering firm which specializes in estimating cost of large plants, building construction, and machinery fabrication. In addition to using the bases for cost estimating outlined above, quotations were obtained from vendors for off-the-shelf items, manufacturers quotations were obtained for fabricated items, and supplemental estimates were developed based on standardized construction costs and pertinent standardized material-weight-fabrication cost data. In developing his cost data, McClellan used the following major estimating assumptions: Basis of cost was 1978 prices. No architectural or engineering costs included.
C.

No transmission line costs beyond boundary. No railroad siding available--- all freight deliverable by available roads to the plant.
e

Plant roadway construction included. Site reasonably level and not heavily wooded. One extra rotor car included as a spare.

Cost for two viaducts under track to permit access to insure area in center is readily accessible for agriculture

.'

.-Cost

of constructing a permanent fabrication-assemblymaintenance building and a plant control building included. No learning curve utilized. Time of construction estimated to be 36 months.

The detailed cost estimate developed for this program is presented in Appendix B. This.information is summarized in Table 7.1 by four major cost categories in the unit cost modular form used for the cost-performance trade studies which will be described in Paragraph 7.2. The cost of purchasing,land is not included in Table 7.1 in order to permit comparison of Madaras results with HA-WTG studies which.do not 'include land. This approach also will permit the flexibility of adding any land cost deemed appropriate by the reader. We' believe land cost must be included when considerinq wind t u r h i n ~"farms" or qparks", and hence we will address this subject in,Paragraph7.3. The generalized plant layout and the equations used to relate plant geometry, performance; and cost are .presented in Figure 7.1. The generalized cost equation:

utilizes the equations of Figure 7.1 and the an constants developed and listed in Table 7.1. Other inputs required for this computation were the pl(S,Vw,Vt) values of power/car excluding interference losses and the fn(b, Vw, Vt) interference loss factor data. These data wele obtained from the compuker runs described in Paragraph 6.2 and 6.1, respectively. Of course, these pl and fn values depend on other variables, but since we have fixed rotor geometry, rotor rpm, and track diameter, the number of varjahles affecting the values of pi and fn is reduced. The final cost computation, not indicated in Figure 7.1 is that of determining the average cost of erlergy delivered by a given plant. Thls computation W a s done in the usual manner by integrating the power duration curve for a given plant (Figure 6.15) to obtain the kW-hr/yr obtained.from a plant; computing annua costs of plant operation; and then aomputing the cost per kW-hr. Annual costs for the basic 28-car plant depicted in Figures 4.22 and 4.23 were divided into categories of annual fixed charges and operating and maintenance costs. These costs, which '

TABLE 7 . 1 SUMMARY OF UNIT COST DATA (1

I.

COST/ROTOR CAR e R o t o r C a r D i r e c t C o s t , ,28 cars $18,850,420 (2). I n d i r e c t M e c h a n i c a l C o s t a t 22.7% . 4,276,400 a C o n s t r u c t i o n F i n a n c i n g a t 11.7% of D i r e c t C o s t s 2,205,500 Total Cost $25,332,320

Unit Cost

11.

COST S I T E PREPARATION e B a s e d o n N e t L a n d A r e a of 70 A c r e s . ( N e t A c e r a g e e x c l u d e s l a n d e n c l o s e d by race t r a c k . ) T o t a l S i t e P r e p a r a t i o n Direct Cost $219,500 Indirect Construction Cost a t 1 9 .l% 41,810 e Construction Financing a t 11.7% of D i r e c t . C o s t s 25,680 Total Cost $286,996 Cost/Net Acre :

a2=

4,100

1 1 1 . COST UTILITIES,
8

TRACK, TMLLEYS T o t a l Track Length = 8,712 f t T b t a l Direct C o s t $ 10,649,530 I n d i r e c t C o n s t r u c t i o n a t 19.1% 2,028,630 Construction Financing a t 1 1 . 7 % of D i r e c t C o s t 1,246,000 Total Cost $ 13,924,160 C o s t / f t of T r a c k : a3=

1,600

IV.

FIXED COSTS Direct C o s t B u i l d i n g s and V i a d u c t $ 2 , 3 7 4 , 9 0 0 o I n d i r e c t C o n s t r u c t i o n a t 19.1% 452,400 e D i r e c t C o s t P o w e r and C o n t r o l System p l u s 1 Spare Rotor Car 1,090,280 a I n d i r e c t M e c h a n i c a l a t 22.7% 247,340 S u b t o t a l D i r e c t C o s t $3,465,180 Construction Financing a t 11.7% of D i r e c t C o s t 405,420 T o t a l Fixed Cost a4=

$4,570,340

GRAND TOTAL PLANT COST

$44,113,810

(1) From A p p e n d i x B
, (2)

I n d i r e c t cost p e r c e n t a g e v a l u e s of 2 2 . 7 a n d 1 9 . 1 a r e r o u n d e d v a l u e s ; n u m e r i c a l cost v a l u e s a r e e x a c t a n d are i n a g r e e m e n t w i t h A p p e n d i x B.

6.
7.

S = ~ b , m

K i s number o f c a r s o n s t r a i g h t t r a c k

8.
9.

Number o f cars on c i r c u l a r p a r t o f t r a c k . Nc = b = D S i n -3 6 0 , i n t e r - c a r s p a c i n g b a s e d on c h o r d a l ZbJ, d i s t a n c e on c i r c l e , m .

N = Nc

2K

10.
11.

Cost =
PR =

a1 N

a 2An

a 3T

ad, Dollars

PINf : P1 i s power f o r 1 r o t o r = pl ( s , V&, vt) f n i s i n t e r f e r e n c e l o s s f a c t o r = f n ( b , V,, Vt)

12.

ost Cost/kW .= C - I n s t a l l e d ~ o s t / R a t e d Power C a p a c i t y P~

Figure 7.1.

Generalized Geometric Plant Layout and Equations for Computing Plant Cost, Plant Output, and Installed Cost Rated Plant Power Capacity.

are itemized in Table 7.2, were estimated to be.about 46.5 percent for operation and maintenance.costs. Thus, in the cost trade studies to be presented.in.Paragraph 7.2, the cost of energy generated by a Madaras plant will be based upon an.annua1 cost of 16.5 percent of the original plant cost.

Having selected the rotor size, track diameter, and certain operating conditions, .the remaining.variablesand their ranges which were considered in the plant cost performance analysis were: Track configuration: circle or racetrack Track speed: 8'.9 m/s (20 mph)' 11.2 m/s (25 mph) , and 13.4 m/s (30 mph) a Number of cars: 8 to 190 ,a Inter-Car, Spacing: 44 to 108 rotor diameters [4.9 m (16 ft) diameter] a Length of straight track section: 0-18,300 m. A total of 97 different plants representing 97 combinations of the above variables were selected as a representative sample of the many possible plant combinations for our first analysis. This set of plants consisted of three basic groupings:

a e

22 plants having circular tracks 28 plants having racetracks with rotor-cars traveling at 8.9 m/s track speeds 47 plants having racetracks with rotor-cars traveljng at 13.4 m/s track speeds.

All plants were designed in terms of a 13.4 m/s (30 mph) rated m/s (18 mph) wind wind speed and the up-rated ERDA 7 = =.8.1 duration curve shown in Figure 6.13. 7.2.1 Unit Cost of Circular Track-Plant Configurations -

These initial computations indicated that,circular track plant configurations are noncompetitive with horizontal axis wind turbines. The circular-track-plant study.util.ized a track speed of 11.2 m/s because earlier computations indicated optimum power occurred at this speed.. Results of this.study are,presented

TABLE 7.2 COMPUTATION OF MADARAS PLANT ANNUAL COSTS (Based upon 28-Car Plant) I. ANNUAL CHARGES Mortgage payments : $44,123,'370', 30 years $4,171,700 at 8.75% per annum a Depreciation: $44,123,370,at 30 years 1,470,800 a . Real Estate Taxes 455,500 e Income Taxes ' . 300,000 $6,398,000 Annual charges = 14.5% Plant Cost OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE COSTS e Wages m Seoretary Station Manager Outside Labor e Electricians (2) a Millwrights (2) s Labor Insurance and Taxes e Utilities-Heat and Light o Control Building Q Assembly Building

11.

$13,000 50.000 50,000 50,000 50,000 30,000 $243,000 3,000 9,000 $ 12,000

Expendable Parts a Bearings(616)" 60 at $3500= $21,000 e Wheels (224) 8 at 3000= 24,000 o Reducers (140) 4 at 1509= 60,000 a Lube Oil Pumps (56) 2 at = 3,000 1500 e Couplings (392) 16 at 450 = 7,200 o DC Brushes (56) 56 at 600 = 33,600 a Contactors (504)504 at 80 = 40,320 e Trolley Shoes (84) 84 at = 25,200 300 Collector Rails (13,180) 1200 at 40= 48,000 '$262,320 ~iscellaneous, 115,000 Insurance 250,000 Annual O&M Cost = 2% of Plant Cost $882 320 (Total Annual Cost = 16.5% Plant. Cost 5 7 , 2 8 U , 3 2 0

*Number in (xxx) is total number of items in a 28-car Plant. +Kcte that in addition to these parts, 1 complete spare rctor car is included in the Plant cost of $44,123,370.

Figure 7.2. In addition to analyzing the standard 1372-m (4500. ft) diameter track, a 1524-m.(5000 ft) diameter track was analyzed to determine if a .largertrack.diameterwould improve performance. However, although the Larger'diameter track improved rated plant output slightly, it still appears that use 0f.a circular track will not be economical. Thus, it can be seen -fromFigure 7.2 that the plant having the lowest unit cost is,one having 20 rotors on 'either a.1372-m or a 1524-m diameter track. The specific data pertaining.to these two least expensive plants studied is pre3 . sented .inTable 7 : TABLE 7. 3 COST AND PERFORMANCE OF A 20-ROTOR MADARAS PLANT HAVING CIRCULAR TRACKS (Land Cost ,not Included)

v&
m/s

Vt m / s

Track Diameter m

Rated power ( M W )

Cost' lo6$

Unit Cost $/kW

From Figure 7.2 one can see that.as the number of cars increases, the diameter has decreasing effect on unit cost and that the increased rated power output advantage of the larger plant is modified by its increasing cost.. After including the cost of land; the larger plant would undoubtedly be less attractive than the smaller plant. 0ne.can see in Figure 7.2 that our.study did not identify the minimum cost circular plant; however, the 20-car plant was rapidly approaching the minimum, which.probably occurs and minimum.cost is probably.not less than at about 22,rotors', $5600/kW. Limitations in time did not permit running higher than ,20-carconfigurations with,the vortex analysis computer program. by Madaras. This result is quite different from that predicted F0r.a similar number of.cars having the same area (but

,I w I

I I I 1 o TRACK DIAMETER = 1 5 2 4 m ( 5 0 0 0 f t )
TRACK DIAMETER= 1372m ( 4 5 0 0 f t ) LAND COST NOT INCLUDED
I

AR= 8 e/d = 2 d = 4 . 9 m ( 16ft) Vw = 13.4 m/s ( 30mph) Vt = 11;2 m/s ( 25mph) ROTOR S P E E D = 1 8 6 R P M

G 3 z
V)

~r8

rc)

4 A 00

6.
.b
? I

7 7

b 0
0

% 9 '

I -

5
a k

/"' \ /\
4.

5
. .. -

5
I
I I
I
I

5 4'

/
1 8

>

8 '

1 0

12

1 4 1 6 NUMBER OF ROTORS

20

Figure 7.2.

Plant Cost versus Number of Rotors for Madaras Plants having Circular Track Configurations. Rated Power in Megawatts Indicted for Each Plant. Plants Having 1372-m and 1524-m Diameter Tracks were Studied.

poorer .aerodynamic efficiency) he predicted plant output of over 20 MW at 13.4 m/s wind speeds, and he specified only a 457-m diameter track for this.plant, The primary differences between the results of our analysis and those of Madaras are: Madaras did not realize the magnitude.of spin-motor 'power losses caused by .motor inefficiency, rotor inertia, and vis.cous friction. He predicted he needed only a 37 kW motor to :turn his 27.4 m high by 7.8-m diameter rotor ..compared to the 450 kW motor we have specified for our rotor. Madaras did not account for mutual interference between cylinders. The motor loss is severe, and is the only one of the two losses that can be reduced.by engineering; thus, if a more'efficient means for rotating the 'cylindercould be developed, a circular track could again be attract.ive.. At the rated wind speed level, mutual interference losses onthe 1372-m track were of-,the order of.10 percent, but motor losses'of'over 50 percent would.be expected. speed levels, the mutual: interference Conversely, at Sower..wind loss exceeds motor .losses, It.wil1be shown laterthat the plant energy output.was not sufficient to overcome the high-first-cost of the Madaras, circular plant, and hence the cost'of energy also would be expected to.be excessive.

ina ally, since the unit.cost of the circular

Madaras plant is more than a factor,of three greater.thanthe predicted cost of the MOD-l'WTG1s, the Madaras circular plant concept was eliminated from -fur.ther consideration-. The eliminain that the plant tion of this circular concept~is.unfortunate design cannot take advantage of.the inherent wind direction independence of the circular plant. 7.2.2 Unit Cost of Racetrack Plant Configuration

.Our original performance computations indicated that best.performance (withdut regard for interference losses) for a racetrack plant would be obtained at a track speed of 13.4 -m/s.. However., after.studying the mutual interference data, we determined that cut-in speeds for a given rotor spacing decreased and wind plant cost increased as track speed decreased.

Therefore, plants utilizing two track speeds were studied in order to determine whether or not the lower cut-in speeds would enable a plant to increase its annual energy yield. Results of our unit cost analyses of 56 of the racetrack plant concepts are presented in Figures 7.3 and 7.4, which represent, respectively, plants oper.atingat track speeds of 8.9 m/s (20 mph) and 13.4 m/sec (30 mph). Each of these curves shows the relationship between the number of rotors, interrotor spacing, and the length of the straight section.of the.track. Identical plant configurations were analyzed at both track speeds. Thus, a comparison of the effect of track speed can be made by comparing a given set of coordinates in Figure 7.3 with its counterpart set in Figure 7.4. The data trends were as expected, with unit plant cost decreasing as N (number of rotors) and S (length of straight as b (inter-rotor spacing) decreases. Thus, section) 'increase.and from a unit'plant cost standpoint, it is better to provide a very long racetrack and maximize the number of cars on the track. Also, that unit plant by comparing Figures '7.3 and 7.4, it is'evident. cost increases as track speed decreases from 13.4 m/s to 8 . 9 m/s. The ef,fectof variables S, b; and N on cost and rated ,plantpower is shown 'in' Figure.7 . 5 . . As expected,rated power increases markedly as N and .S increase.,and one can'see that the effectiveness of each rotor decreases as b increases. Additional improvement in piant performance.can be achieved by decreasing b and increasing N and S; however, reasonably good design .seemsto have been achieved for plants having rotor spacing of 44d and at combinations of S > 3000'm and N > 76. Of the three variables, the least benefit in increasing rated power would be achieved by decreasing b, and the most benefit would occur from adding track and rotors at the maximum density studied. Since the cost of 1 rotor is equivalent to 173 m (565 fk).of'track, a break-even trade point would seem to occur when b = 173 m or 35 rotor diameters (35d). This distance is equivalent to the spacing of

6'

b~ INTER-ROTOR SPACING IN ROTOR DIAMETERS WIND PERPENDICPJLAR TO STRAIGHT SECTION L A N D COST NOT INCLUDED

AR = 8 c/d=Z ROTOR DIAMETER, d = 4 . 9 m ROTOR SPEED = 186 RPM TRACK END DIAMETER = 1372m Vw = RATED SPEED = 13.4 m/s V+ = 8.9 m / s RACETRACK P L A N T

I.

h : P U I

! I
Z 3

& 6 -

--b=49d ---b=44d

2-

I 4
1
I

1 0
.

12

1 4

16

1 8

20

Figure 7 . 3 .

U n i t P l a n t C o s t v e r s u s Length o f S t r a i g h t S e c t i o n of R a c e t r a c k P l a n t C c n f i g u r a t i o n a s a F u n c t i o n of Number o f C a r s and I n t e r - C a r Spacing. 8 . 9 m / s ( 2 0 mph) Track Speed:

b=lNTER - ROTOR SPACING I N ROTOR DIAMETERS 6 - WIND PERPENDICULAR TO STRIGHT SECTION LAND COST NOT INCLUDED

3 x

R = ~ I e/d = 2 ROTOR DIAMETER, d = 4 . 9 m ROTOR SPEED = 186 RPM TRACK END DIAMETER = 1372 m Vw = RATED SPEED = 13.4 m/s V+ = 13.4 m/s RACETRACK PLANT A

h)

I-'

--F

I 4
F i g u r e 7.4.
1

1
I

I0 1 2 1 4 LENGTH OF STRAIGHT SECTION

1 6 l o 3 FT

1 8

20

U n i t Plank Cost v e r s - ~ s Length o f S t r a i g h t S e c t i o n o f R a c e t r a c k P l a n t C o n f i g u r a t i o r as a Funczion of Number o f Cars and I n t e r - C a r S p a c i n g , s! ( 3 0 mph). T r a c k Speed: 1 3 . 4 m

AR= 8 e/d = 2 ROTOR Dl AM ETER, d = 4.9m ROTOR SPEED = 186 RPM TRACK END DIAMETER=1372m RATED WIND SPEED = 13.4 m/s

N' NUMBER OF ROTORS S = LENGTH OF STRAIGHT TRACK SECTION b = INTER-ROTOR SPACING IN ROTOR DIAMETERS WIND PERPENDICULAR TO S LAND COST NOT INCLUDED NO LEARNING CURVE USED

20

40

F i g u r e 7.5.

140 160 180 200 220 240 260 RATED POWER MW U n i t P l a n t C o s t v e r s u s R a t e d Power f o r R a c e t r a c k C o n f i g u r a t i o n a s a unction o f I n t e r - R o t o r S p a c i n g , L e n g t h of S t r a i g h t S e c t i o n o f T r a c k , and Number o f i3otors. DOE Design Wind D u r a t i o n Curve: V = 8 . 1 m / s @ 9 m.
60 80

100

120

25 rotors around a 1372-m diametcr track. If more rotors can be added toa given amount of track without incurring excessive interference losses, a more economical design should be achieved. However, it appears that a 25-d spacing would be counter productive. As noted in Figures 7.3, 7.4, and 7.5, all calculations up to this point have been based upon the assumption that the wind is perpendicular to the track. We will address the effect of .nonoptimum wind direction on plant performance later' in this section of the report. After str~lyingthe v s r i o i ~ sp1 a n t s r e p r e s e n t . e d in Figures 7.3, 7.4, and 7.5, it appeared that those operating at a track speed of 13.4 m/s (Figure 7.4) were superior to those operating at the 8.9 m/s speed. Thus, only the best of the 8.9 m/s plants (N = 76, S = 20,000, b = 44d, Unit Cost = $2389/kW) was retained for the energy cost study. All of the 13.4 m/s racetrack plants covering the range of operating conditions included in Figure 7.5 and the best plant using a circular track configuration were retained for the energy cost analysis. 7.2.3 Energy Cast

The energy cost. was compi.ited fram a 1 1 pl ant. configurations studied utilizing the usual equation:
Cost/kW-hr
=

Plant Cost x Annual Cost Annual Energy Output

where the annual cost was 16.5 percent of plant cost (developed in Table '1.2) and the annual energy output in kw-hr/year was obtained by integrating the power duration curve for each plant, typical of those shown in Figure 6.15. Four sets of energy cost data were computed; one set for each of the following conditions:
1 . Circular track plant, track diameter of 1372rn, track speed of 8.9 m/s and up-rated V = 8.1 m/s at 9m wind duration curve.

2.

Racetrack plant, track diameter of 13.72' m, track speed of 8 -9' m/s and up-rated 7 = 8 . 1 ' m/s, duration curve. Racetrack plant, track diameter of 1372 m, track speed of 13.4 m/s, and ~p-~ated' =' 8 . 1 ' m/s wind duration curve. Racetrack plant, track diameter of 1372'm, track 3 : 4 m/s and up-rated V = 9.7 m/s wind speed of 1 duration curve '(Medicine 'Bow,Wyoming). 7.2.3.1 Racetrack Configurations

3.

4.

The results of the third set of these computations are presented in Figure 7.6. These energy cost data correspond'to the 'same 47 plants used to compute the plant cost/ kW data presented in Figure '7.5. Although the characteristics of the curves in Figures' 7.5 and 7.6 are similar, there are two (1) a major differences in the cost/kW-hr data in Figure 7.6: definite minimum cost point as a function of straight track distance, S, was realized; and (2) the effect of inter-rotor spacing is much more pronounced in Figure 7.6. Actually, both of.these differences are influenced by inter-car spacing, b. In Figure 7.6, one can see a major drop b decreases in energy cost for a given value of-ratedpower as from 108 rotor diameters (108 d, where .d =' 4.9 m) to b = 87d. b is less pronounced. From that point on, the effect of decreasing However, between b = 8.7d-and b = 44d, a minimum energy cost is realized. Thus, for a plant.defined by a given value of rated plant power, the cost of energy is slightly higher for an interrotor spacing of 44d than the minimum energy cost which occurs at a larger value of rotor spacing. This trend can be seen in Figure 7.6 by following the b-values at a constant rated power level of 110 MW (i.e. energy cost decreases as .b progresses from 108d to 87d, to 73d, and to 63d. From that point on, energy cost increases as b decreases to its minimum value of 44d.
.
-

This cost/performance trend is caused by: (1) an increase in mutual interference and losses and hence a decrease in annual energy yield of a plant having a 448 rotor spacing compared to a plant having a 63d.spacing1and (2)

Figure 7.6.

Energy C o s t v e r s u s Rated Power f o r R a c e t r a c k l C o n f i g u r a t i o n a s a F u n c t i o n o f I n t e r - R o t o r S p a c i n g , Length of S t r a i g h t S ec t i o n o f T r a c k , and Number o f 3 o t o r s . DOE Design Wind D u r a t i o n Curve: V = 8 . 1 m / s @ 9 m.

an increase in plant cost (and hence increased operating cost) of a 446 plant over that of a 63d planthaving thg same value of rated power. Thus, since the annual energy of a 63d plant is greater . . than that of a 44d plant, and since the annual cost of operating a 63d plant is less, the energy cost of the 63d plant was smaller than that of the' 44d plant. Note also that the optimum value of b at which'the'trendreversal occurs decreases as PR increases. The other interesting result of this study is that for all plant sizes studied, the minimum cost of energy for a given value of S is obtained for those plants having inter-rotor spacing of 49d. We did not plot the b=49d curve in order to improve reading clarity in this region where the b-curves are compressed due to the previously-mentioned trend reversal. Thus, a rotor spacing of 49d will provide the minimum cost of energy for a given value of S t a mean wind speed of 8.1 m/s, ,and no consideration of learning curves.

. . .

Another minimum energy cost condition also was found: i.e., the optimum rotor spacing of the number of rotors, N, is fixed. This trend can be seen by following the trends of the N = 50, 75, 100, and 150 curves plotted in Figure 7.6. The energy cost of a plant having 75 rotors, for example, decreases rapidly as rotor spacing decreases, a minimum value is reached at some value of b, and then the energy cost increases as rotor spacing is further compacted. This effect is, of course, caused by rotor interference. Unlike the locus of energy cost minima for various values of S t the optimum rotor spacing varies with number of cars. Thus, for plants limited to 50, 75, 100, and 150 rotors, the interrotor spacing which will provide minimum energy cost would be 73d, 63d, 55d, and 49d, respectively. Of course, since varying the number of cars also increases S t and since power output increases as S increases, (Pmax occurs at S = a) it would appear that minimum energy cost will be achieved, by increasing S to the maximum length practicable and then providing the number of rotors required to achieve the optimum inter-rotor spacing for the

s e l e c t e d t r a c k l e n g t h . T h i s approach s u g g e s t s t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f a n optimum s o l i d i t y f a c t o r , one o f t h e o b j e c t i v e s o f t h i s s t u d y ; i , e . , t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f . t h e minimum number o f r o t o r s t h a t can produce t h e l o w e s t e n e r g y . c o s t i n a given l e n g t h of l a n d perp e n d i c u l a r t o t h e wind. For a r a c e t r a c k p l a n t , t h e l e n g t h p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e wind i s S + D, where D i s t h e end d i a m e t e r . Thus, t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f t h i s l e n g t h occupied 'by N r o t o r s having d i a m e t e r , d is:

where a i s t h e s o l i d i t y f a c t o r . Since t h e optimum v a l u e o f S

N r o t o r s c a n b e approximated from F i g u r e 7.6,

f ~ r

t h e optimum v a l u e s

o f a and t h e a s s o c i a t e d v a l u e s o f N and S have been t a b u l a t e d and p l o t t e d i n F i g u r e 7.7. T h i s f i g u r e shows t h e marked economic advantage o f l a r g e r p l a n t s and i n d i c a t e s t h a t s m a l l d e c r e a s e s i n e n e r g y c o s t may be o b t a i n e d by i n c r e a s i n g s o l i d i t y f o r p l a n t s h a v i n g v a l u e s o f S < 18,300 m (60,000 f t ) . S i n c e F i g u r e 7.6 a l s o i n d i c a t e s t h a t o u r computations have n o t been extended s u f f i c i e n t l y f a r t o o b t a i n an a b s o l u t e minimum, it may be advisable t o i n v e s t i g a t e l a r g e r p l a n t configurations. course Of t h e cost of l a n d i s n o t i n c l u d e d i.n +.he compvtations a t T h i s l a n d f a c t o r w i l l be

t h i s p o i n t , so t h e e f f e c t o f l a n d c o s t on p l a n t s i z e c o u l d a l t e r t h e size-efficiency relationship. e v a l u a t e d i n Paragraph 7.3, 7.2.3.2

Energy Cost Comparisons, B e s t P l a n t Co~ibinations

The f o u r d i f f e r e n t s e t s . o f p l a n t d e s i g n

c o n d i t i o n s a n a l y z e d i n t h i s program w e r e i t e m i z e d i n Paragraph 7.2.3. These c o n d i t i o n s provided t h e o p p o r t u n i t y of comparing t h e energy c o s t of c i r c u l a r v e r s u s r a c e t r a c k p l a n t s , t h e e f f e c t o f t r a c k speed on e n e r g y c o s t f o r r a c e t r a c k p l a n t s , and t h e e f f e c t of wind d u r a t i o n c u r v e s on energy c o s t = 8.1 m / s v s

at ~edicine Bow, Wyoming) The p l a n t s having t h e l o w e s t e n e r g y c o s t and o t h e r s which i n d i c a t e t h e e f f e c t of t h e v a r i a b l e s on p l a n t economy are p r e s e n t e d i n Table 7.4.

= 9.7 m / s

(v

0.044 .-

AR = 8 e/d = 2 Rotor Diameter, d = 16 f t. (4.9m) Rotor Speed = 186 RPM Track End Diameter, D = 4 5 0 0 f t (1372in) Rated Wind Speed = 3 0 mph (13.4 m/s) Track Speed = 3 0 mph ( 13.4 m/s) Wind Duration Curve V = 8.1 m/s @) 9 m

0.040

o
o
I-

t-

0.036

>

h)

N W

0
V)

c =

Nd S+D

a
t-

t o 0.024 0.020
=

1 0 (3.0)

20 (6.1 1

30 40 50 60 (9.1) (12.2) (1 5.2) (18.3) LENGTH OF STRAIGHT TRACK SECTION, S

k f t (km )

Figure 7 . 7 .

Optimum Rotor S o l i d i t y Factor versus Length of Straight

rack s e c t i o n .

TABLE 7 . 4 COMPARISON OF PLANT PERFORMANCE AND COST

CIRCULAR AICD R?CETP!CK CONFIGURATIONS

MSIC R A C E T R A C K PLANT

= 8 . 1 m/S

BASES OF COST
(1) (2) Cost o f Land Not Included Cost o f F i r s t Item N o Learning Curves Annual Charge o f 1 6 . 5 % Medicine Bow, Wyoming Wind Duration Curve with Sea Level Density t o show o n l y e f f e c t o f Wind Duration Cui-ve Duraticn,

(3) (4)

---

The s u p e r i o r i t y o f t h e r a c e t r a c k o v e r t h e c i r a u l a r - t r a c k p l a n t i s s t r i k i n g . The c i r c u l a r p l a n t s e l e c t e d was t h a t found t o have t h e h i g h e s t performance i n F i g u r e 7.2.. Although o u r s t u d i e s i n d i c a t e d t h a t a s l i g h l y lower cost/kW c o u l d b e o b t a i n e d by u s i n g more c l o s e l y - s p a c e d r o t o r s , and F i g u r e 6.11 i n d i c a t e s t h a t a small amount o f a d d i t i o n a l power might b e o b t a i n e d from a l a r g e r d i a m e t e r c i r c l e , w e b e l i e v e t h a t P l a n t 8 a , t h e most e f f i c i e n t c i r c u l a r p l a n t s t u d i e d , . t y p i f i e s t h e b e s t performance one might e x p e c t from a c i r c u l a r p l a n t . S i n c e c o s t of energy from t h i s p l a n t i s g r o s s l y noncompetitive w i t h that.. from h o r i z o n t a l a x i s wind machines and a b o u t t w i c e a s e x p e n s i v e a s t h e c o s t o f energy from t h e most i n e f f i c i e n t Madar'as r a c e t r a c k . p l a n t (see F i g u r e 7.6) , w e a g a i n c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h i s p l a n t t y p e was n o t worthy o f f u r t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n .
I

The e f f e c t o f t r a c k speed on p l a n t economics can be determined by comparing P l a n t s 1 and l a . T h i s

i s a comparison o f t h e e f f e c t o f t r a c k speed, Vt, on t h e o p e r a t i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of one p l a n t . The o n l y d i f f e r e n c e i n P l a n t s 1 and l a i s t h e t r a c k speed. The e f f e c t o f t r a c k speed on cost/kW was p r e s e n t e d i n F i g u r e s 7.3 and 7.4, and t h e r e i t was concluded t h a t t h e d e c r e a s e d t r a c k speed d e c r e a s e d t h e performance o f a l l , p l a n t s i z e s s t u d i e d , ! a n d hence i n c r e a s e d t h e cost/kW'of each "low However, s i n c e t h e power d u r a t i o n c u r v e s of t h e speed" p l q n t . "high speed" and "low speed" . p l a n t s ( e .g., P l a n t s 1 and l a ) were . s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t i n b o t h ' t h e low and h i g h wind speed regions (see Figure 6.15), w e continued our study t o determine i f t h e lower t r a c k speed and t h e r e s u l t i n g lower c u t - i n wind speed o f P l a n t l a would produce more energy a n n u a l l y t h a n P l a n t 1. Table 7.4 i n d i c a t e s t h e reverse. i s t r u e , and t h a t P l a n t 1 n o t o n l y h a s a h i g h e r power r a t i n g , b u t it a l s o w i l l produce energy a t lower c o s t . T h e r e f o r e , s i n c e P l a n t l a was t h e b e s t "low-speed" p l a n t s t u d i e d , it was concluded. t h a t , f o r t h e d e s i g n wind d u r a t i o n c u r v e used f o r t h i s s t u d y , t h e 13.4 m / s (30 mph) t r a c k speed would p r o v i d e lower c o s t energy f o r any p l a n t c o n f i g u r a t i o n . However, f o r lower mean-speed wind d u r a t i o n c u r v e s , a lower t r a c k speed may be a d v i s a b l e .

One interesting possibility should be investigated in any future analyses of the Madaras system: consider the use of a variable gear ratio drive from the rotor-car wheels to the generators in order to permit operaking at two or more track speeds. Refer to Figure 6.15. Here, one can see the cross-over of the power duration curves of Plants 1 and la If a. variable-speed at a wind speed of about '9.8 m/s (22 mph) drive were utilized, one could shift into the high gear ratio and operate at Vt = 8.9 m/s (20 mph) when winds were in the range between. 6.5 m/s (14.5 mph) and 9.8 m/s Then, as the .9.8 m/s speed was approached, the gear.,ratio would be reduced and track speed increased to 13.4 m/s (30 mph) In this way, the ?lant cou'ldbenefit from "the better of two worlds" and add the area between the two curves below 9.'8 m/s to its annual energy output. If the added energy offsets the' added cost of the variable speed drive, the cost trade would be attractive.

The racetrack plants having the lowest energy cost of.those studied are listed in the third grouping of plants. As can be seen, ,eachof Plants 49-10 through 49-60 represents the optimum cohfigur~tionfor a given value of S obtained from Figure '7.6. As noted Lrefore, each .optimum plant utilized rotor spacing of 49 diameters. In addition, this grouping includes the largest of all 47 plants studked: Plant 44-60 which has a rated capacity of over 227 MW and will produce 975 million kW-hr/yr at an energy cost o f 6.6.7C/kW-hr (...OQ2C/k.W-hk higher t h a n Plant 49-60). The data in Table 7.4 .indicatesthat plants having values of S < 3112 m (10,000 ft) probably will not be cost effective even when mass-produced components are used. Also, a significant drop in energy cost occurs up to Plant 49-30, and from there on the performance improvement is slower. There is not much..difference in energy cost for Plants 49-50, 49-60, and 44-601. The economy of sca1e.effec.t is quite evident from the of the installed plant. ever-decreasing unit cost ($'/k~) It also is particularly interesting to ncte that Plants 49-60 and 44-60 are quite competitive with the

c o s t and energy c o s t of a sing1.e MOD-1 wind t u r b i n e ' n o t wired i n t o ,a p l a n t . ~ h i ' s ' c o m p a r i s o nw i l ' l be made l a t e r a f t e r a p p r o p r i a t e a p p l i c a t i o n of s i m i l a r ground ' r u l e s and c o n d i t i o n s . The l a s t group of p l a n t s l i s t e d i n Table 7.4 were o p e r a t e d i n a r e g i o n having a mean wind speed of 9.7 m/s and s e a l e v e l d e n s i t y . S i n c e t h i s wind d u r a t i o n c u r v e i s l i k e t h a t a t Medicine Bow, Wyoming, one c o u l d t h i n k of t h e s e a s Medicine Bow Sea These a r e p r e s e n t e d t o show t h e e f f e c t on Level (MBSL) p l a n t s . p l a n t performance 'of v a r y i n g o n l y the"wind d u r a t i o n c u r v e . The e f f e c t o f a i r d e n s i t y a t Med.icine 'Bow, Wyoming, on performance w i l l be shown i n ' p a r a g r a p h 7.5. A l l 47 b a s i c p l a n t s were r u n f o r t h i s c o n d i t i o n . The f i r s t o b s e r v a t i o n of importance i s t h a t f o r t h e h i g h e r wind d u r a t i o n c u r v e , optimum performance . f o r a g i v e n v a l u e o f S was o b t a i n e d from p l a n t s having i n t e r r o t o r s p a c i n g of 44d i n s t e a d of 49d. T h i s can be s e e n by comparing P l a n t 49-60M w i t h P l a n t 44-60M. The marked i n c r e a s e . i n a n n u a l y i e l d by. P l a n t 44-60M more t h a n o f f s e t s t h e added c o s t of added r o t o r c a r s and t h e decreased e f f i c i e n c y of r e d u c i n g i n t e r - r o t o r s p a c i n g . S i n c e c o s t and r a t e d power was t h e same f o r
.4

t h e Medicine Bow p l a n t s and t h e b a s i c p l a n t s , t h e i n s t a l l e d u n i t p l a n t c o s t s , r e m a i n e d unchanged. The e f f e c t of t h e h i g h e r wind d u r a t i o n c u r v e i s a l s o seen i n t h e i n c r e a s e of a b o u t 20 p e r c e n t i n plant factor for the M B S L p l a n t s and i n t h e 15.6 p e r c e n t r e d u c t i o n i n energy c o s t of P l a n t 49.-60M o v e r P l a n t 49-60.
The p a r t i c u l a r MBEL p l a n t s l i s t e d i n

Table 7.4 were s e l e c t e d t o i l l u s t r a t e some.of t h e d e s i g n t r a d e s a v a i l a b l e w i t h t h e i n c r e a s e d wind d u r a t i o n c u r v e . W e already have.mentioned t h e a b i l i t y t o d e c r e a s e r o t o r s p a c i n g t o o b t a i n optimum e n e r g y c o s t . 44-45M w i t h 49-60. Another i n t e r e s t i n g comparison i s P l a n t Here a r e two p l a n t s of d i f f e r e n t r a t e d
Yet,
'

c a p a c i t y having t h e same i n s t a l l e d cost/kw.

the M B S L plant, though 2 2 p e r c e n t s m a l l e r i n r a t e d c a p a c i t y , w i l l produce energy

J

a t a c o s t t h a t i s 1 4 p e r c e n t lower t h a n t h a t f r o m . t h e l a r g e r p l a n t .
A s i m i l a r r e s u l t i s o b t a i n e d when comparing P l a n t 44-20M w i t h

P l a n t 49-60.

Here a r e two p l a n t s having approximately e q u a l energy . .

costs, and yet this same performance by the 'MBSL Plant can be achieved with a straight track section of only 6034 m (20,000 ft) compared to a length of 18,198 m (60,000 ft) for Plant 49-60. Thus for MBSL winds, only about one-half the land and only 43 percent of the plant cost are required to produce energy at about the sane cost as that in the'lower wind region. Of course, the basic plant's rated capacity is almost three times as large as the Medicine Bow plant. From plant comparis~nsin Table 7.4, we conclude that the mos-t efficient basis pl.a.nt i.s Plant. 49-fin, which has a rated capacity of 2 1 1 0 MW, an installed unit cost of . . $1781/kW, an annual energy yield of 931 million kW-hr, and an energy cost of 6.65C/kW-hr. The largest basic plant is Plant 44-60, which has 227.77 MW rated capacity, an installed 'unit cost of $1732/kW, an annual yield of 975 million kF7-hr, and an energy cost of 6.67C/kW-hr. These two plants along with their. MBSL counterparts were considered the best Madaras plants of those analyzed. However, all plants listed in Table 7.4 will be considerel i'n the analyses that follow in order to assure that the effects of land cost, learning curves, and off-axis wind conditions will not alter the basic Madaras plant economic trends that have already been noted. We have no doubt, that given sufficient space and high wind conditions, even larger Madaras plants than Plant 44-60 could be built. Further, we again want to emphasize that the plantdesigns in Table 7.4 do not represent an overall optimized system design, but instead represent good conceptual designs. Hence, given the opportunity to conduct a more extensive design analysis, we belive basic system efficiency could be improved over that stated in Table 7.4.

7;3

EFFECT OF LAND COST AND LEARNING CURVES ON ENERGY COST

All computationsofpower and energy cost made previously have included the cost of site preparation, grading, and general earthwork. However, the cost of purchasing or leasing the land has not been included. In addition, cost estimates have not taken into account the cost reduction resulting from mass production: a factor that must.be considered before the Madaras system can be compared with modern horizontal axis WTG's. This section of the report will address both of these cost factors. 7.3.1 Land.Cost Effect

Three approaches to land acquisition and management were considered: Long term land lease. Purchase of all land required both inside and outside the racetrack in conjunction with leasing the inside track area for agricultural use. Purchase of only a right-of-way to a tract of land; i.e., the An defined in Figure 7.1 as that area outside the track plus land Occupied by the track and trolleys. The land inside the track then would remain the property of the original land owner to use for agriculture or other noninterferring use. Two viaducts, one at each end, would be built of sufficient size to permit access to the inner area. After consulting with personnel at the Dayton Power & Light Company, as wellas a local realtor, it was recommended that the third approach be taken.: purchase outright only the net area. The this approach successfully Dayton Power & Light Company.has.used many times. This concept is .the same as that prepared by Lockheed for their Wind Energy Mission ~ n a l ~ s i s , ~ which ' suggested that large wind turbines be spaced 10 to 15 diameters apart in a hexagonal pattem.:thatonly 15 acres around each wind turbine would be purchased, and that the rest of the land would be retained by the original owner and used for agriculture. Thus, large "parks" of wind turbines would be developed, and only 6.4 percent of the

P-

44 land required for such 'a "park" would have to be 'purchased. access roads.) (This study did not include the .land required'.for

Since the area inside the racetrack is completely acres for open, free of obstructions, and can be very large'.'.(,6.500 the largest plant); a large-scale farmer would consider farming this tract of land as an .attractivebusiness venture. Consequently, for Madaras plants, one would purchase only that are designated An in Table 7 . 4 for each of the plants being considered. .This amounts to the purchase of from 745 to 7 4 8 acres for the two largest plants being considered for this study. This land would..provide ample area for the . substation, a fenced-in, clear erection of the buildings,. a.power . .- . . .perimeter area, as well as space for the circumferential service road, the track, the power distribution system,.and the wind velocity sensing system.
,

'

Our land cost analysis was designed to bracket a wide range of agricultural.land costs that might be prevalent in areas which would be suitable for Madaras plants: i.e., a large open expanse of land with essentially unidirectional winds. Generally the Great Plains and certain Texas Gulf Coastal areas are typical of the sites one might select. It is questionable whether attractive land quality, wind strength and duration, and wind direction combinations would be found in the North East, the Midwest, or most of the Cornbelt States where land prices are at premium levels. Thus, we selected the following four unit land price levels which we believe will encompass the geographical areas of interest to Madaras plants. These unit land costs were: $500/acre; $1000/acre; $1500/acre; and $3000/acre. These costs were input to our cost analysis program, and the total energy costs were computed again using an annual cost rate of 16.5 percent of plant cost (including land) to obtain energy costs. These computations were made for al.1 4 7 racetrack plants, both for the basic'and Medicine Bow wind duration curves. No changes in trends noted in Table 7 . 4 were observed, and again

,-

the plants which were best for the basic analysis were also the best where land costs were included, The effect of land costs on these best plants is shown in Table 7.5. For the planned land purchase approach these data indicate that land cost has an insignificant effect on plant cost and energy cost for large Madaras plants. Both the plant cost ($/kW) and the energy cost (Q/kW-hr) had a maximum increase of about 0.6 percent. This cost increase was essentially the same for all of .the plants.in Table 7.5. For the smallest Madaras plants studied (one with 20 rotors and a 3050 m straight track section) the maximum increase due to land cost was about 1.1 percent. Therefore, it appears that land cost will have little effect on Madaras plant performance even at $3000/acre land costs, However, when learning curves are applied to the cost analysis, land costs become more prominent. 7.3.2 Learnina Curve Effect

In preparing the cost estimate for the basic plant, no provision for learning curves or mass production were included. Since each of the large plants we are contemplating requires laying about 268,000 ft (81,800 m) of nonconventional track rails and the building of 170-190 rotor cars, it is readily apparent that a learning-curve-type of cost reduction will be realized'in building even one plant. This cost reduction will be even greater if ~riure than one plant is built in a given prodiiction lot.
I .

Learning curves are based on the concept that each time production is doubled, the average cost of 2n production items is a specified fraction of the average cost,of n items. Thus, the ratio of the average cost of 2n items to the average cost of n items defines the learning curve, Thus, for an 85 percent learning curve, the average cost of two would be 85 percent of the first item cost, and the average cost of the four items would be .85 2 percent of the average cost of two items [i.e , ( .85) times the cost of the first item] ;' etc. Thus :

TABLE. ' 7 . 5 EFFECT OF LAND.COST ON PLANT AND ENERGY COST

P l . a n t No. Number Rotors Ac r.es.

