MATH280

Algebra CHAPTER 3 (Linear Algebra) by Mo Val

Tutorial questions-Linear spaces and subspaces

Page 78

Question 1

Required To Prove: The linear combination !!!! !! !! is equivalent to the matrix
product CX.

Given: C is m x n matrix with columns !! , !! , , !! that are n x 1 column vectors
!!!
!!"
!!!
!!"
!!!
!!!
!
!
i.e. ! = !! !! !! ; !! =
; !! =
; !! = !!!
!"
!"

!!!
!!!
!!"

X is a n x 1 column vector with entries !! , !! , , !!
!!!
!!"
I.e. ! =

!!!

Step 1: !!!! !! !! = !! !! + !! !! + + !! !!

!!!
!!"
Step 2: !" = !! !! !!
= !! !! + !! !! + + !! !!

!!!
But !! !! = !! !! since constant x vector is commutative

!

!! !! !"
!!!

MATH280 Algebra CHAPTER 3 (Linear Algebra) by Mo Val

Question 2
To find if the vector set ! [with 2 complex entries (! )] whose entries satisfy a
given equation is a complex linear space.

[Note a vector set is a set of vectors satisfying the given equation. ! is a vector set
and not a vector]

Q 2 a) ! = !, ! ! ! : ! + !" = 0

Step 1: Need to verify ! is a complex linear space

Step 2: By definition: ! is a linear space if every linear combination of elements
of the set is again in the set.

Are the elements of a vector set vectors?

!"# !! , !! !" !"#$%& !"!#!$%& !" !! !"#$%& !"# !
!! = !! , !! ; !! = !! , !!
!"#$": !! + !!! = 0 & !! + !!! = 0

Step 3: !"# !! !" ! !"#$%& !"#$%&'(%"& !" !! , !!
!! = !! !! + !! !!
!! = !! !! , !! + !! !! , !!
!! = (!! !! + !! !! , !! !! + !! !! )

Step 4: Test whether !! is in the set, i.e. its entries !! , !! satisfy the equation
! + !" = 0

LHS:
!! + !!! = (!! !! + !! !! ) + !(!! !! + !! , !! ) = !! (!! + !!! ) + !! (!! + !!! )
= !! (0) + !! (0) = 0 = !"#

!! !"#$%& !"# ! !" ! !"#$%&' !"#$%& !"#$% !" the linear combination !! of
two general vectors of the set is again in the set

MATH280 Algebra CHAPTER 3 (Linear Algebra) by Mo Val

Q 2 b) ! = !, ! ! ! : ! + !" = 1 + !

Step 1: Need to verify ! is a complex linear space

Step 2: By definition: ! is a linear space if every linear combination of elements
of the set is again in the set.

!"# !! , !! !" !"#$!" !"!#!$%& !" !! !"#$%& !"# !
!"#$": !! + !!! = 1 + ! & !! + !!! = 1 + !

Step 3: !"# !! !" ! !"#$%& !"#$%&'(%"& !" !! , !!
!! = !! !! + !! !!
!! = (!! !! + !! !! , !! !! + !! !! )

Step 4: Test whether !! is in the set, i.e. its entries !! , !! satisfy the equation
! + !" = 1 + !
LHS:
!! + !!! = (!! !! + !! !! ) + !(!! !! + !! , !! ) = !! (!! + !!! ) + !! (!! + !!! )
= !! (1 + !) + !! (1 + !)
= (!! + !! )(1 + !) 1 + !

!! !"#$%& !"# ! !" !"# ! !"#$%&' !"#$%& !"#$%#! !" !! !"#$%& !"#$%&'(%"&
!! is not again in the set !


Q 2 c) ! = !, ! ! ! : ! ! !! ! = 1 + !

Step 1: Need to verify ! is a complex linear space

Step 2: By definition: ! is a linear space if every linear combination of elements
of the set is again in the set.

!"# !! , !! !" !"#$%& !"!#!$%& !" !! !"#$%& !"# !
!"#$": !! ! !!! ! = 1 + ! & !! ! !!! ! = 1 + !

Step 3: !"# !! !" ! !"#$%& !"#$%&'(%"& !" !! , !!
!! = !! !! + !! !!
!! = (!! !! + !! !! , !! !! + !! !! )

Step 4: Test whether !! is in the set!, i.e. its entries !! , !! satisfy the equation
! ! !! ! = 1 + !
LHS:
!! + !!! = (!! !! + !! !! )! ! !! !! + !! !! !
!! + !!! = !!! !!! + 2 !! !! !! !! + !!! !!! ! !!! !!! + 2 !! !! !! !! + !!! !!!
!! + !!! = !!! !!! !!!! + !!! !!! !!!! + 2!! !! !! !! !!! !! = !!! 1 + ! +
!!! 1 + ! + 2!! !! !! !! !!! !! = !!! + !!! 1 + ! + 2!! !! !! !! !!! !!
1 + !
!! !"#$%& !"# ! !" !"# ! !"#$%&' !"#$%& !"#$% !" !! !"#$%& !"#$%&'(%"& !!
is not again in the set !

MATH280 Algebra CHAPTER 3 (Linear Algebra) by Mo Val

Q 2 d) ! = !, ! ! ! : ! ! !! ! = 0

Step 1: Need to verify ! is a complex linear space

Step 2: By definition: ! is a linear space if every linear combination of elements
of the set is again in the set.