MW

4.9-6.0

44-60

49-60M'*

44-60M*

170
7.45 .2.1.0 ..5.9
11

19.0 748 2.27.77

170 745

1.90 748

An
R

'

.2.P.O.. 59

227.. 7 7

Energy Our;pu t 1 0 kW-hr/yr 931.25 975.43 1103.35 1170.17

P l a n t Designation Indicates Size

4 9 = R o t o r S p a c i n g = 49d = 784 f t ( 2 3 9 m) 6 0 = S t r a i g h t T r a c k L e n g t h = 6 0 , 0 0 0 f t ( 1 8 , 3 0 0 m) N o L e t t e r F o l l o w i n g = B a s i c Wind ~ u r a t i o n Curve M = M e d i c i n e Bow Wind D u r a t i o n C u r v e ( M B s L ) , Sea ~ e v e ~ l ensity d = 1 6 ft ( 4 . 9 rn)

Increase f o r $ 3 0 0 0 / a c r e l a n d o v e r n o l a n d c o s t

where

LC is the learning curve ratio (e.g., 0.85) Kn is the average cost of n units of the cost of constructing only one item Cn is the cost of the nth item of the.cost of constructing only one item

These equations were obtained from Hightower, who used them for his HA-WTG plant design in Reference 45. Thus, in order to use the learning cost reduction concept, it was first necessary to define learning curves for . : various parts of the plant and then to define the corresponding production units to which the curves apply. Our initial cost equation (.Equation (9) Paragraph 7.1) contains four terms: (1) cost .of rotor cars, (2) cost of general site preparation, (3) cost of track, utilities, and roads, and (4) the cost of the assembly and maintenance building, the ,,, control building, the power switching and conditioning equipment, and the .control equipment. The fourth term also included the spare rotor, which will be handled differently in the new equation that will be developed. After analyzing the site preparation and miscellaneous components, items (3) and (4), we concluded that this technology would be conventional and that skilled earth moving and construction personnel would already be high on the learning curve. Therefore, for our analysis, we assumed that components (3) and (4) (less the spare rotor) would not benefit from learning or mass production, and hence no learning curves were applied to these cost components,

On t h e o t h e r hand, w e b e l i e v e t h a t it i s d e f i n i t e l y a p p r o p r i a t e t o a p p l y l e a r n i n g c u r v e s t o t h e r o t o r cars and t h e t r a c k l a y i n g . D i f f e r e n t approaches w e r e taken t o develop a p p r o p r i a t e l e a r n i n g c u r v e s f o r e a c h o f t h e s e components. The m a n u f a c t u r e and assembly o f t h e r o t o r cars i s q u i t e s i m i l a r t o t h e manufacture o f l a r g e t r a n s p o r t a i r c r a f t . The r o t o r i s a semi-monocoque s t r u c t u r e d e s i g n e d f o r h i g h s t r e n g t h w e i g h t r a t i o and f a b r i c a t e d from aluminum and o t h e r l i g h t - w e i g h t p a r t s . Although t h e r o t o r s u p p o r t t o w e r c a r and w h e e l s a r e v e r y m a s s i v e , a l l u s e m a t e r i a l s and m a n u f a c t u r i n g t e c h n i q u e s l i k e t h o s e used for aircraft. I n a d d i t i o n , e a c h m t o r and ear i s e q u i p p e d w i t h e l e c t r o n i c c o n t r o l s , e l e c t r i c a l equipment, g e a r i n g , and bearings, just a s an a i r c r a f t . Thus, s i n c e t h e m a n u f a c t u r e of
.

r o t o r cars d o e s n o t h a v e a m a n u f a c t u r i n g c o s t e x p e r i e n c e b a s e o f
i t s own, w e e l e c t e d t o u t i l i z e a n 85 p e r c e n t l e a r n i n g c u r v e f o r

t h e r o t o r c a r , based on l e a r n i n g curve experience of a i r c r a f t . The s e l e c t i o n o f a l e a r n i n g c u r v e f o r t h e t r a c k l a y i n g was n o t a s s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d . F i r s t , as c a n b e s e e n i n T a b l e 7.1, w e have i n c l u d e d a number o f o t h e r i t e m s i n t h e t r a c k c a t e g o r y : i . e . , t r a c k , t r o l l e y s , d r a i n s , and o t h e r u t i l i t i e s , power c o l l e c t i o n and d i s t r i b u t i o n , and t h e service r o a d . These

were combined w i t h t h e t r a c k b e c a u s e t h e y r a n p a r a l l e l t o t h e t r a c k , and h e n c e i n c r e a s e d i n s i z e and c o s t i n d i r e c t p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e l e n g t h o f t h e t r a c k . These t y p e s o f work r e p r e s e n t a mixed g r o u p o f t e c h n o l o g i e s , some o f which a r e w e l l d e v e l o p e d , a n d some ( l i k e t h e t r a c k r o a d bed and t r o l 1 e y s ) a r e h i g h l y nonc o n v e n t i o n a l . Thus it w a s assumed t h a t a 90 p e r c e n t l e a r n i n g c u r v e would b e a r e a s o n a b l e a v e r a g e l e a r n i n g c u r v e f o r t h e t r a c k , et al.
The n e x t s t e p was t o d e v e l o p a n a p p r o p r i a t e u n i t o f p r o d u c t i o n f o r t h e t r a c k system. One c o u l d ~ c o n s i d e ra u n i t o f p r o d u c t i o n t o b e t h e l a y i n g o f o n e 6-m (20 f t ) l e n g t h o f r a i l , o r t h e b u i l d i n g o f a 305-m (1000 f t ) segment o f roadways. However, a n o t h e r method s e r v e d t o b e more c o n v e n i e n t : that is

to develop a track, roadbed, etc., unit equal to that length of track associated with'each'rotor car. Thus, since there are N rotors in a given plant with a track perimeter, T, there is one length of track and roadbed, t, equal to T/N that is added each time one rotor car is added to increase the size of a plant. Thus, for an N-rotor plant, there are N track units, each having a length t. This unit length, t, is not constant for all plants but increases as inter-rotor spacing increases. Thus, an N-rotor plant having rotor spacing of 49d will have a larger value of t than that of an N-rotor plant having rotor spacing of 44d. In each case, however, the number of production units would be the same as the number of rotors. (Since all of our cost calculations were carried out for the 49d and 44d spacing, the effect on the cost of the track resulting from the different size t is less than 2 percent.) Equation (9), our basic cost equation, had to be modified slightly to accommodate the learning curve terms as well as to provide a better basis for comparing Madaras plants with horizontal axis WTG plants. Our initial equation scaled the number of rotors, the amount of site preparation, and the length of track directly as these items varied from one plant size to another. The fourth item, which was held constant, included the cost of bluidings, power conditioning and switching equipment, . system control equipment, and one complete, spare rotor car. Although for the original study it was recognized that the power conditioning and switching equipment would increase with plant size, the cost of these items was found to be small relative to the complete plant cost. However, for the learning curve study, it was decided that a better cost estimate would be obtained if the power conditioning and switching equipment were scaled with plant size and if the cost of the spare rotor [which is the (N+l)th rotor car purchased for a given plant] were developed as a part of the learning curve experience of the total rotor purchase. Thus, two new terms were added to Equation (9) such that :
'-

P l a n t C o s t = al (N+1)KN+l I n E q u a t i o n ( 1 2 ) , t h e c o n s t a n t s a l , a 2 , and a 3 w e r e assumed t o b e t h e i d e n t i c a l u n i t c o s t r a t e s d e f i n e d i n T a b l e '7..1, and: C o s t o f Power F a c t o r and S w i t c h i n g Equipment f o r 28 MW P l a n t 28 MW

P~

Rated power o f t h e s c a l e d p l a n t i n MW
C o s t o f b u i l d i n g s , v i a d u c t s , c o n t r o l s y s t e m s , which i s assumed c o n s t a n t f o r all p l a n t s i z e s s t u d i e d = $3,497,610. F u r t h e r , i n d e f i n i n g t e r m s of E q u a t i o n ( 1 2 ) :
N

.a 6 =

i s t h e number of r o t o r s i n one p l a n t
i s the l e n g t h of each t r a c l r u n i t . i n o n e p l a n t = T / N
= t o t a l track perimeter length

t
T

KN i s t h e a v e r a g e c o s t of N r o t o r u n i t s e x p r e s s e d a s

a f r a c t i o n o f t h e c o s t o f t h e f i r s t u n i t and i s a f u n c t i o n of a given l e a r n i n g curve (85 percent i n t h i s case)

KT i s t h e a v e r a g e c o s t o f R t r a c k u n i t s e x p r e s s e d

as

f r a c t i o n o f t h e c o s t of t h e f i r s t u n i t and i s

a f u n c t i o n o f a g i v e n l e a r n i n g c u r v e (90 p e r c e n t 1.n thj s c a s e )

E q u a t i o n ( 1 2 ) was used t o compute p l a n t m s c s a n d e n e r g y c o s t s f o r 1 4 p l a n t s t h o u g h t t o b e o f t h e most i n t e r e s t f o r t h i s study. P l a n t s considered i n t h i s study included a l l o f t h o s e i n T a b l e 7 . 5 , some o f t h o s e i n T a b l e 7.4, and o t h e r s t h a t would b e o f i n t e r e s t i n comparing t h e e f f e c t o f r o t o r

s p a c i n g and i n comparing.performance o f Madaras p l a n t s . w i t h

HA-WTG p l a n t s .

Thes'e computations were made f o r t h e f o l l o w i n g

conditions:

e' .Number of P l a n t s :

1, 2 , 3, 1 0 , 100, 500

Learning Curves: ,85%f o r r o t o r s , 90% f o r t r a c k u n i t s . Annual Cost: 16.'5% P l a n t C o s t Land Cost/Acre: 0, $500, $.1000,$1500, and .$3000/acre.

By adding t h e 'land c o s t t o t h e a u n i t c o s t c o n s t a n t , w e were ab.l:e t o .inc.lude t h e l a n d purchase c o s t , as d e s c r i b e d p r e v i o u s l y :in Paragraph 7.3.1. The ' r e s u l t s of t h e l e a r n i n g c u r v e computation . l o f t h e s e . p l a n t s a r e 'pres'ented. i n Tables. 7<.6 and Table 7 - 7 , for a l f o r p l a n t s s i t e d - a t .mean wind speeds o f 8 . 1 m / s and 9.7 m / s , respectively,
,

A s was expected, t h e l e a r n i n g c u r v e reduced

p l a n t and energy c o s t s ' d r a m a t i c a l . l y .

In addition, .the learning

c u r v e e f f e c t caused a s h i f t i n t h e o p t i m u m , p l a n t c o n f i g u r a t i o n from 49-60 t o 44-60. A s can be s e e n , t h i s t r e n d w a s . p r e s e n t f o r a l l of t h e , p l a n t . s i z e s s t u d i e d , and i s n o t j u s t a p e c u l i a r i t y o f t h e l a r g e s t plant. This s h i f t : i n optimal configuration occurs because t h e p l a n t s h a v i n g khe s m a l l e r r o t o r s p a c i n g r e q u i r e more r o t o r s f a n d hence a r e a b l e t o c a p i t a l i z e more on t h e l e a r n i n g c u r v e c o s t r e d u c t i o n . T h i s same t r e n d i s a l s o noted f o r t h e Medicine Bow P l s n t ~i n Table 7.7. The r e s u l t s . from P l a n t 8 a , t h e b e s t c i r c u l a r p l a n t , s t i l l i n d i c a t e d t h a t c i r c u l a r p l a n t s were n o t . c o s t e f f e c t i v e , even f o r 500. . p l a n t .product'ion l o t s s i t e d a t MBSL r e g i o n s ( t h e most f a v o r a b l e c o n d i t i o n ) . c o s t o b t a i n a b l e was 5.17 C/kW-hr, The l o w e s t energy and minimum i n s t a l l e d p l a n t

c o s t w a s $1539/kW, which ' i s c o m p l e t e l y beyond t h e area u l economic i n t e r e s t . The low a.nnual energy o u t p u t , t h e h i g h e l e c t r i c a l l o s s e s , and s m a l l p l a n t s i z e combine t o c a u s e poor performance of c i r c u l a r p l a n t s .

EFFECT. OF LEARN.ING CURVE AND LAND COST' 'ON ENERGY COST = ,8.1 m / s AT 9-m HEIGHT FOR PLANTS 'SITED WHERE
Rotors plant NO.

- 85% LC; Track

3.46 2.37 1.67
.

-90% LC .

P ,
M h '

49-25

~nnual . Output 106kw-hr 407

A , ' ~ ) Acres 437

NO.

Plants
' -

NO. : ' ( Rotor Units

C kW-hr (4)

Cost S/kW 923 632 444

Laid Cost, $/acre 1000 500 0 3.45 2.37 1.66 2.82 1.92 1.34 2.69 1.84 1.28 3.37 3.00 2.80 2.30 1.61 2..75 2.44 2.28 1.87 1.30 2.62 2.33 2.18 3.47 2.38 1.68 2.83 1.94 1.35 .2.71. 1.85 1.29 3.39 3.01 2.82 2.32. 1.63 2.76 2.46 2.29 1.88 1.31 2.64 2.34 2.19 1.80 1.29

1500 '3.48 2.39 1.69 2.84 1.94 1.36 2.71 1.86 130 .3.39 3..02 2.82 2.33 1.63 2.77 2.46 2.30 1.89 1.32 2.64 2.35 2.20 .1.80, 1 2 14.30 10.01 7.5l 6.25

3000 3.50 2.41 1.71 2.85 1.96 1.37 2.73 1.88 1.32 3.42 3.05 2.85 2.35 1.66 2.79 1.48 2.32 1.90 1-'34 2.66 2.37 2.22 1.82 1.27 14.46 10.28 7.67 6.41

92.4

1 10 100 1 10 100

82 820 8200 146 1460 14600 170 . 1700 17000 91 182 273 910 9100 162 314 486 1620 16200 190 380 570 l?OO 19000 20 200 2000 10000

49-50

178.3

788

661

755 515. 359

722

2.82 1.93 '1.35 2.70 1.84 1.28 3.38 3.00 2.81 2.31 1.62 2.76 2.45 2.29 1.88 1.30 2.63 2.34 . 2.18 1.79 1.24 14.19 10.00 7.40 6.14

49-60

210.6

9 31

745

1 10 100
1 2 3 10 100 1 2 3 10

492 342 873 776 725 596 417 713 6 34 592 485 3 37 681 605 565

44-25

99.2

424

437

'

44-50

191.4

820

,660

160.
44-60 227.8 97'5 748 1 2 3 10 100 1 10 ,100 500

'

463 921
3575 2519 1858 1539

1.78
1.24
14.13 9.95 7.35 6.09

8a

78.5

33

213

14.24 '10.01 7.45 6.19

(1) Net area purchased. (2) Number of Track Units = Number of Rotor Units. Number shown corresponds to number of plants. (3) Installed cost per plant. Does not include land cost. (4) Based on 16.5% of Plant Cost = Annual Cost.

TABLE .7 ..7 EFFECT OF LEARNING CURVE AND LAND COST ON ENERGY COST = 9.7 m/s AT 9-m HEIGHT FOR PLANTS SITED WHERE (MEDICINE BOW SEA LEVEL PLANTS)
A

Rotors -85% LC; Track -90% LC Plant No.

PR MW 92.4

49-25M

Annual Output 106kw-hr 483

An Acres 437

No. (2) Plants

1 10 100 1 10 100

No. (3' Rotors Units 82 820 8200 146 1460 14600

-Unit Cost $/kW 923 632 444 755 515 359

C/kW-hr (4) (5) Land Cost, $/Acre 0 500 1000 2.91 2.92 2.93 2.00 2.00 2.01 1.40 1.41 1.42 2.38 1.62 1.13 2.38 1.63 1.14 2.39 1.63 1.14

1500 2.94 2.02 1.42 2.39 1.64 1.15

3000 2.96 2.04 1.45 2.41 1.66 1.16

49-50M

178.3

934

661

49-60M

210.6

1103

745

I
44-25M 99.2 509 4 37

1 10 100

170 1700 17000

722 492 342

2.27 1.55 1.08

2.28 1.56 1.08

2.28 1.56 1.09

2.29 1.57 1.09

2.31 1.58 1.11

1 2 3 10 100

91 182 273 910 9100

873 776 725 596 417

2.81
2.50 2.33 1.92 1.34

2.81 2.50 2.34 1.92 1.35

2.82 2.51 2.35 1.93 1.36

2.83 2.52 2.35 1.94 1.36

2.85 2.54 2.38 1.96 1.38

44-50M

191.4

985

660

1 2 3 10 100 1 2 3 10 100

162 324 486 1620 16200

713 634 592 485 337 681 605 565 463 321

2.29 2.03 1.89 1.56 1.08 2.19 1.94 1.81 1.49 1.03

2.29 2.04 1.90 1.56 1.08

2.1

2.30 2.04 1.91 1.57 1.09

0

2.30 2.05 1.91 1.57 1.10 2.20 1.96 1.83 1.50 1-05

2.32 2.07 1.93 1.59 1.11

2.22 1.97 1.85 1.52 1.06

44-60M

227.8

1170

748

190
380 570 1900 19000

1.95 1.82 1.49 1.04

1.95 1.83 1.50 1.04

8aM

78.5

38

213

1 10 100 500

20 200 2000 10000

3575 2519 1858 1539

12.06 8.50 6.27 5.19

12.11 8.54 6.31 5.24

12.15 8.59 6.36 5.28

12.20 8.63 6.41 5.33

12.33 8.77 6.54 5.47

(1) Net area purchased. ( 2 ) Number of Track Units = Number of Rotor Units. Number corresponds to number of plants. (3) Installed cost per plant. Does not include land cost. (4) Based on 16.58 of Plant Cust = A I I I I U & Cust. ~ (5) Does not include engineering design cost or contingencies; 3 year construction period.

The 100.-plant data.are interesting, but whether or not the 85 percent learning curve.'cost reduction could continue for as many as 17,OO.Oto 19,000 units needs to be determined. In Reference 44, Lockheed estimated that.theirminimum cost would further analysis be reached at 10,.000 units. Theref0re;unti.l can be conducted, the validity of the 100-plant cost figures certainly should be considered with caution. We .dobelieve that the cost.reduction shown for 1 . 0 plant lots is reasonable, and the energy cost-of1.78 to 1.82 C/kW-hr for ten of the 44-60 type Madaras plants is certainly in the economic.rangeof interest. The cost range of from 1.49 C/kW-hr to 1.52C/kW-hr for ten 44-60M (MBSL) 2s even more attractive. 7.4 EFFECT OF NONOPTIMUM WIND DIRECTION

The most versatile form of a Madaras plant is one having a circular track pattern because its performance is independent of wind directions. However, we demdnstrated above that for several reasons, this plant type is completely beyond economic consideration,' even if 500 plant units were to be built. We also indicated in Table 7.7.that large racetrack-type plants appear to be economical~yattractive. Unfortunately, racetrack plants have one important weakness: they must be located at a site that has .essentially unidirectional wind (including the reciprocal direction) to perform at full potential. To illustrate the sensitivity of a racetrack Madaras plant to nonoptimum wind direction.,the following example is given. To simplify the illustrations it was assumed that X percent of the time during the year, the wind.will be blowing at.a given nonoptimum angle .&f3 'measured from a perpendicular to the straight track (Figure 7.8). For the remainder of the the wind will be blowing normal year [(1-X) of a year's time]', to the straiylit track, i . e . , at an angle p = O . Then, the total amount of energy generated during the year, ET, would be:

' -

PLANT 49 -60

'

S = 6 0 , 0 0 0 f t (18,300m)

20 .40 60 .80 100 X = ,O/o NON OPT1 MUM WIND ANGLE PER YEAR ('BALANCE ASSUMED OPTIMUM ANGLE Effect of Nonoptimum Wind Duration on Cost of. Figure 7 . 8 . Madaras Racetrack Plant 49-60.

where X(E

B z o : .

is the total energy generated during X percent of'the year when the wind vector is .notnormal to the track at an angle 'Af3 is the total energy generated during the balance of the year when =OO; i.e,, the wind vector is normal to the track.

(1-X)(Elf3=oo

Then, since average annual energy cost is inversely proportional to the total annual energy output,.energycosts then increase by a factor, F, caused by partial off-optimum wind direction during a year relative to energy cost.forwind direction during an entire year is:

where. (ElB=O is the annual energy output when B=OO for an entire year. lltypical trends for this simplified case arc pre~ented for B= 0, f15", f30, and f45O for Plant 49-60 in Figure 7.8. The extreme at X = 0 represents optimum plant operation, and hence the cost increase factor would be 1.0 and the other extreme at X = 10U'percent represents the condition in which ' . the wind would blow all year at an angle where Bf 0 The sensitivity to large deviatons o f the wind from the optimum is quite evident from Figure 7.8. Sniall angular deviations of the wind vector are probably acceptable, as are large deviations for a small portion of a year (e.q., 20 percent of the year at f3 = f45O would increase cost of energy by only 14 percent). However, large deviations of B from the optimum can affect energy cost substantially. In fact, although not shown in Figure 7.8,

f o r p l a n t s h a v i n g s t r a i g h t t r a c k s e c t i o n s a s l o n g a s P l a n t 49-60 (18,30,0 m) , i f B beeomes' as l a r g e a s k60 O., a n d a s t h e time t h a t t h i s wind d i r e c t i o n . . i s m a i n t a i n e d . a p p r o a c h e s one 'year, t h e p l a n t

,

energy o u t p u t w i l l <approachz e r o a n d t h e c o s t w i l l , o f c o u r s e , approach ' i n f i n i t y . Another f a c t o r , n o t shown i n F i g u r e 7,.8 i s o f i n t e r e s t : a s t h e s t r a i g h t t r a c k . ' l e n g t h , S , d e c r e a s e s t h e p l a n t becomes less
,

s e n s i t i v e t o B ( t h e arigle B i n c r e a s e s f o r a g i v e n v a l u e o f F and
X)

A s an% example, i f S i s d e c r e a s e d from 18,300 m t o 6100

m,

t h e v a l u e o f B f o r F = ,1.55, X = 100 would be l a r g e r t h a n +30. Thus,. i f a r a c e t r a c k . ' M a d a r a s p l a n t i s c o n s i d e r e d ' f o r a l o c a t i o n a t which small v a r i a t i o n s i n w i n d d i r e c t i o n o c c u r , an optimum p l a n t . s i z e would b e .'sma.l.ler t h a n t h a t o f P l a n t 49-60, energy c o s t .would . b e . ' h i g h e r . and t h e

The example p l o t t e d i n F i g u r e 7.8 i s an example of t h e a v e r a g e a n n u a l energy c o s t . i n c r e a s e f a c t o r u t i l i z i n g o n l y two wind d i r e c t i o n s . The energy c o s t f a c t o r o r t h e t o t a l energy f o r a n a c t u a l s i t e 'can be ' o b t a i n e d by a d o u b l e i n t e g r a t i o n o v e r wind Because o f t h e s e n s i t i v i t y o f t h i s t y p e o f p l a n t t o b o t h w i n d d i r e c t i o n and speed, it w i l l be n e c e s s a r y f o r one t o c o n d u c t - a s i t e . w i n d s u r v e y u s i n g . i n s t r u m e n t s which : p r o v i d e d e t a i l e d annual w i n d d i r e c t o n d a t a a t . t h e s i t e i n i n c r e ments much.'more 'prec'ise than t h o s e o b t a i n e d from u s u a l weather s t a t i o n s . V a l u e g o f B i n increments o f t5O would be a p p r o p r i a t e . Fortunate1y;there ' a r e a number.of e s s e n t i a l l y unid i r e c t i o n a l wind s i t e s ' - i n t h e U n i t e d ' s t a t e s t h a t . a r e s u i t a b l e f o r a . Madaras r a c e t r a c k ' p l a n t . The c a u t i o n . we want t o o f f e r h e r e Is t h a t one must s e k e c t ,and s u r v e y t h e s i t e w i t h ' c a r e t o a s s u r e t h a t t h e ' p l a n t . - i s opt.imally o r i e n t e d and s i z e d , 7.5 COMPARISON OF M A D A R A S PLANTS W I T H HORIZONTAL AXIS WIND TURBINE GENERATOR (HA-WTG) PLANTS The purgfose o f t h i s p o r t i o n o f t h e r e p o r t i s t o compare t h e c o s t and p e r f o ' m a n c e ' c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e Madaras c o n c e p t d i r e c t i o n and speed.

and conventional HA-WTG plants in .order to determine whether.or not the Madaras concept shows promise 'of producing energy at lower cost than that 'from HA-WTG plants.. Since 'our-Madaras cost estimates ,include'provisions for a complete interconnecting the'output of a number of rotors.into. plant as well as provisions for roads, utilities, buildings and other plant facilities, it is not meaningful to compare Madaras plant performance with that of a .single HA-WTG, or with a number of isolated HA-WTG1s required to provide'an amount of power equal to that o f a .Madarasplant.

Mr.

S,T-

Hj.ght.ow~rand .A.W. Watts 09 the E U ~ P A U of

Reclamation, U.S. Department of the Interior, Denver, Colorado, have developed a design for a 49-unit array of MOD-1 HA-WTG1s to be installed next to s hydroelectric facility in Medicine Bow, Wyoming. 4 5 We selected this plant for comparison with the Madaras plant for several reasons: A complete plant design has been conducted, which included all components of a complete wind-powered .electrical power plant. Up-rated, MOD-1 WTG1s proposed for the plant, have had the benefit of considerable design and production study, and henee a r e representative of soon-to-be available large HA-WTG1s. Medicine.Bowls geographic and unidirectional wind characteristics are ideal for Madaras plants.

Our comparison of Madaras and HA-WTG plants is divided into two parts: (1) Medicine Bow siting (B= 9.7 m/s at 9 m height, an air density.ratioof 0.81 corresponding to the 7000 ft (2134 m) height of the 'MedicineBow plant site above sea level), and Federal financing; and (2) siting at a location having mean wind speeds of 8.1.m/s.at 9 m height, sea level air density, and private financing. Since the cost info,rmationfor the Medicine Bow HA-WTG plant is readily available, it will be used as a basis for comparison for both conditions studied.
The primary ground rules for the comparison are as

follows :

Cost estimates represent cost at the plant boundary. No substation or transmission line costs .are included. Costs based on 1978 dollars. Five-year construction period, with construction interest at 7 percent. Thirty-year plant life. and at other sites, Land cost at Medicine Bow is $200/acre~~ land cost was assumed to be $3000/acre. Only that land required for the operation of the plant.will be purchased. Thus, for Madaras plants the net land area,An (Reference Figure 7.1) would be purchased, and for the HAWTG plant a -457-mdiameter circle of land would be purchased, This size was recommended by Hightower in a telephone conversation. Capital fixed charge rate equal to 8.41 percent (excluding O&M) in accordance with Federal financing procedures46 for.!:.., Medicine Bow plants. Fixed charges of 15 percent will be used for plants privately financed in accordance with a personal communication with the Economic Planning section of the Detroit rEdison Company. Construction and-0and M costs in accordance with methods deemed most appropriate for each system. Identical learning curve equations are used for both systems.
7.5.1

Medicine Bow P.lant Comparison

..

The WTG array planned for the Bureau's HA-WTG site consists 01 Lkiee 'parallel', ataggesed rows having- 16, '17,and 16 turbines in each 'row,respectively. The turbines .are spaced in an equilateral triangular array, with'the sides of the triangle being.15 rotor diameters long (920 m), as recommended'by the General Electric Company. Each row of turbines is spaced about 795 m apart. Thus, the overall plant layout is about 14,700 m long (North-South perpendicular to the prevailing West wind) and about 1590 m wide. A total of 49, up-rated, 2 MW, MOD-1 HA-WTG's are proposed. A plant capacity of 98,000 kW and an annual output of 409.6 kW-hr per year are predicted for this plant. Hightower and Watts also

contemplated a second (and even a . t h i r d ) p l a n t of t h e same s i z e t o

b e i n s t a l l e d l a t e r s h o u l d t h e need arise. .We bave ' s e l e c t e d 'two HA-WTG p l a n t s . f o r t h i s s t u d y . One 'having 49 HA-WTG1s and one h a v i n g 98 HA-WTG1s. The Madaras p l a n t s most n e a r l y comparab.le t o t h e s e c o n v e n t i o n a l p . l a n t s are i t e m i z e d below. -Madaras P l a n t 44-25M 99,180 k W Rated 44-50M W Rated 191,430 k
HA-WTG

Plant

49 WTG 98,000 k W Rated

9 8 WTG 196,000 k W Rated.

I n a d d i t i o n t h e p e r f o r m a n c e ' o f t h e l a r g e. s t . Madaras . . plant.studied (4.4-60~): w i l l b e i t e m i z e d f o r r e f e r e n c e .purposes.

.The Madaras c o s t e s t i m a t e s developed i n Paragraph 7.3.2 were 're-combined i n . o r d e r t o . ' f a c i l i t a t e - a s n e a r l y a s p o s s i b l e t h e l i n e - b y - l i n e comparison w i t h t h e Bureau o f R e c l a m a t i o n p l a n t s . F u r t h e r , t h e s e e s t i m a t e s were a d j u s t e d t o meet t h e s t u d y g r o u n d . r u l e s ' and t h e c r i t e r i a s p e c i f i e d by Hightower. The methods used . f o r b o t h ' p l a n t t y p e s . a r e p r e s e n t e d i n Table 7.8 where t h e c o s t breakdown f o r Madaras Plant-48-25M and t h e 49r o t o r Bureau o f Reclamation p l a n t are c o m p a r e d - . The csit.eria f o r computing ..the v a r i o u s l i n e i t e m s . f o r ' t h e H A W T G p l a ~ r ta r e . l i s t e d . where .'known. The . b a s e s f o r t h e Madaras c o s t . e s t i m a t e s .a r e i n accordance w2th ' t h e i n f o r m a t i o n p r e s e n t e d i n . P a r a g r a p h 7.1,

7,2, and 7 . 3 a s w & l

i n Appendix B.

as t h e d e t a i l e d c o s t breakdown p r e s e n t e d
p l a n t s w e r e obtained

A l l c o s t s f o r t h e HA-WTG

from Reference 4.5. and from f u r t h e r c l a r i f i c a t i o n provided by Hightower. S i n c e h i s . e s t i n a t e s w e r e made ' i n 1977, a l l H A W T G . T h i s i n f l a t i o n r a t e w a s recommended c o s t s w e r e i n c r e a s e d by 7.5 p e r c e n t t o r e f l e c t . . t h e i n f l a t i o n during t h e l a s t year. by t h e D e t r o i t Edison Company.

TABLE 7.8 INSTALLED COST BREAKDOhx OF MADARAS PLANT 44-'25M AND 98,000 kW BUREAU OF RECLAMATION PLANT PROPOSED FOR MEDICINE BOW, WYOMING

ITEM

MADARAS 44-251 -.(99,180 kW) 106 Dollars (1978) 21.27 26.48

BUREAU OF RECLAMATION T(98.000 kWl In

'

1. 2.

ROTORS:

91 ea (85% Learning Curve)

49 ea %TG =

55.~2'~)

TRACK: 91 ea, 707 ft long units. (90% learning curve)

N/A

*
3.

ELECTRICAL CONYECTION Trolleys, P3wer Collection . Power Conditioning, Switchin< Control Systems e' Instrumentation TOTAL'

6.63 0.44 0.29

(1) Based on cost of $1410.94/ kW for the first production unit.

0 . 2 5

7.61

6.85

4.. SITE FACILITIES AND CONTINGENCIES a. Facilities Utilities and Roads e Buildings and Viaducts e Site Preparation TOTAL b. Contingencies 1 Spare Rotor Car General Contingencies TOTAL 110% of all Costs Above1 5. DESIGN, MANAG3MENT , ENGINEERING, OVERHEAD (22.7% Mechanical, 19..1% Construction, 2.5% Direct Costs for Design) 6. 7. LAND COST ALLOWANCE FOF. FUNrXS USED FOR LAND DURING C:ONSTKUCTION (AFUDC) (7% Compounded over 5 years) CONSTRUCTION INTEREST (1/2 E Items 1,2,3,4,5) x 7% x 5 years) TOTAL PLANT COST RATED CAPACITY INSTALLED CCST

0.18 6.55

6.24 2.37 1.38

15% WTG = 15% E1ec.Conn.a 9.99 Not Broken Out Included Above 6.73

8.33

1 . 0 2
9.35

(2) Overall Madaras plant dimensions are 9213 m long by 1468 m wide: BofR plant dimensions are 14,700 m long by 1590 m wide.

15% WTG = 8.33 30% Elect .Conn= 30% (6.85+1.02)== 14 -87 10.70 1988 acres 0.40 0.16 (2)

437 Acres

0 -09 0.03

8.

14.67

14.42

9. 10. 1.1

$101.74 99,180 kW $1026/k~

$ 9 7 . 4 0 98,000 kW $994/kW

The costs associated with the Madaras plant in Table 7.8 were 'c'omputed in accordance with 'th@ 'data. in Table 7.1 and .aquation12. However, ,since'Hightower's cost breakdown e.lements were different from those in Table 7.1, ,some of the 'Madarascost elements had to be subdivided in order to be directly comparable with Hightower's cost elements. Although Table '7.8 is fairly comments are in order. These will self-explanatory, some,'additional be presented in an item by item basis. 'I'tem 1 - This item represents the direct cost of 91 rotors. From Table '7.1 the direct cost of 28 rotors is $18,850,420, and the direct cost per rotor is $673,229. Thus, t.he cost of 91 rotors Lased on an 85 percent learning curve is: 91 x 673,229 x 0.34727 = $21.27 x 106, w t ~ r r eKN = 0 . 3 4 7 2 7 . The 22.7 peracnt indirect costs were included in Item 5 in Table 7.8, and construction interest was computed in accordance with methods used by Hightower. Items 2'and 3 - he Madaras plant cost breakdown combined costs of track, roads, utilities, and instrumentation into one cost element because these were all associated with track length. However, for the HA-WTG plant, track was not necessary, and Hightower presented electrical connection and roads and utilities in separate cost elements. Thus, the cost for utilities, track, and trolleys for the Madaras system from Table 7.1 and Equation 12 would normally ,be:

However, since only direct costs are to be compared at this point, a3 from Table 7-1 was redefined ac:

Thus, since the number of track units equals the number. of rotor cars (91), and since t equals 707 ft and Kt for a 90 percent learning curve equals 0.50376 for 91 units, the cost.of utilities, 6 track, and trolleys would be (a3)d NtKt = $39.6 x 10

In order to develop cost elements comparable to those of Hightower, this cost of .utilities,. track,',and trolleys was broken down further as .follows.: PLANT'44-2'5M Element a. b . c. d. Track Trolleys and Power Collec'tion Instrumentation Utilities and Roads TOTAL
'%

of To't'al 66.87 16.74 0.63 '15.76 100..00

'

106 Dolla'rs 26.48 6.63 0.25 6'. 24 $39.60 x

The percentage of each element in the above table was computed from the direct cost breakdown data in Appendix B, Section B.1, item D. Then, these 'percentages. were used to compute the dollar value of each 'of the above elements for each plant size. a is' The above example is .for Plant 44-25M. In Table 7.8, Element entered in Item 2, Elements'b and c are included in Item,3,and Element d is iccluded under Item 4. The remaining elements of Item 3 in Table 7.6 were obtained in the following manner. Power conditioning and switching cost - this was computed is used instead as shown in Equation 12 except that of a5 in order to obtain only the direct cost per MW of power conditioning and switching equipment. The value (a ) was obtained from Appendix B, Section B.1, Item F. ~hzs! + 96f000 = $4464,~ - 529f000 28 1 4 W Since PR = 99.18 MW for Plant 44-25Mf then the cost of this conditioning and switching equipment would be $0.44 x lo6 as shown in Table 7.8. As before, the indirect cost and construction interest costs are included in items 5 and 8, respectively. Control Systems- This direct cost is of computer control equipment, a line 'itemin Appendix B, Section B.1, Item F and is equal .to $0.29 x 106 as shown'in Table 7,6.

'Item .4 - Site facilities .and contingencies were included as one item in the 'Bureau of Rec'lamati-onstudy. These were estimated as a fixed percentage of WTG cost and electrical connection cost. The ?4adaras estimate for site facilites comes directly from our basic cost estimating procedure, and as a contingency, one complete, spare rotor car had been planned at the outset. In addition; we added a general contingency value of approximately 10 percent.of all direct costs excluding land. Thus, a total contingency of $6.73 million has been provided for Madaras plants in the interest of realism and asnservathsm, Thus, a total amount of $16.72 million has been proposed for'site facilities and contingencies of the Madaras plant, which we believe is a reasonable and conservative number to use in comparing the two plant types. One should recognize that the Madaras plant, while more complex., encompasses a smaller land area than the Bureau of Reclamation plant. Thus, the cost of electrical connection of WTG .units dispersed in three 14,700-m-long rows would probably exceed similar costs of the Madaras system. Item-5 Management, field engineering and overhead was provided for in our basic cost estimate. However, since Hightower indicated his study included plant design layout, an amount of about 2.5 percent of direct construction and mechanical costs was added to our estimate to cover this expense in accordance with recomendatiollsfrom our cost estimating consultant.
- ---6 - Land cost based on Medicine Bow estimates Item by Hightower were used for'both plants. ~ h e estimate of 1988 acres for the WTG was derived from Hightower's recommendation stated in the ground rules. Thus, only that .land indicated in Iteni 5 would be purchased; the balance would be used for agriculture. A pri,mary advantage of the 'Madaras system in this case 'is that the unused area (..the"infield" of a racetrack) would provide the owner with a 2904-acre, unobstructed area.of land (about 87 percent of the original amount) which could.be efficiently farmed. By way of contrast, not only does the HA-WTG plant require more land, but

only 66 percent of the involved area would be .available from a "park"44 of distributed HA-WTG's, and this land would be broken and criss-crossed by roads. .Item 7 - Allowance for Funds Used During Construction (AFUDC) - this item was computed in accordance : The land would be.purchased outright, with Hightower '.s.analysis and thus the -fundswould be .unavailable to earn int&rest during. the five-year construction.period. ~ h u s , a.compound interest charge at 7 percent per year was charged. The Det.roit Edison Company agreed .that this .rate. was reasonable.
'

Item 8 - Construction Interest - this item also was computed in accordance with Hightower's approach. It was assumed that during.construction funds would be committed gradually, and that the effect would be simple interest.at 7 percent on half the total plant cost (excluding land, which was covered in Item .7) over the five year construction period. The remainder of Table 7.8 is self explanatory. .The cost of the two plants is nearly .the. same, with the Madaras plant cost being about 4.4. percent higher, and the cost/k~. being One also will note that low cost land about 3.2 percent higher-.:. at $200/acre has negligible impact on plant cost.
.
.

The method. used for computing annual costs for . each type of plant based on.Federal financing -ratesis shown in Table 7.9. This procedure'proposed by Hightower and Watts for the Medicine Bow area, is fh accordance with 'eaonomic analyses used in ~overnment.: hydroe.lec':tric projects. 4 6
'

The annual charges were divided into three areas: (1) capital recovery on land investment; (2) annual fixed charges; and (3) operation and maintenance costs.
'

The capital recovery on land investment is simply a levelized annual charge based on 7 percent .c.ompound.:..interest over'a 30 year plant'life. .This chaxge is based not only on the interest on'the money land cost but 'also on .thecharge for loss .in' tied up in land pi~rchir,se during construction (AFUDC - Item 7, -8) Table '7

251

. .

TABLE 7.9' ANNUAL COST BREAKDCWN:OF MADARAS PLANT 44-25M AND 98,000 kW BUREAU OF RECLAMATION HA-WG PLANT PROPOSED FOR MEDICINE BOW, WYOMING
MADXRAS PLANT 44-25M

(99,180 kW)

BUREAU OF RECLAMATION H A W T G PLANT (98,000 kW) 0.01 Same C r i t e r i a 0.05

ITEM

10' D o l l a r s (1978)
C R = 0.0806 (0.087+0.035)= (Includes land c o s t + AFUDC cost i n c u r r e d d u r i n g 5-year cons t r u c t i o n period)

lo6

D o l l a r s 1978

1.

CAPITAL RECOVERY O N L A N D ZNVESFMEm 7 PERCENT COMPOUND INTIREST, IEVEL PAYMENT OVEP. 30 YEARS

2.

A N N U A L FIXEI: CHARGES, FEDERAL FINANCING.

I n t e r e s t Rats 7 .00% D e p r e c i a t i o n ( S i n k i n g Fund) 1-06% I n t e r i m Replacement 0.35% 8.41% 8.41% ( P l a n t C o s t Less Land C o s t ) 8.55 OhCI BASE D i r e c t C o s t s ( I t e m s 1, 2 , 3 , 4 a , T a b l e 7.8) Contingencies E n g i n e e r i n g and Overhead e. Land C o s t TOTAL BASE

Same C r i t e r i a 8.14 O&M BASE WTG C o s t @ C o s t o f 1 0 0 t h U n i t Based o n 85% L e a r n i n g Curve Electrical Connect i o n s Land C o s t Site Facilities 15%x36 -00 (WTG) 1 5 % 6.85 ~ (Elec. Conn ) TOTAL BASE 2% o f 06M Base

3.

OPERATION AND MAINTENAECE

65.35 6.73 14.07 0.09 87.04

36.00 6.85 0.40 5.40 1.03 49.68 0 -99

2% o f 06M Base
4.

1.74 10.30

TOTAL A N N U A L COST

9.18 409 -6 x 10 6 kW-hr/yr

5.

PERFORMANCE .9ND ENERGY COST Annual Energy Y i e l d Plant Factor 412.0 x 1 0 6 kW-hr/yr 0.47 25 .Dmills/kW-hr 0 -48 22 -4 Milis/kW-hr

Energy C o s t

*Medicirae Bow Wind D u r a t i o n Curve and A i r D e n s i t y R a t i o o f 0.81,

S t a n d a r d Atmosphere.

The annual f i x e d c h a r g e and i t s components i s d e s c r i b e d f u l l y i n Table 7.9, c o s t l e s s land. and it i s a p p l i e d t o t o t a l p l a n t

The b a s i s used by Hightower and Watts f o r comThey assumed t h a t O&M c o s t s p u t i n g O&M i s shown i n Table 7.9. would be based on a l l 49 W T G ' s having a u n i t . c o s t e q u a l t o t h e 1 0 0 t h i t e m u s i n g an 85 p e r c e n t l e a r n i n g c u r v e . They a l s o i n c l u d e d l a n d c o s t , e l e c t r i c a l c o n n e c t i o n s , and s i t e f a c i l i t i e s ( a l s o reduced from Table 7.8 v a l u e s due t o t h e r e d u c t i o n i n W T G c o s t ) . T h e i r e s t i m a t e t h a t O&M c o s t s should be 2 p e r c e n t of W T G c o s t s was . o b t a i n e d from General E l e c t r i c , and f o r c o n s e r v a t i s m , O&M c o s t s s h o u l d a l s o i n c l u d e 2 p e r c e n t of t h e o t h e r i t e m s . l i s t e d , Our p r e v i o u s e s t i m a t e s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h i , s approach t o d e v e l o p i n g t h e b a s e f o r O&M would n o t be meaningful f o r t h e Madaras system. I n s t e a d , we assumed t h a t a l . 1 d i r e c t , i n d i r e c t , . a n d . l a n d c o s t s ( l e s s i n t e r e s t ) were a p p r o p r i a t e f o r an O&M b a s e l F u r t h e r , t o account f o r unforeseen c o s t s , t h e $6.73 m i l l i o n e a l s o used a 2 contingency amount was i n c l u d e d i n t h e ' b a s e . W p e r c e n t f a c t o r f o r O&M r e l a t i v e t o . t h i s b a s e , i n accordance w i t h e b e l i e v e t h i s approach i s p r o p e r , our basic c o s t study r e s u l t s . W and c e r t a i n l y c o r r e c t . r e l a t i v e t o t h e HA-WTG, which s h o u l d n o t r e q u i r e a s l a r g e an a n n u a l e x p e n d i t u r e f o r O&M a s t h e Madaras s y s tem.. The 'computation of t h e performance and energy c o s t Here, . t h e a c t u a l a i r d e n s i t y r a t i o o f 0.81, completes Table 7.9, c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o . a n a l t i t u d e o f 7000 f t (2134 m) above s e a l e v e l , was used t o compute t h e annual o u t p u t and p l a n t f a c t o r o f b o t h t y p e s of p l a n t s . Thus, t h e performance r e s u l t s i n Table 7.9 r e p r e s e n t t h e combined e f f e c t s of t h e Medicine Bow wind d u r a t i o n c u r v e . a n d a i r d e n s i t y r a t i o , whereas r e s u l t s i n Table 7.7 r e f l e c t t h e e f f e c t of t h e Medicine Bow wind d u r a t i o n c u r v e a l o n e . Since t h e annual c o s t of Nadaras P l a n t 44-25M a r e a b o u t 1 2 p e r c e n t h i g h e r and t h e annual y i e l d i s o n l y s l i g h t l y h i g h e r (0.6 p e r c e n t ) t h a n t h o s e of t h e HA-WTG p l a n t , t h e 25.0 mill/kW-hr energy c o s t

p r e d i c t e d f o r P l a n t 44-25M i s a b o u t 1 2 p e r c e n t h i g h e r t h a n t h a t of the H A W T G p l a n t . : I n v i e w o f t h i s small d i f f e r e n c e i n energy

c o s t d i f f e r e n c e and t h e ' u n c e r t a i n t i e s ' . i n v o l v e d ' i n p r e d i c t i n g t h e A W T G systems c o s t and performance 'of b o t h ' t h e Madaras .and t h e H w e b l i e v e t h a t : t h = s ' e r e s u l t s do n o t ' n e c e s ' s a r i l y i n d i c a t e s u p e r i o r i t y .of o n e system over t h e o t h e r .
The d a t a f o r t h e comparison o f t h e t h r e e ~ a d a ' r a s and two HA-WTG p l a n t s p r e v i o u s l y m e n t i 0 n e d . i ~ presented i n T a b l e 7.10. Data p e r t a i n i n g t o p l a n t geometry, performance, and i n s t a l l e d c o s t , a n n u a l c o s t , and gnergy a o g t are p r e s e n t e d . (1) p l a n t I D numbers 1 t o The t a b l e i s . d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e p a r t s :
3 which p e r t a i n t o Medicine Bow p l a n t s ;

( 2 ) p l a n t I D numbers 4

t o 6 which p e r t a i n t o t h e same p l a n t s designed f o r Medinine BOW b u t s i t u a t e d a t sites where

= 8.1

m/s;

and ( 3 ) p l a n t I D numbers

7 and 7a which are t h e same a s P l a n t s 5 and 5a b u t do n o t i n c l u d e l a n d c o s t i n , t h e i r c o s t a n a l y s i s . The f i r s t p a r t of Table 7.10

w i l l be d i s c u s s e d h e r e .
Paragraph 7.5.2.

The o t h e r p a r t s w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n

I n T a b l e 7.10 a l l p l a n t s having o n l y a numerical I D number a r e M a d a r a s , p l a n t s , and t h o s e w i t h t h e l e t t e r a suffix a r e HA-WTG p l a n t s . P l a n t s t o b e comapred d i r e c t l y have t h e Thus, P l a n t 1 and 1 a same numerical p a r t o f t h e I D number.

are t o be c3mpared, e t c .
The 'methods u s e d . t o compute t h e c o s t a n d energy c o s t o f a l l of t h e s e p l a n t s w e r e ' i d e n t i c a l t o t h o s e d e s c r i b e d i n T a b l e s 7.8 and 7;9. W e a l r e a d y have compared P l a n t s 1 and l a ( t h o s e h r v i ~ i yPR = 98 Ni) and iioted t h a t t h e Madaras p l a n t energy c o s t was n u m e x i c a l l y a b o u t 1 2 ' p e r c e n t hi:gher t h a n those o f t h e
HA-WTG

p l a n t h a v i n g 49 wind t u r b i n e s a t Medicine Bow, Wyoming.

P l a n t s 2 and 2a a r e t w i c e t h e s i z e a s P l a n t s 1 and l a , w i t h . t h e r a t e d c a p a c i t y o f P l a n t 2a b e i n g a b o u t 2 p e r c e n t l a r g e r t h a n P l a n t 2. Because 'of. economy o f scale, b o t h p l a n t s p r o v i d e d e n e r g y a t reduced c o s t o v e r P l a n t s 1 and l a ; however, t h e Madaras P l a n t 2 energy c o s t o f 20.5 mills/kW-hr i s o n l y 4 percent higher'than H A W T G P l a n t 2a. Thus, as t h e s i z e of t h e

TABLE 7.10 OVERALL COMPARISON OF. SEVERAL MADARAS AND HA-WTG PLANTS A T TWO WIND REGIONS

PLANT ID

NO.

PLANT DESIGNATION

PLANT LENGTH

PLANT WIDTH m

PLANT
AREA

Acre

NET AREA PURCHASED Acre

PLANT GEOMETRY TRACK PERIMETER m

NVneER ROTORS/

ROTO

I -

WTG

WFG $1 SPACING m

I @
9 m W s

PERPORMANCE (71 RATED ANNUAL PLANT "R CAPACITY OUTPUT PAClVR @ 9 m n~ )10bkw-hr I m/s

"a

ii -.
mw c a
O d

I>

2 @

44-50 191.43 No Land Cost HA-WTG 196.0MW NO Land Cost

16,863

1468

61i5

660

34,910

162

215

8.1

191.43

819.5

0.49

13.4

14,700

3975

'14,457

3976

N/A

98

920

8.1

196.0

725.2

0.42

li.2

1 (2)' (31 (41 (51 (61

W l ' G spaced in three rows, Scaggered, equllatrral triangular array at 15 rotor diameter (d = 61 m l Continqencies in H A - W G plant inched in site and facilities figure. Includes allowance for funds used during construction, due to outright purchase of land. The suffix letter. 1 refers to Medicine Bow plants? all others for wind duration curve = 8.1 Ms. Continqencies for HA-WTG plants are included in the electrical connection cost. Pixed charges for Medicine Bow plants based on Federal financing at fixed charge of 8.41 percent. A11 others, fixed charge = 15 percent. (7). Based on air density ratio of 0.81-7000 ft(2134ml above msl.

p l a n t doubled, , t h e energy c o s t advantage o f t h e H A W T G plant dropped from 1 2 p e r c e n t t o 4 p e r c e n t . One a l s o c a n see t h a t a s t h e Madaras p l a n t s i z e i n c r e a s e s f u r t h e r t o 227.77 MW ( P l a n t I D 3 ) , t h e e n e r g y c o s t d e c r e a s e s t o 19.6 mills/kW-hr. S i n c e no l i m i t a t i o n i , n Madaras plant' s i z e 'has been found, f u r t h e r r e d u c t i o n i n energy c o s t seems p o s s i b l e . Thus i t a p p e a r s from t h i s comparison t h a t Madaras p l a n t s show promise o f producing energy a t a c o s t n e a r l y e q u a l t o and p o s s i b l y lower t h a n comparable HA-WTG p l a n t s . The r e a s o n s for t h e promise of better economy o f t h e M a d a r a s . p l a n t s . a r e t h e i r n o n l i n e a r improvement o f annual e n e r g y y i e l d w i t h s i z e , t h e i r b e t t e r a b i l i t y t o b e n e f i t from
i

cost r e d u c t i o n through..mass . p r o d u c t i o n , and t h e i r requirement f o r less l a n d f o r a given r a t e d . p l a n t c a p a c i t y .

Madaras p l a n t s h a v i n g r a c e t r a c k p l a n t l a y o u t s i n c r e a s e i n performance and economy n o n l i n e a r l y a s t h e l e n g t h o f t h e s t r a i g h t s e c t i o n i n c r e a s e s . T h i s t r e n d i s shown i n A s t h e l e n g t h 'of t h e s t r a i g h t t r a c k i n c r e a s e s , F i g u r e 7.5. t h e l o s s e s a t . t h e c i r c u l a r ends.become a s m a l l e r . and s m a l l e r p a r t o f t h e a v e r a g e power . p e r r o t o r p e r o r b i t ; a n d p l a n t power i n c r e a s e s n o n l i n e a r l y as shown i n . t h e f o l l o w i n g e q u a t i o n :

where
N i s t h e 'number o f r o t o r s

p1 i s t h e n e t power o u t p u t o f a s i n g l e r o t o r a t a g i v e n wind and t r a c k s p e e d , Cn l.s the mutual interfsr-encsr faclor-. The t e r m pl i n c r e a s e s t o a maximum a s t h e l e n g t h o f s t r a i g h t t r a c k approache$ i n f i n i t y .
I f c a r spacing is kept constant,

t h e n f n does n o t change, and P i s t h e n a f u n c t i o n o f N and Thus, as t h e , s t r a i g h t t r a c k l e n g t h i n c r e a s e s a t i n t e r v a l s P1' which'permit t h e addition of c a r s w i t h o u t a f f e c t i n g f n , not

o n l y w i l l t h e power i n c r e a s e bec'ause of t h e i n c r e a s e i n N, b u t a l s o t h e power p e r c a r , P1, w i l l increase.' These two i n c r e a s e s t h e n w i l l combi'ne.to i n c r e a s e n o t o n l y r a t e d power, b u t a l s o annual energy o u t p u t . Comparison o f P l a n t s 1 and 2. demonstrates t h i s e f f e c t w e l l . Although t h e s t r a i g h t t r a c k l e n g t h ' o f P l a n t 2 i s t w i c e t h a t of. p l a n t 1, t h e t r a c k p e r i m e t e r . and number o f c a r s of P l a n t 2 a r e . 78 p e r c e n t g r e a t e r t h a n t h o s e of P l a n t 1; however, r a t e d c a p a c i t y and annual energy o u t p u t of P l a n t 2 a r e 93 p e r c e n t g r e a t e r than t h e i r c o u n t e . r p a r t s i n , P l a n t 1. Obviously, t h i s e f f e c t d e c r e a s e s as t r a c k i n c r e a s e s . On t h e o t h e r hand, HA-WTG p l a n t o u t p u t i s s t r i c t l y l i n e a r w i t h number o f r o t o r s (provided t h e y a r e n o t spaced t o o c l o s e l y t o g e t h e r ) , and t h e HA-WTG p l a n t c a p a c i t y and e n e r g y o u t p u t cannot b e n e f i t irom economy o f s c a l e from t h e performance s t a n d p o i n t as can t h e Madaras p l a n t . One o f . t h e major reasons f o r . t h e ' c o s t improvement o f t h e Madaras p l a n t s over t h a t o f t h e HA-WTG p l a n t s was t h e c o s t d e c r e a s e ' r e s ' u l t i n g from a p p l i c a t i o n o f l e a r n i n g c u r v e s . Although f o r t h e s e c o s t s t u d i e s , o n l y one p l a n t o f each t y p e was planned, t h e '1arges't.number'of Madaras r o t o r s ( 9 1 i n P l a n t 1 compared t o 49 W T G 1 s .iri P l a n t l a ) enabled t h e l e a r n i n g curve t o work more toward . t h e b e n e f i t o f t h e Madaras p l a n t . W e b e l i e v e t h a t t h i s l e a r n i n g c u r v e ' c o s t improvement i s v a l i d f o r t h e number of u n i t s p r o p o s e d . f o r . t h i s s t u d y , and probably could improve much more i f a major assembly l i n e c o u l d b e e s t a b l i s h e d t o b u i l d r o t o r c a r s f 0 r . a number of p l a n t s . However-,. t h e e x t e n t t o which such improvement c o u l d c o n t i n u e w i l l . r e q u i r e f u r t h e r s t u d y a s w e l l a s t h e l o c a t i o n o f a s u f f i c i e n t number o f a c c e p t a b l e sites. f o r b u i l d i n g a number o f Madaras p l a n t s . However, i f many more HA-WTG p l a n t s t h a n Madaras p l a n t s a r e o r d e r e d , a r e v e r s a l o f t h e . t r e n d . c o u l d occur. The f i n a l economic advantage o f a Madaras p l a n t o v e r an HA-WTG plant. i s t h a t a Madaras p l a n t uses less l a n d p e r MW o f r a t e d p l a n t c a p a c i t y , and t h e Madaras p l a n t l a n d use i s more e f f i c i e n t and conducive t o c o e x i s t i n g o p e r a t i o n s w i t h This f e a t u r e a g r i c u l t u r e (.and even i n d u s t r y and/or.co-rce). was mentioned b e f o r e ; however, u s i n g d a t a from Table 7.10 t h e comparative v a l u e s o f acre/MW a r e shown i n Table 7.11.

TABLE 7.11 MADARAS VERSUS HA-WTG LAND USAGE EFFECTIVENESS

,

PLANT ID 1 la 2 2a 3

NET ACRE/MW 4.41 20.29 3.45 20.29 3.28

.LAND PURCHASED NET .ACRES 437 1988 660 3976 748

RATED MW 99 -18 98 .OO 191.43 196 -00 227.77

Thus, not only does this data indicate the Madaras plant is less land intensive, the-data show again how economy of scale improves .forMadaras plants but not for HA-WTG plants. Table .7:-11. shows another interesting compari.son of land.uee effectiveness. Note that ~ia.nh '3. can proauce 2.32 times the power of Plant la on .only 37.6 percent of the land purchased for Plant la. However, at Medicine Bow,,where .the,land is very inexpensive, the land cost is only about 0.6 percent of Plant la cost, and hence has neqliqible effect on enerqy cost at Medicine Bow. 7.5.2 Wind Comparison of Plants at Sites Having-Me.9-n Duration Curves of 8.1 m/s at 9-m Height

'

The basic ground rules for this program required = 8.1 m/s at a 9-m height the use of a wind duration curve having to predict Madaras plant performance. Thi-s.was.done in section 6 and.7, and here we want to compare , , Madaras and HA-WTG pl'ants at these sites. In addition, since the Medicine Bow study was based on use of Federal ,financing and inexpensive.land, it was decided to determine 'the'effect of using 15 percent annual fixed charges as rec0mmended.b~ the.DetroitEdison Company and price air density was used. the land at $3000 per acre..Finally, .sea level . . With these. changes, it was believed that results would apply to a wider. ..range of'sites. The results of.this study are.'presented in the second part of Table 7.10 (I.D Numbers 4 to 6).

all cost analysis procedures were the same as before; however, only the different.valuesbased on the new criteria are presented in Table 7.10. Note that it.was assumed O&M costs wouldbe the fixed charge same as at Medicine 'Bow,and that the '15'percent was charged.against the total plant cost.Further, annual output for the WTG's was obtained direct1.y from the General Electric paper on the 2000 kW MOD-1 WTG presented at the Third Wind Energy Workshop,43 In Reference 43, ~enerdlElectric predicted annual.energy output from the MOD-1 HA-WTG would be 7.4 x 106 kW-hr/year for,each unit, assuming 90 percentWTG availability. 6kW-hr 0 ' Thus ,:annual .output for'a .49 ,unitplant 'would be 362..6 x 1
'

The larger percentage.difference between annual energy. output. of Plants.' 4 over -4a (16.9 percent). compared to that la (0.6 percent).. is mos.tly due to the 90 of Plant 1 over..Plant by ~enerai percent availability (I0 percent derating),,specified Electric for their MOD-1 in the = .8.l m/s region. Hightower and Watts assumed 100 percent availab.ility in their Medicine Bow study, and 100.percent.availabilityfor the Madaras system = 8.1 m/s was assumed at both 'the.MedicineBow and the regions. In both regions, we used the annual outputs without modification.that were predicted for the MOD-1 by Hightower and source of the remaining Watts.and by.Genera1.Electric. Thus, ..t.he between 6 percent difference in the MOD-1 energy.yi.eld.prediction .Medicine.Bow and the other region is unknown'. . Possibly the fact that the General Electric study reflected a more recent analysis .explains. the difference. Apparently,.GeneralElectric believed it was.realistic to'assume a 90 percent availability one completely-assembled, for the MOD-1, However, .becauseoperational..spare rotor car-,and .ample financial provisions for have:been provided for spare parts 'and,preventative.'maintenance :is .realistic. to assume 100 each ,Madaras plant, we believe.'it percent availability for the 'Madarasplants.. ,It.is interesting to note that the air density e f f e c t on annual output was suc.h:that.the annual energy output i n the 8.1 m/s region was greater than that at Medicine Bow where

m/s r e s u l t s w e r e r e v e r s e d from t h o s e a t Medicine Bow. Madaras P l a n t 4 e n e r g y c o s t was p r e d i c t e d t o be a b o u t 1 4 p e r c e n t l e s s t h a n energy c o s t o f P l a n t 4a and Madaras P l a n t 5 energy c o s t was p r e d i c t e d t o b e 2 2 p e r c e n t less t h a n energy from HA-WTG P l a n t 5a. The c o s t o f l a n d had a marked e f f e c t on HA-WTG p l a n t c o s t ( 9 p e r c e n t o f p l a n t c o s t f o r P l a n t 5a) whereas t h e l a n d c o s t f o r P l a n t 5 w a s o n l y 1 . 7 p e r c e n t o f t o t a l p l a n t c o s t , Although t h e i n s t a l l e d cost/kW of P l a n t 1 w a s s l i q h t l y h i g h e r t h a n t h a t of P l a n t l a a t Medicine Bow, t h e Madaras P l a n t 4 had a lower i n s t a l l e d c o s t / kW t h a n P l a n t 4a -a r e v e r s a l of t r e n d b r o u g h t a b o u t by l a n d c o s t . Thus, t h e more e f f e c t i v e u s e of l a n d by Madaras p l a n t s h e l p e d t o improve t h e i r economic p o s i t i o n r e l a t i v e t o HA-WTG plants.
S i n c e t h e a c t u a l p r i c e one would have t o ' pay f o r

Although t h e i n c r e a s e d c o s t s used f o r t h e V = 8.1 r e g i o n i n c r e a s e d t h e energy c o s t of each p l a n t , t h e comparative

l a n d f o r a wind-powered e l e c t r i c p l a n t i s s p e c u l a t i v e , we conducted one more comparison t o determine t h e s e n s i t i v i t y o f energy c o s t from t h e s e two p l a n t t y p e s t o l a n d c o s t i n a V = 8 . 1 m / s r e g i o n . The r e s u l t s o f t h i s s t u d y a r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e b o t t o m s e c t i o n o f Table 7.10: P l a n t s 7 and 7a. Here, we assumed no l a n d c o s t , a $3000 p e r a c r e d e c r e a s e . These two p l a n t s are comparable t o P l a n t s 5 and 5a, r e s p e c t i v e l y . One can s e e t h a t t h e 40.8 m i l l p e r KW-hr energy c o s t o f P l a n t 5a i s 22.2 p e r c e n t higher than' t h e enerqy c o s t f o r P l n a t 5. By e l i m i n a t i n g Thus, l a n d l a n d c o s t , t h i s s p r e a d was reduced t o 13.7 p e r c e n t . t h a n i n a Madaras p l a n t .

c o s t i s a more i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i n energy c o s t of an HA-WTG p l a n t S i n c e Madaras p l a n t s u t i l i z e l a n d more e f f i c i e n t l y , t h e i r c o m p e t i t i v e p o s i t o n r e l a t i v e t o HA-WTG p l a n t s w i l l improve a s . l a n d . c o s t s a r e i n c l u d e d i n t h e . a n a l y s i s . 7.5.3

HA-W'YG

Summary of Madara's v e r s u s P l a n t Compa.rison The s t u d y p r e v i o u s l y d e s c r i b e d was conducted on

an e q u i t a b l e b a s i s f o r b o t h p l a n t s f o r two wind regimes, t h r e e lcrnd c o s t l e v e l s , and two methods o f f i n a n c i n g , F e d e r a l - and p r i v a t e .

W e have sought e x p e r t p r o f e s s i o n a l a s s i s t a n c e i n d e v e l o p i n g o u r b a s i c c o s t e s t i m a t e , and w e b e l i e v e we have been c o n s e r v a t i v e y e t r e a l i s t i c i n d e v e l o p i n g t h e c o s t f o r t h e Madaras p l a n t s . F u r t h e r , we b e l i e v e t h a t o u r c o s t s and c o n t i n g e n c i e s are comparable t o o r more c o n s e r v a t i v e compared t o t h o s e developed by o t h e r s f o r HA-WTG p l a n t s . F i n a l l y , we have had s e v e r a l communications w i t h Hightower, and have been a s s u r e d t h a t we were i n t e r p r e t i n g h i s r e s u l t s c o r r e c t l y and e q u i t a b l y . For t h i s s t u d y we have used o u r b e s t e s t i m a t e s on f i n a n c i n g and l a n d c o s t s , based upon a d v i c e r e c e i v e d from o u r c o n s u l t a n t s and a d v i s o r s . W e r e a l i z e t h a t higher fixed c h a r g e r a t e s and f i n a n c i n g schemes a r e proposed by o t h e r i n v e s t i g a t o r s . Yet, we have a p p l i e d t h e f i n a n c i n g formulas i d e n t i c a l l y t o b o t h systems, and a s t u d y of t h e d a t a i n d i c a t e t h a t s i n c e t h e p l a n t c o s t s of t h e two system t y p e s a r e s i m i l a r , n e i t h e r one w i l l be p a r t i c u l a r l y f a v o r e d by t h e f i n a n c i n g scheme s e l e c t e d , even i f h i s h e r f i x e d c h a r g e s a r e a s s e s s e d . Thus, we conclude t h a t t h e s t u d y was a d e q u a t e t o compare t h e c o s t e f f e c t i v e n e s s of one p l a n t a g a i n s t t h e o t h e r , which was t h e s t u d y ' s main purpose. On t h e o t h e r hand, w e b e l i e v e t h a t t h e v a l u e s o f energy c o s t c o n t a i n e d i n Table 7.10 s h o u l d be looked upon a s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e and comparative c o s t s more t h a n a s a b s o l u t e v a l u e s u n t i l a more d e t a i l e d s t u d y i s conducted. The r e s u l t s of t h i s s t u d y i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e Madaras system c o u l d b e . a n a t t r a c t i v e a l t e r n a t i v e , from an energy c o s t s t a n d p o i n t , t o h o r i z o n t a l a x i s wind t u r b i n e s . W e were p a r t i c u l a r l y encouraged by t h e f a v o r a b l e way i n which o u r nonoptimized Madaras d e s i g n seems t o have compared w i t h t h e MOD-1 WTG, which h a s had t h e b e n e f i t of s e v e r a l i n t e n s i v e d e s i g n and manufacturing s t u d i e s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , we b e l i e v e i t i s premature t o s t a t e d e f i n i t e l y t h a t t h e Madaras system i s more o r less c o s t e f f e c t i v e t h a n HA-WTG systems -a much more d e t a i l e d system d e s i g n and manufacturing a n a l y s i s i s r e q u i r e d b e f o r e such a s t a t e m e n t c o u l d be made w i t h c o n f i d e n c e .

SECTION VIII CONCLUS.IONS This conceptua.1design study of the Madaras Rotor.Power Plant included an analysis of all major components of the Madaras system, has addressed each of the four unanswered questions itemized in Paragraph 1.5, and has fulfilled the basic study objective delineated in Paragraph 2.1. As a result of this analysis, it is believed that a reasonably efficient conceptual design; which is consistent from criteria and loads to cost, has been.developed. It also is believed that the analyses have.provided a satisfactory critique of Madaras' early work, and.has discussed all major problem areas as well as all primary advantages of ,the system. The more significant conclusions drawn from this study are itemized below. 1 . The Madaras Rotor Power Plant concept using a racetrack plant configuration appears at least to be economically competitive with horizontal axis wind.turbine generators, and the concept shows promise of out-performing horizontal axis systems from a number of standpoints: structural durability, economy of scale, energy yield, effkc'ient use.of land, and energy cost. The results of'this study indicate that,'although at'this stage of analysis, the concept does not appear to-offera substantial economic improvement in wind energy conversion technology, Madaras racetrack-plant energy cost varied from 12 percent higher to 22 percent lower than the energy cost of .MOD-1 plants. It is believed that these results are conservative since we believe our methods of analyses have overstated electrical spin-up losses and mutual interference losses for racetrack plants. This potential Madaras cost advantage, although attractive, is diminished by the-Madaras arising from a possible scarcity of system's .limited.application large, flat, land areas having sufficiently unidirectional wind velocities. Although more e'ff ici-entHA-WTG systems (MOD-2) are being developed, it is believed that more efficient Madaras systems can be developed given the opportunity to conduct the

design and development studies comparable to those that have been conducted for horizontal axis machinery. It is ,believed that the 125-ft high (38-m) Madaras rotor offers a superior structural alternative to the 200-ft to 300-ft (61 m to 91 m) diameter, flexible, wind-turbine blades when subjected to wind, gust, and tower loads. Thus, the Madaras system should be analyzed further in order to determine more accurately how well it fulfills the promise indicated in this present study. 2. Capital costs of installed Madaras plants are about the same as those of horizontal axis wind turbine plants. Neither the Madaras plant nor the horizontal axis wind turbine plant seemed to gain an advantage over the other i~ terms of energy cost as fixed annual charge rate was varied. 3. Madaras plants having rated capacities varying from 7.9 MW to over 227 MW with annual energy output varying from 32 x 106 kW-hx to 975 x 106 kW-hr are feasible. No limitations were noted that would restrict maximum plant capacity to 227 MW. In fact, improved efficiency is highly probable as plant size increases. Thus, Madaras plants are capable of providing plant capacities of interest to electric utility companies.

4. The.most efficient Madaras plant studied is described as follows:

Rotor and Car Geometry 6 Aspect Ratio = 8 e Rotor Diameter = 16 ft (4.9 m) Cylinder Length = 12.5 ft (38.1 m) End Cap Diameter = 32 ft (9.8 m) e e/d. Ratio = 2 Rotor Car Weight = 723,000 lb (328,600 kg) Rotor Mid-Height = 82 ft (25 m) above ground Plant Geometry --- - Racetrack, two rails, 36 ft (11 m) Track end diameter = 4500 ft (1372 m) Track straight section = 60,000 ft (18,300 m) Area Encompassed = 7209 acres Net Area Purchased = 748 acres (Balance of racetrack infield used for agriculture.) Number of Rotor Cars = 190 6 Spacing between Rotors = 705 ft (215 m)
. .
-

Operational Conditions Track Speed = 30 mph (13.4 m/s) Rated Wind Speed = 30 mph (13.4 m/s) Cut-Out Windspeed = 65 mph (29 m/s) Rotor Rotational Speed = 186 rpm Viscous Braking Electrical Eaui~ment Spin Motor, 450 kW, 500 Volt dc Generator = 1 MW'per car, Induction Generator, 4160 V, 60 Hz, 30 Performance Rated Capacity = 227.8 MW Annual Energy Yield = 947.7 @ 9 m 975.4 t ! 9m Cost
a

x 106kW-hr @ 7 = 9.7 m/s height and an elevation of 2130 x lo6 kW-hr @ = 8.1 m/s height at sea l~veP,

= 9.7 m/s, 8.41% Federal Financing, Land Cost @ $200/acre Plant Cost = $183.5 x 106

V = 8.1 m/s, 15% Private Financing, Land Cost @ $3000/acre 6 Plant Cost = $186.4 x 10 Unit CosL = $818/kW 6 Total Atl~lualCost = $31.08 x 10 Energy Cost = 31.4 mills/kW-hr

Unit Cost = $806/kW Total Annual Cost = $18.08 x 106 Energy Cost = 31.4 mills/kW-hr

5. Madaras plants having circular track configurations were not sufficiently efficient to compete with horizontal axis wind machines. Circular track plants are limited primarily by the large electrical losses of the spin motor during spin-up and spin-down. These large electrical spin-up and spin-down losses constitute a major performance penalty for aircular-atrack Madaras plants, and the study of these losses deserves considerably more attention than was possible to allot in the study reported herein. Thus, it appears that useful Madaras p l a n t s could be restricted to racetrack configurations unless means for substantially reducing electrical spin-motor losses are found. Possible methods for reducing spin-motor losses' include:

Development of optimized spin-sch.edules Improved motor efficiency during spin-up

e

Reduction in rotor weight, radius of gyration, and end plate size Improved rotor bearings Reduced rotor design rpm Use of transmissions during spin-up Development of a method for conserving inertial energy.

The potential problem areas and disadvantages,of the Madaras system relative to horizontal wind turbine plants are: 6 The Madaras system is more complex, has higher losses, and will require higher operation and maintenance costs than a horizontal axis wind turbine system. e Unless electrical and aerodynamic design improvements are.made,the use of a racetrack 'plantconfiguration is necessary for optimum Madaras plant performance. Thus, Madaras plants will be limited to regions having nearly unidirectional winds or-tothose regions in which off-axis winds have an angular variation of less than + 4 S 0 and which occur only a small portion of a total-year.
6.
, ,

7. The advantages of a Madaras Plant over a comparablysized horizontal.axiswind turbine plant are: A rotating cylinder rotor structure is simpler and can be built to have greater structural strength, durability, and reliability compared to large, flexible rotor blades exposed to a wind and gust environment. Madaras plants show higher sensitivity to economy of scale. a Madaras plants make more efficient use of land and use less land than HA-WTG plants.
8. Although the losses of a Madaras plant are significantly larger than those of a horizontal axis wind tur.bine plant; the large area swept by the rotors overcomes the total losses to such an extent that the Madaras system appcars to compete with horizontal axis wind machine plants on a cost per annual energy output bases. 9. Power required to rotate the rotor is markedly influenced by the end plate diameter rather than by cylinder le~lyth. Therefore, a significant reduction in electrical spin-up power

requirements, and hence a.reduction of electrical -lossesmay be achieved by one or more of the following cylinder and end plate design approaches: Rotating cylinder with a fixed end plate Large diameter, non-rotating end plate in which a smaller-diameter, .flush-mounted,rotating end plate is housed. Rotating cylinder with nonpowered, .freewheeling end plates Fixed cylinder and end plates with boundary layer blowing and suction on the cylinder and/or end plates.
Wii~d Lunnel tests would have to

determina whether or not any of these approaches will provide an improved costperformance ratio.
t.n

be conducted

10. A complete set of free stream and boundary layer rotating cylinder data in terms of rotor geometry and operating conditions.wasobtained. Data included lift, drag, moments caused by lift and drag, and rotor power required as a function of wind speed and rotor rpm. These data are the most extensive and complete set 'of infoxmation.onrotating cylinder performance versus geometry and wind speed profile available in the literature. The data set appears consistent within its own parametric boundaries and also is in agreement with recent and early data obtained in the mid-to-late 1920's which was used by Madaras. 11, The wind tunnel aerodynamia data obtained during this program are capable of being used directly to predict full-sized cylinder performance i . n a free stream flow whi..ch creat.es a uniform wind velocity distribution along the height of the cylinder. This direct utilization is possible because free stream Reynnlds number not govern scaling of model data to full-scale results when the rotor rotational surface speed to resultant wind speed ratio (U/V) is greater than 1.0. For predicting rotor performance in the atmospheric boundary layer, the wind tunnel data must be comhined with a model which develops the resultant velocity profile along the height of the cylinder. The required model yield=

a resultant spiral velocity distribution versus cylinder height after the vector combination of: (1) the uniform height-wise velcity distribution caused by rotor movement along the track; and (2) the nonuniform velocity distribution versus cylinder height bf the wind in'the atmospheric boundary layer region. The boundary layer data obtained in the wind tunnel provided an independent means for validating this model. 12. Standard off-the-shelf .electrical,mechanical, and structural components as well as materials and fabrication techniques seem to fulfill requirements for.building the Madaras system proposed herein. Other than the electrical spin motor loss problem previously mentioned, the only.o,ther equipment area that should receive attention is the life of the main rotor bearings. The bearing manufacturers were not able to predict with any reliability the life of the large bearings elected for the rotor, and it was questionable if 30-year bearing life could be4 achieved. 13. The track roadbed design quality is of utmost importance to minimize maintenance costs. A track system including proper consideration of subsoil stabilization, good ballast, steel reinforced concrete pavement, and good steel track is required. These studies indicate that such a system can be designed for , the loads and life required by the design criteria. Also, consideration should be given to the cost effectiveness of terrain modification along the roadbed in order to increase the wind velocity distribution along the lower portions of the rotor. 14. Other structural techniques should be investigated to take advantage of modern designs and fabrication concepts in order to decrease the cost and weight of the 'rotor. Filament optimization techniques are obvious approaches. 15. The Madarae.system performance was found be be .lower than that predicted by Julius Madaras and his consul.tants, particularly in the areas of net power generated per rotor, power

generated per unit area of land, and annual energy output. This lower performance is attributed to the following incorrect assumptions made by Madaras, et al.: Although the problem was addressed, Madaras erroneously assumed that mutual interference effects were negligible for rotor spacing as close as 5 diameters on a circular track diameter of 1500 ft (457 m). Thus, for a 457-m diameter track, Madaras predicted a rated plant capacity of about 47 MW. On the present study, minimum rotor spacing was found to be 44 rotor diameters, and the optimum track diameter was found to be 1372 m ' . Thus, for a circular plant this size, we predicted the maximum rated plant capacity would be only 7.8 MW. Madaras also grossly under-estimated the electrical losses required to spin up the rotor, and incorrectly assumed he could recover nearly all of the kinetic energy of the spinning rotor during regenerative braking. He also under estimated the size of the motor required to accelerate the rotor in accordance with his selected spin schedule and track speed that would yield optimum power output at each point along the track. Madaras assumed incorrectly that the CL and CD values for a rotating cylinder having an aspect ratio of 8, two large rotating end plates, and immersed in uniform free-stream flow were identical to the CL and CD values of a rotating cylinder having an aspect ratio of 4, one smaller rotating end plate, one stationary end'plate, and immersed in nonuniform atmospheric boundary layer flow, investigation, it is not possible to state conclusively whether or not the Madaras system will significantly out-perform a similarly-sized.horizonta1 axis wind turbine system. However, the results of the present study, which are thaught to be conservative, are sufficiently encouraging to warrant further investigation. Areas requiring further study include:
1 ,
A t t h i s s t . a g e nf t.he
\

Definition of mutual interference for racetrack plants and for circular track plants having track end diameters greater than 8000 ft (2439 m) Development of optimal spin schedules which include modulating rotor speed at all points along.the track such that the propulsive force is optimized'atall times Further consideration of different types of electrical equipment, transmissions, and braking techniques Analyses of different end plate designs which promise to reduce viscous friction and inertia loads, and hence reduce spin power.,without a proportionate decrease'in aerodynamic performance Reuction of rotor weight and inertia by optimized design and use of new materials and construction techniques that are cost effective. Included in this analysis should be the consideration of larger rotors and filament.winding techniques In-depth studies of power collection distribution as 'well as system control A thorough study.of manufacturing techniques to deve'lop the most cost-effective methods for producing.Madaras plants, and the determination of detailed c0st.s of mass-produced units A.life cycle cost study to include system reliability as well as maintenance, operation, and depreciation costs of the system

APPENDIX A

CYCLOGXRO VORTEX APPLIED TO THE MADARAS SYSTEM TO' DETERMINE MUTUAL INTERFERENCE LOSSES BETWEEN ROTORS

Prafessor Harold C. Larsen A i r Force I n s t i t u t e of Technology Wright-Patterson A i r Force B a s e , O h i o

APPENDIX A TABLE OF CONTENTS

Section
A- 1 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE CYCLOGIRO A.l.l A. 2 . 2

Page

Introduction t o t h e C y c l o g i r o
Technical Background

IDEAL BLADE ELEMENT THEORY OF THE CYCLOGIRO P R I M I T I V E VORTEX THEORY OF THE CYCLOGIRO A. 3 . 1 A.3.2 V o r t e x Properties K u t t a - J o u k o w s k y Law

IMPROVED .PRIMITIVE VORTEX THEORY OF THE CYCLOGIRO BLADE MODULATION SCHEDULE IDEAL BLADE VECTOR DIAGRAM REAL BLADE VECTOR DIAGRAM CIRCULATION AT THE BLADE AS A FUNCTION OF PHASE ANBLE S E M I R I G I D WAKE STRUCTURE WAKE. MODEL FOR IMPROVED P R I M I T I V E THEORY APPLICATION TO THE MADARAS ROTOR PLANT

L I S T OF SYMBOLS

Aspect r a t i o

b2/s,.

a l s o area
CF = F / ( l / 2 p v 2
C~ S)

Force coe,ffi c i s n t , general Drag c o e f f i c i e n t Lift coefficient Pitching moment c o e f f i c i e n t Resultant force c o e f f i c i e n t
CFX
CF Z

= ~/(1/2pvS ~)

CL = L / ( 1 / 2 p V

2
2

S)

, C

= M/(1/2pV

S)
S)

CR = R / ( 1 / 2 p V

Rotor X force c o e f f i c i e n t Rotor Z force c o e f f i c i e n t Rotor torque force c o e f f i c i e n t Rotor torque c o e f f i c e i n t Rotor r a d i a l force c o e f f i c i e n t Rotor power c o e f f i c i e n t Rotor t h r u s t c o e f f i c i e n t Rotor diameter

C F X = F X / (1/2pv2 bD)
CFZ = F Z / ( ~ / ~ P V bD) ~
I

CFQ
CQ

CFQ = FQ/ ( 1 / 2 p v 2 bD) CQ = ~ / ( 1 / 2 p ~ ~ b d ~ )

C F R
CP

CFR = F R / ( ~ / ~bD) ~ v ~
CP = p / ( 1 / 2 p v 3 b ~ )

D = 2R

Drag, component of aerodynamic force p a r a l l e l t o r e l a t i v e velocity Force, general Rotor X force. Time average value of sum of x component of force on the bl..ade. Rotor r a d i a l force. Instantaneous value of force on blade i n r a d i a l d i r e c t i o n . Rotor torque force, Time average value of sum of t a n g e n t i a l component of force on blade along the o r b i t o r path of r o t a t i o n . Time average value of sum of z . Rotor Z force. component 'of forces on t h e ~ l a d e s . ,Moment of i n e r t i a about pivot a x i s of blade.

LIST O F SYMBOLS (Continued) Advance r a t i o

J = V/nd

L e f t component o f aerodynamic f o r p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o relative velocity L i f t t o drag r a t i o P i t c h i n g moment. y axis Aerodynamic moment about t h e

Number o f b l a d e s i n t h e r o t o r
N u m b e r of r o t o r r a d i i e q u a l t o l e n g t h of v a l u e used i n .

calculation. Power Torque Rotor. r a d i u s . Distance from a x i s of r o t a t i o n t o . pivot i n blape o r c e n t e r of r o t a t i n g cylinder. R e s u l t a n t aerodynamic f o r c e .
Are&.

Planform a r e a of b l a d e , o r b l a d e element o r p r o j e c t e d area of r o t a t i n g c y l i n d e r , o r g e n e r a l a r e a .

Thrust. Rotating cylinder p e r i p h i a l v e l o c i t y a t surface = w r and a l s o t h e induced v e l o c i t y a l o n g t h e x-axis of t h e r o t o r , Freestream v e l o c i t y , o r t r a c k speed f o r Madaras r o t o r , P e r i p h i a l v e l o c i t y of b l a d e on t h e o r b i t . =QR. Resultant. v e l o c i t y . components.
'VP =

27rnR

Vector sum of a l l v e l o c i t y

X component of t h e r e s ' u l t a n t . v e l o c i t y .

Z component ,of t h e r e s ' u l t a n t v e l o c i t y . Wind speed o r induced v e l o c i t y .

X component of t h e induced v e l o c i t y
Z component of t h e induced v e l o c i t y

LIST OF SYMBOLS (Continued) x coordinate axis i d e n t i f i e d , o r x coordinate y coordinate axis i d e n t i f i e r , o r y coordinate

z denote a x i s i d e n t i f i e r , , o r z coordinate

S l o p e o f t h e l e f t c o e f f i c i e n t v e r s u s a n g l e of a t t a c k curve. Span of the blade o r r o t r , cpan i n g c n c r a l . Chord o f t h e b l a d e o r b l a d e element

D i a m e t e r o f p r o p e l l e r o r windmill

Normal d i s t a n c e from v o r t e x segment t o g e n e r a l point rpm, r p s , o r r e v o l u t i o n s p e r u n i t t i m e Radius Radius Arc. l e n g t h

x component of v e l o c i t y l o c a l p e r t u r b a t i o n o r i n d u c e d component.
y component of v e l o c i t y l o c a l p e r t u r b a t i . o n o r induced component.
z cu~nyu~le~ uf lt velocity local

percurbacian or

induced component.

x aoordinate
y coordinate

z coordinate
Circulation strength.

CL SV
=

2b

f r e e and bound v o r t e x

A c c e l e r a t i o n - d e c e l e r a t i o n ramp a n g l e to.. r e v e r s e a n g l e of a t t a c k .

LIST O F SYMBOLS (Continued) Phase a n g l e of b l a d e on o r b i t measured from t h e x a x i s , o r t h e a n g l e between t h e p l a n e of r , o t a t i o n and r e s u l t a n t v e l o c i t y a t p r o p e l l e r disk. Blade r o c k i n g a n g l e b l a d e and X-axis:

a n g l e between chord l i n e o f

R e s u l t a n t v e l o c i t y o r i e n t a t i o n a n g l e measured from t h e x-axis on t h e a n g l e between t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n and r e s u l t a n t v e l o c i t y f a r from t h e d i s k Angular v e l o c i t y , r a d i a n s / s e c Angle of a t t a c k a n g l e between r e f e r e n c e l i n e i n a i r f o i l t o resultant velocity. Angle of a t t a c k f o r z e r o l i f t . Angle measured from r e f e r e n c e l i n e t o r e s u l t a n t v e l o c i t y when l i f t i s zero. E c c e n t r i c i t y a n g l e - a n g l e of d i a m e t e r j o i n i n g f l i p p o i n t s measured . from t h e axis, o r b l a d e a n g l e ' of measurement measured from p l a n e o f r o t a t i o n . R a t i o of s p e c i f i c h e a t s o r y = tan-'
(D/L).

5 = w/V nondimensional v e l o c i t y r a t i o .

rl = v/V nondimensional v e l o c i t y r a t i o o r e f f i c i e n c y of p r o p e l l e r o r windmill' T i p speed r a t i o , X = 2 1 ~ n r / v = Rr/V. Kinematic v e l o c i t y of f l u i d

= u/V nondimensional induced v e l o c i t y r a t i o

Mass d e n s i t y of t h e f l u i d
=

solidity CRS/A = I T d

V e l o c i t y o r i e n t a t i o n a x i s measured from x - a x i s o r p l a n e of r o t a t i o n . Phase a n g l e f o r r o t o r , o r r e s u l t a n t v e l o c i t y a t d i s k o r i e n t e d angle. Angular v e l o c i t y .

L I S T OF SYMBOLS (Concluded)

Subscripts

crit
may min 1,2,3,4..

Critical Maximum Minimum S p e c i f i c p o i n t variable designator p o i n t f o r maximum p o t e n t i a l value

Baeeii vortex voluc

m
pot.

yseen
r,R

resultant track wind

SECTION A . 1 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT O F THE CYCLOG,ZRO H o r i z o n t a l a x i s wind t u r b i n e s a r e i n h e r e n t d e v i c e s t h a t must b e o p e r a t e d a t h i g h t i p speed t o wind s p e e d . r a t i o s t o o b t a i n good e f f i c i e n c y . However, though t h e t i p s may o p e r a t e a t h i g h e f f i c i e n c i e s , t h e i n n e r t w o - t h i r d s p o r t i o n of each b l a d e o p e r a t e s a t low e f f i c i e n c y . S i n c e t h i s r e g i o n comprises f o u r - n i n t h of t h e t o t a l d i s k a r e a , t h e - i n t e g r a t e d d i s k e f f i c i e n c y i s o n l y 30- t o 4 0 percent. T h i s low i n t e g r a t e d e f f i c i e n c y r e l a t i v e t o t h e l i m i t i n g Betz e f f i c i e n c y of 59 p e r c e n t h a s prompted e f f o r t s t o f i n d a l t e r n a t e h i g h e r - e f f i c i e n c y means of e x t r a c t i n g energy from t h e wind. I f t h e e n t i r e b l a d e could be made t o o p e r a t e a t t h e same e f f i c i e n c y , t h e i n t e g r a t e d e f f i c i e n c y c o u l d approach.. t h e Betz

limit. The c y c l o g i r o , a v e r t i c a l - a x i s wind t u r b i n e i s one conf i g u r a t i o n which shows promise of a c h i e v i n g t h i s o b j e c t i v e , .

A. 1.1

I n t . r o d u c t i a n 'to the Cyblogxro

A t y p k c a l f o u r - b l a d e modern cyclog2ro i s ' i l l u s t r a t e d

The c y c l o g k r o c o n s i s t s o f a group of c o n t r o l l a b l e p i v o t e d b l a d e s w i t h t h e p i v o t a x i s p a r a l l e l t o t h e a x i s of r o t a t i o n about which t h e b l a d e s r o t a t e on s u p p o r t i n g arms, w i t h t h e a x i s

i n Figure A . l .

of r o t a t i o n p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e f r e e s t r e a m v e l o c i t y , V. The b l a d e s a r e assumed t o r o t a t e a t a c o n s t a n t a n g u l a r v e l o c i t y R = 2~x1, s o t h a t p e r i p h e r a l o r . o r b i t v e l ' o c i t y . o f t h e b l a d e i s QR. The r e s ' u l t a n t v e l o c i t y , VR, whi'ch d r i v e s t h e b l a d e s i s t h e v e c t o r sum of V and RR o r

I t i s n o t e d that VR i s t h e same magnitude a l l a l o n g t h e b l a d e i n

c o n t r a s t t o a p r o p e l l e r b l a d e where VR v a r i e s from r o o t t o t i p . This vector s u m i s shown i n F i g u r e A . l f o r t h e b l a d e p o s i t i o n s shown. VR v a r i e s i n magnitude and d i r e c t i o n , a s can be s e e n . The i n d i v i d u a l b l a d e s a r e c o n t r o l l e d (.or modulated a s it i s

Figure A . l .

Typical Cyclogiro Windmill at a Speed Ratio of b = 2.

c a l l e d ) t o be p l a c e d a t an a n g l e o f a t t a c k r e l a t i v e t o VR. Depending upon whether t h e a n g l e of a t t a c k is p o s i t i v e o r n e g a t i v e and i t s . l o c a t i o n on t h e o r b i t r e l a t i v e t o VR, t h e cycloqjiro can be made t o g e n e r a t e a p o s i t i v e o r n e g a t i v e t h r u s t and a p o s t i v e o r negative s i d e force. Both can b e zero. A n e g a t i v e t h r u s t c o r r e s p o n d s t o a windmill t y p e of o p e r a t i o n , and t h e b l a d e s i n A s s o c i a t e d w i t h VR a n d . t h e a n g l e of a t t a c k , a , i s a b l a d e l i f t f o r c e which i s Figue A . l have been s o - o r i e n t e d .

L = CL

3 SVR2 .

The l i f t f o r c e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h each b l a d e h a s been shown a s t h e heavy arrow p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e l o c a l r e s u l t a n t v e l o c i t y , VR. The l i f t f o r c e h a s been shown p r o p o r t i o n a l t o V R ~ and i s approximately c o r r e c t i n magnitude. .There i s a l s o a d r a g f o r c e , b u t s i n c e t h i s i s from o n e - t w e n t i e t h t o o n e - f i f t i e t h t h e magnitude of t h e l i f t . , it i s t o o s m a l l t o be shown on t h i s s c a l e . The v a r i a b l e magn.itude and d i r e c t i o n of t h e l i f t f o r c e i n d i c a t e s t h a t c y c l o g i r o flow i s v e r y u n s t e a d y . I f t h e r a d i u s i s l a r g e and t h e To produce rpm i s low, t h e ' : f l o w may be c o n s i d e r e d q u a s i - s t e a d y . u s e f u l l i f t , and t h r u s t , .or t o a c t a s a w i n d m i l l , t h e a n g l e of a t t a c k must be r e v e r s e d a t two p o i n t s .on t h e o r b i t , u s u a l l y a t o p p o s i t e ends of a d i a m e t e r . By changing t h e a n g l e of a t t a c k r e v e r s a l p o i n t , t h e ' r e s u l t a n t r o t o r f o r c e developed c a n be v a r i e d c o n t i n u o u s l y t n g e n e r a k e a pnre ' p o s i t i v e thrust and a s m a l l s i d e f o r c e , ' a p u r e s i d e f o r c e and no t h r u s t , 0 r . a p u r e n e g a t i v e t h r u s t and. s m a l l s i d e for.ce. The a n g l e a t wh5ch t h e a n g l e of a t t a c k

reversal o c c u r s i s c a l l e d t h e e c ' c e n t r i c i t y a n g l e , B , and t h e For b l a d e s h a v i n g reversal point i s c a l l e d t h e blade f l i p point.

an L/D e q u a l t o o r g r e a t e r t h a n 20 and t h e l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t of t h e b l a d e i s i n t h e l i n e a r r a n g e , t h e t h r u s t and s i d e . f o r c e a r e a l s o l i n e a r w i t h a n g l e of a t t a c k . The l o c a l l i f t and d r a g f o r c e a t each p o i n t on t h e o r b i t can be r e s o l v e d i n t o t h r u s t and s i d e f o r c e components, and i n t o r a d i a l and t a n g e n t i a l o r t o r q u e f o r c e components. If a

u s e f u l t h r u s t i s produced, t h e t o r q u e i s p o s i t i v e which r e q u i r e s power t o t u r n t h e r o t o r . T h i s i s t .h e. p r o p e l l e r s . t a t e . I f t h e p u r e l i f t s t a t e e x i s t s , power must s t i l l be p u t i n t o t h e r o t o r . I n t h e w i n d m i l l s t a t e t h e t o r q u e i s n e g a t i v e and power i s e x t r a c t e d from t h e a i r s t r e a m . The modulated cyclog,$ro i s s e l f s t a r t i n g and s e l f l i m i t i n g . The r i g i d b l a d e c y c l o g i r o c a n n o t s t a r t by i t s e l f , b u t once beyond a c e r t a i n rpm o r t i p speed r a t i o , it r u n s w e l l and i s s e l f l i m i t i n g . The ~ a r r i e u sr o t o r i s a r i g i d b l a d e c y c l o g i r o of s p e c i a l b l a d e s h a p e . The c y c l o g i r o b l a d e s does n o t have t o be s t r a i g h t o r c o n s t a n t cord. Even d e l t a ( A ) shaped r o t o r s have been proposed.
I t a l s o i s n o t necessaxy t o

use b l a d e s f o r a c y c l o g i r ~ .

R o t a t i n g c y l i n d e r s , which can produce l i f t , and j e t f l a p augmented l i f t can be used. The Madaras r o t o r which u s e s r o t a t i n g c y c l i n d e r s i s a t y p e o f c y c l o g i r o and can be t r e a t e d by t h e t h e o r y developed f o r a blade.
A. 1 . 2

T e c h n i c a l Back,ground The cyclogi'ro may be t h e o l d e s t windmill known. The

ancient ~ e r s i a n panemone was i n p r i n c i p l e a c y c l o g i r o o p e r a t e d by d r a g f o r c e s i n s t e a d o f by l i f t f o r c e s . To improve i t s performance

it w a s p l a c e d on a tower which s h i e l d e d t h e advancing b l a d e s and I t was a c t u a l l y a helped d i v e r t flow t o t h e r e t r e a t i n g blades. v a r i a t i o n of t h e undershop w a t e r wheel mounted v e r t i c a l l y , and i t w a s used t o pump w a t e r . .
i n 1828. The f i r s t r e c o r d e d c y c l o g i r o was a p a t e n t by Congreve his p a t e n t w a s f o r a man-powered, man-carrying a i r c r a f t S i n c e t h a t t i m e , many i n d i v i d u a l s
47

c a l l e d the aerial carriage.

i n many c o u n t r i e s around t h e world have c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e t h e o r y

and e x p e r i m e n t a l development. 48 I n t e r e s t i n t h e concept have o c c u r r e d i n i n t e r v a l s of from 20 t o 4 0 y e a r s s i n c e Congreve's patent. The primary c o n c e p t h a s been i n a i r c r a f t p r o p u l s i o n and Madaras proposed t o u s e l i f t , b u t i s h a s been s u c c e s s f u l l y a p p l i e d t o s h i p p r o p u l s i o n and a s a wind wheel t o power a sawmill. t h e concept u s i n g r o t a t i n g c y l i n d e r s t o d r i v e a t r a i n of c a r t s

around a c i r c u l a r t r a c k t o g e n e r a t e l a r g e amounts of power from t h e wind.

A p r o t o t y p e r o t a t i n g c y l i n d e r was b u i l t and t e s t e d

i n t h e wind i n a s t a t i o n a r y s i t e i n 1933, a s was d e s c r i b e d i n S e c t i o n 1 of t h i s r e p o r t . I n v e s t i g a t o r s i n France, Germany, Sweden, and Japan s t u d i e d cyclogLro a p p l i c a t i o n s t o a i r c r a f t and s h i p p r o p u l s i o n
. ,

and c o n s t r u c t e d machines which w e r e t e s t e d . Only t h e Voights c h n e i d e r 4 ' system and t h e F l e t t n e r r o t o r systems were a c t u a l l y used f o r s h i p p r o p u l s i o n , and t h e y w e r e q u i t e s u c c e s s f u l . One of t h e o u t s t a n d i n g c o n t r i b u t o r s i n t h e United o 'f S t a t e s i n b o t h t h e o r y and e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n was D r . ~ i r s t e n ~ t h e U n i v e r s i t y of Washington who was an a c t i v e r e s e a r c h e r from. 1922 t o 1950.
H e showed t h a t t h e p a t h of t h e b l a d e moving a b o u t

a . c i r c l e and t r a n s l a t i n g a t a uniform v e l o c i t y r e l a t i v e t o s t i l l a i r was a p r o l a t e c y c l o i d , a c y c l o i d , ' o r a c u r t a t e c y c l o i d .. dependent upon t h e r a t i o of t h e p e r i p h e r a l v e l o c i t y of t h e b l a d e about i t s a x i s of r o t a t i o n t o . t h e uniform t r a n s l a t i o n v e l o c i t y . Thus, A = ,VP/W = T h i s r a t i o i s known'as t h e t i p speed r a t i o , A . 2.rrnR/Wt where VP i s t h e p e r i p h i a l speed., W i s . t h e t r a n s l a t i o n a l speed, R i s t h e r a d i u s from t h e a x i s of r o t a t i o n t o t h e p i v o t i n t h e b l a d e , aiid n i s t h e number o f r e v o l u t i o n s p e r u n i t t i m e . The f a c t t h a t t h e p a t h of t h e b l a d e r e l a t i v e t o a f i x e d a x i s system

i s a c y c l o i d h a s g i v e n t h e d e v i c e t h e name of c y c l o g ~ r o .
Kirsten c o r r e c t l y formulated t h e " i d e a l blade theory"

de tezn~iiied Llie i d e a l b l a d e modulation s c h e d u l e (.eontinuouo o r i e n t a t i o n of t h e b l a d e ) , d e v i s e d ways t o produce i t , and showed He showed how l i f t t h e n e c e s s i t y of a n g l e of a t t a c k r e v e r s a l . and t h r u s t would be c o n t r o l l e d by v a r y i n g t h e p o s i t i o n o f a n g l e H e then t e s t e d a device t o v a l i d a t e t h e of a t t a c k r e v e r s a l .
t h e o r y and combined t h e i d e a l t h e o r y w i t h t h e momentum t h e o r y te ~ g t e d t h e c y c l o g j r o and t o improve i t s c a p a b i l i t y . The N A C A ~ concluded it was a f e a s i b l e method of producing l i f t and p r o p u l s i o n , t h a t i t c o u l d be u s e f u l f o r v e r t i c a l t a k e o f f and l a n d i n g a i r c r a f t , t h a t h i g h ' p r o p u l s i v e e f f i c i e n c y c o u l d be. a c h i e v e d , and t h a t i t

w a s c o m p e t i t i v e w i t h p r o p e l l e r s . However, it e x h i b i t e d s e v e r e v i b r a t i o n , and t h e l a c k of an a d e q u a t e t h e o r y l i m i t e d i t s usef u l n e s s and hampered development a t t h a t t i m e .

During World W a r I1 t h e c y c l o g i r o a g a i n was proposed as a means of p r o p u l s i o n and l i f t . K i r s t e n was a c t i v e i n t h e development o f t h e a i r c r a f t d e s i g n a t e d t h e XP-77. 5.2. f 5 3 A f t e r two y e a r s of development and t e s t i n g of t h e p r o p u l s i o n system, t h e p r o j e c t w a s abandoned because t h e mechanical v i b r a t i o n and s t r u c t u r a l problems were c o n s i d e r e d $nsurmountable a t t h e t i m e .
. M r . R.V. . B r u l l e , . w h i l e a t t e n d i n g t h e A i r . Force I n s t i t u t e

o f . T e c h n o l o g y i n 1954, l e a r n e d of t h e c y c l o g i r o . H e developed L a t e r as an e n g i n e e r w i t h t h e and p a t e n t e d a cyclog:$ro pump. ~ c ~ o q n e l l - D o u g l ACompany, s h e conceived t h e i d e a of u s i n g fly-by-

w i r e t e c h n i q u e s t o c o n t r o l t h e b l a d e . m o d u l a t i o n of t h e c y c l o g i r o and d e t e r m i n e d t h i s scheme would s o l v e t h e v i b r a t i o n problems a s s o ' c i a t e d w i t h mechanical b l a d e moddlation. H e d e s i g n e d a c o n t r o l s y s t e m t o accomplish t h e t a s k and t h e n d e s i g n e d a s m a l l c y c l o g i r o aircraft,
B r u l l e knew t h a t t o develop an a d e q u a t e b l a d e modula-

it would be n e c e s s a r y t o have a c C u r a t e d a t a on t h e i n f l o w and sidewash v e l o c i t y a t e v e r y p o i n t on t h e 5 o r b i t f o r a l l c o n d i t i o n s . L a t e i n 1971 he a p p e a l e d t o P r o f e s s o r H.C. Larsen f o r a s s i s t a n c e t o s o l v e t h e problem. S i n c e t h e A i r Force was i n t e r e s t e d i n p o s s i b l e a p p l i c a t i o n s t o a i r c r a f t , p e r m i s s i o n was g r a n t e d - a n d r e s e a r c h s u p p o r t was p r o v i d e d ,
t i o n c o n t r o l system f o r fly-by-wire Larsen r e a l i z e d t h a t t h e e x i s t i n g t h e o r i e s were m e r e l y an a p p l i c a t i o n of wing t h e o r y (more p r o p e r l y a i r f o i l theory), m d . t h a t they did not attempt t o ~ o l v e t h e fundamental problem as - P r a n d t l had done f o r t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l wing t h e o r y In these theories, and G o l d s t e i n had done f o r p r o p e l l e r t h e o r y . t h e wing and p r o p e l l e r b l a d e a r e r e p l a c e d by a bound v o r t e x d i s t r i b u t i o n with, an assumed r i g i d t r a i l i n g . v o r t e x s h e e t . P r a n d t l

and ~

t assumed z ~ ~ t h e t r a i l i n g v o r t e x s h e e t was f l a t and

H e then H e w a s .successful i n

e s t a b l i s h e d i n t e g r a l s f o r t h e l i f t and d r a g of t h e wing. s o l v e d t h e problem t o minimize t h e drag.

finding a closed solution f o r t h e e l l i p t i c a l load d i s t r i b u t i o n , which e n a b l e d him t o w r i t e e q u a t i o n s f o r t h e l i f t and d r a g c o e f f i c i e n t s of t h e wing.

A l l o t h e r load d i s t r i b u t i o n s r e q u i r e

numerical a n a l y s i s , b u t t h e r e s u l t s were shown by G l a u e r t t o be reducible t o a f a c t o r t i m e s t h e e l l i p t i c a l load d i s t r i b u t i o n P r a n d t l ' s t h e o r y r e q u i r e d s i x y e a r s t o d e v e l o p , was results. h i g h l y s u c c e s s f u l i n c o r r e l a t i n g t h e d r a g of wings, and i n t r o d u c e d t h e concept of a s p e c t r a t i o . of t h e o r e t i c a l hydrodynamics.
It was c o n s i d e r e d one of t h e t r i u m p s

P r a n d t l , B e t z , and o t h e r s a t t e m p t e d t o e x t e n d t h e wing t h e o r y t o p r o p e l l e r s . The t r a i l i n g v o r t e x s h e e t w a s assumed t o b e a r i g i d h e l i c a l vortex sheet. I n t e g r a l s were e s t a b l i s h e d t o t r y t o solve t h e blade c i r c u l a t i o n d i s t r i b u t i o n , but t h e i n t e g r a l s w e r e i n t r a c t i b e l . P r a n d t l succeeded i n f i n d i n g an approximate s o l u t i o n which was used i n design. The r e s u l t s were i n good agreement w i t h 'measurements f o r l i g h t l y loaded p r o p e l l e r s , and improvements o v e r t h e s i m p l e b l a d e element. t h e o r y were achieved. However, i t was r e a l i z e d t h a t t h e s o l u t i o n was n o t e x a c t . I n 1928, Sidney ~ o 1 d s t e i . np~ u~ b l i s h e d h i s t h e o r y of propellers. Like P r a n d t l , he assumed a b l a d e c i r c u l a t i o n d i s t r i b u t i o n s a n d a t r a i l i n g v o r t e x s h e e t . TO o b t a i n a s o l u t i o n it was n e c e s s a r y t o assume a l i g h t l y - l o a d e d p r o p e l l e r . There w a s no s l i p s t r e a m c o n t r a c t i o n and t h e t r a i l i n g s h e e t became a r i g i d h e l i c a l sheet. G o l d s t e i n o b t a i n e d a s o l u t i o n w i t h t h e a i d of a p o t e n t i a l f u n c t i o n which s a t i s f i e d t h e e q u a t i o n s o f motion when a p o t e n t i a l difference e x i s t e d across t h e vortex sheet. Goldstein o b t a i n e d a s o l u t i o n f o r t h e p o t e n t i a l f u n c t i o n f o r any number of b l a d e s , and showed t h a t it was a Lome11 f u n c t i o n , a complex form of t h e B e s s e l f u n c t i o n . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , o n l y even number of b l a d e s

c o u l d be computed a t t h a t time.

Goldstein r e l a t e d t h e p o t e n t i a l

t o t h e c i r c u l a t i o n d i s t r i b u t i o n f u n c t i o n , and u l t i m a t e l y t h e l o c a l l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t and s o l i d i t y wfiich e n a b l e d t h e l o c a l b l a d e c h o r d and t w i s t d i s t r i b u t i o n t o be determined f o r t h e d e s i g n condition.

H e t h e n evolved a d e s i g n procedure and i n d i c a t e d how

t o compute o f f d e s i g n performance. extended t h e G o l d s t e i n t h e o r y t o h e a v i l y l o a d e d p r o p e l l e r s and c o n t r a c t i o n e f f e c t s . H e used an e l e c t r i c a l a n a l o g u e t o e v a l u a t e t h e i n t e g r a l s and i n t r o d u c e d s o l u t i o n s f o r c o u n t e r r o t a t i n g p r o p e l l e r s . H e developed d e s i g n c h a r t s which have been a p p l i e d t o t h e development of improved s u c c e s s f u l propellers. T h i s i s c o n s i d e r e d a n o t h e r triumph f o r t h e o r e t i c a l analysis. Both P r a n d t l and G o l d s t e i n assumed r i g i d wakes which I t i s r e l a t i v e l y e a s y t o show t h a t a f r e e wake do n o t occur. d i s t o r t s . The wing wake r o l l s - u p i n t o t w o c o n c e n t r a t e d v o r t i c e s l o c a t e d a t t h e c e n t e r of v o r t i c i t y on each semiwing t o form e s s e n t i a l l y t h e famous h o r s e s h o e v o r t e x which P r a n d t l y developed and assumed was v a l i d f o r a uniformly loaded wing. Roll-up i s q u i t e pronounced w i t h i n one semispan of t h e wing. Glauert i n v e s t i g a t e d t h i s problem. with numerical i n t e g r a t i o n . Westwater s o l v e d t h e r o l l - u p problem The p r o p e l l e r wake a l s o d i s t o r t s ,

he odor sen'^

and i s t h o u g h t t o form a s e r i e s o f t o r o i d a l r i n g s f a r downstream of t h e p r o p e l l e r . Vortex wakes are u l t i m a t e l y damped nlit hy the a c t i o n o t v i s c o s i t y and t u r b u l e n c e , y e t t h e y p e r s i s ' t f o r s u p r i s i n g l y l o n g t i m e s . Near t h e wing and p r o p e l l e r b l a d e t h e v o r t e x s h e e t i s a l m o s t i d e n t i c a l t o t h e p o t e n t i a l s o l u t i o n , w h i l e f a r from the winq o r p r o p e l l e x , t h e wake i s h i g h l y d i s t - o r t e d and does n o t In resemble t h e p o t e n t i a l s o l u t i o n . T h i s p r e s e n t s a dilemna. t h e c y c l o g i r o wake, s t r o n g c o n c e n t r a t e d v o r t i c e s e x i s t a t t h e b l a d e f l i p p o i n t s and dominate t h e flow. They c a u s e d i s t o r t i o n and s h e e t ;3-1-up t o proceed almost immediately. How t o a t t a c k t h i s , problem
Nas

'he

a d i f f i c u l t d e c i s i o n , a s t h e a n a l y s i s used would depend upon b a s i c assumptions made.

Larsen t h e n decided t o s t a r t w i t h f i r s t fundamentals . a n d t o a t t e m p t t o .find a p o t e n t i a l . s o l u t i o n . Figure A.2 repres e n t s t h e r i g i d t r a i l i n g v o r t e x s h e e t shed from t h e t r a i l i n g edge of a s i n g l e c y c l o g i r o o p e r a t i n g a t a t i p speed r a t i o of X = 2.

T h i s s h e e t i s a p r o l a t e c y c l o i d a l s u r f a c e , and t h e v o r t i c i t y i n t h e s h e e t v a r i e s b o t h a c r o s s t h e span (due t o t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l l o a d i n g ) and c o n t i n u o u s l y a l o n g t h e s h e e t due t o t h e d r y i n g r e s u l t a n t v e l o c i t y a t t h e blade. The p a r a l l e l s t r a i g h t l i n e s d i a g o n a l l y o r i e n t e d i n F i g u r e A.2 r e p r e s e n t t h e c o n t i n u o u s l y shed spanwise v o r t i c i t y due t o t h e changing , v e l o c i t y . , The heavy d i a g o n a l l i n e s r e p r e s e n t i n t e n s e c o n c e n t r a t e d v o r t i c i t y due t o a n . assumed i n s t a n t a n e o u s r e v e r s a l i n a n g l e of a t t a c k . The streamwise p r o l a t ? c y c l o i d a l l i n e s r e p r e s e n t spanwise v a r i a t i o n

i n me v o r t i c i t y shed i n a .streamwise d i r e c t i o n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e v a r i + l e . ' l o a d i n g a c r o s s t h e span. I n t h e center t h e vorticity,:i s n e a r i k c o n s t a n t i n t h e s p a n w i s e . d i r e c t i o n , b u t as t h e t i p i s approached t h e spanwise v o r t i c i t y changes r a p i d l y due t o shedding, and t h e streamw4se l i n e s a r e c l o s e r t o g e t h e r . There i s a s t r o n g streamwise . v o r t e x a t e a c h t i p due t o t h e v e r y r a p i d change o f spanwise.vorticity near t h e t i p required t o s a t i s f y t h e t i p preslsure c o n d i t i o n s . T h i s s h e e t i s modeled a f t e r P r a n d t l ' s t h r e e dimensional wing t h e o r y . 57 The problem i s t o f i n d a p o t e n t i a l , f u n c t i o n which s a t i s f i e s t h e boundary c o n d i t i o n s and .which gi.ves t h e c o r r e c t l i f t and d r a g of t h e system.
A r i g i d c y c l o i d a l wake was assumed s i n c e i t s shape

could be computed. I f a p r o l a t e c y c l o i d a l wake o c c u r r e d , t h e wake i n t e r s e c t e d i t s e l f f o r a s i n g l e b l a d e , w h i l e m u l t i p l e b l a d e s had multiple intersections. Each i n t e r s e c t i o n was a s i n g u l a r p o i n t , and t h e p o t e n t i a l would be m u l t i v a l u e d w i t h m u l t i p l e connected regions. I n a d d i t i o n , t h e p o t e n t i a l would be t i m e dependent. If t h e wake was a c u r a t e c y c l o i d , a s i n g l e b l a d e would be s i n g l e v a l u e d , b u t m u l t i p l e b l a d e s would have m u l t i p l e connected r e g i o n s and s i n g u l a r p o i n t s a t each i n t e r s e c t i o n . A l l s o l u t i o n s would The p r o s p e c t of f i n d i n g a p o t e n t i a l s o l u t i o n be time dependent. was remote.
I t it c o u l d be found, it would have t o be extended

p i e c e w i s e from r e g i o n t o r e g i o n which would p r e s e n t enormous c o r n p u t a t i u ~pr'oblems. ~

285

F ' i c u r e A-2.

T r a i l i n g V o r t e x S h e e t A r r a y of One B l a d e .

A second approach was t o s t a r t w i t h t h e Helmholtz

v o r t e x laws58 and t o w r i t e i n t e g r a l s a s P r a n d t l had done i n wing theory. I n t h i s approach, t h e r o t o r would be s t a r t e d i m p u l s i v e l y and t h e wake allowed t o develop i n a s t e p - b y - s t e p manner.
D i f f e r e n t i o - i n t e g r a l e q u a t i o n s would r e s u l t which c o u l d be s o l v e d

by f i n i t e d i f f e r e n c e t e c h n i q u e s .

The complete problem r e q u i r e d a spanwise d i s t r i b u t i o n of v o r t i c i t y t o be used. An e l l i p t i c a l l o a d i n g o r a Schrenk approximation would be used, b u t t h e r e : w a s no j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r e i t h e r assumption. The problem was f o r m u l a t e d ,

b u t when a computer program was w r i t t e n , t h e computing t i m e was found t o be . e x c e s s i v e and n o t f e a s i b l e . To s i m p l i f y t h e . p r o b l e m a uniform l o a d i n g was assumed. Even t h i s s i m p l i f i c a t i o n r e q u i r e d e x c e s s i v e computing time. Because of t h e need f o r a u s a b l e t h e o r y i n a s . s h o r t a t i m e a s p o s s i b l e , an a c c e p t a b l e approximation w a s needed.
An examination of t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e v o r t i c i t y s h e d

i n t h e wake a s t h e b l a d e moved around t h e c i r c l e was made u s i n g i d e a l blade'theory. A t t h e blade f l i p p o i n t s , t h e v o r t i c i t y shed i s t w i c e t h e l o c a l v a l u e , and i s g i v e n by

(which i s r e p r e s e n t e d i n normalized form i n F i g u r e A.3) and t h e r a t i o o f t h e l o c a l v o r t i c i t y shed t o t h e v o r t i c i t y shed a t b l a d e f l i p becomes i n magnitude:

where A i s t h e l o c a l phase a n g l e and B i s t h e phase a n g l e a t b l a d e f l i p , o r e c c e n t r i c i t y a n g l e . For t h e i d e a l windmill, 'lr B=kn/2 f o r t h e f l i p p o i n t s . Choosing B= t o obtain t h e

maximum, t h i s r e d u c e s t o t h e f o l l o w i n g f o r c o n s t a n t CL, which i s p l o t t e d i n F i g u r e A. 4 :

2 87

Figure A.3.

N c n 6 i m e n s i o n a l i z e d I E e z l Eound V o r t e x S t r e n g t h a s a F u n c t i o n o f P h a s e Angle Around t h e O r b i t f o r X = 2 .

Figure A.4.

Nondimensionalized Ideal Bound Vortex Rate 0 5 Shedding as a Function of Phase Angle due to Change in Resultant Velocity at X = 2.

1 I ' r max

d l :

-A Cos$
2 (l+~) 1

2~~in$

II

This shed vorticity is small compared to the concentrated vorticity and is referred t o a s the distributed vorticity. It may be shown that the distributed vorticity has a maximum for X < 1, when Sin $ = A, and for A > 1 when Sin $= 1/A, The corresponding value of the maximums are X < 1,

1
2

-A
m

and A > 1,

C-

These occur in the lower half of the circle near the lower concentrated vortex. It is symmetrical with respect to the Z axis. 'lT and gradually The distributed vorticity is zero at $= - 2 increases in magnitude to the maximum in the lower half of the circle, and then decreases in magnitude until it is zero at $ = ~ / 2 . A plot of the magnitude of k h e distributed vorticity shows that there is more in the lower half of wake than in the upper half. Depending on B , the distributed vorticity is usually of the same sign as the lower concentrated vorticity. When f3 = T . l r u~ ' , the sum of the lower concentrated vorticity and the 2 distributed vorticity is equal in magnitude and opposite in sign to the upper concentrated vorticity. This satisfies the irrotationality condition for the undisturbed flow in two dimensions. For other values of p , there are some regions where the distributed

vorticity has the same sign as the upper concentrated vorticity, and the magnitude of the sums of opposite sign vorticity is again equal so that irrotationality is again satisfied.

The motion of t h e two.unequa1 v o r t i c e s i n two dimensions i n a f l u i d a t r e s t i s i n c i r c u l a r p a t h s about a common c e n t e r whose l o c a t i o n depends upon t h e magnitude and s i g n of vorticity. I f t h e y are e q u a l i n magnitude and o p p o s i t e r o t a t i o n , t h e . v o r t e x p a i r w i l l t r a n s l a t e a t uniform v e l o c i t y a l o n g s t r a i g h t p a r a l l e l l i n e s . It can be shown t h a t i f t h e r e i s a f i n i t e number of d i s c r e t e v o r t i c e s i n an u n d i s t u r b e d f l u i d a t r e s t , t h e n each v o r t e x w i l l t e n d t o r o t a t e i n a c i r c u l a r p a t h about t h e c e n t r o i d of v o r t i c i t y and t h i s can be used t o deduce how a cycloidal-shaped wake w i l l d i s t o r t . I f t h e t o t a l v o r t i c i t y i s d i v i d e d i n t o two p a r t s which have a sum of e q u a l magnitude t a k i n g i n t o account t h e a l g e b r a i c s i g n , t h e upper h a l f w i l l have v o r t i c i t y of both s i g n s whkle t h e lower h a l f w i l l have v o r t i c i t y of t h e same s i g n . Then, c a l c u l a t e t h e c e n t r o i d of v o r t i c i t y of each h a l f , and it w i l l be found t o l i e very c l o s e t o c o n c e n t r a t e d v o r t i c i t y of each h a l f . The r e s u l t i n g motion w i l l t e n d t o be i n c i r c u l a r p a t h s around each c e n t r o i d . The motion w i l l n o t be c i r c u l a r , s i n c e each h a l f w i l l t e n d t o i n f l u e n c e t h e motion of t h e o t h e r h a l f . A s a r e s u l t , t h e v o r t i c i t y t e n d s t o r o l l - u p around t h e c e n t r o i d of each h a l f , t o form two equal' and o p p o s i t e v o r t i c i e s c o n c e n t r a t e d a t t h e c e n t r o i d , b u t j o i n e d by s p i r a l i n g t h r e a d s of v o r t i c i t y which This p a i r w i l l d e c r e a s e i n s t r e n g t h as t h e v o r t i c i e s r o l l - u p . t h e n t e n d t o . t r a n s l a t e back toward t h e r o t o r which shed them, b u t t h e ' f r e e s t r e a m t r a n s l a t e s them downstream. The n e t r e s u l t i s t h e r o l l e d - u p p a i r does n o t t r a n s l a t e downstream a t t h e w,ind speed, b u t a t a somewhat l e s s e r speed.
,

The r o t o r i s i n t h r e e dimensions, s o t h i s p a i r w i l l be joined a t t h e t i p t o form an essentially r e c t a n g u l a r ring which w i l l t e n d t o d i s t o r t t o a t o r o i d a l shape f a r downstream. Because of s t r e n g t h of t h e c o n c e n t r a t e d v o r t i c i t y , r o l l - u p b e g i n s soon a f t e r t h e c.oncentrated v o r t e x i s shed, u s u a l l y w i t h i n one diameter of t h e rotor..

Larsen deduced t h i s s t r u c t u r e , l a t e r v e r i f i e d by d e t a i l e d c a l c u l a t i o n s , and formulated h i s " P r i m i t i v e Vortex Theory of t h e C y c l o g i r o " on t h i s model of t h e wake.
I t was r e a l i z e d

t h a t t h i s w a s n o t an e x a c t model, b u t r e p r e s e n t e d an approximation t o t h e a c t u a l s t r u c t u r e of t h e wake. McDonnell-Douglas, under t h e d i r e c t i o n of B r u l l e ,

used t h i s t h e o r y t o a n a l y z e t h e performance of t h e ' c y c l o g i r o which u s e d t h e wake model and t h e bound v o r t i c i e s t o compute t h e i n d i v i d u a 1 , v e l o c i t y a t each b l a d e .
A wind t u n n e l model was b u i l t

and t e s t e d , and t h e r e s u l t s were i n e x c e l l e n t agreement w i t h t h e 59 theory. The f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n s d e s c r i b e t h e b a s i c t h e o r i e s b e h i n d t h e development of t h e P r i m i t i v e and t h e Improved P r i m i t i v e Vortex t h e o r y of t h e C y c l o g i r o , a s w e l l a s t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of t h i s t h e o r y t o r o t a t i n g c y l i n d e r s i n o r d e r t o s t u d y t h e . M a d a r a s system.

SECTION A-2 FDEAL BLADE ELEMENT THEORY OF THE CYCLOGIRO The ideal blade element theory of the cyclogiro assumes that a lifting surface is rotating at constant angular velocity, .52, in a c-ircular path about an axis of rotation in a constant uniform parallel flow of magnitude, W, as illustrated in Figure A . , 5 , 'It is assumed that aerodynamic coefficients obtained in a uniform parallel flow are applicable to the rotating lifting surface. Since these coefficients are functions of the angle of attack of the lifting surface relative to the resultant. velocity -atthe blade'element, it is necessary to establish the resultant velocity and angle of attack at the blade element. The resultant velocity is the vector sum of the relative wind, W, and the rotational velocity, V = QR, of the blade element or the periphial velocity, V . ;;.. It is convenient to use the axis system shown in Figure ~ . 5 with the origin at the axis of rotation at the mid span location of the blade, x pointing into the relative wind, W, z , downward, and y out the right side of the rotor. A blade is located instantaneously at the angle JI from the x axis. The angle $ is referred to as the phase angle or the blade orbit angle, and the circle on which the blade moves is referred to as the orbit. The X and Z components of the resultant relative velocity to the blade are:
VX = V Sin I / J

W, and

vz

-v Cos JI.

The resultant velocity, VR, is then:

VR=

4 ~ x +1 ( V~ Z I ~
J v 2 + w2 2 mi

J ( v Sin JI-

w I 2 + (-vcos $ ) 2
i2

sin g

w /I +

2 sin o:,

where X = V/W the tip .speed ratio.

Figure A.5.

Ideal Blade Vector D i a g r a m .

The direction of the resuLtant velocity from the x axis is the angle, 0, or,

-1 -1 tan (Vz/VX) = tan (-V Cos $/

(V Sin $

- w)) .

The resultant velocity is the aerodynamic velocity which produces the lift and drag forces on the blade. The lift force is at right angles to the resultant velo.city,and the drag force is parallel to and in the direction of the resultant velocity. The direction of the lift force depends upon the angle of attack, a, of the blade relative to the resultant velocity. A positive angle of attack is measured counterclockwise from the chord line of the blade to the resultant velocity.. This corresponds to the lift leading the drag by 9 0 ' for positive a, 0 ' for negative a. The lift and drag forces and lagging by 9 acting on the blade are illustrated in Figure A . 5 for a positive angle of attack. Determination of the performance of the rotor requires the establishment of the dependence of the lift force generated by the rotor or Z force normal to the relative wind, the thrust force generated by the rotor, or x force parallel to the relative wind , and the torque force normal to the radius ~ . f the blades or t force along the orbit as functions of the primary variables. Since power is the product of force times velocity, the power absorbed or generated by the rotor is the torque force times the peiiphe,,ralvelocity The instantaneous contribution of a blade to each of these forces can be computed from the geometry in Figure A - 5 . They are:

.,

'IT FX = L Cos ( @ + -) 2

D Cos ib = D Sin

L Sin @

D Cos 0,

FZ = L Sin (4 + -) 2
W

L Cos@+ D S i n @ ,

= L Sin ( $

- 0) +

DCos ( $

$1,

FQ = L Sin ( $
=

- @ - T )+ D
71

Sin ( $

$1

L Cos (9

$I)

.+ D

Sin ($- @ ) .

of $. VR = W

Since 4 is a function of $ , these forces are all functions Also, since L = C~ B 2v R ~ and , D = CD VR~, and

t h + h2 - 2h

Sin$

, and

d C L = ,I' da
,

(a

- aLo) , and
+

these forceg are functions of $, w, h, and a or CL.

S i n 4 = VZ/VR,=

CD = C (C 1 , D L Also,

A C0s

$/

4 1

h2- 2hSin

111

and Cos 4 = VX/VR =

(A sin $ -I)// 1 + h 2 - 2h Sin$, it is possible after substitutionof these definitions and simplification of the results to obtain explicit expression for the instantaneous values of these forces. They are: FX = 2 Fz =
W2

. CL .[A Cos

2 (CD/CL) (A Sin $-I)] J l + A -2'1 Sin $

, ,

W 2 , CL

.[A Sin +-1

(CD/cL)h Cos

rV

)/ 1+X2-2X

Sin J,

FQ = & w2. 2 C~

.[Cos $ +

(cD/CL) ( h - Sin $)I d l

2hSin $

For constant CL, CD, and A ' the instantnnanllr values of these forces are functions $. Since d$= Qdt, the time average value of these forces can be obtained by integrating around the orbit, and from the mean value theorum of the integral calculus. In the ideal theory no blade interference is assumed so that the mean value is directly proportional to the number of blades, NB. The time average values become:

where f ( A , $ ) =

1+A 2

2ASina

Even w i t h c o n s t a n t s CL, CD, and A , t h e s e i n t e g r a l s cannot b e e v a l u a t e d i n d o s e d form due t o t h e presence o f t h e r a d i c a l , and.numerica1 methods must be used. The i n t e g r a l of COS$ t i m e s f k h e r , a d i c a l ' can be e v a l u a t e d i n c l o s e d form,, w h i l e t h e i n t e g r a l o f s i n $ t i m e s t h e r a d i c a l cannot be e v a l u a t e d i n c l o s e d form and must be e v a l u a t e d n u m e r i c a l . 1 ~ . I n s p e c t i o n shows t h a t c e r t a i n t e r m s can be e v a l u a t e d i n c l o s e d form. Also, t h e mean. v a l u e theorum f o r t h e i n t e g r a l o f t h e product o f two f u n c t i o n s can be .used t o o b t a i n approximate r e l a t i o n s which can i n d i c a t e t r e n d s . I f CL i s a , c o n s t a n t , CD i s a c o n s t a n t , and t h e mean v a l u e would be d i r e c t l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o CL. Thus, t o o b t a i n h i g h l i f t and t h r u s t , h i g h ' l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t s should be used, and t h i s a l s o means h i g h power is r e q u i r e d t o t u r n t h e rotor, or hi911 puwer would be e x t r a c t e d by t h e r o t o r . F i n a l l y , t h e term NB P S w2 m u l t i p l i e s each integral.
2 S i n c e a f o r c e d i v i d e d by .-Z ps S g i v e s an aerodynamic c o e f f i c i e n t which i s independent of s i . z e o r a c t u a l wind speed, i n

c o e f f i c i e n t form t h e s e i n t e g r a l s imply t h a t c o e f f i c i e n t s can be s i z e and wind speed o b t a i n e d which depend o n l y on CL, CD, and A . can be removed as long a s g e o m e t r i c a l s i m u l a r i t y i s maintained. Thus, r o t o r s can be s c a l e d i n s i z e from one computation.

Because of the difficulty in evaluating the integrals, and since-most investigators .assumed that air foils.would be used for blades so that (CD/CL) << 1.0, the integrals we're simplified by ignoring the drag contribution to the integrals. . . Numerical evaluation was still re~uiredin most cases. However, with this simplification, and can be evaluated in closed form, and lead to an understanding of the behavior of the rotor performance and the necessity of lift coefficient reversal to obtain useful thrust and torque. These integrals will be evaluated, and then the mean value theorem will be utilized to show the effect of the'drag term. This is particulary important for the Madaras rotor which uses spinning cylinders which can generate very large values of CL, but CL/CD is of the order of 3 to 5,which makes the drag term important in each integral.

in Neglecting the drag term and expressing the inte-g-ral coefficient form, the integral for the thrust coefficient behavior becomes :

CFX=

FX
NB

2 I T 2

1 + X 2- 2 Sin $

Cos +dl1

- 3

C~

ZiY 11.

+ x ~ -z x

Sin $ 1 3/2

2 I T
0

assumed constant. Thus, if the lift coefficient is constant around If it is assumed that the lift, the orbit no thrust is developed coefficient i s reversed in sign at Jl = B and $ =n+ B so that CL >O if IT + f3 < $ < ZIT+ 3, the .expression for CFX becomes with

I - cLI

IcL(

and constant

CFX

7r+B - A J . 1 + h2

2x

sih

cos q d q

LyB+X X
{ I + n2
-.

A - ~2 ~sin

WW]

2~ Sin 6 13/2J

It is seen that if B > 0 .a positive thrust is developed, while'..if < 0 a negative thrust is.developed. Thus, if the sign on CL is re'versed at some angle B'thrust can be developed, and the control of thrust is through the angle B . To reverse the lift coefficient, the angle of attack must be made negative for B 5 $ .rr + B, and the angle .of attack must be made positive for (IT + 3) 5 .$ ( 2 7 r +$.I TO obtain a constant l c L1 ,the blade must be maintained at a con-stant angle relative to $ - Since = t a n ' (VZ/VX) = tan-1 (-V Cos$/ (V Sin $- W ) ) , the orientation of the blade must be continuously varied as the blade traverses the orbit. At $ = 8 and JI = 7r .t 8 , the angle of attack must be reversed. This continual variation of blade orientation is referred to as blade modulation, and the reversal of blade.angleof attack is referred to as blade flip. Kirsten showed that the ideal blade $.l,i,ding modulation could be achieved by the so called "swingir:~ block mechanism.." He devised mechanical means to accomp1ish:this.

<

<

In a similar manner, it can be shown that the torque force coefficient can be found to be

If B >O, CFQ > O f and power must 'be supplied to the rotor, while if B < 0, C F Q > 0, and power is extracted by the rotor. Thus ifB > 0 CFX:.> O., CFQ > 0, and the device is a propulsive device, while ifB< 0 CFX < O , C F Q < 0, and the device is a windmill which extracts power from the airstream. Since V. FQ-is a power, the power coefficient becomes

CP=
NP

9 w3

1 2 1 {l 3n

h2+2h sinf31~/~{I

h2-2h Sin

B} 3/21

= h CFQ

= CFX

This ideal analysis provides some insight into.the performance of the rotor. The integral for CFZ which is the lift force or side force of the rotor cannot be evaluated in closed form, but if B 0, CFZ <'0, and if B < 0, CFZ ? 0. This is found from numerical computation. It may also be shown that CFZ is a maximum in magnitude for f3 = kT IT Thus, a lifting rotor could take off vertically at f3= 0, and by making f3 > 0, could produce 'both lift and thrust with power input. The cyclogiro would then behave much like a helicopter. It can be shown that in the event of power failure, the rotor will autorotate, and a safe landing is possible. Wind tunnel tests have verified this analysis.
.

The integrals for the aerodynamic coefficients can be evaluated with the aid of the second mean value theorem of the integral calculus. Because of blade modulation and mathematical restriction on the mean value theorurn, piecewise integration is required. The resulting expressions indicate the 'trends of the coefficients,but are not convenient for application as numerical integration is still required. The theorem states'

b f(x) g

(XI

(bla)

g (x) dr where f (6i) dx = f (6i) a b f (x) dx. Where f (x) and g (x) are integrable,

a and g(x) is always positive or always negative on the interval (b-a)

Now:

whe're.'f ,(.A, $,I g ($1 = if [XCos $ +

+ A 2

2 Sinqand

(-)

C~ (XSin $-I) 1 , with blade modulation CL< 0 C~

>O

f3 < $

5 (IT+ @),and CL

if

(++a)$ -

$ < (21i+B).

It is necessary

to consider four intervals, B 5 $ ( IT, IT 5 $ L(IT+~), (IT+@ < $ <ZIT, and 2 7 r J, <(2 7 r +6 ) . f ($) on each interval is evaluated by numerical integration to give f ,f ($2) , f ( $ j ) and f (q4) The

is used on each interval. The expression for algebraic sign of CL CFX becomes with lcLl being constant and CD being positive and constant CFX

=
;I

2 I T
:
a.
,

[f(q1)JITB

g($)d$ +

f($3)s
2r g(@)d$ I T + B

+ f

($4)

2r+B g . ( $ ) d$]

Substituking for g

($)

, carrying

out the

indicated integration, substituting limits, and simplifying, the expression for CFX becomes

CFX = IT [f($1) { XsinB

lcLl

1 + f ( q 3 j {A Sin I 3 -.,

&I

[n-8 +i(l+ COSB)~ 1

Inspection reveals that the drag term reduces the thrust 620. When$= 0 , f ($2) = f ($4) = 0, and CFX becomes

This shows that drag causes a negative thrust at B= 0. n f ( $ 1 =f (Y4) and f (q2) = f (g3), and CFX becomes When .B = 2

Again, the drag term reduces the thrust from What it would be at the ideal maximum thrust condition. Since f(ql) and f ($2) increase with A, it is seen that CFX increases with A and CL and is positive for B > 0. It is negative for B< 0 which can be determined from a similar computation. The expression for CFZ

is found similarly and is

Note that at the same value of B, f (JI1),f (lU2), f(l13), and f(q4) are the same for all the coefficients. This simplifies evaluation of the coefficients. f (JI1) (-2h+n)+f( $ 3 ) (-2h-IT) 1 <O 2n I Note that the drag term does not affect CFZ at B= 0. When
=

B= 0, CFZ

n When 8 = 2 '

It may be inferred from this'thatthe drag term does not affect the lift of the rotor. The torque force coefficient, and hence -thepower coefficient is found similarly for B > 0 as:

CFQ =

GI

I f ($lj{sin8

+ f($2) {SinB

If l + 1 1 [AB+

( A (T-B) - (1 + CosB)1 )
(1 + CosB ) 1)

The drag always makes a positive contribution to the torque force, and hence increases the power required or reduces the power extracted by a windmill. When:B= 0, CFQ = When f3=

2 .rr

IT I, CFQ = lL1 2 l T [f ($2) +

1(q2)1 (2 + A n

C
)

C~

men

lT - 2n B= 2 , cFQ = lCL1

C~ + fit2)] (-2 +Anjq/).

This analysis shows that when drag is present that the drag contribution causes a negative increment in the thrust, a positive increment in the torque, and hence power, and has no effect on the lT lift at B = 0 or rq , but may havean effect on the lift at other values of B. If ICD/CLlis large and cannot be neglected, the performance of the rotor is seriously degraded. 303

The fact that thrust and lift are generated by the rotor shows that the ideal theory is incorrect. The momentum theorem of fluid mechanics requires that if a force is generated on a body immersed in a fluid that the fluid passing around the body be given an increment of velocity in the opposite direction of the force generated. The flow field 'isdistsibuked. in all directions out to infinity, and the assumption of a uniform parallel flow through the rotor is not valid. The disturbances created by the body are not uniform or constant, but vary throughout t h e flow. The momentum theory of propellers assumed a thin actuator disc and assumed a wake to exist behind the disc. The stream tube which passed through the disc was assumed to contract in the direction of the flow. It was found that one-half of the final velocity increment in the wake occurred prior to the flow reaching the disc, and one-half after passing through the disc. Similarly in Prandtl's wing theory, one-half the induced velocity occurred prior to the wing and one-half after the flow passed the wing. This led researchers in cyclogiro theory to make a similar assumption about the flow through a cyclogiro. If the force on a body is known, the final velocity increment in the wake can be computed easily from the momentum theorem. Because of the linearity of the equations, it is possib1.e to use components of the force. The first correction to the ideal theory used these concepts. FX and were computed from the ideal theory with no correction. These forces were then used to compute the X and Z components of the final velocity increment in the wake. It was assumed that o'ne-half the final velocity increment in the wake occurred at the rotor. It was further assumed that the velocity increment at the rotor was uniform and constant throughout the rotor. If WX is the X component of velocity at the rotor and WZ the Z component of velocity at the rotor, then the resultant velocity components at the rotor become VX = V Sin 9- W + WX, and VZ = -V Cos$

WZ so that WZ) ~ o s q .

VR~= w2+V2+WX2+wz2 -~v(w-WX)Sin $-2 (W wx

+v

.Let A= V/W, g = WX/W,

:

.$=

WZ/W. Then,

2 V R ~ = W [ (10
= tan-1

+ X2 +

<2 - 2 { (1-

5 ) Sin$ + g~os$l] and

Sin$
=

- (1-'6) +

- 'XCos $+

<

Sin$

and

VZ - and CosJl = VX VR VR as

before. Following the same procedures as before, one finds: CFX =

2r[~L (hCos$- <Sin$)

CD ( (1-6) Cos$

<Sin$)1

41-o2 + h2

+ G*

- zx [(I-5)

Sin

COS$ 1

CFQ =

J '

2a

ICL( (1-S) Cos $- <Sin$

0

+ CD (A- (1-5) Sin

$+ <Cos ) 1

CFR =

2 l T

2 l T [cL(1- ( 1 -5) Sin $+ <Cos$)

~~((lcos ~ ) $-

sing)I

These integrals are considerably more complex than in the ideal theory, and none can be evaluated in closed form. The mean values theorem can be used as before, but the results are somewhat -3re complicated and will not be shown. Basically, the rotor per-3rmance has the same character as before, but the performance is degraded. Thrust is less, lift is less, and llower required is

greater. The reason is that the lift and drag forces are rotated from the ideal orientation in a direction which produces those effects.
An iterative procedure was used to find the aerodynamic coefficients as defined by these integrals. For a given A, 8 , CL, and CD, FX and W werecomputed from the ideal theory. WX and WZ were then computed from the momentum theorem, and Sand n determined. The aerodynamic coefficients were then computed from the = W ~ X N Band integrals with Sand IT corrections. Since 2 2 FZ = CFZ W.NB;. F X a n d FZ wero t h e n computed. R nedond value o f WX and WZ were computed, and new values of'6and n computed. The procedure was repeated until WX and WZ were computed to an acceptable accuracy. It required five to sixiteratidns to achieve 1 percent accuracy. This procedure was accomplished by manual calculations and was extremely laborious. Eight to 16 points were used on the orbit tp reduce the ampunt of effort required'.. Th.e results.we.re in good agreement wi.th'test .results both.qualitatively and quantktatively, but over estimated the performance actually achieved.
It wao rccogniccd that thcrc wcrc ocriouo dcficicncica in

this attempt to compute the performance. The assumption of constant uniform values of WX and WZ around the orbit was not a valid assumption. Because of the finite r o t o , r radius W X and.WZ would be different at all points on the orbit. The flow is curvelinear and the use of CL and CD obtained in uniform parallel was questionable. The flow was clearly nonsteady and tended to be oscillatory through the rotor. In addition, mutual interference The rotor .is actually and interferen'ce 'of.the. wake 'was.negle.cted. three' dimensional, and these..'theoriesassumed .that a l l of the blade experienced the same..velocity. This assumed two d'imensional flow, or strip theory. Finally, the effect of any blade support structure had been neglected. Kirsten assumed cantilever blades from the side of a fuselage. In spite of all these deficiencies, the results were encouraging enough that the cyclogiro was seriously considered

f o r a f i g h t e r a i r c r a f t d e s i g n i n World War 11, b u t mechanical v i b r a t i o n and s t r u c t u r a l problems t e r m i n a t e d t h e e f f o r t a f t e r two y e a r s .

SECTION A-3

P R I M I T I V E VORTEX THEORY O F THE CYCLOGIRO

Larsen reviewed t h e e x i s t i n g t h e o r y of t h e c y c l o g i r o , and concluded t h a t i t would be n e c e s s a r y t o u s e v o r t e x t h e o r y t o s i m u l a t e t h e b l a d e s a s P r a n d t l had done i n wing t h e o r y and G o l d s t e i n had done i n p r o p e l l e r t h e o r y . T h i s would p e r m i t comp u t a t i o n o f t h e induced v e l o c i t i e s a t a l l p o i n t s on t h e o r b i t . The problem was e x c e e d i n g l y complicated. K i r s t e n had shown that t h e p a t h of t h e b l a d e r e l a t i v e t o t h e air was a p r o l a t e c y c l o i d , c y c l o i d , o r c u r a t e c y c l o i d dependent upon t h e v a l u e of A . Tn a d d i t i o n , s i n c e a number of b l a d e s would be used, t h e c y c l o i d s i n t e r s e c t e d . T h i s c r e a t e d s i n g u l a r i t y and m u l t i v a l u e d f u n c t i o n s . P r a n d t l had asstuned t h a t t h e v o r t e x s h e e t shed from t h e wing was p l a n e and r i g i d i n v i o l a t i o n of t h e Helmholtz v o r t e x laws. T h i s was j u s t i f i e d on t h e argument t h a t t h e induced v e l o c i t i e s

w e r e s m a l l , and i n o r d e r t o l i n e a r i z e t h e e q u a t i o n s it was necessary. A n a l y s i s shows thlat t h e c e n t r o i d . of v o r t i c i t y remains f i x e d , b u t t h e v o r t e x s h e e t i s u n s t a b l e and r o l l s - u p t o form two c o n c e n t r a t e d t r a i l i n g v o r t i c e s l o c a t e d a t t h e spanwise c e n t r o i d of v o r t i c i t y . Flow v i s u a l i z a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s c l e a r l y d e m o n s t r a t e t h i s phenomena i n wind t u n n e l t e s t s .
G o l d s t e i n assumed t h a t t h e v o r t e x s h e e t shed from t h e b l a d e s of a p r o p e l l e r was r i g i d , t r a n s l a t e d a t uniform v e l o c i t y , and b e i n g l i g h t l y l o a d e d d i d n o t c o n t r a c t . Basically, h i s The assumptiolls a r e v a l i d f a r downstream from t h e p r o p e l l e r .

v o r t e x s h e e t t r a i l i n g from a p r o p e l l e r i s n o t s t a b l e , and w i l l r o l l - u p s i m i l a r t o t h a t t r a i l i n g behind a wing. Because of t h e t h r e e d i m e n s i o n a l n a t u r e of t h e problem, t h e f i n a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n

i s n o t known.

The r i g i d s h e e t would be a h e l i x .

I f t h e sheet

r o l l e d - u p t o t h e c e n t r o i d o f v o r t i c i t y , it would form a conc e n t r a t e d h e l i c a l v o r t e x , one f o r e a c h b l a d e , How t h e s e m u l t i p l e h e l i c a l v o r t i c e s would i n t e r a c t i s unknown, b u t t h e r e i s some e x p e r i m e n t a l e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e wake u l t i m a t e l y formed i s a s e r i e s o f e q u a l l y s p a c e d t o r o i d a l v o r t e x r i n g s j o i n e d by h e l i c a l

v o r t i c i e s of v a n i s h i n g s t r e n g t h a s t i m e p r o g r e s s e s .

This s t r u c t u r e

o c c u r s f a r from t h e p r o p e l l e r and i s t h e r e s u l t of t h e c u r v e l i n e a r a x i s of t h e v o r t e x , v i s c o s i t y , t u r b u l e n c e , and c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e e q u a t i o n s cannot b e s o l v e d because t h e y a r e n o n l i n e a r , b u t s o l u t i o n s o b t a i n e d from s t e a d y s t a t e l i n e a r e q u a t i o n s s u g g e s t t h a t a l l t h e s e e f f e c t s a r e p r e s e n t and a f f e c t the final structure. The s t r u c t u r e of v o r t e x ' w a k e f o r a c y c l o g i r o i s c o m p l i c a t e d because i t i s nonsteady, n o n r i g i d , c u r v e l i n e a r , nonuniform, and h a s r e g i o n s of h i g h l y c o n c e n t r a t e d v o r t i c i t y a t t h e l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t reversal o r blade f l i p points. I f t h e wake s t r u c t u r e i s known, t h e induced v e l o c i t i e s can be computed from t h e geometry and t h e B i o t - S a v a r t law. I f t h e s t r u c t u r e i s unknown, t h e Helmholtz v o r t e x laws, t h e e q u a t i o n s of motion, and t h e B i o t - S a v a r t law can be used t o compute t h e s t r u c t u r e and t h e induced v e l o c i t i e s a s f u n c t i o n s of time. Hopeully, a s t e a d y - s t a t e s o l u t i o n would It is necessary t o r e s u l t a f t e r t h e t r a n s i e n t s had d i e d o u t . review v o r t e x p r o p e r t i e s i n o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e problem.

A s s o c i a t e d w i t h each increment of l e n g t h of a v o r t e x f i l a m e n t t h e r e i s an induced v e l o c i t y a t e v e r y p o i n t i n t h e f i e l d . One does The induced v e l o c i t y and t h e v o r t e x f i l a m e n t c o - e x i s t . n o t c r e a t e t h e o t h e r . The induced v e l o c i t y i s computed from t h e B i o t - ~ a v a r t law a L a p a i n k r , as

where

i s t h e r a d i u s v e c t o r from t h e element of v o r t i c i t y , d s i s

t h e i n c r e m e n t a l v e c t o r l e n g t h of t h e element ,of v o r t i c i t y and i s t h e s t r e n g t h o f , t h e element of v o r t i c i t y . rn s c a l a r f o r m

which g i v e s o n l y t h e magnitude and n o t d i r e c t i o n .

B is t h e

a n g l e between t h e element of v o r t i c i t y and t h e r a d i u s v e c t o r , r. T h i s e q u a t i o n . shows t h a t t h e induced v e l o c i t y f i e l d a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e element o f v o r t i c i t y I'ds i s c o n c e n t r i c c i r c l e s about

'IT t h e a x i s d s , t h e maximum v e l o c i t y o c c u r s when B = and d e c r e a s e s 2 t o 0 a t B = 0. T h i s means t h a t i f t h e v o r t e x i s c u r v e l i n e a r ,

t h e v o r t e x w i l l induce v e l o c i t i e s on i t s e l f a t any p o i n t where

B f 0.
Helmholtz s y s t e m a t i c a l l y s t u d i e d v o r t i c e s and developed theorems which d e s c r i b e t h e i r p r o p e r t i e s . They are:
1.

The s t r e n g t h o f a v o r t e x f i l a m e n t i s c o n s t a n t a l o n g

i t s length.
2.
A v o r t e x f i l a m e n t cannot end i n a f l u i d , i t must

e x t e n d t o t h e b o u n d a r i e s of t h e f l u i d o r form a c l o s e d path. I n t h e absence of r o t a t i o n a l e x t e r n a l f o r c e s , a f l u i d t h a t i s i n i t i a l l y i r r o t a t i o n a l remains i r r o t a t i o n a l .

3.

I n t h e absence o f r o t a t i o n a l e x t e r n a l f o r c e s , i f t h e c i r c u l a t i o n around a p a t h e n c l o s i n g a d e f i n i t e group of p a r t i c l e s i s i n i t i a l l y z e r o , it

A c o r o l l a r y f o l l o w s from S t o k e s theorem.

w i l l remain zero.
T h i s a l s o means t h a t i n t h e absence of r o t a t i o n a l e x t e r n a l f o r c e s v o r t i c i t y remains a t t a c h e d t o t h e same p a r t i c l e s . V o r t i c i e s have t h e a d d i t i o n a l p r o p e r t y t h a t i n t h e absence of any t s a n s l a t o r y f o r c e t h e y move w i t h t h e looal velacity i n t h e flow. I f t h e v o r t e x f i l a m e n t i s an i n f i n i t e l y lonq s t r a i g h t l i n e , t h e flow i s two-dimensional, an imcompressible f l o w and t h e induced v e l n n i t y a t any r a d i u s , r , i n a p l a n e normal t o t h e v o r t e x f i l a m e n t i s f o r

The flow i s c o n c e n t r i c c i r c l e s about t h e v o r t e x f i l a m e n t .

1s r * O , w+O, s o t h a t a t t h e f i l a m e n t t h e v e l o c i t y approaches I t can be shown t h a t t h e flow i s i r r o t a t i o n a l everyinfinity. where e x c e p t a t t h e f i l a m e n t . To c o n s t r u c t t h e v o r t e x s h e e t

t r a i l i n g behind a wing, it was n e c e s s a r y f o r P r a n d t l t o compute t h e induced v e l o c i t y ' a t a p o i n t a s s o c i a t e d w i t h an a r b i t r a r y s t r a i g h t 1 i n e . f i n i t e l e n g t h v o r t e x f i l a m e n t segment. T h i s i s o b t a i n e d by i n t e g r a t i n g t h e B i o t - S a v a r t law o v e r t h e l e n g t h of t h e segment. The r e s u l t i s :

where w

i s t h e induced v e l o c i t y a t t h e p o i n t , p , .h i s t h e normal P d i s t a n c e from p t o t h e v o r t e x f i l a m e n t , and a and 6 a,re t h e a n g l e s between t h e l i n e of t h e v o r t e x f i l a m e n t , and l i n e s j o i n i n g t h e p o i n t p t o t h e e f r t r e m i t i e s of t h e f i l w n t . T h i s i s i l l u s t r a t e d A f i n i t e l e n g t h segment v i o l a t e s t h e Helmholtz i n Figure A . 6 .

v o r t e x theorems, hub c a n be used t o r e p r e s e n t t h e bound v o r t e x i n a wing, o r t o c o n s t r u c t a polygonal a r c t o approximate cutvel i n e a r flow w i t h . . a f i n i t e number of segments. Of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t i s t h e . problem of d e t e r m i n i n g t h e v e l o c i t y a t t h e end of a s e m i - i n f i n i t e s t r a i g h t l i n e segment of a v o r t e x f i l a m e n t f & r which a= 90 and B = 0. The r e s u l t i s :

which. i s one-half t h e v a l u e f o r t w o - d i m e n s i o n a . 1 flow. T h i s r e s u l t was used by P r a n d t l i n computing t h e downwash a t a wing d u e t o t h e t r a i l i n g p l a n e r i g i d v o r t e x s h e e t by i n t e g r a t i n g a c r o s s t h e span. The i n f i n i t e v e l o c i t y a t t h e f i l a m e n t i m p l i e s t h a t f o r i n c o m p r e s s i b l e flow and c o n s t a n t t o t a l energy t h a t a t a c e r t a i n r a d i u s t h e p r e s s u r e would be z e r o , and f o r s m a l l e r r a d i i t h e p r e s s u r e would be n e g a t i v e o r t h e f l u i d would have t o a c c e p t a

A 6 - length of vortex segment

h = normal distance
point Wp= induced velocity = circulation

P = arbitrary

Figure A.6.

Induced Velockty a t .an Arbitrary Point Associated . w i t h .a F i n i t e S t r a i g h t Line Segment o f . C i r c u l a t i o n , I

312

tension. This is impossible in a real fluid. The potential vortex cannot actually simulate a real vortex, but is an excellent approximation for the radius being large enough that the flow may be considered incompressible. 0seen60 found a solution for the two-dimensional incompressible 'viscous vortex in 1903. The solution is w p
=(--)

r.

2 . r r r

-r2/4ut [l-e I

The velocity at a point P, w is seen to be a function of P ' r and t. At a given t, the velocity has a maximum at a radius rm, when

That is, r = 1.120906423 It may also be shown that at a. given t Wmax (rm)./wmax pot (rm) = 0.715331863. This is; the maximum velocity in the Oseen vortex is 0.715331863 the velocity at the same radius, circulation, and time as a potential vortex at the radius for maximum velocity in an Oseen vortex. It may also be shown that when r = 4.798525912 rm = RVO that wpot/wOseen = 1 x 10-O. Thus, for r = 4.7985259128 rm, the velocity in the Oseen vortex may be considered to be the same as that in the . potential vortex. All the effects of viscosity may be considered confined within the radius RVO. Outside that radius the flow may be considered to be nonviscous. Figure A.7 is a nondimensional plot of the velocity in an Oseen vortex and, for comparison, the potential vortex. It is seen that near the axis of the vortex the velocity increases nearly linearly with radius,,butthe curve is concave downward with gradually increasing' curvature. A maximum velocity is reached at r/rm = 1.0. The curve continues to curve downward and asymp,oticallyapproaches an equilateral hyperbola. At r = 4.798525912 fm, the curve may then be considered to be an equilateral hyperbola.
313

RVOa RADIUS AT WHICH VlSCOSlf Y MAY BE NEGLECTED

0.4

F i g u r e 2i.7.

20 2.4 2.8 t2 3.6 4.0 4.4 4.8 5; r4rm N c n c i n e a s i z m a l i z e d V e l o c i t y D i s t r i ! ? . u t i o n i n a n Oneen V o r t e x and P o t e n t i a l Vcrtex.
0.8
1.6

1.2

The Oseen v o r t e x ' i s an e x c e l l e n t a p p r o x i m a t i o n t o a r e a l vortex. I n s i d e o f RVO t h e flow i s v i s c o u s and r o t a t i o n a l . Outs i d e o f RVO, t h e f l o w may b e c o n s i d e r e d p o t e n t i a l and t h e v e l o c i t y computed from t h e p o t e n t i a l v o r t e x . V i s c o s i t y l i m i t s t h e maximum velocity. Evidence from d e v e l o p e d t o r n a d o s i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e maximum v e l o c i t y i n t o r n a d o s may r e a c h t h e o r d e r o f 400 mph. It may b e shown t h a t t h e maximum v e l o c i t y f o r a g i v e n c i r c u l a t i o n , r , d e c r e a s e s as and t h e r a d i u s a t which t h e maximum v e l o c i t y I f r i s c o n s t a n t l i t h e Oseen v o r t e x occurs i n c r e a s e s as

c.

g r a d u a l l y decays a s t h e e f f e c t s of v i s c o s d t y propogate f a r t h e r o u t i n t o t h e f l u i d a s RVO a l s o i n c r e a s e s as Calculations show t h a t i f o n l y v i s c o s i t y i s a c t i n g , Oseen v o r t i c e s are per-' sistent. I t r e q u i r e s a s much as 4 8 h o u r s f o r t h e maximum v e l o c i t y t o decay t o 10 p e r c e n t o f t h a t which o c c u r s s h o r t l y a f t e r t h e vortex is started. I n n a t u r e , r e a l v o r t i c i e s are d i s s i p a t e d much more r a p i d l y . T h i s i s b e l i e v e d t o be due t o t u r b u l e n c e which i s much more Prandtl's powerful than v i s c o s i t y i n d i s s i p a t i n g t h e vortex. mixing l e n g t h t h e o r y o f t u r b u l e n c e and d a t a from t u r b u l e n t m i x i n g s o l u t i o n i n wakes and j e t s c a n b e u s e d t o estimate t h e e f f e c t o f t u r b u l e n c e . When t u r b u l e n c e i s used i n p l a c e o f v i s c o s i t y i n t h e Oseen s o l u t i o n , t h e ' t i m e f o r t h e maximum v e l o c i t y decay t o 10 p e r c e n t o f t h a t which o c c u r s s h o r t l y a f t e r s t a r t i n g i s from two t o 'four hours. Measurements o f t h e p e r s i s t e n c e of t r a i l i n g v o r t i c e s l e f t by l a r g e a i r c r a f t i n f l i g h t v e r i f i e s t h a t p e r s i s t e n c e i s o f t h e o r d e r of two t o f o u r h o u r s . Thus, e v e n w i t h t u r b u l e n c e t h e v o r t i c i e s w i l l p e r s i s t f o r l o n g p e r i o d s o f t i m e , and e x t e n d f a r downstream from t h e i r p o i n t of o r i g i n . very useful.
. .

The Oseen s o l u t i o n i s

The maximum v e l o c i t y which o c c u r s i n t o r n a d o s raises t h e q u a s t i o n o f t,he i n f l u e n c e of c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y on v o r t e x s t r u c t u r e .

A t 400 mph, t h e e f f e c t s of c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y a r e b e g i n n i n g t o become

important. G. ~ a ~ l o or b t~ ain l e d t h e s o l u t i o n f o r t h e nonv i s c o u s c o m p r e s s i b l e v o r t e x i n 1930. The r e s u l t i s :

*.

and

so that

w h c r c v i s t h e v r l u c i t y c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o r o r p , Vmax i s t h e v e l o c i t y t h a t g a s would a c h i e v e when exhaust.ing i n t o a vaauumi r i s t h e c i r c u l a t i o n , and r is. t h e r a d i u s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o V and 1' V when p= 0. F o r r < r , a p e r f e c t vacuum would e x i s t , r = max 5' t h e maximum v e l o c i t y would e x i s t , and p = p= 0. A t some c r i t i c a l * r a d i u s , r , t h e s o n i c v e l o c i t y i s r e a c h e d . F o r r < r < r t h e ' flow * 1 * i s s u p e r s o n i c , and f o r r > r t h e f l o w i s s u b s o n i c . When r > > r
'

t h e f l o w may b e c o n s i d e r e d i n c o m p r e s s i b l e , and t h e i n c o m p r e s s i b l e p o t e n t i a l s o l u t i o n may be used t o compute t h e v e l o c i t y i n t h e flow. T a y l o r ' s compressible vortex cannot e x i s t i n n a t u r e because of t h e e f f e c t s o f v i s c o s i t y and t u r b u l e n c e , b u t t h e s o l u t i o n shows t h a t t h e e f f e c t s of c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y may b e c o n s i d e r e d .tu be c o n f i n e d t o a r e g i o n n e a r t h e a x i s , and a t d i s t a n c e s f a r from t h e a x i s t h a t t h e p o t e n t i a l s o l u t i o n may be u s e d t o compute t h e velocity.
If (p/p,)
= 0.99,

r/rl

= 15.78759774.

The s n l . u t i . n n for a v i s a o u s , c o m p r e s s i b l e v o r t e x has n o t

been f o u n d , b u t i t s c h a r a c t e r may be i n f e r r e d from t h e 0seen s o l u t i o n and t h e T a y l o r s o l u t i o n . V i s c o s i t y would n o t permit the c r e a t i o n o f a vacuum a t t h e c o r e and t h e v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n would r e s e m b l e t h e Oseen s o l u t i o n . I f t h e s o n i c v e l o c i t y were r e a c h e d i n t h e f l o w , i t would p r o b a b l y o c c u r a t t h e ,maximum v e l o c i t y ; o t h e r w i s e , t h e r e wou1.d b e s u b s o n i c c o r e , a s u p e r s o n i c a n n u l a r r e g i o n , and a subsonic o u t e r region. Pressure dist u r b a n c e c o u l d p r o p o g a t e a x i a l l y and r a d i a l l . y . o n l y . l n t h e

s u b s o n i c r e g i o n s , and t h e s e p r e s s u r e d i s t u r b a n c e s would c r e a t e shock waves which would d e s t r o y t h e s u p e r s o n i c r e g i o n . T h i s may be t h e phenomena known a s " v o r t e x b u s t i n g . " The s t a b l e con' I

f i g u r a t i o n would be s u b s o n i c flow everywhere w i t h t h e e f f e c t s of v i s c o s i t y , t u r b u l e n c e , and c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y c o n f i n e d t o a r e g i o n n e a r t h e a x i s of t h e v o r t e x . Outside t h i s r e g i o n , t h e p o t e n t i a l s o l u t i o n would be used t o compute t h e induced v e l o c i t y . a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e c i r c u l a t i o n . The v o r t e x would decay w i t h . t i m e , grow i n s i z e , b u t p e r s i s t f o r r e l a t i v e l y long p e r i o d s o f time. The d i s t r i b u t e d and c o n c e n t r a t e d v o r t i c i t y shed a t b l a d e f l i p p o i n t s i s d i s t r i b u t e d a c r o s s t h e r o t o r from t h e upstream s i d e t o t h e downstream s i d e . The b l a d e s i n t r a v e r s i n g t h e downs t r e a m s i d e of t h e r o t o r p e r i o d i c a l l y p a s s through t h e d i s t r i b u t e d v o r t i c i t y and i n t e r a c t w i t h t h e c o n c e n t r a t e d v o r t i c i t y . If a v o r t e x f i l a m e n t o c c u r r e d , i n f i n i t e v e l o c i t i e s would o c c u r a s t h e b l a d e passed through t h e wake o r i n t e r a c t e d w i t h t h e c o n c e n t r a t e d vorticity. T h i s would c x e a t e b o t h p h y s i c a l and computing problems. The bound v o r t e x i n t h e b l a d e must f o l l o w t h e o r b i t a l o r c i r c u l a r p a t h , w h i l e t h e v o r t i c e s i n t h e wake a r e f r e e t o move. The i n t e r a c t i o n between t h e bound v o r t e x and any f r e e v o r t e x i s such t h a t t h e f r e e v o r t e x would t e n d t o r o t a t e about t h e bound v o r t e x i n a c i r c u l a r p a t h r e l a t i v e t o t h e bound v o r t e x . The f r e e v o r t e x never comes i n c o n t a c t w i t h t h e bound v o r t e x , b u t may p a s s q u i t e c l o s e t o t h e bound v o r t e x . The f r e e c o n c e n t r a t e d v o r t i c e s can be t w i c e a s s t r o n g o r s t r o n g e r t h a n t h e bound v o r t e x . I t can t h u s induce v e r y h i g h v e l o c i t i e s on t h e bound v o r t e x which a f f e c t s t h e magnitude and d i r e c t i o n of t h e r e s u l t a n t f o r c e on t h e b l a d e , This can cause l a r g e l o c a l v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e l o c a l f o r c e s a s w e l l as the integrated rotor characteristics. The Oseen v o r t e x and t h e T a y l o r v o r t e x a r e u s e f u l i n a s s e s s i n g t h i s problem.
A r e a l v o r t e x i s a combination of both.

Compressible e f f e c t s can and do e x i s t i n r e a l v o r t i c e s , b u t would be c o n f i n e d t o a r e g i o n n e a r t h e a x i s . The Oseen v o r t e x shows t h a t v i s c o s i t y , a l s o t u r b u l e n c e , l i m i t s c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y e f f e c t s and

p r e v e n t s t h e f o r m a t i o n o f a vacuum as a c o r e ; t h a t v i s c o u s e f f e c t s are c o n f i n e d t o a f i n i t e a r e a n e a r t h e a x i s ; and t h a t t h e maximum v e l o c i t y i s l i m i t e d . The Oseen v o r t e x a l s o shows t h a t t h e v o r t e x grows i n a r e a w i t h t i m e , d e c r e a s e s i n v e l o c i t y w i t h t i m e , and i s p e r s i s t e n t . The Oseen and T a y l o r v o r t i c e s can be u s e d t o e s t i m a t e t h e p h y s i c a l d i m e n s i o n s and v e l o c i t i e s i n t h e v i c i n i t y of t h e f r e e c o n c e n t r a t e d v o r t i c e s i n t h e wake of a c y c l o g i r o d e v i c e . bound v o r t e x h a s a c i r c u a t i o n of The

and t h e c o n c e n t r a t e d v o r t i c i t y h a s a v a l u e of t w i c e t h a t amount, and t h e f r e e v o r t i c i t y h a s a c i r c u l a t i o n o f

IT The v a l u e o f V a t t h e i n s t a n t t h e v o r t i c i t y i s s h e d when f3= f T

v=w ( X * l )

To c o n s i d e r t h e w o r s t c a s e , t h e Madaras r o t o r c a n 1 m/s. a c h i e v e CL = 1 2 , S/b = 5.55 m and W = 1 The i n d u c e d veloc: r r i n a p o t e n t i a l v o r t e x i s w = - ,ass=2rr 21~w' F i r s t , compute t h e r a d i u s , r , f o r t h e T a y l o r v o r t e x a t
T h e maximum s t a n d a r d a t m o s p h e r i c c o n d i t i o n s , o f Tu = 518.6OR. v e l o c i t y a i r c a n a c h i e v e when e x h a u s t i n g i n t o a vacuum i s Vmax w i t h Cp = 557 joules/Kg-OR. Then Vmax = 7 6 0 m / s . In t h e T a y l o r v o r t e x , r o c c u r s when p / p o = 0 , s o t h a t r = 'c max But To = 12 x 5 . 5 6 x 1 1 = 733 rn2/sec s o t h a t rl = O.1Sm.

To,

anr

T h u s , i f t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s would e v e r b e a c h i e v e d , t h e r e would be The an a b s o l u t e vacuum c o r e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 0.15m i n r a d i u s . radius, r a t which p / p o = 0.99, t h a t i s where c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y c The v e l o c i t y a t t h i s c o u l d be n e g l e c t e d rc = 15.79 rl = 2.4m. r a d i u s i s 48 m/s. Similar calculations indicate the potential

v e l o c i t y a t . t h i s r a d i u s i s e s s e n t i a l l y i d e n t i c a l i n magnitude.

Thus, f o r t h i s v e r y powerful v o r t e x , c o m p r e s s i b l e e f f e c t s can be i g n o r e d a t r a d i i g r e a t e r t h a n 2 . 4 m from t h e c e n t e r of t h e v o r t e x . The r e g i o n of i n f l u e n c e of v i s c o s i t y f o r t h e Oseen v o r t e x

w i l l now be computed.

I n t h e Oseen v o r t e x t h e maximum v e l o c i t y reached i s o n l y 0.715 t i m e s t h e v e l o c i t y i n a p o t e n t i a l v o r t e x of t h e same s t r e n g t h a t t h e same r a d i u s , rm. Thus, w = 0.715 Thus, i f we assume w Oseen = 152 m / s , then

wpot.

T h i s i s about 23 p e r c e n t of t h e r a d i u s a t which c o m p r e s s i b l e e f f e c t s can be i g n o r e d . However, t h e r a d i u s a t , w h i c h v i s c o u s e f f e c t s can be s a f e l y i g n o r e d i s RVO = 4.80 rm= 2.6 m, which i s approximately t h e r a d i u s of t h e r o t a t i n g c y l i n d e r used f o r the. Madaras r o t o r . The v e l o c i t y a t t h a t r a d i u s would be 44.5.m/s. F u r t h e r , a t a d i s t a n c e o f 91.5 m from t h i s v o r t e x , t h e v e l o c i t y induced by I t would be 1.28 m/s. The f r e e c o n c e n t r a t e d v o r t i c i e s are n o t s m a l l , c a u s e winds having t o r n a d i c v e l o c i t y , and a r e p e r s i s t e n t . The v e l o c i t y f i e l d s associated with t h e s e v o r t i c i e s extend over a considerable r a d i u s b e f o r e t h e induced v e l o c i t i e s a r e s m a l l . The p e r s i s t e n t wake c o u l d p r e s e n t a h a z a r d f a r downstream. There i s one f a c t o r which probably w i l l a l l e v i a t e t h i s problem, and t h a t i s t i m e . Taylor's s o l u t i o n does n o t i n v o l v e t i m e , b u t assumes t h e v o r t e x e x i s t s i n a c o m p r e s s i b l e f l u i d , and d e s c r i b e s r e l a t i o n s i n such a v o r t e x . The Oseen s o l u t i o n does i n v o l v e t i m e ; it assumes a p o t e n t i a l v o r t e x and t h a t t h e a s s o c i a t e d flow e x i s t s . p r i o r t o t i m e t = 0 ; and d e s c r i b e s how v o r t i c i t y i s a l t e r e d by v i s c o s i t y as a f u n c t i o n of time. N e i t h e r s o l u t i o n d e s c r i b e s how t h e flow i s a c t u a l l y i n i t i a t e d o r formed. That s o l u t i o n h a s n e v e r been found as it r e q u i r e s t h e s o l u t i o n f o r an unsteady c o m p r e s s i b l e v i s c o u s flow. One can o n l y s p e c u l a t e on t h e sequence o f e v e n t s . After

a v o r t e x i s shed from t h e s u r f a c e of a body, a s t a g n a t i o n p o i n t i s e s t a b l i s h e d a t a p o i n t on t h e body determined by t h e combined flow around t h e body and t h e r e c e n t l y shed a d j a c e n t free v o r t e x . The

f l u i d c a r r y i n g v o r t i c i t y g e n e r a t e d i n t h e boundary l a y e r t e n d s t o accumulate a t t h i s newly-formed s t a g n a t i o n p o i n t , and it forms a v o r t e x which i s h e l d a t t h a t p o s i t i o n by t h e e x t e r n a l p r e s s u r e i n t h e flow s i n c e t h e i n t e r i o r of t h e v o r t e x h a s low p r e s s u r e . As more f l u i d i s accumulated it c r e a t e s a bump on t h e body, and p r e s s u r e s i g n a l s propogated a t t h e speed of sound a l t e r t h e t o t a l f l o w p a t t e r n and e s t a b l i s h t h e induced v e l o c i t y f i e l d a s s o c i a t e d with t h e vortex. F l u i d accumulates and t h e c e n t e r of t h e v o r t e x g r a d u a l l y moves away from t h e body, and t h e v o r t e x b e g i n s t o t r a n s l a t e t o t h e ultimate separation point. A t a c r i t i c a l s i z e it s e p a r a t e s , and t h e c o r e i s a c o m p r e s s i b l e - v i s c a u s Oseen v o r t e x . I t may c o n t i n u e t c accumulate f l u i d and v o r t i c i t y from t h e boundary l a y e r w h i l e i n t h e v i c i n i t y of t h e s e p a r a t i o n p o i n t u n t i l it i s f i n a l l y pushed away by p r e s s u r e s . The c o r e i s probably v e r y i n t e n s e , and t h e s o n i c v e l o c i t y may be reached i n t h e v o r t e x . V i s c o s i t y i s powerful enough due t o t h e l a r g e v e l o c i t y g r a d i e n t s t o d o m i n a t e . c o m p r e s s i b l e e f f e c t s , and t h e f r e e v o r t e x decays s i m i l a r t o an Oseen v o r t e x . P r a n d t l s t u d i e d t h e problem.using photographic techniques which shows t h e p r o c e s s j u s t d e s c r i b e d . A c o l l e c t i o n of h i s photog r a p h s a r e shown i n Reference 6 2 . The s t a r t i n g p r o c e s s i s shown The i n t h e Reference i n F i g u r e s 2 4 t o 33 on pages 288 t o 2 9 2 . complete s e t of photographs from pages 279 t o 306 g i v e a c l e a r d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e v o r t e x flow a s s o c i a t e d w i t h s e p a r a t i o n of flow from b o d i e s and t h e g e n e r a t i o n of l i f t . The e v a l u a t i o n made f o r RVO shows t h a t t h i s r a d i u s can be f a i r l y l a r g e , and t h a t o u t s i d e t h a t r a d i u s p o t e n t i a l flow can be used s a f e l y w i t h o u t v i s c o u s o r c o m p r e s s i b l e e f f e c t s b e i n g important RVO , is the enough t o c o n s i d e r . I f t h e wake i s ~ o n s i d e r e d ' r i ~ i d c l o s e s t approach a body can make t o a v o r t e x f o r t h e wake and I f t h e d i s t a n c e i s rm 5 d< - RVO, t h e Oseen p o t e n t i a l flow used. v o r t e x s h o u l d be u s e d , and c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y can s t i l l be n e g l e c t e d . I f a body approaches rm, it i s s a f e t o assume t h a t it can g e t no c l o s e r . T h i s i s b a s e d upon t h e p h y s i c a l f a c t t h a t i n t h e p r e s e n c e ~ f b o d i e s , v o r t i c e s move i n t h e flow a t t h e l o c a l v e l o c i t y , t h a t t h e y

n e v e r a c t u a l l y t o u c h a body, and a c t u a l l y move around i t . T h i s f a c t and t h e Oseen v o r t e x model was used t o compute t h e induced ' v e l o c i t y on t h e bound v o r t e x when i n c l o s e p r i x i m i t y t o a f r e e v o r t e x i n t h e wake. I n t h i s manner s i n g u l a r p o i n t s w e r e awarded.
A. 3.2

Kutta'- Jouk'owsky Law.

~ u t t and a ~ ~~ o u k o w s k yshowed ~~ i n d e p e n d e n t l y t h a t i n two d i m e n s i o n a l flow. t h a t i f a c i r c u l a t i o n e x i s t e d about a body i n a uniform flow t h a t t h e r e was a f o r c e a t r i g h t a n g l e s t o t h e r e l a t i v e v e l o c i t y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e c i r c u l a t i o n . . That i s :

The magnitude o f t h e f o r c e i s a s c a l a r a t r i g h t a n g l e s t o V and r and i s F = p V r . ~ o u k o w s k had ~ ~ developed ~ a i r f o i l s h a p e s by t r a n s f o r m i n g a c i r c l e ' i n t o an a i r f o i l , b u t found t h a t t h e r e was no l i f t o r drag. When a c i r c u l a t i o n ( c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a v o r t e x a t t h e c e n t e r of t h e c i r c l e ) was added, a l i f t was g e n e r a t e d , b u t no d r a g e x i s t e d . T h i s law h a s been extended t o t h r e e dimensions. Assume a wing h a s uniform l o a d i n g of s p a n b . Then

f o r a wing hsed a s a 1dXti-gg-e l e m e n t of a c y c l o g i r o .

I t i s s e e n t h a t t h e magnitude o f t h e c i r c u l a t i o n depends

upon CL o r a and V. Thus, a ch'ange i n a o r V w i l l change t h e circulation. Now,

on t h e o r b i t o f t h e c y c l o g i r o , s o t h a t i f CL i s h e l d c o n s t a n t a r o u n d t h e o r b i t , t h e c i r c u l a t i o n i s c o n t i n u a l l y changing. To s a t i s f y t h e Helmholtz v o r t e x l a w s , spanwise v o r t i c i t y must b e c o n t i n u a l l y s h e d and p a s s downstream a t t h e l o c a l v e l o c i t y i n t h e flow. A l s o , t o s a t i s f y t h e Helmholtz v o r t e x l a w s , t h i s shed v o r t e x c a n n o t end i n t h e f l u i d b u t must form a c l o s e d p a t h , and must be j o i n e d t o t h e bound v o r t e x l o c a t e d i n t h e wing. Also,
a t t h e b l a d e f l i p p o i n t s , where t h e a n g l e of a t t a c k i s r e v e r s e d ,

a s t r o n g c o n c e n t r a t e d v o r t e x would be shed. T h i s s h e d v o r t e x h a s a magnitude e q u a l t o t w i c e t h a t of t h e bound v o r t e x j u s t p r i o r t o t h e t i m e of Shedding, and it h a s an o p p o s i t e r o t a t i o n . I n between t h e f l i p p o i n t s , t h e r a t e of s h e d d i n g i s s m a l l compared t o t h e shedding a t t h e f l i p point. T h e , v o r t e x shedding w i l l be r e f e r r e d t o as t h e d i s t r i b u t e d v o r t i c i t y , and t h e s h e d d i n g a t t h e f l i p p o i n t s as t h e c o n c e n t r a t e d v o r t i c i t y . The r a t i o of t h e concentrated v o r t i c i t y a t t h e f l i p points i s

It i s seen t h a t i f BfO,

t h e magnitude o f t h e d o n c e n t r a t e d

v o r t i c i t y s h e d i s unequal and t h e d i f f e r e n c e becomes p r o g r e s s i v e l : T r Since each element of v o r t i c i t y l a r q e r a s B approaches kZ w i l l be inducing v e l o c i t y on every o t h e r element of v o r t i c i t y ,

t h e d i s t r i b u t e d and c o n c e n t r a t e d v o r t i c i t y w i l l move a l o n g w i t h t h e l o c a l v e l o c i t y which i s t h e v e c t o r sum o f t h e f r e e stream v e l o c i t y and t h e t o t a l i n d u c e d v e l o c i t y a t p o i n t . T h i s c a u s e s t h e v o r t e x s h e e t t o d i s t o r t i n a spanwise and s t r e a m -

w i s e direction. It is possible t o w r i t e differentio-integral e q u a t i o n s which are t i m e d e p e n d e n t t o d e s c r i b e t h i s motion, b u t

a c l o s e d s o l u t i o n i s n o t p o s s i b l e . An approximate s o l u t i o n c a n be generated using f i n i t e element techniques, b u t t h e c o s t i n

computing t i m e i s p r o h i b i t i v e , e s p e c i a l l y when spanwise l o a d i n g

i s c o n s i d e r e d . The t i m e i n c r e a s e s a s n2

n, where n = number

o f b l a d e s x number o f spanwise s t a t i o n s x number o f p o i n t s i n t h e wake. F o r example, a t h r e e - b l a d e d r o t o r u s i n g u n i f o r m l o a d i n g , and 120 p o i n t s i n t h e wake p e r b l a d e r e q u i r e d 6,000 s e c o n d s o f CDC 6600 computer t i m e t o g e n e r a t e a wake s o l u t i o n . T h i s s o l u t i o n used p o i n t s 15' a p a r t o n t h e o r b i t , and was n o t c o n s i d e r e d a c c u r a t e enough t o compute t h e p e r f o r m a n c e . I f l o i n c r e m e n t on t h e o r b i t had been u s e d , 240 t i m e s t h e amount o f computing t i m e would have b e e n r e q u i r e d . This s o l u t i o n revealed considerable q u a l i t a t i v e information on t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e wake. F o r t h e f i r s t t u r n n e a r t h e r o t o r t h e wake o f e a c h b l a d e was n e a r l y c y c l o d i a l downstream t o t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e f i r s t lower c o n c e n t r a t e d v o r t e x a t which p o i n t r o l l - u p o f t h e c l o s e l y spaced p o i n t s w a s b e g i n n i n g t o become a p p a r e n t . The upper p a r t o f t h e wake had p o i n t s more w i d e l y spaced and d i s t o r t i o n due t o r o l l - u p w a s n o t a s g r e a t . A f t e r t h e f i r s t t u r n , d i s t o r t i o n from t h e c y c l o i d a l s h a p e becomes p r o g r e s s i v e l y g r e a t e r a s t h e wake t e n d e d t o r o l l - u p around t h e c o n c e n t r a t e d v o r t i c i t y w i t h t h e d i s t r i b u t e d v o r t i c i t y t e n d i n g t o form s t r a i g h t l i n e s w i t h w i d e n i n g s p a c i n g between p o i n t s as t h e r o l l - u p p r o g r e s s e d . A f t e r two t u r n s t h e wake w a s n e a r l y c o n c e n t r a t e d c~ about t h e l o c a t i o n of t h e concentrated vortex p o i n t s with n e a r l y u n i f o r m s p a c i n g between t h e r o l l e d - u p c o n c e n t r a t e d v o r t i c i e s . The wake w a s forming h i g h l y c o n c e n t r a t e d v o r t i c e s which o c c u r r e d i n p a i r s c l o s e r s p a c e d w i t h a s l i g h t l y l a r g e r d i s t a n c e between p a i r s i n t h e s t r e a n w i s e d i r e c t i o n . The wake became w i d e r a s it p r o g r e s s e d downstream and t h e mean v e l o c i t y i n t h e wake d e c r e a s e d . This s a t i s f i e d continuity.

The b e h a v i o r o f t h e wake i n t h e spanwise d i r e c t i o n w a s particularly interesting. I f t h e wake had b e e n r i g i d , t h e t i p j o i n i n g v o r t i c i e s would i n t e r s e c t . T h i s d i d n o t happen i n t h e f r e e wake. A s t h e wake approached t h e p o i n t o f i n t e r s e c t i o n , t h e wake from t h e p r e v i o u s b l a d e ( o r i f it formed a l o o p a s a t t h e lower p a r t o f t h e wake f o r t h e p r o l a t e c y c l o i d ) moved inward

spanwise, and t h e most r e c e n t l y formed wake moved outward span-

wise. T h i s o c c u r r e d a t each wake i n t e r s e c t i o n . The wake widened i n t h e spanwise d i r e c t i o n a s i t p r o g r e s s e d downstream.

The wake t e n d s t o r o l l - u p i n t h e spanwise d i r e c t i o n around t h e p o i n t s of c o n c e n t r a t e d v o r t i c i t y , and t h e t i p - j o i n i n g v o r t i c e s t e n d t o r o l l - u p a l o n g s t r a i g h t l i n e s j o i n i n g t h e spanwise concentrated vorticies. This t e n d s t o form a s e r i e s of g r a d u a l l y i n c r e a s i n g r i n g s of v o r t i c i t y a s t h e wake p r o g r e s s e s downstream at. a vel..ocity which i s l e s s t h a n t h e f r e e s t r e a m v e l o c i t y . Near t h e r o t o r t h e wake of each b l a d e i s pseudo c y c l o i d a l i n shape, w h i l e f a r from t h e r o t o r t h e wake i s a series of e s s e n t i a l l y o q u a l l y spaced r i n g s .
..

...

Larsen deduced t h e f a r f i e l d s t r u c t u r e of t h e wake from

c o n s i d e r a t o n s of v o r t e x motions and t h e dominance of t h e conc e n t r a t e d v o r t i c i t y shed a t b l a d e f l i p . He developed what he c a l l e d t h e " P r i m i t i v e Vortex Theory of t h e Cyclogiro" from t h i s model of t h e wake, which he assumed t o he a s e r i e s of r i g i d r i n g s of e q u a l s i z e and s t r e n g t h which t r a n s l a t e d downstream a s t h e r o t o r r o t a t e d a t a uniform v e l o c i t y computed from an a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e momenteum theorem.
Figure A . 0 i s a slcetch of t h e r o t o r and wa.k,e model used

i n t h e p r i m a t i v e t h e o r y , and shows t h e r e c t a n g u l a r r i n g s used t o s i m u l a t e t h e wake. These a r e e s s e n t i a l l y t h e c o n c e n t r a t e d v o r t i c e s shed a t a n g l e of a t t a c k r e v e r s a l . The segments p a r a l l e l t o t h e a x i s of t h e r o t o r a r e t h e v o r t i c i e s s h e d , a n d ' t h e segments a t r i g h t a n g l e s t o t h e s e a t e i t h e r end a r e r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e t i p joining vorticies. The bound v o r t i c i e s f o r t h i s four-bladed r o t o r a r e t h e spanwise l i n e r between t h e c i r c l e s . The bound v o r t i c i e s were c l o s e d w i t h t i p j o i n i n g v o r t i c i e s along r a d i a l lines. No d i s t r i b u t e d v o r t i c e s were c o n s i d e r e d .

F i g u r e A . 9 i s a flow f i e l d example computed w i t h t h e p r i m a t i v e t h e o r y . The o r b i t of t h e r o t o r i s t h e c i r c l e a t t h e F i g u r e A.9 i s a c r o s s s e c t i o n through t h e c e n t e r of t h e axes. p l a n e of symmetry a t t h e c e n t e r of t h e r o t o r . The c o n c e n t r a t e d

F i g u r e A. 8.

Primitive Vortex Theory Rotor and Wake ~ r r a y Model.

1

R = 50 FT.(15.2m) B= 130 FT. (39.6m) SB=600SQ.FT.(55.8 m2) 4 BLhDES ALPHA= 1 2 ' BETA=-80 V.22 FT./SEC.(6.7m/s) RPM= 1 0 . 125 KW

Tigure 24.9.

Plow Field o.E a Giromill at Maximum Power.

v o r t i c i t y i s t h e a r r a y o f c i r c u l a r a r c arrows which form t h e . wake s i m i l a r t o a von Kaiman v o r t e x s t r u t . F i v e v e l o c i t y prof i l e s were computed one r o t o r r a d i u s a p a r t . These p r o f i l e s b e g i n The magnitude of t h e f r e e s t r e a m v e l o c i t y

one r o t o r d i a m e t e r upstream, and e x t e n d t o one d i a m e t e r downs t r e a m of t h e r o t o r . profile.

i s t h e d i s t a n c e between t h e two v e r t i c a l p a r a l l e l l i n e s a t e a c h
The induced v e l o c i t y due t o t h e wake i s t h e h o r i z o n t a l The Z component of i n d u c e d v e l o c i t y can d i s t a n c e between t h e l e f t v e r t i c a l l i n e a t e a c h p r o f i l e . a n d t h e heavy l i n e of t h e p r o f i l e . be i n f e r r e d from t h e s l o p e o f e a c h of t h e r e s u l t a n t v e l o c i t y v e c t o r s shown a t e a c h p r o f i l e .
A t S t a t i o n A t h e wake d e c r e a s e s t h e x component of v e l o c i t y

o n l y a few p e r c e n t . the rotor.

This e f f e c t i s f e l t f a r t o t h e s i d e of

A t approximately t h r e e r a d i i t o e i t h e r s i d e t h e x

..

component of v e l o c i t y i s e q u a l t o f r e e s t r e a m .

At further lateral

d i s t a n c e s , i t i s g r e a t e r t h a n f r e e s t r e a m as demanded by c o n t i n u i t y . S t a t i o n B i s j u s t a t t h e f r o n t of t h e r o t o r . t h e v e l o c i t y becomes g r e a t e r t h a n f r e e s t r e a m . t h e flow i s apparent. S t a t i o n C i s on t h e r o t o r ' s a x i s of r o t a t i o n . Here t h e

A t the

The v e l o c i t y

d e f e c t i s s t i l l s m a l l , b u t a t a p p r o x i m a t e l y two r a d i i l a t e r a l l y S l i g h t d i v e r g e n c e of

v e l o c i t y d e f e c t i s q u i t e l a r g e a t t h e c e n t e r of t h e r o t o r .

i n t e r s e c t i o n of S t a t i o n C and t h e r o t o r o r b i t , t h e v e l o c i t y i s
a l m o s t f r e e s t r e a m i n magnitude, b u t t h e v e l o c i t y v e c t o r h a s been r o t a t e d s o t h a t t h e a n g l e of a t t a c k o f t h e a i r f o i l h a s been seriously.altered. I n t h e r o t o r t h e flow i s d i v e r g e n t s o t h a t O u t s i d e t h e wake, t h e v e l o c i t y i s . conp a r t o f t h e f l o w p a s s e s o u t s i d e t h e wake between a d j a c e n t v o r t i c e s t o s a t i s f y continuity. siderably g r e a t e r than freestream.' This e f f e c t extends t o i n f i n i t y but d i e s out asymptotically.
A t S t a t i o n D, t h e r e a r of t h e r o t o r , t h e v e l o c i t y d e f e c t

i s l a r g e , and f l o w d i v e r g e n c e i s q u i t e pronounced.
d i s t o r t i o n n e a r v o r t i c e s i n t h e wake i s a p p a r e n t . d e f e c t i s n e a r l y c o n s t a n t a l l a c r o s s t h e wake.
. ..
-,

High l o c a l The v e l o c i t y

two r a d i i from t h e c e n t e r of t h e r o t o r , t h e velocity defect is still increasing, but distortion of t h e p r o f i l e n e a r t h e c o n c e n t r a t e d v o r t i c i t y i n t h e wake i s o c c u r r i n g . T h i s i s due t o t h e sidewash a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e s i d e f o r c e on t h e rotor. C a l c u l a t i o n s show t h a t t h e f i n a l v e l o c i t y i n t h e wake i s n e a r l y r e a c h e d i n o n e - d i a m e t e r downstream from t h e c e n t e r o f t h e rotor. This fi,gure i l l u s t r a t e s t h a t t h e velocity defect is c h a n g i n g c o n t i n u a l l y t h r o u g h t h e r o t o r and t h a t s e r i o u s changes i n the angle of a t t a c k o c c u r . Thus, t h e assumption of u n i f o r m and c o n s t a n t v e l o c i t y defect throilgh the r o t o r i s n o t ju s t i f i c d .
As the The flow i n F i g u r e A . 9 i s f o r one i n s t a n t of t i m e . wakes c o n t i n u e t o ' p a s s downstream, c o n d i t i o n s are c h a n g i n g cont i n u o u s l y a t e a c h p o i n t i n t h e flow. The t h e o r y t r a n s l a t e s t h e wake, and computes t h e i n s t a n t a n e o u s v e l o c i t y and a n g l e o f a t t a c k a t each blade. When t h e f o r c e s are i n t e g r a t e d around t h e o r b i t , a t i m e average v a l u e i s obtained.

A t S t a t i o n E,

F i g u r e A.10 p r e s e n t s r e s u l t s of u s i n g t h e P r i m i t i v e Theory t o p r e d i c t t h e X a x i s o f a t h r e e - b l a d e d q i r o m i l l as a f u n c t i o n of t i p s p e e d r a t i o , X. his r o t o r had a s p a n - t o - d i a m e t e r r a t i o o f The d a t a was 1 . 5 , and t h e c h o r d t o r a d i u s r a t i o o f CR = 0.1. computed f o r a l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t of CL = 1 . 5 which i s n e a r t h e maximum a c h i e v a b l e a t Reynolds numbers which would o c c u r i n large rotors. T h e d a t a h a s been n o n d i m e n s i o n a l i z e d s o t h a t s i z e and a c t u a l wind s p e e d are n o t i m p o r t a n t . The d a t a would a p p l y t o g e o m e t r i c a l l y s i m i l a r r o t o r s a t a1.1 wind s p e e d s . S i n c e X = 2rnR/W, a~ W i n c r e a s e s , n musk increase p r o p o r t i o n a l l y it A i s t o be constant. The c o o r d i n a t e a x e s are chosen w i t h t h e o r i g i n a t t h e a x i s o f r o t a t i 0 1 1 a t t h e midspan s t a t i o n , t h e X-axis i s i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e wind f a r i n f r o n t o f t h e r o t o r , t h e Y-axis i s a l o n g t h e a x i s o f r o t a t i o n , and t h e z - a x i s Is t o t h e s i d e . The f l i p p o i n t i s assumed t o b e a t B = 7 ~ / 2 o r a l o n g t h e Z-axis. The t h e o r y and model used f o r c o m p u t a t i o n was t h e P r i m i t i v e Vortex Theory.

__---

'. Z

-- _
--\,

FREE WIND VELOCITY STREAM

R
W

/),
.
I
i

3 - BLADED GYROMILL

x4
X
1 . 0
I

ROTOR ORBIT
X 1 .O

1.5

U = INDUCED VELOCITY ALONG X-AXIS WHERE v, = U-W

2.5

I
I
1

1 --

2.0

1.5

1.0 0.5 0 DlSlANC.E ALONG X-AXIS

*.

- 0.5
X/R
.

4.0
.-

-1 5

- 2.0

Figure A. 10.

Variation of the x-~orn~onent of the ~esultantVelocity as a Function of X for a Three-Bladed Giromill.

Thus a series o f . r e c t a n g u l a r v o r t e x r i n g s whose s t r e n g t h i s t h e mean v a l u e o f v o r t i c i t y a t t h e f l i p p o i n t s forms a n e s t e d r i n g of v o r t e x r i n g s e x t e n d i n g downstream w i t h a s p a c i n g between a d j a c e n t r i n g s o f S = (2m/ANB) where NB i s t h e .number o f b l a d e s . These r i n g s i n d u c e a v e l o c i t y forward a l o n g t h e X-axis of magnitude u. The wind i s blowing toward t h e n e g a t i v e a x i s w i t h a speed of W. S i n c e t h e s e two add v e c t o r i a l l y , t h e r e s u l t a n t v e l o c i t y a l o n g t h e X-axis. i s Vx = u-W. T h i s i s nondimensionalized by d i v i d i n g by W s o t h a t

and i f Vx i s n e g a t i v e , t h e wind blows a l o n g t h e p o s i t i v e X-axis. I f Vx = 0, a l l t h e energy i n t h e wind would' be e x t r a c t e d , b u t a s e n e r g y i s e x t r a c t e d , , l e s s m a s s flow p a s s e s through t h e r o t o r s o t h a t less t o t a l e n e r g y i s e x t r a c t e d . T h e o r e t i c a l l y , t h e g r e a t e s t e n e r g y i s e x t r a c t e d a t t h e R i t z l i m i t when t h e f i n a l v e l o c i t y i n t h e wake i s o n e - t h i r d t h e wind .speed and hence 16/27 of t h e enerqy i s recovered.
A t any, g i v e n X/R s t a t i o n on any of t h e c u r v e s of F i g u r e
A. 10 (e.g. , at = n 5 , A= 3 . 5 ) t h e ordinate distance f r o m t h e K X a x i s t o t h e c u r v e i s e q u a l t o t h e magnitude of t h e l o c a l reR X

X --

s u l t a n t v e l o c i t y r a t i o a l o n g t h e X-axis a t t h e g i v e n ?i s t a t i o n ; i . e . , t h e d i s t a n c e e q u a l s Vx/W. A l s o , the distance from t h e h o r i z o n t a l l i n e where - = 1 . 0 t o t h e p o i n t on t h e c u r v e

X (E = -

5 W

-0.5,

A = 3.3)

i s t h e magnitude of t h e l o c a l induced v e l o c i t y

r a t i o n , V/W. The d o t t e d l i n e s show t h e l e a d i n g and t r a i l i n g edge of t h e . r o t o r . I t i s s e e n t h a t f o r each v a l u e of A , the r o t o r e f f e c t s t h e wind s p e e d f a r upstream from t h e r o t o r . A t t h e l e a d i n g edge of t h e r o t o r , V c W which means t h e " r o c k i n g a n g l e " x o f t h e b l a d e must b e l a r g e r t h a n t h e i d e a l t h e o r y would p r e d i c t . S i n c e Vx/W d e c r e a s e s v e r y r a p i d l y as t h e wind p a s s e s t h r o u g h t h e r o t o r and s i n c e , @ i g u r e . ~ . 9 indicates t h a t the resultant velocity r a t i o , Vx/W i s a l m o s t c o n s t a n t a c r o s s t h e r o t o r i n t h e Z d i r e c t i o ~ a t a given X/R, t h e induced v e l o c i t y changes t h e r o c k i n g a n g l e
. ..

d i f f e r e n t l y a l l around t h e o r b i t .

This is equivalent t o P r a n d t l ' s

.If t h e change i n r o c k i n g a n g l e can be computed, two-dimensional a i r f o i l d a t a can be used t o compute t h e l i f t and drag. the f i n a l velocity i n t h e wake has been n e a r l y reached a t t h e downstream edge of t h e rotor.
A s A i n c r e a s e s t h e r i n g s i n t h e wake a r e packed much

induced a n g l e of a t t a c k i n t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l wing t h e o r y .

I t i s n o t e d t h a t a t each v a l u e of A ,

c l o s e r ' s i n c e t h e spacing i s inversely proportional t o A. In a d d i t i o n , t h e mean c i r c u l a t i o n i n thewake i n c r e a s e s d i r e c t l y as A . The combined e f f e c t s c a u s e t h e r a p i d d e c r e a s e of Vx/w a s A i n c r e a s e s .

A t A = 3.80., t h e f i n a l v e l o c i t y i n t h e wake i s zero.

A s A increases
A t low

t h e c u r v e s become smoother because of t h e c l o s e packing. v a l u e s of A , V /W

X

f l u c t u a t e s i n t h e wake s i n c e t h e s p a c i n g i s q u i t e

large.

The a c t u a l flow i s very s i m i l a r t o t h e von Karman v o r t e x

s t r e e t which c a u s e s t h e X component of v e l o c i t y t o f l u c t u a t e (e. g. examine t h e c u r v e s f o r A = 1, 1 . 5 ) . S i n c e Vx < W a t a l l v a l u e s of X/R, t h e n by c o n t i n u i t y . t h i s flow must go somewhere, a s l e s s f l u i d i s i n t h e wake t h a n i n t h e freestream. T h i s f l u i d flows around t h e r o t o r a s it would flow around a s o l i d o b j e c t l a n d t h e v e l o c i t y o u t s i d e t h e wake is', g r e a t e r than t h e freestream velocity.

Since t h e v e l o c i t y continues

t o d e c r e a s e i n t h e wake downstream of t h e r o t o r , t h e f l u i d c o n t i n u e s t o flow o u t of t h e wake between a d j a c e n t v o r t e x r i n q s . Detail c a l c u l a t i o n s of t h e y and z components of v e l o c i t y , v and w , v e r i f i e s this. When U i s computed a l o n g t h e l i n e of v o r t i c e s a t Z = R and

it i s found t h a t t h e r i n g s do n o t move a t t h e f r e e s t r e a m v e l o c i t y , W, n o r a t t h e v e l o c i t y Vx, b u t something c l o s e t o Vx. There i s a l s o a v e l o c i t y which c a u s e s t h e wake t o expand. This is v e r y s m a l l b e f o r e t h e flow o u t of t h e wake dominates. The wake i s very nearly r i g i d .
y = b/2, The wake t r a n s l a t e s a t a v e l o c i t y r e l a t i v e t o t h e r o t o r . The c u r v e s i n F i q u r e A . l l a r e f o r one i n s t a n t of time and c o r r e s pond t o t h e f l i p p o i n t t i m e , s o t h e f i r s t r i n g i s a t t h e Z a x i s .

A s t h e b l a d e s r o t a t e t h e . c o m p l e t e wake t r a n s l a t e s e s s e n t i a l l y

.as a r i g i d body, and t h e d i s t a n c e between t h e p o i n t . a n d t h e ' wake i n c r e a s e s , a n d t h e l o c a l v e l o c i t y a t a p o i n t d e c r e a s e s . T h i s i s equivalent t o . t h e p o i n t moving upstream i f t h e wake w e r e s t a t i o n a r y . Whewthe n e x t .blade f l i p s , t h e flow a b r u p t l y r e t u r n s T h i s i s unsteady.flow s i m i l a r t o t o c o n d i t i o n s a s i n Figure A.11. . . h e l i c o p t e r blade flapping.
The t h e o r y .accounts f o r t h i s unsteady e f f e c t b y . t r a n s l a t i . n g t h e wake continuously., and because o f t h e f i n i t e ramp a n g l e i n t h e lift. reversal smooths o u t t h e a b r u p t b l a d e f l i p . 'The p r i m i t i v e t h e o r y was used by McDonnel1.-Douglas t o a n a l y z e . t h e performance' o f . t h e g i r o r n i l l . The r e s u l t s w e r e i n e x c e l l e n t agreement w i t h w i n d t u n n e l tests:. Larsen recognized t h e l i m i t a t i o n s of t h e t h e o r y and continued t o t r y t o . i m p r o v e it. I n t h e proces's hel.developed an e x a c t t h e o r y i n c l u d i n g a l l t h r e e -.dimensional e f f e c t s , ground e f f e c t , and wind s h e a r o r n o n u n i f o m . ' v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e . Blade mutual i n t e r f e r e n c e was i n c l u d e d i n t h e p r i m i t i v e t h e o r y a s w e l l . a s i n t h e e x a c t t h e o r y . However, t h e p r o h i b i t i v e computation time f o r t h e e x a c t t h e o r y make i t s a p p l i c a t i o n i m p r a c t i c a l . T h e r e f o r e , i n an e f f o r t . t o produce a more e x a c t and u s e f u l t h e o r y t h a n t h e p r i m i t i v e t h e o r y , Larsen combined f e a t u r e s of t h e p r i m i t i v e and t h e e x a c t t h e o r y t o produce. a new approximate t h e o r y which he c a l l e d t h e Improved P r i m i t i v e Theory. T h i s t h e o r y used axi approximation t o . t h e n e a r . f i e l d , t h e f a r f i e l d r i n g approximation, a n d a n approximation f o r the..widening o f . t h e . w a k e . .The computation time w a s found t o be o n l y s l i g h t l y g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t of t h e p r i m i t i v e t h e o r y , and t h e r e s u l t s were b e l i e v e d . t o be more a c c u r a t e . The improved t h e o r y h a s n o t been v e r i f i e d e x p e r i m e n t a l l y , b u t 'it c o r r e c t s some of t h e d e f i c i e n c i e s of t h e p r i m i t i v e theory. This'.i.mproved t h e o r y w i l l be d e s c r i b e d i n t h e s e c t i o n s which follow.

SECTION A-4 IMPROVED PRIMITIVE VORTEX T H E O R Y OF T H E CYCLOGIRO The improved p r i m i t i v e v o r t e x t h e o r y o f t h e c y c l o g i r o assumes t h a t t h e wake i s a series o f e q u a l - s t r e n g t h , e q u a l l y s p a c e d c o n c e n t r a t e d v o r t i c i e s a r r a n g e d on an e m p i r i c a l l y widening wake b a s e d on r e s u l t s o f t h e e x a c t t h e o r y . b o t h t h e spanwise and l a t e r a l d i r e c t i o n . The widening i s i n Each bound v o r t e x i s

j o i n e d t o a c o n c e n t r a t e d v o r t e x i n t h e wake c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o the p o s i t i o n it h a s t r a n s l a t e d from t h e f l i p p o i n t . The ups t r e a m bound v o r t i c e s a r e j o i n e d t o c o n c e n t r a t e d vortices i n t h e wake on t h e n e g a t i v e Z s i d e o f t h e wake on t o p o f t h e r o t o r , and t h e downstream bound v o r t i c e s a r e j o i n e d t o c o n c e n t r a t e d v o r t i c e s on t h e p o s i t i v e Z s i d e of t h e wake, o r bottom of t h e rotor. The j o i n i n g v o r t i c i e s a r e assumed t o have a s t r e n g t h e q u a l t o t h e l o c a l bound v o r t e x s t r e n g t h , and h a s a spanwise c l o s i n g v o r t e x c o i n c i d e n t w i t h t h e c o n c e n t r a t e d wake v o r t e x . Each v o r t e x segment i n t h e wake and i n t h e bound v o r t e x r i n g s y s t e m i s assumed t o be a s t r a i g h t l i n e .
A l l vortices i n the

wake t r a n s l a t e downstream a t a v e l o c i t y computed from a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e momentum theorem. T h i s a r r a y i s an approximation t o t h e c o n f i g u r a t i o n o b t a i n e d from t h e e x a c t t h e o r y , and does n o t s a t i s f y a l l t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e Helmholtz Vortex laws. The s t r e n g t h 'of t h e bound' and semibound s y s t e m can be computed, w h i l e t h e s t r e n g t h and l o c a t i o n o f . t h e f r e e v o r t i c e s i n t h e wake i s ,unknown., b u t i s found .from an i t e r a t i v e cornputation. T h i s i s accomplished by computing and from t h e i d e a l theory. The momentum .theorem i s t h e n used t o compute t h e f i n a l v e l o c i t y i n t h e wake. The wake widening i s computed, and One-half
the f i n a l

= =

t h e e m p e r i c a l wake boundary determined.

wake v e l o c i t y increment i s added t o t h e f r e e s t r e a m v e l o c i t y t o izompute t h e t r a n s l a t i o n a l v e l o . c i t y o f ' t h e wake and t h e s p a c i n g . o f t h e free v o r t i c e s i n t h e wake. This l o c a t e s t h e . f r e e ' v o r t i c e s i n . t h e wake, b u t t h e . ' s t r e n g t h of t h e ' f r e e v o r t i c e s i's a s y e t unknown.

To compute t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e free v o r t i c e s , t n e mass flow and momentm- f l u x through ' t h e c a p t u r e a r e a a r e computed. The capture ' a r e a i s ' d e f i n e d a s t h e produck:of t h e . span and t h e c h o r d l i n e j o i n i n g t h e t r a i l i n g .edge o f t h e b l a d e s a t t h e f l i p p o i n t . The mass flow and momentum f l u x through t h e c a p t u r e area i s computed a t a numb=r ~ f . . ~ o i n .aer.oss ts t h e c a p t u r e az0.a and i n t e g r a t e d a c r o s s t h e . c a p t u r e . a r e a ; and t h e .mean.value o f t h e v e l o c i t y increment computed. T h i s .mean .value must be e q u a l t o t h e v a l u e computed from' t h e ' f o r c e s o n . t h e b l a d e s , F X and and t h e 'momentum theorem. The s t r e n g t h . ' o f . t h e f r e e v o r t i c e s i s a d j u s t e d , and t h e 'problem i t e r a t e d u n t i l t h e increment o f v e l o c i t y computed from t h e momntum theorem i s w i t h i n a prescrkbed t o l e r a n c e o f t h a t . computed from t h e induced v e l o c i t y computed from t h e f r e e wake and t h e bound-semi-bound v o r t e x system. When t h i s i s achieved, t h e wake s t r u c t u r e 'and s t r e n g t h has .been determined. T h i s wake' s t r u c t u r e i s t r a n s l a t e d downstream a s t h e r o t o r r o t a t e s . The induced, v e l o c i t y a t each p o i n t on the' o r b i t can t h e n be computed. The l o c a l forces' on each 'blade a r e t h e n computed i n c l u d i n g t h e induced v e l o c i t i e s ' o f t h e wake and t h e mutual induced v e l o c i t i e s due t o t h e boun'd-semibound v o r t e x system. I t e r a t i o n i s r e q u i r e d t o i n c l u d e t h e mutual 'induced v e l o a i t i e s , and t h i s i t e r a t i o n converges r a p i d l y , Once convergence t o . a predetermined t o l e r a n c e h a s been achieved, t h e f i n a l performance i s computed. This whole procedure h a s t o be' r e p e a t e d f o r each 'value o f A , w, a , B , and A used.

x,

Subroutines' w e r e ' w r i t t e n which computed s p e c i f i c d a t a used i n t h e progr'am. Thes'e s u b r o u t i n e s i n some i n s t a n c e had t o be modified f o r use 'of a i r f o i l b l a d e s o r s p i n n i n g r o t o r s and possible options. The b l a d e modulation scheme 'assum*. t h a t p o s i t i v e l i f t occurred i f (.~+f3.) < 9< '(21~+f3) and n e g a t i v e l i ' f t if . . . B < JI 5 (IT +B). S i n c e it i s impossible t o f l i p t h e b l a d e o r reverse t h e dire'ction of r o t a t i o n of spinning cylinders instant a n e o u s l y , a c o n s t a n t deeel'eration-acceleration ramp occurred a t each ' f l i p p o i n t , B and IT + 6. This o c c u r r e d o v e r a f i n i t e
'

phase a n g l e , $, of w i d t h 2A.

A i s c a l l e d t h e ramp a n g l e . For

b l a d e s , t h e a n g l e o f a t t a c k i s modulated and t h e s u b r o u t i n e whLch s p e c i f i e d t h e modulation was t h e s u b r o u t i n e ALFA. This subr o u t i n e a l s o p e r m i t t e d c o n s t a n t geometric a n g l e o f a t t a c k w i t h p a r a b o l i c v a r i a t i o n i n t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n - d e c e l e r a t i o n ramp, cons t a n t e f f e c t i v e angle of a t t a c k , sinsuoidal v a r i a t i o n of angle o f a t t a c k , o r r i g i d blade ' s e t t i n g a s i n t h e Darrieus r o t o r . The Madaras r o t o r used s p i n n i n g r o t o r s , and t h e l i f t o f t h e r o t o r depends upon t h e r a t i o o f t h e p k r k p h e r a l r o t a t i o n a l v e l o c i t y o f t h e c y l i n d e r , U, t o t h e r e l a t i v e wind speed; i. e . U/V.

S i n c e UR' v a r i e s , t h e r o t o r v e l o c i t y U had t o be modulated. The s u b r o u t i n e UPVSR c o n t r o l l e d t h e r o t o r s p i n mod~~l.at.i.on with a p p r o p r i a t e d e c e l e r a t i o n - a c c e l e r a t i o n ramps. Two o p t i o n s were available: c o n s t a n t ' U/V o r c o n s t a n t U.

The l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t CL and d r a q c o e f f i c i e n t . C W a r e f u n c t i o n s o f t h e a n g l e o f a t t a c k a. The v a r i a t i o n o f CL and CD f o r 360 a n g l e o f a t t a c k h a s been found from wind tunnelLests f o r t h e NACA0015 and o t h e r a i r f o i l s . Beyond t h e s t a l l i n normal flow and r e v e r s e flow, a n e a r l y u n i v e r s a l curve o c c u r s f o r a l l a i r f o i l s . An e m p i r i c a l f i t was found t o f i t t h e d a t a t o w i t h i n less t h a n 1 p e r c e n t . T o a l l o w f o r i n p u t , t h e l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t a t t h e e n d of t h e l i n e a r range and maximum l i f t c o e l l i c i e n t i n normal flow and r e v e r s e flow, t h e z e r o l i f t d r a g c o e f f i c i e n t , and increment o f d r a g c o e f f i c i e n t between z e r o l i f t and end of t h e l i n e a r r e g i o n a r e a l l t h a t i s n e c e s s a r y . A subroutine C O N S computes t h e c o n s t a n t s used i n t h e s u b r o u t i n e which t h e n computes CL and CD f o r any a n g l e o f a t t a c k < a < 180. p o s i t i v e o r negative. That i s , - 180" TDCLCD

The l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t , CL, and t h e d r a g c o e f f i c i e n t , CD, o f s p i n n i n g c y l i n d e r s was o b t a i n e d . from wind t u n n e l t e s t s cond u c t e d a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Michigan. They were found t o depend upon t h e r a t i o o f t h e c y l i n d e r p e r i p h e r a l v e l o c i t y , U , t o t h e r e l a t i v e wind s p e e d , V, o r U/V, and t h e a s p e c t r a t i o , A , and 3 36

t h e end. p l a t e r a t i o , e/d.

I t w a s found t h a t a piecewise . c u r v e

f i t c o u l d be 'used t o f i t t h e test data i n t h r e e r e g i o n s . For U/V < U/VCrit a p a r a b o l i c approximation could be used. F o r < U/V < U/Vmx. a q u a r t i c approximation c o u l d be used. F o r U/vcrit U/V . < U/V, C L and CD w e r e ' e s s e n t i a l l y c o n s t a n t . max 'ivcri t i s d i f f e r e n t ' f o r CL and CD. Eleven c o n s t a n t s have t o be determined f o r b o t h CL a n d CD. These: ' a r e i n p u t d a t a t o t h e program. I n u s e , U/V i s . determined, and t h e s u b r o u t i n e MRCLCD computes CL and CD f o r t h e a b s o l u t e v a l u e o f U/V,and t h e s i g n on U/V determines t h e a l g e b r a i c s i g n o f CL. CD i s always positive'.

The s u b r o u t i n e 'VSIVCP (Vortex Segrnent Induced V e l o c i t y Componen't . a t the p o i n t P) computes t h e C a r t e s i a n induced v e l o c i t y components a t a n a r b i t r a r y p o i n t P a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a s t r a i g h t . l i n e v o r t e x segment o f known s t r e n g t h whose. end. . p o i n t s a r e known r ,h (Cos i n t h e r o t o r a x i s system. I t u s e s w = + Cos $ 2 ) ' . This i n c l u d e s t h e Oseen v o r t e x . f o r p o i n t s which have h < RVO.. T h i s s u b r o u t i n e i s t h e h e a r t o f the program.
'

The s u b r o u t i n e N A S V R (Number and S t r e n g t h 'of Vortex Rings) s t r e n g t h , and .spacing .of t h e f r e e v o r t e x computes t h e n & e r , r i n g s .which form . t h e wake w i t h 'wake 'widening ..included. . I t . i n c l p d e s t h e f r e e s y s t e m and the bound-semibound system, and computes t h e wake s t r u c t u r e .'based on. flow through t h e ' c a p t u r e a r e a . The s u b r o u t i n e TRIVCO ( T r a n s l a t i n g Ring Induced Velocf t y Components 'on t h e O r b i t ) .computes t h e C a r t e s i a n induced v e l o c i t y components a t each b l a d e 'on ..the o r b i t a s t h e r o t o r r o t a t e s . The f r e e wake . i s t r a n s l a t e d downstream and widened a s t h e r o t o r r o t a t e s . I t assumes - t h e wake s t r u c t u r e computed from NAVSR, and r e l o c a t e s each ' c o n c e n t r a t e d v o r t e x on t h e wake boundary as t h e f r e e v o r t i c i e g t r a n s l a t e downstream w i t h r o t o r r o t a t i o n . The s u b r o u t i n e 'TBIVCO ( T r a n s l a t i n . .g Bound Induced V e l o c i t y Componen'ts 'on t h e O r b i t ) computes- t h e C a r t e s i a n induced v e l o c i t y components .of the mutual -induced - v e l o c i t i e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e bound-semibound v o r t e x . s y s t e m . a t each p o i n t on t h e o r b i t a s t h e

r o t o r r o t a t e s . This uses t h e bound v o r t i . c e s and t h e r i n g s formed by j o i n i n g f r e e v o r t e x locations. .in t h e t r a n s l a t i n g wake computed from N A S V R i n c l u d i n g t h e wake widening e f f e c t . The s u b r o u t i n e BRING (Bound Ring) computes the Cartesian induced v e l o c i t y components a t an a r b i t r a r y p o i n t a s s o c i a t e d with t h e v o r t e x r i n g f o m d by-.a bound .vortex, i t s .a s s o c i a t e d f r e e v o r t e x i n t h e wake, and t h e ' t i p - j o i n i n g v o r t i c e s , t h e end p o i n t s o f each ' s e g m n t b e i n g known. I t i s used by.TB.IVCO.to compute t h e mutual induced v e l o c i t i e s on t h e o r b i t a s s o c i a t e d with t h e bound-semibound v o r t e x system.
The s u b r o u t i n e R I N G computes t h e C a r t e s i a n induced v e l o c i t y

components a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a f r e e v o r t e x r i n g i n t h e wake whose s t r e n g t h and end p o i n t s .of each segment a r e known.. I t is used w i t h TRIVCO t o compute the. induced v e l o c i t y components. a s s o c i a t e d with t h e f r e e 'wake. With 'minor modification TBIVCO .and .TRIVCO can be modified t o compute ' t h e induced v e l o c i t y - a t an a r b i t r a r y p o i n t i n s t e a d of t h e o r b i t . An a r b i t r a r y curve o r l i n e can be developed.and the induced v e l o c i t i e s computed on t h a t path. This has n o t been, included i n t h e 'program t o reduce t h e core memory requirements. I f it i s ,desired it can be done. ' e a s i l y . Thd complete f l e w S i e l d can then be 'mapped f o r one instantaneous p o s i t i o n of t h e r o t o r . By computing t h e flow.. f i e l d f o r success'ive r o t o r p o. s i t i o n s , nons t e a d y e f f e c t s .could be determined i f d e s i r e d . I t would be an expensive 'and t i m e .'consuming undertaking. It i s n o t believed t o be of . s i g n i f i c a n t importance i n l a r g e . r a d i i i r o t o r s , b u t may be important i n small r a d i i r o t o r s . This has been i n v e s t i g a t e d i n a , few examples which i s t h e b a s i s f o r t h e opinion expressed..
.

The primary d i f f e r e n c e between t h e e x a c t theory and t h e improved p r i m i t i v e theory i s t h a t i n the-improved p r i m i t i v e theory a semi-rigid wake s t r u c u t r e 'based on r e s u l t s o f t h e e x a c t theory i s assumed, while i n t h e e x a c t theory t h e wake .is formed step-bys t e p by computing t h e r e s u l t a n t v e l o c i t y and displacement o f t h e end p o i n t s o f each ' s t r a i g h t l i n e v o r t e x segment a s t h e r o t o r i s r o t a t e d i n . f i n i t e increments. The displacements a r e computed as

the s u m o f . displacements along ci'rcular a r c s . a s s o c i a t e d w i t h every v o r t e x segment i n t h e system. The computing time ' i n c r e a s e s a s n2 + n where, n i s the number of segments i n t h e system. Once t h e induced v e l o c i t i e s have been found, computation o f t h e r o t o r performance i s r e l a t i v e l y s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d . The program uses .a .series.o f .nested DO loops t o compute t h e perfomande ' f o r each of t h e primary v a r i a b l e s 8, w, A , and a o r .U/V o r U. Delta, A ' , . t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n ramp,is a simple i n p u t v a r i a b l e . The i n i t i a l value o f 8 , w, A , and a o r u/V or'.U and the' range on..each 'DO loop a r e ' i n p u t parameters which enab.le 'computation t o s t a r t : and end at. any s e l e c t e d range o f t h e parameters. The r o t o r geometry and modulation schedule t o be on t h e . used a r e ' a l s o i n p u t v a r i a b l e s . The number of ~ o i n t s c a p t u r e 'area -.and t h e o r b i t , number of, . b l a d e s , and l e n g t h of t h e wake ' i n number of r o t o r r a d i i . a r e 'also. t h e i n p u t v a r i a b l e s . I n . a d d i t i o n , ' t h e 'neces'sary c o n s t a n t s used t o d e f i n e t h e l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t Printing and d r a g c o e f . f i c i e n t f u n c t i o n s a r e a l s o i n p u t variables. only r o t o r pero p t i o n s ,are a v a i l a b l e t o res'trict t h e . o u t p u t formance, o r ' i f . , d e s i r e d , d e t a i l e d information a t each' p o i n t on t h e o r b i t ; i n c l u d i n g blade l i f t and drag, r o t o r x f o r c e , Z f o r c e , torque f o r c e , radf a 1 f o r c e , induced v e l o c i t i e s due ' t o mutual i n t e r f e r e n c e and,wake, @ ' , Or, CL, CD, a, ai, U/V, U, c y l i n d e r rps . and rpm, depending on t h e 'program used. The f i r s t DO .loop s t a r t s with 'the i n i t i a l value sf @ and computes t h e , performance ' f o r a r a n g e o f 8 desired. The second DO loop,.s t a r t s w i t h , t h e i n i t i a l wind speed and computes t h e performance o v e r a range o f wind speeds. The t h i r d DO loop s t a r t s with ' t h e i n i t i a l .value ' o f A and computes t h e performance over The f o u r t h . 'DO loop, ' s t a r t s with t h e i n i t i a l t h e range- of h angle of a t t a c k , & , o r V/V: o r U and computes t h e performance over t h e range 'of t h e v a r i a b l e used. -With 'the range of each DO loop s p e c i f i e d a s i n p u t . v a r i a b l e s , it i s p o s s i b l e t o r e s t r i c t each 'DO loop t o a' s i n g l e 'value ' o r t o cover any d e s i r e d range. This .allows' f l e x i b i l i t y i n s e l e c t i n g the 'data ' d e s i r e d as w e l l a s t h e range desired. Once 6, w, A , and a , o r U / V , h a . v e been

'

d e t e r m i n e d , nominal v a l u e s o f CL and CD are computed t o determine t h e wake s t r u c t u r e .

NASVR i s c a l l e d , and t h e wake s t r u c t u r e i s
'

computed f o r t h e c u r r e n t valueti .of B , w, A , a , o r U/V and c L and CD. TRIVCO i s t h e n c a l l e d t o compute ' t h e wake a s s o c i a t e d i n d u c e d v e l o c i t i e s .on t h g o r b i t which 'need t o be computed o n l y A DO l o o p i s t h e n used t o compute ' t h e bound-semibound one t i m e . i n d u c e d velocities on t h e o r b i t . S u b r o u t i n e ALFA o r UgVSR i s used

t o compute t h e ' l o c a l v a l u e s o f CL and CD w i t h TDCLCD o r MRCLCD t o i n c l u d e t h e 'induced v e ~ o c i t i e s and ' TBIVCO c a l l e d wibth ' t h e c i r c u l a t i o n , r . ," determined i t e r a t i v e l y t o a, d e s i r e d t o l e r a n c e a t e a c h p o i n t .on t h e o r b i t . A f t e r convergence, t h e performance, w i t h t h e in'duced v e l o c i t i e s i n c l u d e d , i s f i n a l l y computed. The DO l o o p r e t u r n s t o complete t h e computation f o r t h e range s p e c i f i e d . U s u a l l y , a i s h e l d . c o n s t a n t , and a new v a l u e o f A computed. A f t e r t h e X .DO l o o p h a s been s a t i s f i e d , ' . c o n t r o l r e t u r n s t o t h e w DO l o o p which i s incremented, and . t h e computation r e p e a t e d f o r t h e range 'of w. C o n t r o l t h e n p a s s e s t o t h e B DO loop.
The ' o u t p u t i o i n B r i t i s h ' o r SI u n i t s . The f i n a l o u t p u t

is i n b o t h " u n i t s ' w h i l e ' t h e d e t a i l e d d a t a i s i n which e v e r system h a s been s e l e c t e d f o r computation. I n p u t ' d a t a may be i n e i t h e r u n i t s , b u t must b e c o n s i s t e n t . A l l , i n p u t a n g u l a r d a t a i s i n d e g r e e s , b u t t h e program computes s o l e l y i n r a d i a n s which a r e c o n v e r t e d .t o degree measure f o r o u t p u t .
T o l e r a n c e s are 'provided on t h e induced v e l o c i t i e s comp u t e d and t h e c i r c u l a t i o n r These can b e a d j u s t e d , b u t a s t h e t o l e r a n c e s a r e r e d u c e d , . t h e computing time i s i n c r e a s e d . Usually 1 , p e r c e n t a c c u r a c y i s -used. L i m i t s a r e p l a c e d on t h e number o f i t e r a t i o n s t o c o n s e r v e computing time i f convergence does n o t o c c u r . .. I f convergence does' m o t o c c u r , t h e program . p r o g r e s s e s t o t h e n e x t d a t a p o i n t when . t h e l i m i t i s reache'd .and no d a t a i s computed f o r t h a t v a l u e o f the c u r r e n t v a l u e o f A. This has o c c u r r e d r a r e . l y ~ e tnh e . l i m i t i n g induced v e l o c i t y i n t h e wake h a s been ,approached. The ' t o l e r a n c e o n r is . n o t a p e r c e n t a g e b u t h a s t o b6 i n f t 2 / s e c (m2/sec)

This v a l u e i s u s u a l l y s e l e c t e d

a s 1 percent of the man value of ' I

or

C- SW
GTOL =
L

L-z---200b

This has been found t o be q u i t e s a t i s f a c t o r y .

SECTION A-5

BLADE .MQ.DULATION SCHEDULE

A s w a s shown. i n t h e - i d e a l b l a d e t h e o r y , t h e r o t o r c o e f f i c i e n t s

are p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e ' l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t , CL ,. and t h a t t h i s l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t must; be r e v e r s e d i n a l e g r a b i c sign a t two'-points on t h e o r b i t , 8 and + IT , if u s e f u l power ,is t o b e e x t r a c t e d by t h e r o t o r . The l a r g e s t ' l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t should be used i f t h e d r a g c o e f f i c i e n t i s n o t t o o l a r g e . I f t h e d r a g c o e f f i c i e n t can be n e g l e c t e d , t h e . ' l a r g e s ' t l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t should be used. I d e a l l y , t h e maximum power w i l l r e s ' u l t i f t h e l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t i s r e v e r s e d i n s t a n t a n e o u s l y a t t h e blade. f l i p points. P h y s i c a l l y this is impossible s i n c e t h & b l a d e a n d t h e r o t a t i n g c y l i n d e r have a moment o f i n e r t i a about t h e i r a x i s o f r o t a t i o n . .A symmetrical a i r f o i l has z e r o moment about i t s aerodynamic c e n t e r i n a s t e a d y uniform flow, b u t it can b e shown t h a t i n . .cu.rveli.near 'flow and nonsteady o s c i l l a t o r y flow t h a t a p i t c h i n g moment e x i s t s . ' T h e r o t a t i n g cylindc h a s a v i s c o u s t o r q u e which i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o . square of t h e a n g u l a r v e l o c i t y due t o . t h e e f f e c t of v i s c o s i t y on t h e exposed s u r f a c e o f t h e c y l i n d e r and t h e end cap. he effect of i n e r t i a u s u a l l y d o m i n a t e s , . b u t t h e .aerodynamic t o r q u e can be l a r g e and s h o u l d n o t be n e g l e c t e d . The e q u a t i o n o f motion. f o r t h e l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t r e v e r s a l may b e . w r i t t e n a s :

where I is t h e moment ,of i n e r t i a f a .i s t h e &ngle of a t t a c k , Q i s t h e t o r q u e a p p l i e d t o r e v e r s e t h e l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t , and Qa i s t h e aerodynamic t o r q u e . Neglecting t h e aerodynamic t o r q u e , and i n t e g r a t i n g t w i c e w i t h t i m e when assuming t h e a p p l i e d t o r q u e i s constant r e s u l t s i n t h e following

Q or a'= I a = $,

"

*t2/2x,

pr t =

a m , where

is

t h e a n g l e of a t t a c k change. Note a l s o t h a t a =. ~l?/2.1. ~t i s s e e n t h a t t h e a n g l e o f a t t a c k v a r i a t i o n would be . p a r a b o l i c with t i m e , which can be expressed a s t h e phase a n g l e through which t h e blade moves w h i l e . t h e a n g l e of a t t a c k r e v e r s a l i s o c c u r r i n g .

The a n g u l a r v e l o c i t y of t h e b l a d e . i n .changing a n g l e of a t t a c k and i s seen t o vary w i t h t i m e . S i n c e t h e a n g l e of a t t a c k must go from .a c o n s t a n t p o s i t i v e val.ue to a c o n s t a n t n e g a t i v e v a l u e , t h e b l a d e .' must f i r s t be accel'erated t o ze,ro. angle .. o f ' a t t a c k , . and the deceie r a t e d t o .a c o n s t a n t - a . Thus;. an a c c e l e r a t i o n - d e c e l e r a t i o n N o w d t = Rd $/V = .Rd $/(A W) s o t h a t t = ramp .must e x i s t . R A / (X'W) = . 21a /Q, where A = t h e increnient o f phase a n g l e t h e b l a d e moves' through d u r i n g a c c e l e r a t i o n and , d e c e l e r a t i o n a t a c o n s t a n t t o r q u e which must be : r e v e r s e d i n s i g n when a = 0 . Thus,
L
'

~he'acceleration-decelerationramp i s i l 1 u s t r a t e d . h F i g u r e A . 1 2 .

E i t h e r . t h &'torque may b e s p e c i f i e d and t h e ' ramp angle A computed, o r the ramp a n g l e s p e c i f i e d and the . r e q u i r e d t o r q u e computed. A s i m i l a r a n a l y s i s f o r t h e . c y l i n d e r rpm merely r e p l a c e s the a n g l e o f a t t a c k 'by the rpm. This simple a n a l y s i s : n e g l e c t s t h e aerodynamic t o r q u e w h i c h a l s o i n c r e a s e s t h e r e q u i r e d ramp a n g l e o r t h e a p p l i e d torque.
" ,

The t o r q u e , ' r e q u i r e d t o r e v e r s e t h e l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t f o r a b l a d e i s . q u i t e s m a l l , and amplidyne s e r v o s which have an almost i n s t a n t a n t o u s and r a p i d .revers.al c h a r a c t e r i s t i c are a v a i l a b l e i n almost any s i z e ' r e q u i r e d . However, e l e c t r i c motors' a r e used t o . s p i n the ' r o t o r s , a n d ' t h e power r e q u i r e d ' t o r e v e r s e t h e d i r e c t i o n o f r o t a t i o n can be a very s i g n i f i c a n t f r a c t i o n of t h e power developed by t h e r o t o r . Some power r e g e n e r a t i o n i s . p o s s i b l e d u r i n g the d e c e l e r a t i o n phase; b u t it ,is only a s m a l l f r a c t i o n .of t h a t required t o accelerate.' F i g u r e 24.13' i s a modulation schedule used i n t h e program t o show the a n g l e o f a t t a c k , a , schedule o f the b l a d e f o r one r e v o l u t i o n . I n each 'of :the acceleration/deceleration ramp r e g i o n s ; .A,, t h e ' a n g l e o f a t t a c k v a r i a t i o n is. a parabola. I n .between b l a d e r e v e r s a l , the angle o f . a t t a c k i s c o n s t a n t . For t h e s p i n n i n g c y l i n d e r s , U/V o r U follows the same schedule a s t h e c y l i n d e r p e r i p h l a l v e l o c i t y U . = 2 nrn is changed i n ramp a n g l e i n t e r v a l A , and the rpm h e l d c o n s t a n t between r e v e r s a l s .

B
A R

= =

ECCENTRICITY PHASE ANGLE ACCELERATI ON-DECELERATI ON RAMP ANGLE ORBIT RADIUS

Figure A. 12.

Acceleration-Dec'eleration Ramp Angle.

344

V IS. THE CONSTANT VALUE OF v USED (V/V ) I S THE CONSTANT VALUE OF(V/V) USED v

uvI S CONSTANT ANGLE OF AlTACK USED

v
*PHASE ANGLE
Figure A.13.

1 8 0

360

DEGREES MEASURED FROM

P (SEE FIGURE A. 12)

Nondimensional Modulation Schedule for a, V, or U/V.

For t h e b l a d e CL =
..

dCL da

, where

CL i s the+ l i f t

dC L=.a coefficient, da is t h e slope of t h e l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t versus a n g l e o f a t t a c k c u r v e i n t h e ' l i n e a r range, a n d a i s t h e a n g l e o f a t t a c k . ' Thus CL f o l l o w s ' t h e same s c h e d u l e as t h e a n g l e o f a t t a c k . The s p i n n i n g c y l i n d e r l i f t c o e f f i c e n t was' found i n wind t u n n e l ' t e s t s t o b e a f u n c t i o n of U/V, where V i s a c t u a l l y t h e r e l a t i v e w i n d . t o 'the c y l i n d e r , o r t h e ' w i n d t u n n e l speed. On t h e l+ A 2 -2A Sin* t r a c k , t h e i d e a l ' r e l a t i v e s p e e d i s VR = W / s o t h a t a c t u a l l y CL = C L ( U / V R ) = CL (U/ [W / 1 + X2 2 XSin 9 1 ) .
. , .

'

T h a t i s , i f c o n s t a n t u i s used, CL w i l l b e v a r i a b l e around t h e t r a c k . I f i t i s d e s i r e d t o m a i n t a i n c o n s t a n t CL, i t w i l l be . n e c e s s a r y t o be c o n t i n u a l l y changing U a s t h e c y l i n d e r p r o g r e s s e s around t h e t r a c k . The g a i n i n u s e f u l power may o f f s e t t h e power expended t o r e g u l a t e CL. I f U i s h e l d c o n s t a n t a t a v a l u e which produces n e a r maximum power o v e r t h e upper h a l f o f t h e o r b i t , t h e . l o w e r h a l f o f t h e o;bit w i l l go i n t o s u p e r c i r c u l a t i o n and o p e r a t e a t t h e maximum CL. Under t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s , more net p o w e r may r e s u l t s i n c e none i s s p e n t i n r e g u l a t i n g CL. As W o r A d e c r e a s e s , U, and hence t h e c y l i n d e r s p i n , c a n b e g r e a t l y reduced which r e d u c e s t h e power expended i n rpm r e v e r s a l . The c o n t r o l system must s e n s e c o n d i t i o n s and a u t o m a t i c a l l y a d j u s t . The l i f t . c o e f f i c i e n t . f o r t h e s p i n n i n g c y l i n d e r i s n o t a Thus, i f U/V i s l i n e a r f u n c t i o n o f t h e speed r a t i o U/V. modulated p a r a b o l i c a l l y w i t h $, d u r i n g l i f t . r e v e r s a 1 , CL w i l l n o t have a p a r a b o l i c v a r i a t i o n w i t h $.

SECTION A-6 . T DEAL .BLADE' VECTOR DIAGRAM.

.

A n i d e a l baade v e c t o r .d.iagram, which .shows t h e r e l a t i v e v e l o c i t i ' e s and aerodynamic ' f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e b l a d e a t a n a r b i t r a r y phase a n g l e $, i s p r e s e n t e d i n F i g u r e ~ . 1 4 . The view i s l o o k i n g a l o n g t h e a x i s o f . m t a & i o n o u t t h e p o s i t f v e
,

a x i s . The c i r c l e i s t h e 'path around which t h e b l a d e moves i n a counterclockwi'se d i r e c t i o n a t c o n s t a n t a n g u l a r v e l o c i t y n'=' 2rh.

R i s t h e r a d i u s o f t h e p a t h and n .is t h e number o f r e v o l u t i o n s

p e r u n i t t i m e . The p e r i p h i a l . spet5d i s V =

QR

2 7 T P L R . and i s

t a n g e n t t o t h e p a t h . The wind speed i s W and i s i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e n e g a t i v e 'X a x i s . The v e l o c i t i e s a r e shown r e l a t i v e t o t h e b l a d e which may be t h o u g h t o f as b e i n g i n s t a n t a n e o u s l y a t rest.
VR i s t h e r e s u l t a n t aerodynamic v e l o c i t y which produces the

o f l i f t and d r a g , where L = C ~1 YSVR~ is 1 t h e l i f t and D = CDT P S V R ~ i s t h e d r a g . The phase a n g l e , * , i . ' aerodynamic f o r c e s

less t h a n t h e e c c e n t r i c i t y a n g l e , f? , s o t h i s r e p r e s e n t s c o n d i t i o n s f o r a l i f t i n g / t h r u s t i n g r o t o r s o t h a t t h e a n g l e o f a t t a c k , a, i s p o s i t i v e . The r e s u l t a n t v e l o c i t y , VR, i s a t t h e a n g l e 4 r e l a t i v e t o t h e X a x i s , and t h e d r a g , D, a c t s p a r a l l e l and i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of VR. The l i f t , L, acts a t r i g h t a n g l e s t o VR i n t h e d i r e c t i o n If a w e r e n e g a t i v e , t h e l i f t would a c t shown, s i n c e a i s p o s i t i v e . i n t h e o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n which it would do for e w i n d m i l l , a i d B would be n e g a t i v e and i n t h e upper q u a d r a n t .
The l i f t and d r a g when added v e c t o r i a l l y g i v e t h e s i n g l e r e s u l t a n t . aerodynamic force which i s r e s o l v e d i n t o components FX.
'

along the X axis, F Z along t h e Z' a x i s , F R a l o n g t h e r a d i u s , and FQ normal t o t h e r a d i u s . F X is the local contribution t o the rotor thrust, F Z i s t h e l o c a l c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e r o t o r l i f t , FR i s . t h e l o c a l aerodynamic f o r c e a l o n g t h e r a d i u s which w i t h t h e i n e r t i a f o r c e d e s i g n s t h e r a d i a l . blade. s u p p o r t arms i n t e n s i o n and compression, and FQ i s t h e l o c a l t o r q u e f o r c e which i s p o s i t i v e a s shown and would r e q u i r e power t o t u r n t h e r o t o r . The power i s
P = FQ.V. A l g e b r a i c . e x p r e s s i o n s

w e r e developed i n t h e s e c t i o n on

I d e a l Blade Theory f o r t h e X and Z components of v e l o c i t y , and FX,

Figure A.14.

SIc5eal Blade Elemsnt Vector Diagram of Cyclogiro.

FZ, FR, and FQ. When t h e s e a r e - i n t e g r a t e d around t h e o r b i t t h e r o t o r l i f t , t h r u s t , t o r q u e , and power a r e e x p r e s s e d a s time average v a l u e s as E, E, and P = FQ.V. The b l a d e o r i e n t a t i o n r e l a t i v e t o X a x i s i s given by x = ,(I - a , where X ' i s t h e s o - c a l l e d " b l a d e r o c k i n g a n g l e . " When x i s computed, a cam c o u l d be c u t which would a u t o m a t i c a l l y o r i e n t t h e b l a d e . K i r s t e n showed t h a t t h e "swinging-sliding block" mechanism wou.ld produce t h e i d e a l a n g l e (I f o r a l l v a l u e s o f A , and w i t h 'a s e r v o motor t o follow t h i s .motion would d r i v e t h e b l a d e p r o p e r l y f o r a l l A e x c e p t A .= ,1. An e c c e n t r i c cam contoured t o t h e b l a d e modulation schedule c o u l d s u b t r a c t a from J, t o o b t a i n X . The a x i s o f t h e cam would b e o r i e n t e d a t t h e a n g l e 8 t o c o n t r o l t h e amount o f t h r u s t and l i f t developed. D i f f e r e n t i a l a c o n t r o l would p r o v i d e a r o l l i n g moment about t h e x a x i s s o t h a t a i l e r o n s would n o t be needed. D i f f e r e n t i a l B c o n t r o l would produce a yawing a n g l e about t h e .Z a x i s s o t h a t a . r u d d e r would n o t be needed. S t e p i n p u t s t o a would p r o v i d e . d i r e c t l i f t c o n t r o l s o t h a t .extreme m a n e u v e r a b i l i t y o f t h e v e h i c l e c o u l d b e achieved. When B i s n e g a t i v e , t h e d e v i c e a u t o r o t a t e s , e x t r a c t s power from t h e wind s t r e a m and becomes a windmill.

m,

SECTION A-7

REAL BLADE VECTOR DIAGRAM

When t h e r o t o r develops a n e t t h r u s t and l i f t , FX and E, t h e momntum theorem r e q u i r e s t h a t a v e l o c i t y increment be given t o t h e ' f l u i d i n t h e o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n t o t h e f o r c e generated. L e t t h e s e increments be WX and W Z , F i g u r e A. 1'5 i s a Real Blade Vector Diagram where WX and WZ have been .added a s shown w i t h a l l . . e l s e t h e same. The r e s u l t a n t v e l o c i t y has been changed i n magnitude and r o t a t e d t o t h e d i r e c t i o n $r. This i n t u r n r o t a t e s and changes t h e magnitude of L ,and B, .Compare w i t h . Figure ~ . 3 . . Note t h a t FX, FZ, FR, and FZ, have a l l been changed i n magnitude. The t h r u s t f o r c e and r a d i a l f o r c e , . F X and F R , have been reduced i n magnitude, and t h e r o t o r l i f t and t o r q u e f o r c e , FZ and FQ, have been i n c r e a s e d i n magnitude. Thus, it w i l l t a k e more power X and FZ w i l l vary a l l around t h e t o produce less t h r u s t . Since F o r b i t , WX and wz w i l l vary a l l around the' o r b i t , and t h e use o f c o n s t a n t v a l u e s a s s u m d by many i n v e s t i g a t o r s i s n o t v a l i d . When X and FR a r e i n c r e a s e d i n magnitude, and . a c t i n g a s a windmill, F FQ and F Z reduced. I n b o t h 'cases, t h e presence o f t h e v e l o c i t y increments WX and WZ: reduces t h e d e s i r e d performance of t h e r o t o r . The c e n t r a l problem i n c y k l o g i r o t h e o r y i s t o be a b l e t o p r e d i c t WX and W Z a t e v e r y p o i n t on t h e , o r b i t . This l e d t o t h e v o r t e x theory,

Fi~ure A.15.

Real Blade Element Vector Diagram of Cyclogiro.

SECTION A-8 CIRCULATION AT THE BLADE AS A FUNCTION OF PHASE ANGLE

. K u t t a and Joukowsky showed. i n d e p e n d e n t l y . t h a t a c i r c u l a t i o n w a s . r e q u i r e d . t o produce a lift f o r c e and. f o r m u l a t e d t h e KuttaJoukowsky l a w as : ; L ' = pVr , F o r .a uniform f . i n . i t e span wing, t h i s becomes L = pV r b = C L from which r= CL S V / 2 b . T h i s c i r c u l a t i o n , .r, i s s i m u l a t e d m a t h e m a t i c a l l y b y a bound v o r t e x i n t h e wing. F o r a blade .traversing t h e o r b i t :the c i r c u l a t i o n

9, ?,

s e e n t o be a f u n c t i o n o f $, t h e phase a n g l e . The maximum v a l u e . o c c u r s when $= ~ / 2 .and t h e minimum when $= ~ / 2 . These v a l u e s are :

,
' -

CLS r max - . 2 b

X ( l

A)

and

C,S 1 1 -1 1 i n magnitude. min - - 2

I t i s c o n v e n i e n t t o nondimensionalize

I' ( $ ) by d i v i d i n g by
The r e s u l t is:

t o remove ' t h e e f f e c t o f CL, W , and geometry.

r max
?is f u n c t i o n g i v e s t h e ngndimgnffionalized ~ l r ~ ~ l aa3 t ia ~ n f u n c t i o n of phase a n g l e f o r c o n s t a n t l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t a s t h e b l a d e traverses t h e o r b i t . It %is p l o t t e d i n F i g u r e A . 3 f o r t h e value of X = 2 f o r the i d e a l b l a d e . It i s seen t h a t I' ($) /rmx h a s cons i d e r a b l e change around t h e o r b i t s o l e l y .due t o t h e changing r e s u l t a n t v e l o c i t y . .'The o n l y way . t h a t t h e bound v o r t e x can change a n d . s a t i s f y , t h e Helmholtz Vortex laws i s t o s h e d v o r t i c i t y

t o form a wake which must form c l o s e d p a t h s and be connected t o t h e bound v o r t e x . The shed v o r t i c i t y i s shed spanwise para1161 The shed v o r t i c i t y i s shed spanwise p a r a l l e l t o t h e bound v o r t e x .

t o t h e t r a i l i n g edge o f t h e b l a d e , bends forward a t each t i p and j o i n e d t o t h e bound v o r t e x t o form a r e c t a n g u l a r r i n g . Its s t r e n g t h .is t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l , , dl'. A s t h . e .b l a d e t r a v e r s e s t h e , o r b i t , a .cont i n u o u s l y v a r y i n g s h e e t would be formed.
I f the- sheet w e r e r i g i d , ,

a s P r a n d t l and Goldstein assumed, t h e s h e e t sh&d from each b l a d e woul-d form a cycloi'dai , s u r f a c e . .The . v o r t i c i . t y shed i n t h e s h e e t would have o p p o s i t e r o t a t i o n t o t h e bound v o r t i c i t y . The nondimensional r a t e . o f shedding w i t h r e s p e c t t o phase a n g l e i s e a s i l y found- t o be
' :

.- 1

dr(@) = a$

-A
(1 + X ) / l

Cos @ 2 +.A -2X

Sin $

The d i f f e r e n t i a l s t r e n g t h o f v o r t i c i t y shed i s

and the e x a c t s t r e n g t h ',of v o r t i c i t y shed a t p e r i o d i c i n t e r v a l s

''

i s dr = r ( $

d$)

r($).

This w i l l be used l a t e r .

T h e nondin~erisioaal. ,rate o f . v o r t e x shedding a t X = 2 i s

I t i s ' s e e n t h a t it i s z e r o a t two p o i n t s IT IT a n d - IT From 7 IT t o , 1 on t h e c i r c l e - 2 2 rmax TT 3 l T .1 dr(Q) i s p o s i t i v e . A - M < 0 , and from 2 to. 2 . . d$ p l o t t e d i n F i g u r e A.2..

The reason i s t h a t from

2 I t i s seen t h a t t h e r e : a r e .two maxim&.

TT +t o . - '-. 2

3n

t h e v e l o c i t y is increasing.
P t is' e a s y to show t h a t

f o r x < 1 the maxima o e c u r s a t S i n $= X ,. and f o r X < 1, it o c c u r s marked' i n . Figure A. 2 a t t h e when S i n $= 1 / ~ These p o i n t s ' , a r e 4

5a/6 = 150'. I t i s a l s o seen t h a t 30 < * S50 t h a t t h e rate of '$< n/3and shedding changes much 'more r a p i d l y t h a n f o r 7 -

t i c k marks, and f o r

= 2

o c c u r s ' a t il, = . ~ / 3 = 30

and X =

- "

Figure A . 4 shows t h a t t h e l o c a l s t r e n g t h o f v o r t i c i t y shed i n a r i g i d c y c l o i d a l -she@ti s e x t r e m e l y

5n/6
S

3n/2

v a r i a b l e w i t h r e g i o n s .of p o s i t i v e - a n d n e g a t i v e v o r t i c i t y when t h e l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t .is c o n s t a n t . . I t . a l s o shows t h a t t h e p a r t o f t h e c y c l o i d above t h e ,x a x i s h a s les's s h e d v o r t i c i t y t h a n t h e p a r t o f the e y c l o i d a l s u r f a c e below t h e x a x i s o r f o r p o s i t i v e 2 . S i n c e t h e - a r e a under t h e c u r v e i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e a r e a between t h e a x i s .and t h e c u r v e , t h i s ca'n be s e e n by comparing t h e a r e a IT between $= n/2 t o $= 0 w i t h 'the a r e a from $ = 0 t o $ = 2 Thus, t h e shedding i s more ' c o n c e n t r a t e d below t h e x a x i s . This f a c t w i l l be ' u t i l i z e d l a t e r .

I f the' ' b l a d e w e r e . f l i p p e d i n s t - a n t a n e o u . s l ya . t the .flip point, t h e l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t would go from CL t o CL o r from - C t o CL. L T h e ' v o r t i c i t y shed a t b l a d e f l i p would b e twice t h e l o c a l v a l u e Naturally, t h e l o c a l ,value i n F i g u r e A. 1a t $= 0 and' $ = B + IT. c a n b e a n y t h i n g between t h e minimum and t h e maximum depending IT/^ and IT / 2 . The upon t h e a c t u a l v a l u e o f which i s ' b e t w e e n l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t r e v e r s a l changes t h e s i g n o f t h e c i r c u l a t i o n IT/^, a l l t h e shed v o r t i c i t y i s t h e same shed. I f B= r o t a t i o n such t h a t t h e sum of t w i c e t h e m i n i - m i ~ mand a l l the v o r t i c i t y shed w i t h phase a n g l e i s e q u a l t o twice t h e maximum. T h i s i s a c t u a l l y t r u e f o r a l l v a l u e s of 0 , b u t t h e v a l u e shed a t blade f l i p must b e t a k e n i n t o account. When an a c c e l e r a t i o n d e c e l e r a t i o n ramp i s used i n s t e a d o f a n i n s t a n t a n e o u s b l a d e f l i p i t i s s t i l l true. instantaneous b l a d e f l i p would c r e a t e d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s i n t h e c i r c u l a t i o n d i s t r i b u t i o n which.would mean h i g h l y c o n c e n t r a t e d v o r t i c i t y . An a c c e l e r a t i o n - d e c e l e r a t i o n ramp would r e s u l t i n a c o n t i n u o u s c i r c u l a t i o n d i s t s i b u t i o n , b u t two r e g i o n s o f . v e r y s t r o n g l o c a l . v o r t i c i t y . I f t h e v o r t e x s h e e t were r i g i d , t h i s would o n l y b e a niathematical problem i n e v a l u a t i n g i n t e g r a l s . u s e d i n computing induced v e l o c i t i e s . D i s c o n t i n u i t i e s would c a u s e improper i n t e g r a l s which would r e q u i r e s p e c i a l c a r e .
'

A c t u a l l y , t h e d i s c o n t i n u i t y i s a s i n g u l a r point.. The a c c e l e r a t i o n d e c e l e r a t i o n ramp removes t h i s d i s c o n t i n u i t y and p r o v i d e s a continuous function.

Mathematically., . the shed v o r t i c i t y i s continuous and would: form a con:tinuous s h e e t o f z e r o thickne$s i f a r e a l f l u i d v i s c o s i t y i s p r e s e n t and 'forms a boundary:.layer on t h e . s u r f a c e o f t h e body. Joukowsky showed t h a t a cusp a t t h e t r a i l i n g ' e d g e c r e a t e d a s i n g u l a r p o i n t which. would be removed by a d d i n g a th ed is to a p r o p e r amount o f c i r c u l a t i o n . Von ~ a r m a n ~ ~ e x t e n d f i n i t e t r a i l i n g edge a n g l e . prandt16' examined t h e v i s c o u s flow n e a r t h e s h a r p t r a i l i n g edge e x p e r i m e n t a l l y , and made approximate c a l c u l a t i o n s t o t r y t o show t h e f o r m a t i o n . o f a v o r t e x a t t h e t r a i l i n g edge, c a l l e d t h e s t a r t i n g . v o r t e x , . a s t h e t r a i l i n g edge Associated s i n g u l a r i t y i n p o t e n t i a l flow was removed p h y s i c a . l l y w i t h ' t h i s viscous a c t i o n i s t h e formation o f t h e boundary l a y e r on t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e a i r f o i l . T h i s boundary l a y e r i s cont i n u o u s l y g e n e r a t i n g v o r t i c i t y which t e n d s t o accumulate a t . . t h e t r a i l i n g edge. The r a t e of accumulation i s d i f f e r e n t on ' t h e upper and lower s u r f a c e due . t o . t h e v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n . Because. o f t h i s , a c r i t i c a l accumul.ation i s reached a l t e r n a t e l y on t h e .upper and lower s u r f a c e which i s p e r i o d i c a l l y shed. T h i s means two t h i n g s : t h e bound v o r t e x s t r e n g t h f l u c t u a t e s about a mean v a l u e , and t h e v o r t e x s h e e t i s n o t shed c o n t i n u o u s l y , b u t . . i n d i s c r e t e f i n i t e 'increments o f a l t e r n a t i n g s i g n . C a r e f u l wind
'

t ' m n e l measurements and flow v i s u a l i z a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s have 68 v e r i f i e d t h e s e d e d u c t i o n s . f o r s t e a d y s t r e a m flow. The von Karman v o r t e x s h e e t behind c y l i n d e r s i s t h e c l a s s i c example. When t h e s e concepts are a p p l i e d t o t h e v a r y i n g c i r c u l a t i o n and shedding o f t h e c y c l o g i r o , it may . a l s o be 'deduced t h a t t h e v o r t e x s h e e t s h e d i s n o t continuous, b u t i s a c t u a l l y . a. series o f d i s c r e t e f i n i t e v o r t i c e s shed p e r i o d i c a l l y . The frequency and s t r e n g t h of t h e s e d i s c r e t e v o r t i c i e s i s unknpwn, b u t p r o v i d e s p h y s i c a l arguments f o r u s i n g a d i s c r e t e v o r t e x wake a r r a y t o model t h e real wake. Such a model w i l l . b e d i s c u s s e d n e x t .
'

SECTION A-9

SEMTRIGID WAKE, STRUCTURE A s s o c i a t e d w i t h each d i f f e r e n t i a l segment o f a v o r t e x f i l a m e n t i s a n induced v e l o c i t y f i e l d which e x t e n d s t o i n f i n i t y , and which i s g i v e n by t h e Biot-Savart Law. The t o t a l induced v e l o c i t y a t any p o i n t i s o b t a i n e d by i n t e g r a t i n g t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f each e l e m e n t o v e r a l l t h e v o r t e x f i l a m e n t s i n t h e f i e l d . P r a n d t l showed t h a t when t h e t o t a l induced v e l o c i t y i s combined v e c t o r i a l l y w i t h t h e f r e e s t r e a m v e l o c i t y , an induced a n g l e o f a t t a c k r e s u l t s which changes t h e a n g l e o f a t t a c k , and hence l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t , w h i c h an a i r f o i l i n t h e r e s u l t a n t flow produces. This i n f l u e n c e s t h e c i r c u l a t i o n a b o u t t h e a i r f o i l and t h e v o r t i c i t y s h e d i n t h e flow. Differentia-integral e q u a t i o n s can b e w r i t t e n which must b e s o l v e d t o o b t a i n a s o l u t i o n . These e q u a t i o n s may be t i m e dependent. P r a n d t l assumed a s t e a d y flow w i t h a flat t r a i l i n g r i g i d v o r t e x s h e e t f o r an i s o l a t e d wing w i t h a cont i n u o u s d i s t r i b u t i o n o f v o r t i c i t y i n t h e s h e e t . P r a n d t l found - l l i p t i c spanwise l o a d i n g f o r t h e bound v o r t i c i t y t h a t an e s a t i s f i e d t h e i n t e g r a l s f o r l i f t and d r a g o f a wing and r e s u l t e d i n t h e minimum d r a g f o r t h e r e s t r i c t i o n s imposed. I t i s p o s s i b l e t o w r i t e similar e q u a t i o n s - f o r t h e c y c l o g i r o . i f the wake i s a s s w d t o be. ' r i . g i d c y c l o i d a l s u r f a c e s , b u t t h e ' e q u a t i o n s a r e 'time 'dependent.. . A t one . p o s i t i o n ,o f t h e r o t o r , t h e e q u a t i o n s are. ' t i m t 'independent ,'. b u t t h e . e q u a t i o n s c a n n o t ' b e s o l v e d i n c l o s e d form. I t 'is p o s s i b l e . . t o compute ' t h e induced v e l o c i t y a t any p o i n t i n t h e f i e l d by. assuming f i n i t e filaments i n t h e . spanwise 'and s t r e a n w i s e ' d i r e c t i o n , and approximating t h e r i g i d c y c l o i d a l s u r f a c e b y - a mesh o f f i n i t e l e n g t h segments t o form polygonal a r c s . Numerical: i n t e g r a t i - o n : .is.t h e n 'performed a d d i n g t h e increments of induced v e l o c i t y a t . a p o i n t v e c t o r i a l l y . Spanwise d i s t r i b u t i o n can be 'handled by , u s i n g a , f i n i t e 'number o f c o n t r o l p o i n t s a c r o s s .the span.. . Convergence i s achieved by i t e r a t i o n . To set up t h e problem, t h e shape o f t h e wake and t h e v o r t e x s t r e n g t h 'of each. s e g m e n t ' i n t h e network must be known. The shape can be 'assumed t o be c y c l o i d f o r t h e wake s u r f a c e s , and t h e s t r e n g t h c a n b e computed f r o m t h e bound v o r t e x c i r c u l a t i o n
'

356

l i s t r i b u t i o n with phase a n g l e , i n c l u d i n g l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t r e v e r s a l and a c c e l e r a t i o n - d e c e l e r a t i o n ramp e f f e c t s . T h i s i s accomplished by u s i n g f i n i t e increments of phase a n g l e . The v o r t i c i t y shed a t each increment of phase a n g l e becomes; Ar = r ($ + d$) -r ($1 The spanwise l o a d i n g c a n be approximated by u s i n g f i n i t e i n c r e ments i n t h e bound v o r t i c i t y . which approximates t h e e l l i p t i c a l l o a d i n g o r t h e Shcenk l o a d i n g .to. e s t i m a t e conditions.. ~ t e r a t i o n would produce t h e f i n a l .loading..The .experimental evidence t h a t t h e v o r t i c i t y shed from a wing i s f i n i t e p e r i o d i c increments r a t h e r t h a n continuous v a r i a t i o n t e n d s t o s u p p o r t t h e assumption of f i n i t e element a n a l y s i s .
,

I n p r i n c i p l e , a . f i n i t e system of: simultaneous e q u a t i o n s could be w r i t t e n t o f i n d a s o l . u t i o n . w h i c h would be s o l v e d by matrix techniques. The number o f e q u a t i o n s would b e enormous, a n d . i n v e r t i n g t h e m a t r i x would probably s a t u r a t e t h e l a r g e s t computer known, a n d , i f it d i d not,would r e q u i r e s o much com. p u t a t i o n t i n e t h a t it wo.uld.:not be f e a s i b l e . An a l t e r n a t e approach 'would be t o s t a r t t h e r o t. o r i m p u l s i v e l y and'compute . t h e v o r t i c i t y shed and t r a c k .its l o c a t i o n i n t h e wake; A f r e e v o r t e x moves a t t h e l o c a l v e l o c i t y i n t h e flow which i s t h e v e c t o r sum.of t h e f r e e s t r e a m v e l o c i t y and t h e induced v e l o c i t y a t a p o i n t due t o . a l l t h e f i n i t e 'segments i n t h e flow. T h i s i n c l u d e s a l l nonsteady" e f f e c t s , and would g e n e r a t e an approximation t o t h e t r u e wake. I n i t i a l l y , t h e computation t i m e i s q u i t e small, b u t a s t h e number of v o r t e x segments i n t h e f l o w . ' i n c r e a s e s t h e comp u t i n g t i m e i n c r e , a s e s a s n2 + n where n i s t h e number of segments i n t h e flow. I n t h i s approach, it would be. necessary t o c o n t i n u e t h e wake g e n e r a t i o n u n t i l t h e induced ' v e l o c i t y a t p o i n t s on t h e o r b i t . approached a ' l i m i t . T h i s r e q u i r e s enormous c o r e memory o r mass s t 6 r a g e . and computing t i m e f o r t h e . s i m p l e c a s e of uniform .loading.
'

Since t h e v e l o c i t y i n t h e wake g r a d u a l l y d e c r e a s e s from f r e e stream value.. f a r .upstream.t o . t h e . v a l u e computed from t h e momentum theorem, \he wake does n o t t r a n s l a t e a t uni.form v e l o c i t y , b u t tiden's a s t h e v e l o c i t y . d e c r e a s e s t o s a t i s f y c o n t i n u i t y . The r i g i d wake i g n o r e s t h i s e f f e c t , while t h e wake g e n e r a t i o n t e c h n i q u e includes + h i s e f f e c t

357

I t .was decided. t o . .constx.uct a . s e m i r i g i d .wake

t o investi-

g a t e t h e e f f e c t o f stre'mwise . r e d u c t i o n of t h e wake ' v e l o c i t y . It was assumed t h a t t h e . v e l o c i t y p a s s i n g through ' t h e r o t o r d e c r e a s e d l i n e a r l y from fre,e'Stream v e l o c i t y 1.SR upstream t o t h e f i n a l wake v e l o c i t y 1.5R downstream from t h e ' c e n t e r of t h e r o t o r . Wake widening was n e g l e c t e d s i n c e t h e $ e computations were made on a

small programnable c a l ' c u l a t o r .

he shed v o r t i c i t y was assumed

t o move a t t h e l o c a l v e l o c i t y from t h e p o i n t of shedding t o 1.5R downstream a f t e r which i t moved a t c o n s t a n t v e l o c i t y . In the v a r y i n g v e l o c i t y r e g i o n , t h e wake would d i s t o r t , w h i l e a f t e r 1.5R downstream it would be r i g i d . Induced v e l o c i t y e f f e c t s of t h e wake on i t s e l f w e r e Ignored s i n c e t h e wake was assumed s e m i rigid. The e f f e c t s of l i f t r e v e r s a l and a c c e l e r a t i o n - d e c e l e r a t i o n

ramp of A * l S O w i t h y a r y i n g a n g l e s of a t t a c k were i n c l u d e d . The s h e d v o r t i c i t y was assumed t o o r i g i n a t e from t h e t r a i l i n g edge o f t h e b l a d e a s t h e b l a d e was modulated around t h e o r b i t always Since t h i s was f o x t h e windo r i e n t e d a t t h e i d e a l v a l u e of $, m i l l s t a t e , f3 was assumed t o be -~r/2. Three b l a d e s w e r e used t o show m u l t i b l a d e e f f e c t s . The r o t o r was r o t a t e d i n . increments of S o , and A = 2 w a s used. A uniform l o a d i n g was assumed s o t h e wake was e s s e n t i a l l y two dimensional. For comparison purposes, i d e a l wakes w e r e c o n s t r u c t u r e d w i t h a d i g i t a l computer and p1,otted by Calcomp. These w e r e f o r X = 0.5, 1, and 2 and b l a d e a n g l e . o f a t t a c k -a 0 + 1 2 O and c o n s t a n t .
F i g u r e s A. 16a and A.1.6b i l l u s t r a t e t h e i d e a l wake f o r A = 2.0, 1 . 0 , and 0.5 f o r a = O O .
I t i s seen t h a t t h e s e a r e r e s p - ectively

p r o l a t e c y c l o i d s , c y c l o i d s . , and c u r t a t e c y c l o i d s . wakes and t r a n s l a t e a t t h e f r e e s t r e a m speed. m u l t i v a l u e d and m u l t i p l e connected r e g i o n s .

These a r e r i g i d

Note t h a t t h e i n t e r ~igure A.17a and A.17b

s e c t i o n s of t h e s u r f a c e c r e a t e cells which would make .any p o t e n t i a l i l l u s t r a t e t h e i d e a l wake f o r X = 2.0, 1.0, and 0.5' f o r a = , + 1 2 O . These a r e c y c l o i d a l l i k e s u r f a c e s , b u t s i n c e t h e wake emenates from t h e t r a i l i n g edge, t h e r e s u l t i n g shapes a r e d i s t o r t e d from c y c l o i d s . I t must b e expected t h a t b l a d e modu1,ation w i l l d i s t o r t t h e s u r f a c e g e n e r a t e d from a c y c l o i d a l motion of t h e p i v o t . distance. The i n t e r s e c t i o n a g a i n produce c e l l s . Each a r c f o r each b l a d e i s s i m i l a r , b u t t r a n s l a t e d from t h e p r e v i o u s b l a d e by a f i x e d

F i g u r e A. 16a.

I l l u s t r a t i o n of t h e I d e a l wake for X = 2 . 0 ,

1 . 0 , a n d 0 . 5 for a =0 ,

IDEAL.WAKE - PATH OF BOU*D

VORTEX

Figure A.16b.

Illustration of the Ideal Wake for X = 2.'Of 1.0, and 0'.5 for a=Oof

DISTORTED RIGID.PSEUD0-CYCLOID.VORTICITY SHED FROM TRAILING EDGE OF BLADE

CONSTANT BLADE ANGLE OF ATTACK OF +12O

Figure

1'7a.

I l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h e I d e a l Wake f o r A = 2 . 0 , . 1. O ,

a n d 0 . 5 f o r a= +12O.

Figure ~ . 1 7 b . I l l u s t r a t i o n of the Ideal Wake f o r A = 2 . 0 ,

l.O,and 0 . 5 f o r a= + 1 2 O .

F i g u r e A . 18 i s t h e ' s e m i r i g i d wake w i t h ' d i s c r e t e v o r t e x shedding e v e r y 5' .of r o t a . t i o n f o r A = 2 w i t h ' b l a d e 'modulation,

A= 15',

and a = i . 2 ' .

T h i s wake i s n e a r l y a p r o l a t e c y c l o i d w i t h

d i s t o r t i o n evidence n e a r t h e b l a d e f l i p p o i n t s o f kg. Each v o r t e x shed i s i n d i c a t e d by a s m a l l arrow headed c i r c u l a r a r c which shows . t h e ' d i r e c t i o n o f t h e v o r t e x r o t a t i o n . The v o r t e x s t r e n g t h i s rough1.y p r o p o r t i o n a l . t o the s i z e o f t h e symbol. The bound v o r t i c e s a r e a l s o shown', and t h e bottom b l a d e i s i n s t a n t a n e o u s l y a t zero angle of a t t a c k . The l i n e j o i n i n g each symbol r e p r e s e n t s t h e t i p joining vortex. Note t h a t a t each f l i p p o i n t t h e r e a r e s t r o n g c o n c e n t r a t e d v o r t i c e s shed a s t h e a n g l e of. a t t a c k i s r e v e r s e d , and t h e upper and lower c o n c e n t r a t e d v o r t i c i e s o c c u r a t n e a r l y t h e same v a l u e o f x. I n between t h e c o n c e n . t r a t e d v o r t i c e s i s t h e d i s t r i b u t e d v o r t i c i t y which i s v e r y weak, t h e 1argest.i~ o n l y 1 . 5 p e r c e n t o f t h e c o n c e n t r a t e d v o r t i c i t y which would o c c u r w i t h i n s t a n t a n e o u s b l a d e f l i p and o c c u r s when $ = 30, and o c c u r s approximately . o n e - t h i r d between t h e x . a x i s and t h e bottom o f t h e r o t o r . There i s more d i s t r i b u t e d v o r t i c i t y l o c a t e d i n t h e l o w e r o n e - t h i r d o f ' t h e wake t h a n i n t h e upper twot h i r d s o f t h e wake., and i s more c l o s e l y spaced. The i n f l u e n c e o f t h e s l o w i n g down o f . t h e wake can be i n f e r r e d from t h e width and s p a c i n g . o f t h e lower l o o p s . The end o f s l o w i n g down r e g i o n .is the v e r t f c a l dashed l i n e . Downs t r e a m o f t h a t t h e wake ve,locity i s two-thirds of free-stream. * The wake s h o u l d b e '-$rider t o s a t i s f y c o n t i n u i t y b u t this' was I t i s s e e n t h a t t h e lower omitted i n t h i s simple c a l c u l a t i o n

l o o p s compress and become narrower a s t h e wake slows down. One l o o p i s i n b o t h regimes. The l a s t two a r e t h e same shape s i n c e t h a t r e g i o n i s r i g i d and t r a n s l a t e s a t a uniform v e l o c i t y .
I t i s n o t i c e d that t h e c o n c e n t r a t e d v o r t i c i t y on t h e

upper. and lower h a l f o c c u r a t n e a r t h e same v a l u e o f x.

The con-

c e n t r a t e d v o r t i c i t y on the lower h a l f i s o n e - t h i r d the conc e n t r a t e d v o r t i c i t y on t h e upper h a l f , and the sum of t h e d i s t r i b u t e d v o r t i c i t y i s t w o - t h i r d s .of t h e upper and o f o p p o s i t e r o t a t i o n f o r this v a l u e o f A = 2 . Each 'segment .on t h e wake i s

Figure A.18.

S e m i - R i a d Wake Array with D i s t r i b u t e d ~ c r t i c i t y Shed Every 5 O oE Rotation.

inducing v e l o c i t y on e v e r y 0the.r p a r t o f t h e flow.. Since. t h e wake i s r i g i d e x c e p t f o r wake .slowing' down, the wake does n o t feel t h i s e f f e c t . I f t h e wake were f r e e , this induced e f f e c t would cause t h e wake t o d i s t o r t c o n t i n u o u s l y . The ' c o n c e n t r a t e d v o r t i c i t y would cause t h e d i s t r i b u t e d v o r t i c i t y t o r o t a t e around the conc e n t r a t e d v o r t i c i t y i n s p i r a l l i k e p a t h and g r a d u a l l y c o a l e s c e i n t o two c o n c e n t r a t e d v o r t i c i t y 'of e q u a l s t r e n g t h b u t o p p o s i t e r o t a t i o n . The upper h a l f o f t h e wake would wrap around the upper c o n c e n t r a t e d v o r k i c i t y and b e i n g o f o p p o s i t e . s i g n reduces t h e s t r e n g t h t o two-thirds t h e i n i t i a l . v a l u e . The lower l o o p s o f t h e . wake .would wrap around t h e lower c o n c e n t r a t e d v o r t i c i t y and b e i n g o f t h e ' same s i g n would add t o . t h e s t r e n g t h . The n e t r e s u l t is t h a t two c o n c e n t r a t e d v o r t i c e s of e q u a l s t r e n g t h would form. The f i n a l s t r e n g t h o f t h e s e two c o n c e n t r a t e d v o r t i , c e s would be t h e mean of t h e c o n c e n t r a t e d v o r t i c i t y shed a t each b l a d e f l i p f o r t h e p a r t i c u l a r . value o f . 6.. This mean . s t r e n g t h o c c u r s due t o t h e r o l l ' up and t h e a l g e b r a i c s i g n of t h e distributed v o r t i c i t y . T O . s a t i s f y t h e Helmholtz vortex. Paws a l i n e o f v o r t i c e s must j o i n a t t h e t i p s , and a l s o j o i n each . ' p a i r o f c o n c e n t r a t e d . v o r t i c e s . . The l i n e , j o i n i n g t h g c o n c e n t r a t e d p a i r would have v a n i s h i n g s t r e n g t h ' a s t h e r o l l - u p continued.. The f i n a l r o l l - u p would o c c u r f a r downstream b u t c a l c u l a t i o n s from g e n e r a t i n g t h e wake shows t h a t it s t a r t s v e r y r a p i d l y and by one t u r n o f . t h e r o t o r r o l l - u p , i s w e l l developed. Thus ,,t h e r e i s a n e a r d i e l d . f a r - f i e l d s t r u c t u r e w i t h an i n t e r m e d i a t e r e g i o n . w h i c h t r a n s i t i o n s from one t o t h e o t h e r . Spanwise load d i s t r i b u t i o n would c o n c e n t r a t e t i p j o i n i n g v o r t i c e s n e a r each . b l a d e t i p . T h i s c o n c e n t r a t i o n would t e n d t o h a s t e n r i n g formation which would r a p i d l y d i s t o r t t h e o r i g i n a l r e c t a n g u l a r r i n g p a t t e r n s t o e l o n g a t e d . o v a l s and perhaps f i n a l l y t o t o r o i d a l r i n g s . This i s s p e c u l a t i o n b a s e d . o n the t r a i l i n g v o r t e x system o f wings and some e x p e r i m e n t a l evidence of the f a r wake o f p r o p e l l e r s . The f a r wake s t r u c t u r e h a s been deduced e a r l i e r from s t u d i e s o f v o r t e x motion and used t o develop t h e " P r i m i t i v e Vortex Theory I t was ,used t o e x p e d i t e t h e i n i t i a l r e s e a r c h o f t h e Cyclogiro."

on t h e g i r o m i l k . , and tests have i n d i c a t e d i t s u s e f u l n e s s . . I t w a s t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r c o n t i n u e d . work. . - The e x a c t t h e o r y o f wake g e n e r a t i o n w a s developed,. and v e r i f i e d t . h a t t h i s s t r u c t u r e . e x i s t e d . i n ' t h e f a r f i e l d . . The p r i m i t i v e theory. was t h e n modified t o i n c l u d e wake. expansion - a n d b e t t e r modeling o f t h e n e a r f i e l d . T h i s h a s r e s u l t e d i n . improved .convergence.b u t some e x c e p t i o n s s t i l l o c c u r . T h i s t h e o r y i s p r e s e n t l y b e i n g modified t o i n c l u d e b e t t e r n e a r f i e l d modeling t h e e x p e n s e o f l o n g e r computing time. This w i l l u s e c y c l o i d a l l i k e wake n e a r t h e r o t o r combined w i t h t h e f a r f i e l d s t r u c t u r e . Wake widening i s included.

SECTION A. 10

WAKE MODEL FOR IMPROVED P R I M I T I V E THEORY

The p r i m i t i v e t h e o r y used a series o f . r e c t a n g u l a r v o r t e x r i n g s f o r t h e uniformly loaded b l a d e , s t a r t i n g . i n t h e .immediate vicinity of the rotor. The r i n g s were o f e q u a l ' s t r e n g t h and e q u a l s p a c i n g and t r a n s l a t e d . ' a s . t h e r o t o r r o t a t e d a t a v e l o c i t y e q u a l t o t h e ' f r e e s t r e a m v e l o c i t y p l u s t h e mean induced v e l o c i t y computed a t t h e . c a p t u r e are.a. .No wake expansion was c o n s i d e r e d . The i n d u c e d ' v e l o c i t y a t t h e c a p t u r e a r e a was computed by t h e momentum theorem. from t h e f o r c e s on t h e blade'. The x component o f v e l o c i t y on t h e o r b i t was assumed t o b e . t h e induced v e l o c i t y a t t h e c a p t u r e . a r e a c o r r e c t e d by a s i n e f u n c t i o n of I/.J t o reduce t h e upstream s i d e and . i n c r e a s e t h e downstream s i d e t o a l l o w f o r v e l o c i t y decrease through t h e r o t o r . This c o r r e c t e d t h e angle of a t t a c k , and i t e r a t i o n performed u n t i l t h e c i r c u l a t i o n on t h e o r b i t and t h e mean i n d u c e d - v e l o c i t y computed from t h e momentum theorem converged. .The r i n g s p a c i n g .w a s t h e n determined and t h e induced v e l o c i t y on t h e c a p t u r e a r e a computed from t h e wake and t h e bound v o r t e x system, .was i t e r a t e d u n t i l i t converged t o t h e v a l u e computed from t h e momentum theorem by a d j u s t i n g t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e v o r t i c i t y i n t h e wake. The wake w a s t h e n t r a n s l a t e d a s t h e r o t o r r o t a t e d a n d . ' t h e performance computed. S u b r o u t i n e s were used t o compute v a r i o u s s t e p s i n t h e c a . l c u l a t i o n .

The e x a c t wake . g e n e r a t i o n showed t h a t t h e wake widened i n t h e spanwise and l a t e r a l d i r e c t i o n , t h a t t h e f a r f i e l d s t r u c t u r e was g e n e r a t e d q u i t e c l o s e t o t h e r o t o r , b u t t h a t n e a r t h e r o t o r t h e cycloidal structure s t i l l existed.
I t was d e c i d e d t o i n c o r p o r a t e

a s many o f t h e s e f e a t u r e s i n t o a modified p r i m i t i v e t h e o r y a s p o s s i b l e , b u t t o keep t h e ' computing t i m e a s s h o r t a s p o s s i b l e . F i g u r e A . 1 9 i s a s k e t c h o b t a i n e d from c a l c u l a t e d r e s u l t s f o r an e i g h t - b l a d e d r o t o r which i n c o r p o r a t e s most o f t h e s e f e a t u r e s . The c i r c l e i s t h e r o t o r o r b i t and t h e bound v o r t i c i e s a r e small c i r c l e s on the o r b i t . The wake boundaries a r e t h e curved l i n e s

Figure A.19,

Wake Structure Assumed for the Improved Primitive ~ , o r t e x ' ~ h e o r y .

e x t e n d i n g downstream from t h e c a p t u r e a r e a , and t h e r i n g s o f c o n c e n t r a t e d v o r t i c i t y a r e i n d i c a t e d by c i r c l e s on t h e boundary and d i a g o n a l l i n e s j o i n i n g p a i r s o f c o n c e n t r a t e d v o r t i c i t y on t h e b o u n d a r i e s . The shape o f t h e b o u n d a r i e s i s determined by an e m p e r i c a l f i t t o t h e wake expansion based on c o n t i n u i t y and t h e f i n a l v e l o c i t y i n t h e wake computed from t h e momentum theorem. The sidewash due t o t h e r o t o r l i f t f o r c e h a s been i n c l u d e d and t e n d s t o cause t h e wake t o d e . f l e c t t o t h e s i d e o p p o s i t e t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e r o t o r l i f t f o r c e . Spanwise widen i s a l s o i n c o r p o r a t e d , , b u t i s symmetrical. A s t h e r o t o r r o t a t e s t h e wake i s t r a n s l a t e d downstream. The bound v o r t e x system and t h e t i p v o r t i c e s j o i n i n g t o t h e wake t o s a t i s f y t h e Helmholtz Vortex laws p r e s e n t e d a problem. I f t h e c y c l o i d a l s u r f a c e s w e r e i n c o r p o r a t e d , many v o r t e x segments would be needed t o s i m u l a t e t h e s e s u r f a c e s , and t h e computing t i m e , e s p e c i a l l y w i t h Examination o f F i g u r e A.19sugges.ted s a t i s f i e d t h e Helmholtz v o r t e x laws; l i t t l e computing t i m e . T h i s w a s t o t r a n s l a t i o n , would be e x c e s s i v e . a s o l u t i o n which o n l y p a r t i a l l y but'which required very , j o i n t h e bound v o r t e x t o t h e v o r t e x was strength vortex. The s t r e n g t h

f r e e c o n c e n t r a t e d v o r t e x which was shed when t h e bound a t t h e . f l i p p o i n t by a s t r a i g h t l i n e v o r t e x segment of e q u a l t o t h e l o c a l bound v o r t e x s t r e n g t h , and t o ' add a t o t h e f r e e concentrated vortex t o form a closed ring.

o f t h i s semibound r i n g v a r i e d c o n t i n u o u s l y a s t h e . r o t o r r o t a t e d and vanished. a t t h e lower f l i p p o i n t . ,The f r o n t bound v o r t i c c c were j o i n e d t o t h e upper h a l f o f . t h e wake, and t h e lower bound v o r t i c e s t o t h e lower h a l f of t h e wake. T h i s was s u p e r i o r t o t h e way t h e bound v o r t i c e s had been t r e a t e d i n t h e p r i m i t i v e t h e o r y which d i d n o t c o n n e c t them t o t h e wake. T h i s model h a s . t h e d e f e c t t h a t t h e j o i n i n g v o r . t i c e s a r e c o n s t a n t s t r e n g t h and t h e f i r s t few f r e e concentrated vortices a r e too strong. This induces too high v e l o c i t y on t h e o r b i t and t e n d s t o degrade t h e performance. However, i t g r e a t l y reduces t h e computing t i m e and seems t d g i v e
'

satisfactory results. excellent.

The program was run t o check the McDonnell-

Douglas tests o f t h r e e - b l a d e d g i r o m i l l and t h e agreement was The s e c t i o n p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e Madaras s y s t e m f o l l o w s . 369

SECTION A . l l APPLICATION TO THE M A D A R A S ROTOR PLANT The v o r t e x computer program was used t o compute t h e performa n c e o f a series of Madaras p l a n t s t o d e t e r m i n e e f f e c t s of mutual i n t e r f e r e n c e between r o t o r s a s a f u n c t i o n of t h e d e s i g n v a r i a b l e s . The v a r i a b l e s i n v e s t i g a t e d were: t r a c k r a d i u s , R; wind s p e e d , Vu; t i p s p e e d r a t i o , A ; c y l i n d e r r o t a t i o n speed r a t i o t o r e l a t i v e wind a n g l e , 8 ; e c c e n t r i c i t y , p; s p e e d , U/V, r o t a t i o n a l s p e e d , U; ramp The c y l i n d e r chotien had a p r o j e c t e d area of 2000 s q u a r e f e e t , an aspect r a t i o of 6 , w i t h an cnd eap r a t i o , e / d , o f 2. T h i s gave a c y l i n d e r d i a m e t e r of 5.56 m and a h e i g h t of 3 3 . 4 m. The v a l u e s o f R i n v e s t i g a t e d w e r e R = 457 m, 610 m , 762 m , 915 m, and 1196 m, The wind speed ( V ) was v a r i e d
W
,

and number o f c y l i n d e r s , NB.

from 4 . 5 m / s t o 13.5 m / s i n i n c r e m e n t s of 1.1 m/s. The t i p r a t i o , A , was v a r i e d from 0.8 t o 2.5 t o f i n d t h e peak power of t h e c y l i n d e r s . U/V was v a r i e d from 2 t o 6 i n i n c r e m e n t s t o d e t e r m i n e an optimum, U was v a r i e d from 4 6 t o 6 1 m / s i n

speed output of 0.5 incre-

ments of 7.6 m/s. Ramp a n g l e , A , was checked a t 15O, 3 0 , and G O 0 ; however, most d a t a was computed o n l y a t 30 and 15O. Ramp a n g l e i s t h e a n g l e d u r i n g which t h e c y l i n d e r r o t a t i o n i s a c c e l e r a t e d from f u l l s t o p t o f u l l s p e e d , and v i c e v e r s a . The e c c e n t r i c i t y a n g l e ,

B , was checked a t -85O, most c a l c u l a t i o n s .

-87,5O,

and -90; b u t -8S0 was used f o r

The number of c y l i n d e r s w a s v a r i e d from 1 t o 18 i n incrdments of 1. The wake l e n g t h was a r b i t r a r i l y s e t a s b e i n g 5 r a d i i .long. I n computing, p o i n t s were s e l e c t e d on t h e t r a c k a s n e a r t o l o a p a r t as p o s s - i b l e , The program used a s an i n p u t t h e number of
p o i r ~ t sun t h e o r b i t , N 2 , which i s an i n t e g e r .

N2 = l a r g e s t i n t e g e r i n t h e r a t i o [(-360 ) 1 x NB + 1. I f NB i s an i n t e g r a l m u l t i p l e NB o f 360, t h e p o i n t s are lo a p a r t . T h i s i s a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e program and must be followed e x a c t l y o r s p u r i o u s r e s u l t s occur. The number of p o i n t s on t h e c a p t u r e a r e a can be any number e q u a l t o o r less t h a n 201, b u t must b e i n t e g e r s . The number of c y l i n d e r s must be i n t e g e r s , b u t may be odd o r even. The wake l e n g t h i s e x p r e s s e d i n t e r m s of t h e number of r o t o r d i a m e t e r s ( N R ) . ~ h ' e wake

extends both upstream and downstream. It is characterized by an input parameter of NR which must be integer. The data was computed for NR = 5, but NR = 10 would have been preferred. NR = 5 was used to reduce the computing time with only .a small loss of accuracy. Preliminary runs for a 6-cylinder plant were run for - VW < 13.5 m/s on R - 457 m radius track with 0.1 < A < 1.5 4.5 < and A A = 0.1 and A = lSO, with 2. < U/V < 6. with A U/V = 0.5 at 8 = -85" to find the value of A = 1.1 and U/V = 5.5. The value of u/V was modulated to maintain U/V at a constant value for all values of orbit angle except when reversing the rotation. The computations showed that the rotor was self-starting in the wind, and generated about 1.1 MW per rotor at peak power. We also learned that at each wind speed,peak power occurred at a track . speed of V = 10.5 m/s.
'P

A computation of the power required to accelerate and 5 ' showed that decelerate the rotors with a ramp angle of A = 1 very large electric motors would be required. Therefore, the ramp 0 ' and the data recomputed. Only a small angle, was increased to 3 loss in gross power generated resulted, .but the power to spin the rotors in acceleration-deceleration was reduced to approximately 5 ' . 1/4 that required fbr A = 1

Operation at constant U/V meant that a costly cylinder rpm control sensing and,regulationsystem would be required, and that cylinder spinning power would be variable around the track, since V is not the track speed but the resultant aerodynamic velocity. Since the electric motors would operate more efficiently at constant rgm and the control system would.be simplified, it was decided to operate at constant peripheral speed, U. The program was run again with 6 cylinders on a 457 m track with 4.5 < W < 13.5 m/s, AW = 1.1 m/s; 0.1 -.< X < 1.5 with A X = 0.1; and A = 30, and B - -8.5". Examination of detailed data showed th.at as VW and 3\ decreased, the cylinder approach.ed super ci.r.culation over part or all of the orbit. If U were reduced proportionally to Vu

as Vu reduced, supercirculation would be avoided and a small gain in power would result. More importantly, the acceleration-deceleration power reduces as U is decreased by the cube of the speed ratio, and an increase in the net power would result. The program was not written to accomplish this except by changing control cards. This ,procedurewould be too time consuming, so it was elected to perform all the runs at a constant U. The program could be altered later to include this option as time did not permit altering the program or changing U during one run by control cards.
A conference was held to outline the range of variables to be investigated as minimum objectives. Since an excessive number of

computer runs would be required i-f a l l combinations were s l u d i e d , if was decided that certain variables would be investigated to try to find an optimum, and then held constant while the next variable was optimized, and then held constant. This procedure would be continued until all variables had been investigated. Although the number of runs required was reduced greatly, we recognized that a true optimum would not be reached. Starting with the 457 m radius track, the number of cylinders was increased from 1 to 8 in increments of 1. It was found for 0.8 < h < 1.3 that the power generated increased linearly with NB up to 6, and then began to depart from a linear increase with power increasing more slowly as the number of cylinders increased. Thus, there is a maximum in power generated as NB increases, A maximum has not been reached, but cylindcr mutual interfereme effects were beginning to be significant as the number of cylinders increased beyond 18. Above A = 1.3, the loss in power per rotor increased markedly as NB increased, w i t . h maximums occurring st. different values of A as NB was increased. This indicated that there was a minimum spacing between cylinders below which cylinder mutual interference was important. This spacing occurred when R1 Sin (180/NB1) = R2 Sin (180/~B2),with R1 = 457 m and NB1 = 6. Thus, as R2 is increased, NB2 could be computed for a given R2. It would be necessary to investigate NB > NB2, when R2 > R1, since

below NB2 the o ~ l h d e r mutual interference would be negligible. hi^ . would reduce the computationneeded to investigate larger radii track.
,

The time available to accelerate and decelerate the cylinders in rotation increased directly as R for fixed A. This has a significant effect on the power required for decelerationacceleration,,and since this power is a significant portion of the gross power generated, anything which can reduce this power has potential pay-off. Increasing R appeared attractive, so R. was increased from.457m to 1220'm in steps of 152 m. At each value of and the R2 several.values' o f numbe'r of cylinders, NB, were ch~sen perfofiance 'was computed. The peak power per rotor at each value of V W was plotted and labeled for each value of NB versus the Radius, R. Selected values of NB were computed at each value of R so that trend lines could be established. At fixed VW and NB, the peak power increased monotonically with increasing R, and a8ympto.tically appg~ach.e$ limit. The rate of increase decreased as R increased. Physically, this meant that as R increased with fixed rotor spacing, the blade mutual interference effects decreased.until only a few adjacent cylinders affected one another, and those on the far side of the orbit had vanishing effect. As NB increased beyond that for critical spacing, the peak power per rotor decreased indicating an increase in mutual blade interference, As NR was increased, the trend lines of peak power per rotor were essentially parallel but below one another. It was obvious that increasing R was beneficial. However, the track length increases directly with R increase, and if track costs are found to be a significant portion of the cost, the larger radii may not be an attractive trade-off since the beneficial effects of increase.in.power with increase in R would be offset more by the increase in cost.

I t was d e c i d e d t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e i n f l u e n c e of l a r g e r numb e r s o f cy1inder.s on t h e performan.ce .at R = 457 m, Data was t h e n r u n f o r R = 457 m w i t h NB = 9 , 10, 11, , 1 2 , 1 3 , 1 4 , 1 6 , 18. A s NB i n c r e a s e d , X f o r peak power a t each wind speed d e c r e a s e d , s o

< f o r NB = 1 4 . , 1 6 , 18 i t w a s nec'essary t o c o v e r t h e range of 0.6 A < 1 . 5 , w i t h A X = ,0.1. I t was found t h e power a t e a c h wind speec
neqred a maximum as. NB approachsd 18, Although a maximum was n o t d e f i n e d t h e r e w a s o n l y a m a r g i n a l i n c r e a s e i n power f o r NB = 18 o v e r t h a t f o r N = .16, s o no l a r g e r v a l u e s o f NB were used, I n a d d i t i o n computing t i m e would i n c r e a s e p r o h i b i t i v e l y .

The power r e q u i r e d t o d e c e l e ~ a t e - a c c e . l e r a t et h e rotor was found t o be c r i t i c a l a t R = 457 m. The s i m p l e s t method t o reduce t h i s would be t o i n c r e a s e A . However, a n i n c r e a s e o f A t o 60' res u l t e d i n a s e r i o u s l o s s i n power g e n e r a t e d , I t a p p e a r s t h a t A = 30 i s t h e l a r g e s t A t h a t can be t o l e r a t e d . Decreasing U i s as e f f e c t i v e as i n c r e a s i n g A . An examination o f d e t a i l d a t a a t U = 54 m / s , shows t h a t a t t h e lower wind s p e e d s , t h e c y l i n d e r i s i n s u p e r c i r c u l a t i o n , and U c a n b e g r e a t l y reduced. A t Vu = 13.5 m / s , t h e c y l i n d e r i s i n supercircnlat.j.,on on a s m a l l p a r t of t h e o r b i t , s i n c e X f o r peak power i s a b o u t u n i t y . A d e c r e a s e i n U c o u l d be t o l e r a t e d w i t h a l m o s t n o . e f f e c t on the power g e n e r a t e d ,
b u t if d e c r e a s e d t o o much t h e power wou3.d he reduced. T h e superc i r c u l a t i o n phenomenon w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n more . d e t a i l l a t e r .
A s i n g l e c y l i n d e r w a s r u n on t h e R = 457 m t r a c k s i n c e t h i r

r u n e n a b l e d a comparison with a s i n g l e c y l i n d e r o p e r a t i n g i n und i s t u r b e d flow. The single c y l i n d e r e x p e r i e n c e s no i n t e r - c y l i n d e r mutual i n t e r f e r e n c e , b u t h a s s e l f - i n d u c e d i n t e r f e r e n c e w i t h t h e t i 1 j o i n i n g v o r t e x and t h e wake. These e f f e c t s a r e u s u a l l y o m i t t e d i n a u n d i s t u r b e d flow a n a l y s i s , b u t are a c t u a l l y p r e s e n t . The power g e n e r a t e d by a s i n g l e c y l i n d e r on a 457 m r a d i u s w i t h U = 54 m / s and A = 30 i s shown i n F i g u r e A,.2O f o r 5 different v a l u e s of Vu a s a f u n c t i o n of A.
I t i s t o be n o t e d t h a t as Vu

i n c r e a s e s , t h e v a l u e of X c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o maximum o r peak power decreases.' I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t t h e t r a c k speed a t which t h e maximum o c c u r s i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 10.9 m / s f o r a l l v a l u e s of Vu.

r
2
I -

1.2

-AR

=6

e/d= 2 Rotor Diameter = 5 . 6 m Rotor Height =33.4m Rotor Speed = 183RPM Track Diameter =915m

t3

0
0 0

= v , /v,

Fisure A,'?*3. Gross Power Output versus X for various Wind Speeds, One Roto'r Spinning at 183 rpm, 915 m Diameter Track.

This f e a t u r e i s a d e s i r a b l e f e a t u r e for.synchronous generators. Also o f i n t e r e s t i s t h e f a c t t h a t each v a l u e of Vu, t h e t r a c k s p e e d V t a t which t h e power developed becomes z e r o i s approximately T h i s shows t h a t t h b system i s s e l f l i m i t i n g , t h a t it cann o t r u n away, and t h a t an e s s e n t i a l l y c o n s t a n t optimum t r a c k speed when t h e e f f e c t of t r a c k r e s i s t a n c e , motor power l o s s e s , and g e n e r a t o r power l o s s e s a r e i n c l u d e d , t h e maximum t r a c k s p e e d t h e r o t o r w i l l r e a c h w i l l be always less t h a n The t h i s l i m i t i n g speed Based o n l y on rotor c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . r e a s o n t h e speed f o r peak power and t h e l i m i t i n g speed are essent i a l l y c o n s t a n t s p e e d s can be t r a c e d t o t h e f a c t t h a t U had been e x i s t s f o r a l l : wind speeds. 26 m/s.

The wind t u n n e l t e s t s r e p o r t e d i n S e c t i o n 3 showed t h a t CL and CD of a s p i n n i n g c y l i n d e r a r e a f u n c t i o n o f ( U / V ) , where U

i s t h e c y l i n d e r p e r i p h e r a l v e l o c i t y , and V i s t h e r e l a t i v e aero-

dynamic speed. When t h e r o t a t i n g c y l i n d e r i s moved on a c i r c l e i n a uniform f l o w , i d e a l t h e o r y n e g l e c t i n g induced v e l o c i t i e s show t h a t Vu i s a c t u a l l y VR = W 41 +hL - 2ASin$, and (U/V) a c t u a l l y i s (U/VR). The tests a l s o showed f o r , A = 6 and e / d = 2 , t h a t when (U/VR) = (U/VR) crit = 6, C and CD r e a c h t h e i r maximum v a l u e s ; and

when (U/V) (U/VR) crit t h e CL and CD a r e e s s e n t i a l l y constant:. The r e a s o n f o r t h i s i s t h a t a t (U/VR)crit, supercirculation occurs on t h e c y l i n d e r . S u p e r c i r c u l a t i o n i s a t e r m used t o i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e s t a g n a t i o n p o i n t i n t h e f l o w around a body h a s moved o f f t h e body and o c c u r s A. 21. i n t h e f l u i d n e a r t h e body. This is i l l u s t r a t e d i n ~ i g u r e F i g u r e A.21a i l l u s t r a t e s t h e s t r e a m l i n e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h p o t e n t i a l f l o w around a c i r c u l a r c y l i n d e r w i t h o u t c i r c u l a t i o n . F i g u r e A.21b i l l u s t r a t e s t h e r e a l f l u i d t a k e n from p h o t o g r a p h i c t e c h n i q u e s used t o v i s u a l i z e t h e f l o w a s r e p o r t e d i n Reference 62. When a v o r t e x i s p l a c e d a t t h e c e n t e r of t h e c y l i n d e r t o add c i r c u l a t i o n , t h e s t r e a m l i n e p a t t e r n changes, a s i n F i g u r e A . 2 1 ~ and A.21d. The s t a g n a t i o n p o i n t s o c c u r where t h e s t r e a m l i n e s come normal t o t h e c y l i n d e r a t t h e p o i n t s S. For real flow, s t a g n a t i o n p o i n t o c c u r s on t h e upstream s i d e o f t h e c y l i n d e r , b u t a wake e x i s t s on t h e

F i g u r e A. 21.

I d e a l 'and R e a l Flow Around a C i r c u l a r C y l i n d e r f o r Various C i r c u l a t i o n from 0 t o a S u p e r c r i t i c a l Value.

downstream s i d e .

The wake r e d u c e s t h e l i f t magnitude f o r a given

r a t i o o f U/V s o t h a t t h e l i f t g e n e r a t e d i s less t h a n p r e d i c t e d by theory. F i g u r e s A.21e and A.21f i l l u s t r a t e t h e c r i t i c a l v a l u e o f c i r c u l a t i o n which c a u s e s t h e two mathematical s t a g n a t i o n p o i n t s t o c o a l e s e e i n t o a s i n g l e s t a g n a t i o n p o i n t a t t h e bottom of t h e cylinder. I f t h e c i r c u l a t i o n i s g r e a t e r than t h e c r i t i c a l value t h e s t a g n a t i o n p o i n t moves o u t i n t o t h e f l u i d , and t h e c y l i n d e r i s s u r r o u n d e d by a l a y e r of f l u i d which r o t a t e s around t h e c y l i n d e r i n s i d e t h e c l o s e d loop. E f f e c t i v e l y t h i s h a s changed t h e c i r c u l a r Mathematically, S i s a s i n cylinder i n t o a teardrop cylinder. g u l a r p o i n t , and s i n c e t h i s o c c u r s o u t i n t h e f l u i d , some r e s e a r c h e r s b e l i e v e t h i s could n o t occur i n r e a l i t y . This b e l i e f is not t r u e , b e c a u s e a t S t h e v e l o c i t y i s z e r o , and a s shown i n F i g u r e A.21ht t h i s s i t u a t i o n i n a r e a l f l u i d was photographed . by P r a n d t l .
.

This

s i t u a t i o n o c c u r s on a r o t a t i n g c y l i n d e r because of v i s c o s i t y . When t h e c i r c u l a t i o n i s s t r o n g enough t o b e g r e a t e r t h a n t h e c r i t i c a l v a l u e , it i s r e f e r r e d t o a s s u p c r c i r c u l a t i o n . I t can be c r e a t e d by r o t a t i o n on a c i r c u l a r c y l i n d e r , o r by blowing j e t s on a i r f o i l s . It does e x i s t . V i s c o s i t y i s n o t powerful enough t o i n c r e a s e t h e f l u i d v i s c o s i t y s u f f i c i e n t l y t o continue t o cause the' l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t t o For t h e c y l i n d e r t r a v e l i n g a t a i n c r e a s e a f t e r some v a l u e of U/V. t r a c k speed V t ,
(U/VR) crit

V.t 1 where A = vW It i s seen t h a t ( U / V R ) ~ , ~ o~ r s u p e r c i r c u l a t i o n can o c c u r a t p o i n t s on t h e o r b i t depending upon U , W , A , and $ Of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t i s when $ = - ~ / 2 s i n c e t h i s c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e maximum v a l u e of VR U which makes (U/VH) a minimum. Then, (U/VR) crit If U i s a c o n s t a n t , e i t h e r Vu o r A can be s o l v e d f o r , k ! : n c e V) 0) =

= U/ [V 4 1
W

A2

2ASin$

T7

u/

and Acrit = u/[v~(u/vR) crit] -1. 1t i s s e e n t h a t a s Vu i n c r e a s e s , t h e v a l u e o f A a t which s u p e r c i r c u l a t i o n o c c u r s b t t h e upper f l i p p o i n t d e c r e a s e s . The s i g n i f i c a n c e of Acrit t h e c y l i n d e r h a s superi s ' t h a t f o r e a c h va3ue o f V f o a A < Acrit,
[ (1 +

(U/VRcritl

c i r c u l a t i o n - o v e r t h e whole o r b i t , and CL and CD a r e e s s e n t i a l l y cons t a n t a t t h e maximum v a l u e s around t h e whole o r b i t . When A > Acrit,

p a r t o f t h e upper o r b i t ( r e g i o n of advancing c y l i n d e r ) h a s (U/VR) c and t h a t p o r t i o n of t h e o r b i t h a s CL and CD less t h a n t h e maximum, b u t v a r i a b l e w i t h $. The v a l u e of $ a t which (U/V~) c r i t i s reached on t h e o r b i t c a n be shown t o be $crit 2 Sin { + (U/W)/U/VR) I The minimum v a l u e o f CL and 2 A -CD on t h e o r b i t o c c u r s a t $ = - 7r/2 and i n c r e a s e s t o t h e maximum
(U/VR)
critt
'

I f U i s a c o n s t a n t = 53 m / s , and (U/VR)crit = 6, t h e n qcrit = 0 f o r Vu = 8 . 9 m / s . Thus, f o r a l l Vu < 8.9 m / s t h e c y l i n d e r i s i n s u p e r c i r c u l a t i o n f o r t h e complete o r b i t . T h i s C and CD a r e c o n s t a n t a t t h e maximum v a l u e s . means u n t i l X = Xcritt L A s X i n c r e a s e s beyond Xcrit t h e p a r t of t h e upper o r b i t f o r which s u p e r c i r c u l a t i o n does n o t e x i s t i n c r e a s e s and CL and CD on t h i s p a r t of t h e o r b i t d e c r e a s e w i t h i n c r e a s i n g A. CL and CD a r e a a t e r minimum a t $ = -n/2 and g r a d u a l l y i n c r e a s e u n t i l $ = qcrit which CL and CD become c o n s t a n t . S i n c e t h e upper p a r t of t h e o r b i t produces t h e most power, t h i s means t h a t t h e r a t e of i n c r e a s e o f t o t a l power w i t h i n c r e a s i n g X d e c r e a s e s below t h a t which would o c c u r i f CL and CD w e r e c o n s t a n t .
C S VR s o t h a t it i s p r o p o r t i o n a l The c i r c u l a t i o n i s I ' = L2 b But, VR = vu/l + A ' 2 XSin$ , s o t h a t t o t h e p r o d u c t CL VR. The v o r t i c i t y i n t h e wake is'?i' V i n c r e a s e s wkth i n c r e a s e o f A . R
-

v a l u e a t $crit.

. -

d e n s i t y in t h e wake i n c r e a s e s w i t h X s i n c e t h e r e a r e more c l o s e l y packed s u r f a c e s o r v o r t e x r i n g s a s X i n c r e a s e s . The induced v e l o c i t i e s a r e p r o p o r t i o n a l t o I' and t h e number of r i n g s i n t h e wake. Thus, a s A i n c r e a s e s t h e induced v e l o c i t i e s i n c r e a s e i n magnitude, and t h e s e r e d u c e t h e magnitude of VR. The n e t e f f e c t i s t h a t t h e power g e n e r a t e d i n c r e a s e s w i t h proportional t o and t h e t h e n t h e power g e n e r a t e d d e c r e a s e s . A t some v a l u e of X f o r t h e g i v e n v a l u e of Vu, t h e peak power i s g e n e r a t e d . For A g r e a t e r t h a n t h i s v a l u e , t h e power g e n e r a t e d d e c r e a s e s . The e f f e c t of c o n s t a n t U i s t o reduce t h e e f f e c t i v e CL a s X i n c r e a s e s , and t h i s

-'

i n c r e a s e i n X u n t i l t h e induced v e l o c i t i e s become s i g n i f i c a n t , and

reduces the power generated Er'om that which would be generated if CL were constant in magnitude. This causes the peak power to occur at a constant.V and a more rapid decrease in power generated once the peak has been passed. The mechanism is complex and the results are not easily predictable, but come from detailed calculation. The shape of the power generated versus A curves can be more readily understood. Since the power generated is proportional to the cube of the wind speed, increasing wind speed should have a powerful effect on the peak power generated. For example, an 8.9 m/s wind speed should generate 30% of the power developed at 13.4 m/s at the same value of A. Thus the peak power for 1 cylinder at A = 1.2 would be expected to equal 0.33 MW at 8.9 m/s, since a wind of 13.4 m/s generates 1.11 MFJ. However, the computed power at 8.9 m/s at A = 1.2 is 0.39 MW which is greater than would be expected. The reason for this is that at 13.4 m/s the ideal value is 1 . 6 ' . Consequently, the effective lift coefficient Of: qcrit at 13.4 m/s is less than the effective lift coefficient at 8.9 m/s since for winds of 13.4 m/s, less of the orbit has supercirculation than for 8.9 m/s winds. This reduction in effective lift coefficient causes the power to increase less rapidly than the cube of the wind speed. Therefore, tk:~more r a p M decrease of power above peak power as wind speed increases is associated with the reduction in effective CL as A increases due .to less of the orbit being in supercirculation. Based on these no l o s s computations,if constant u/V could be used rather than constant I1 more power could be generated at all X and W, than for constant TJ. Theso two kypcs of operation will be studied to determine which yields the most uet power per dollar. As mentioned before, as the number of cylinders is increased, mutual cylinder interference effects begin to have importance when NB > 6. The reason for this is that the spacing between the cylinders is h = 2R Sin (180/NB), where h is the spacing. The induced velocity in two dimensions is Vu = r/(2rrr), where r is'the radius from the bound vortex to the point in question, since the spacing, h, reduced with.increasing number of

cyLinders. Thus the induced velocity on neighboring cylinders increases as the number of cylinders .is increased. The total induced velocity felt by a cylinder is the vector sum of the induced velocity associated with each cylinder on the orbit and its associated semi-bound .vortexring. This sum increases in magnitude, and its direction changes as the number of cylinders increases. Those cylinders nearest any given cylinder have the major effect, as the radius r is less. If each cylinder had the same lift coefficient and velocity, the direction of the mutual induced velocity would be radially outward on the upstream side of the orbit, and radially inward on the downstream side of the orbit. Because of the variation in velocity and lift coefficient around the orbit, the direction is not radial, but may be reasonably close to radial. It will still be outward on the upstream side and inward on the downstream side for a windmill and opposite for a propulsive device. This.mutua1blade interference has profound effects on the shape of the power generated versus X curves.
#

Figure R . 2 2 is a series of power generated versus X curves for a series of wind speeds for a 14 rotor plant having 33.4 m high by 5.6 m diameter r~tors, The cylinders operate on a circular track having a 457 m radius at a rotati~nspeed, U, of 53.1 m/s. Note that only CD losses of the cylinder are included in this data. It is seen that the value of A for peak power increases as wind speed increases, This means that the track speed for peak power is no longer constant, but increases as wind speed increases. The reason for this is that the mutual interference becomes less as wind speed increases. This means that synchronous generators geared to the car wheels would not generate constant frequency. If dc current or an induction generator were used, this would not be important.. In additi~n,thedecrease of power beyond peak power is much more rapid at the lower wind speeds. As wind speed increases, this effect is less pronounced, since the mutual induced velocities are a smaller fraction of the total velocity, I and VR as much. The peak power per rotor is and do not effect ' less than that for a single cylinder as would be expected, since

rn/s

1 4 - ROTOR PLANT
"w2

I
I

FigureA.,22.

Average Gross'Powex 'Output from a Madaras Plant of Fourteen Rotating cylinder^ versus h for Various Wind Sp'eeds. Fourteen Rotating Cylinders, Aspec't Ratio = 6, e/d = 2, Cylinder = : 186m2, Diameter = 5 . .6m, Track Area.. Radius = ; 457m, Cylinder Rotating at ,183 rpm.

t h e magnitude and d i r e c t i o n of t h e r e s u l t a n t v e l o c i t y a t each p o i n t on t h e o r b i t h a s been changed. F i g u r e A.23 p r e s e n t s t h e d a t a when t h e p l a n t s i z e h a s been i n c r e a s e d t o 16 of t h e same s i z e d c y l i n d e r and t r a c k r a d i u s . The c h a r a c t e r i n t h e c u r v e s i s t h e same as f o r 1 4 c y l i n d e r s . The t o t a l power h a s i n c r e a s e d w h i l e t h e power p e r r o t o r h a s decreased. The v a l u e of X f o r peak power h a s reduced a s w e l l a s t h e l i m i t i n g v a l u e of A . The primary advantage of 16 c y l i n d e r s o v e r 1 4 .is t h a t t h e problem o f ' c o n n e c t i n g t h e r o t o r s i n an e n d l e s s t r a i n i s e a s i e r , b u t t h e p l a n t c o s t i s h i g h e r s i n c e more c y l i n d e r s must be used. F i g u r e A . 2 4 p r e s e n t s t h e d a t a when t h e number of c y l i n d e r s h a s been i n c r e a s e d t o 18. The peak power h a s been i n c r e a s e d o n l y s l i g h t l y w h i l e t h e power g e n e r a t e d p e r r o t o r h a s d e c r e a s e d a g a i n . A l l t h e comments f o r t h e 16 c y l i n d e r r o t o r apply. This appears t o be about t h e maximum power which can be g e n e r a t e d i f t h e t r e n d s continue. N o f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e i n number of c y l i n d e r s h a s been run since t h e g a i n i n t o t a l power i s m a r g i n a l , and computing t i m e i n c r e a s e s r a p i d l y w i t h NB and w a s p r o h i b i t i v e . The power p e r r o t o r i s o n l y 0.7407, t h a n t h a t f o r a s i n g l e r o t o r c y l i n d e r a t 13.4 m / s . T h i s p l a n t produces n e a r l y t h e maximum power.
THE EFFECT O F RAMP ANGLE ON THE POWER PRODUCED

The ramp a n g l e ( t h e a n g u l a r d i s t a n c e d u r i n g which t h e c y l i n d e r i s spun-up) was i n i t i a l l y chosen t o be I S 0 , b u t spin-up power was e x c e s s i v e . The ramp a n g l e was t h e n i n c r e a s e d t o 30 as c a l c u l a t i o n s showed t h i s may be a c c e p t a b l e , e s p e c i a l l y a t t h e l a r g e r t r a c k r a d i i . When t h e r a d i u s was h e l d t o 1 5 0 0 feet t o reduce t h e t r a c k c o s t , t h e number of c y l i n d e r s w a s i n c r e a s e d and I t w a s found t h a t a t t h e h i g h e r wind s p e e d s , t h e d a t a computed. t h e spin-up power was a g a i n becoming a l a r g e f r a c t i o n of t h e t o t a l power g e n e r a t e d . C a l c u l a t i o n s showed t h a t a 60 ramp a n g l e 'would be d e s i r e d t o reduce t h e spin-up power, s o t h e ramp a n g l e was i n c r e a s e d t o 60. and t h e d a t a computed a t n e a r t h e peak power The r e s u l t s w e r e d i s a s t r o u s . a t X = 1 . 2 f o r t h e 16 c y l i n d e r r o t o r . The power g e n e r a t e d was o n l y a b o u t t w o - t h i r d s of t h a t g e n e r a t e d

VW= M/S I4

1 6R O T O R PLANT

I2

1 0

Y e

0
0
.gure A. 2 3 .

0.2

a 0.4

1 0.6

0.8

I.O

1.2

1.4

1.6

X= v/w
Average Gross Dover O u t ~ u tfrom Nadaras Plant versus X f o r v a r i o u s Wind Speeds. S i x t e e n Rotating Cylinders, Aspect Ratio = 6 , e/d = 2 , Clyinder Area = 186m2, Diameter = 5.6m, Track Radius = 457m, Cylinder Rotating a t 1 8 3 r p m .

Figure.A.24.

Average Gross Power Output from Madaras Plant versus h for Various Wind Speeds., Eighteen Rotating Cylinders, Aspect Ratio = 6, e/d = 2, cylinder Area = ~ $ 6 ~ 2 Diameter , = 5.6m, Track Radius = 4 5 7 . 1 ~Cylinder ~ Rotating at

a t t h e same v a l u e o f X when t h e ramp a n g l e was 30. T h i s r e s u l t w a s a n t i c i p a t e d a s t h e upper h a l f o f t h e o r b i t produces t h e major c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e power, and o n e - t h i r d o f t h i s h a d been a t r e d u c e d CL d u e ,t o t h e l a r g e ramp a n g l e .
I t may be p o s s i b l e t o o p t i m i z e r a m a n g l e power l o s s w i t h

spin-up power l o s s by v a r y i n g t h e ramp a n g l e o v e r a wide range i n smala i n c r e m e n t s . T h i s h a s n o t been done due t o t h e p r e s s o f t i m e and t h e l o n g computing time^ f o r l a r g e number of b l a d e s . There w i . 1 1 p r o b a b l y be a d i f f e r e n t optimum c o n d i t i o n a t each number o f r o t o r s and wind speed. T h i s would r e q u i r e l a r g e a m a m t s of t i m e and f u n d s f o r computer a n a l y s i s , and i s iecommended i f t h e Madaras system i s ftnded f o r f u t u r e r e s e a r c h ,

APPENDIX B COST 'ESTIMATE DETAILS

APPENDIX B COST ESTIMATE DETAILS B.l PLANT COST A. LAND'

To be Considered Separately

B.

SITE PREPARATION AND EARTHWORK C l e a ~S i k e , 70 Ac @ $750.00 Layout Work Fencing, 11,500 If @ $10.00 TOTAL SITE PREPARATION AND EARTHWORK SITE BUILDINGS MID VIADUCT Assembly Building, 100' x 160' See attached sheet Control Building., 30" x 50' 1,500 sf @ $50.00 Access under Track: Excavation, 5,500 cy @ $2.60 Concrete, 1,015 cy @ $137.00 Roadway, 295 sy @'$15.25 TOTAL SITE BUILDINGS AND VIADUCT UTILITIES, ROADWAYS, TRACKS AND TROLLEYS Utilities: Perforated Drains, 61,000 If @ $6.85 $417,850 Catch Basins, 160 @ $75.00 140,000 Corr. Metal Pite 24" dia. 16,000 If @ $15.00 240,000 Corr. Metal Pipe 12." dia. 10,000 .If @ $7.50 75,000 Corr..Metal Pipe 8" dia. 26,100 6,000 If @ $4.35 Excavatiun & Backfill, 86,400 24,000 cy @ .$3.60 Roadways : @ ~$15.25 $529,200 Concrete, 3 4 , 7 0 0 . ~ . 162,500. Gravel, 20,.315 cy @ $8.00 Tracks : Subgrade Compaction, 170,000: sy @ $ : 2 0 Testing Cuts & Fills, 143,000 c y @ $2.60

985,350

691,700

$ 34,000

50,000 371,800

Borrow Fill, 160,.000 .cy @ $8.00 Fine Grade, 170,O.OO sy @ $.30 Roadbed Concrete, 10,500 cy @ $52.25 Reinforcing Steel, 945 tons @ $660.00 Joints, 41,000 If @ $6.00 Finish & Cure, 24.3,700 sf @ $2-25 steel Track @ $30.00 Bolts, 15,235 Track Plates, 4,200 tons. @ $660 Grout, 317 cy @ $1485.00

1,280,000 51,O'OO 1,786,800

$ 548.,7'00

623,700 24,600 61,'OOO

$ 45'7,050

1,258,000

3,150,000 470', 800

4,077,850

Trolleys Poles, 380 pc @ $1100.00 383,800 Joists, 230 ton @ $700.00 161,000 . ... Support Angles, 115 ton @ $1200.00 138,000 Collector Track, 13,180 If @ $40.00 527,200 Trolley Brackets, 28 pc @ $1200,00 33,600 Trolley Shoes, 84 pc @ $570.00 47,800 Pole Excavation, 24-0.. cy ... @ $100.00 24,000 Pole Foundation Concrete, 10,800 24'0 cy @ $45.00 Pole Anchor Bolts, 1,520 pc @ $25 38,000. 1,321,280 Puwer Cull~ectien Systcm 1000 amp Aerial Cable, 414,000 6,000 If @ $69.00 1000 amp Taps on Tr.olley 6,100 41,250 461,350 Poles, 150 pc @ $225.00 Wind Sensors and Poles Wind Sensors, .24 pc C ! $650.00 15,600 6,600 Sensor Poles, 24 pc @ $275.00 Underground Cables, 20,000 If @ $2.25 45,000 67,200 $10,649,530 TOTAL UTILITIES, ROADWAYS, TRACKS AND TROLLEYS

E.

ROTOR AND CAR Wheel and Suspension System: $6,175,820 (see attached sheet) 28 pc @ $220,565 (includes generator and speed increaser) Couplings and Train Assembly Cables, 25,000 lb @ $5.00 125,000 Cable Sockets, 56 pc @ $1000.00 56,000 Cable Pins, 56 pc @ $100.00 5,600 Positioning of Cars on Track 50,000 Rental of Prime Mover 83,000 Car F r a n e and Housing (see attached sheet) 28 pc @ $167,230) 4,682,440 (includes spin motor and speed increaser) Rotor Tower (see attached sheet) 28 pc @ $94,960 2,658,880 (inoludes bearings, sliaftlng, lube system) Balance Rotor 28 pc @ 2500.00 70,000 Generator Controls & Wiring: Generator Control Center 36,500.00 Generator Wiring 1,230.00 S p i n Motor Wifing 600.00 Lube Pump Wiring 1,270.00 Car Lighting 920.00 Telemetry and Controls 37,500.00 Grounding 2,500.00 Car Power Wiring 1,050.00 28 PC x 81,570.00 $2,283,960 TOTAL ROTOR AND CAR $18,850,420 .-PDWER AND CONTROL SYSTEMS Power Factor Correction 2000 amp Disconnects Control, Computers, Displays TOTAL POWER AND CONTROL SYSTEMS

B'.

B,?

SUMMARY
DIRECT COSTS Construction * E i t e Prepar-a L i o l l *Buildings & Viaduct -Utilities *Roads 'Tracks & Trolleys Total Construction Mechanical *29 Rotor Cars (includes 1 spare) Total Mechacical TOTAL DIRECT COSTS (no land) Land Net Acreage = 70 acres 390

INDIRECT COSTS none a Land a General Consturction Indirect Cost (24 months) 'Insurance on Labor, Workmen's Comp., FICA, Unemployment: 16% x 3,600,000 $ 576,000 397,320 'Office Expense: 3% x 13,243,930 'Field Personnel: Project Mgr. 80,000 Field Engr. 200,000 Supervision 56,000 40',0'00 380,000 Timekeeper *Overhead 5% x 13,243,930 (direct) 662,200 'Profit 3% x 13,243,930 (direct) 397,320 110,000 *Temp. Heat & Electric a Total General Construction Cost $ .2',522,840 .*.Indirect Construction Cost = 19.05% of Direct Construction. , Cost Mechanical Construction Indirect Cost (36 months) $ 160,000 *Insurance on Labor 18% x 890,000 797,630 'Office Expense 4% x 19,940,700 'Field Personnel Project Mgr. 165,000 Field Engr. 150,000 315,000 160,000 'Temp. Heat & Electric 100,000 'Small Tools 15% x 19,940,700 2,991,110 'Overhead & Profit Total Mechanical Construction cost $4,523,740
L -

.',Indirect Mechanical Cost = 22.69% of Direct Mechanical Cost TOTAL PROJECT COSTS To be considered Separately

LAND GENERAL CONSTRUCTION a Direct a Indirect a Total Construction MECHANICAL CONSTRUCTION a Direct a Indirect a Total Mechanical CONSTRUCTION FINANCING 11 -7% Total nj.rect ($32,511,400) TOTAL COST

$19,940,700 4,523,740

24,464,440

B.2 ANNUAL CHARGES (less Land Cost) Mortgage 'Payments $39,420,.060@ 8.75% per annum ~epreciation $39,420,060 @ 30 years Taxes: Real Estate Income TOTAL ANNUAL CHARGES Total Annual Charges $3,449,260 1,314,000 221,000 '3'0'0', '0'0 0

5,284,260 12.2% PlanL Cask (excluding Land)

OPERATING COSTS Wages S e c y . & Billing Clerk Station Manager Outside '~abor Efectricians (2) Millwrights (2) Labor 11lsurance'& Taxes Utilities Heat & Lights: Control Building Assembly Building

13,000 50,000 50,000 25,000 25,.000 3'0 ,'0'00

3,000 '8 ,'00 0

Expendable Parts Bearing (616) 60 @ 35QQ Wheels (224) 8 @ 3000 Reducers (140) 4 @ 15000 Lube Oil Pumps (56) 2 @ 1500 Couplings (392) 16 @ 450 DC Brushes (56) 56 @ 600 504 @ 80 Contractors (504) Track Shoes 1 8 4 ) 84 @ 300 Collector rail^ 113,180) 1200 @ 40 Insurance Misc'ellaneous Iterns
TOTAL OPERATING COSTS
.*.

$21,000 24,000 60,000 3,000 7,200 33,600 40,320 25,200 40,000

262,300

$95fi,300 Total Operating Cost = 2.2% of Plant Cost (excluding Land)

B .3 DETAILED. COMP0NEN.T. BREAKD0WN.S ROTOR CAR WHEEL AND SUSPENSION SYSTEM ( f o u r t r u c k s ) S t r u c t u r a l Fr'ames 4 PC @4,0,00:.~00 Wheel B e a r i n g s 1 6 PC @ 1 8 5 0 . 0 0 Wheel's 8 PC @ 3000'.00 B o l t s & Nuts 6 4 PC @ 4 . 0 0 , 8 'PC @ ' 450'.00 Axles. Keys & S e t ' S c r e w s 8 PC @ 30'.0@ Retaining Rings 8 'pc @ 80'.00 Sprockets 8 PC @ 200'.00, Chain i 2 5 l f @ 10.60 F a l k C o u p l i n g 160T10 4 PC' '@ 820'. 0 0 K e y s &' S e t S c r e w s 8 PC @ 2 0 . 0 0 S u p p o r t P i n s .12" d i a . 4 PC @ ' 6 0 0 . 0 0 Retainer Rings 8 PC @ 1 2 0 . 0 0 F a l k Speed I n c r e a s e r 4 PC @ 1 2 , 5 0 0 . 0 0 F a l k 'Coupling 120T10 4 P C , @2 7 0 . 0 0 ' 8 PC .@ 1 0 . 0 0 ' . Keys & Se't Screws I n d u s c t i o n G e n e r a t o r 250 k W 4 pc @ 1.5,000.00 Bolts: & Nuts 4 0 PC @ :'3.'00', Camrol Guides' . 8 PC @ ' 150.'00 B o l t s & Nuts 8' PC @ 1 2 . 0 0 Support P i n C Bearings 4 .PC @ ' 4500.00. Assembly labor o n s i t e
,

TOTAL ROTOR CAR FRAME AND HOUSING Main G i r d e r s Gusset Plates. S t e e l Tubes' F i e l d W e l d i n g 3/4," , F i e l d W e l d i n g 3/8" B o l t s & Nuts

$220,565

Gaskets.
S t r u c t u r a l T u b e s and 1/8" P l a t e S k i n .OC Motor & C o n t r o l s ~educer C o u p l i n g 140T10 C o u p l i n g 130T10 C a r lo or T u b i n g Car Floor Grating B o l t s &.'Nuts S e t S c r e w s & 'Keys Concrete 'Ballast F i e l d Assembly Labor TOTAL

ROTOR CAR TOWER S t e e l Tube 72" d i a . Cone B a s e Gusset P l a t e s Bearings Couplings Key & S e t S c r e w s B e a r i n g S u p p o r t Upper Ladder B e a r i n g S u p p o r t Lower 8" S h a f t i n g Lube O i l System B o l t s & Nuts Shaft Bearing Supports Oil Seals Oil Retainers F i e l d Labor 22,000 l b @ $.75 58,000 l b @ S.35 10,000 l b @ $.35 6 PC @ 2 3 5 0 . 0 0 4 PC @ 4 5 0 . 0 0 1 0 PC @ 4 0 . 0 0 5,400 l b @ $.30 1 0 2 If @ 30.00 300 l b @ $.45 99 I f 2 PC @ 2 5 0 0 . 0 0 2 4 PC @ 7 . 0 0 1,500 l b @ $.45 55 If l u m p sum TOTAL ROTOR AND END CAPS Alumin,um . T r u s s e s T r u s s .Assembly C o r r u g a t e d Alum. S k i n Screws Cover.P l a t e s .Ring G e a r & R e t a i n e r Ring Gear Supports Lower B e a r i n g R e t a i n e r Upper B e a r i n g Lower B e a r i n g Upper B e a r i n g R e t a i n e r Erectidn Labor
TOTAL

135 11,200 5,000 170 675 1,400 2,500 1 2 ,'6'00 $94,960

$94,990

APPENDIX C ROTOR STRUCTURAL WEIGHT AND INERTIA SCALING EQUATIONS

APPENDIX C ROTOR STRUCTURAL WEIGHT AND INERTIA SCALING EQUATIONS The p r o c e d u r e f o r s c a l i n g r o t o r w e i g h t and mass moment of i n e r t i a f o r v a r i o u s g e o m e t r i c changes i n r o t o r and end c a p s i z e

w a s a two s t e p p r o c e s ' s .
F i r s t , a d e t a i l e d r e f e r e n c e s t r u c t u r a l d e s i g n w a s developed f o r t h e following conditions. Design geometry d e s c r i b e d i n P a r a g r a p h 4 . 1 . Design wind -and o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s d e s c r i b e d i n Paragraph 4.1. Des'ign l i f e , e n v i r o n m e n t a l , and s y s t e m c r i t e r i a d e s c r i b e d i n Paragraph 4.1. Design l o a d s d e s c r i b e d i n P a r a g r a p h 4.2 and a l l subparagraphs thereunder,

S t r u c t u r a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n a s d e s c r i b e d i n P a r a g r a p h 4.3 and a l l s u b p a r a g r a p h s t h e r e u n d e r .

Second, s c a l i n g e q u a t i o n s b a s e d on v a r i a t i o n s from t h e r e f e r e n c e geometry and o p e r a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s w e r e g e n e r a t e d . These e q u a t i o n s , p r e s e n t e d below, were t h e n programmed i n o u r Madaras System Performance S i m u l a t i o n Program i n o r d e r t o p r o p e r l y a c c o u n t f o r t h e effects of r o t o r geometry arld spin c o n d i t i o n v a r i a t i d n s o n s y s t e m performance.
C. 1
i

CYLINDER WEIGHT The w e i g h t o f c y l i n d e r s h a v i n g a c o n s t a n t p r o j e c t e d a r e a of

2000 f t 2 i s
-

1.75 where,

CY 1

CY 1

= weight of c y l i n d e r i n l b s
= r a d i u s of c y l i n d e r i n f e e t

rc y l
R P M

= maximum r o t o r s p i n r a t e i n r e v .

p e r minute

'REF

= weight of c y l i d n e r having a s p e c t r a i o of 4.0 = 18,889 l b s ,

C.2

CYLINDER WEIGHT PER U N I T HEIGHT I n o r d e r t o be a b l e t o p r e d i c t t h e w e i g h t .of a c y l i n d e r

h a v i n g an a r b i t r a r y p r o j e c t e d a r e a i t i s d e s i r a b l e t o d e v e l o p a n e x p r e s s i o n f o r c y l i n d e r w e i g h t p e r u n i t of h e i g h t . For c y l i n d e r s h a v i n g a 2000 f t 2 p r o j e c t e d a r e a ,

1000 where C.3

cyl

cyl

h = cylinder height i n feet. CAP WEIGHT The w e i g h t of t h e c a p i s g i v e n by

cap

= =

r a d i u s of c a p i n f e e t w e i g h t of c a p f o r c y l i n d e r h a v i n g a s p e c t r a t i o o f 4.0 and c a p r a d i u s t o c y l i n d e r r a d i u s r a t i o of 1 . 5 = 3127 l b s

CAP 'REF

C. 4

MASS M O M E N T O F INERTIA

The m a s s moment o f i n e r t i a of t h e r o t o r w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e geometrical a x i s i s expressed a s 'rotor

=
,

ICY 1

cap

... rn

CY 1

CY 1

( 0 . 8 1 rcyl)2

where,
1
= ,mass moment of i n e r t 3 . a i n s l u g - f t 2

= mass i n slugs.

M I N I M U M WEIGHT CUT-OFF

The e q u a t i o n s p r e s e n t e d above a r e based on p e r t u r b a t i o n s a b o u t t h e p r e v i o u s l y d e f i n e d Maderas d e s i g n p o i n t . The a c c u r a c y of t h e s e e x p r e s s i o n s f o r l a r g e d e v i a t i o n s from t h i s p o i n t have n o t been tested. However, i t i s o b v i o u s t h a t t h e r e w i l l e x i s t some minimum w e i g h t f o r b o t h t h e c a p and t h e c y l i n d e r . T h i s w e i g h t w i l l be i n f l u e n c e d by minimnm gago requireme11Ls for m a t e r i a l h a n d l i n g , damage r e s i s t a n c e , and s t r u c t u r a l s t a b i l i t y .
A minimum w e i g h t of 9,500 l b s lor c y l i n d e r s h a v i n g a p r o j e c t e d

a r e a o f 2000 f t 2 i s recommended. c y l i n d e r s i z e s i s g i v e n by

The minimum w e i g h t f o r o t h e r

wmin CY 1 ACY1 pra j

: A ( ;,

j 2 1 ) 1 1 0

9500

where

p r o j e c t e d a r e a nf cylindcy.

The c a p w e i g h t c a l u c l a t e d u s i n g t h e e q u a t i o n s o f S e c t i o n 111 w i J . . l b e used f o r a l l c y l i n d e r s i z e s and g e o m e t r i e s .

A minimum w e i g h t f o r t h e r o t o r c a p h a s n o t been d e f i n e d .

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"

>I

Joukowsky, T r a n s a c t i o n s o f t h e p h y s i c a l S e c t i o n of t h e I m p e r i a l S o c i e t y o f t h e F r i e n d s o f N a t u r a l S c i e n c e s , Moscow, Vol. X I I I , No. 2. Joukowsky, "Ueber d i e Konturen d e r T r a g f l a c h e n d e r Drachenf l u g e n , " Z i l t s ' c h r i f t f u r F l u g t e c h n i k und M o l o s t u f l s c h i f f a r t , Vo. X X I I , N o . 2 , November 26, 1910. Karman, Th. von, and E. T r e f f t z , P o t e n t i a l s t r o m u n g u r n gegebene T r a g f a s c h e n q u e r s c h n i t t , Z.F.M., 9 , p 111, 1918. P r a n d t l , L. , C. W i e s e l s b e r g e r , and A. B e t z , " E r g e b s n i s s e d e r Aerodynamishen V e r s u c h s a n s t a l t g o t t i n g e n , 11,. p 28 , (Munchen and B e r l i n , 1 9 2 3 ) .

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