!"# !! , !! !" !"#$%& !"!#!$%& !" !! !"#$%& !"# !
!"#$": !! ! !!! ! = 0 + ! & !! ! !!! ! = 0

Step 3: !"# !! !" ! !"#$%& !"#$%&'(%"& !" !! , !!
!! = !! !! + !! !!
!! = (!! !! + !! !! , !! !! + !! !! )

Step 4: Test whether !! is in the set !, i.e. its entries !! , !! satisfy the equation
! ! !! ! = 0
LHS:
!! + !!! = (!! !! + !! !! )! ! !! !! + !! !! !
!! + !!! = !!! !!! + 2 !! !! !! !! + !!! !!! ! !!! !!! + 2 !! !! !! !! + !!! !!!
!! + !!! = !!! !!! !!!! + !!! !!! !!!! + 2!! !! !! !! !!! !! = !!! 0 +
!!! 0 + 2!! !! !! !! !!! !! = 2!! !! !! !! !!! !! 0

!! !"#$%& !"# ! !" !"# ! !"#$%&' !"#$%& !"#$% !" !! !"#$%& !"#$%&'(%"&
!! is not again in the set !

MATH280 Algebra CHAPTER 3 (Linear Algebra) by Mo Val

Question 3
To solve the systems of equations AZ=B using Gauss-Jordan elimination

Q 3 a)
1
2+! : 1+!

1!
3
:
!

Step 1: make 1 ! = 0; !! (1 !)!!

!!! = 3 1 ! 2 + ! = 3 2 ! + 1 = !
!!" = ! 1 ! 1 + ! = ! 2 = 2 + !

1 2+! : 1+!
~

0
!
: 2 + !
Step 2 make ! = 1; !! !
!!" = 0
!!! = 1
!!" = ! 2 + ! = 1 + !2

1 2+! : 1+!
~

0
1
: 1 + !2

Step 3: make 2 + ! = 0; !! 2 + ! !!


!!" = 1 + ! 2 + ! 1 + !2 = 1 + ! 5! = 1 !4

1 0 : 1 !4
~

0 1 : 1 + !2

! = !! +!!

!
Let Z be a complex No. with 2 components (!, !) i.e. ! = !

! = 1 !4
! = 1 + 2!
!
1 4!
!= ! =
= !!
1 + 2!

MATH280 Algebra CHAPTER 3 (Linear Algebra) by Mo Val

Q 3 b)

1
1!

1 + !
2!

: 1+!

:
2

Step 1: make 1 ! = 0; !! (1 !)!!

!!! = 2! 1 ! 1 + ! = 2! 2! = 0
!!" = 2 1 ! 1 + ! = 2 2 = 0

1 1 + ! : 1 + !
~

0
0
:
0

Step 2: 1 equation 2 unknowns therefore 1 parameter.
!"# ! = !
1! + 1 + ! ! = 1 + !
! = 1 + ! ! 1 + !
! = !! +!!
!
Let Z be a complex No. with 2 components (!, !) i.e. ! = !
! = 1 + ! + ! 1 !
! = 0 + !

1+!
1!
!
!
!= ! =
0 +
1
!!
!!

1
!
1! : 1+!
Q 3 c)

1 + ! 1 + !
2
:
2!

Step 1: make 1 + ! = 0; !! (1 + !) !!

!!! = 1 + ! 1 + ! ! = 1 + ! ! 1 = 0
!!" = 2 1 + ! 1 ! = 2 2 = 0
!!" = 2! 1 + ! 1 + ! = 2! 2! = 2 2!

1 ! 1! : 1+!

0 0
0
:
0

Step 2: 1 equations 3 unknowns therefore 2 parameters

!"# ! = !
!"# ! = !
1! + !" + 1 ! ! = 1 + !
! = 1 + ! !" 1 ! !
! = !! +!!
!
Let Z be a complex No. with 3 components !, !, ! i.e. ! = !
!

!
1+!
1 + !
!
! 1 +!
0
0
!= ! =
+

0
0
1
!
!!
!!

MATH280 Algebra CHAPTER 3 (Linear Algebra) by Mo Val

1
2+!
: 1!
Q 3 d) 1 !
3!
: 2!
!
1 + 2! : 1 + !

Step 1: make 1 ! = 0; !! (1 !) !!
!!! = 3 ! 1 ! 2 + ! = 3 ! (3 !) = 0
!!" = 2! 1 ! 1 ! = 2! 2! = 0
Step 2: make ! = 0; !! ! !!

!!" = 1 + 2! ! 2 + ! = 1 + 2! (1 + 2!) = 0
!!! = 1 + ! ! 1 ! = 1 + ! 1 + ! = 0

1 2+! : 1!
~ 0
0
:
0
0
0
:
0

Step 3: 1 equation 2 unknowns therefore 1 parameter

!"# ! = !
1! + 2 + ! ! = 1 !
! = 1 ! 2 + ! !
! = !! +!!
!
Let Z be a complex No. with 2 components (!, !) i.e. ! = !
! = 1 ! 2 + ! !
! = 0 + !

1!
2 !
!
!
!= ! =
+

0
1
!!
!!

MATH280 Algebra CHAPTER 3 (Linear Algebra) by Mo Val

Question 4

Q 4 i)
To find the inverse of the matrix T using Gauss-Jordan Elimination

1
1/3
Q 4 i a) ! =

1/2 1/2

Step 1: Augment ! !"# !
1
1/3 : 1 0

1/2 1/2 : 0 1

Step 2: Get the Augmented Matrix in the form !: ! !!

!
!
Step 1: make ! = 0; !! (!) !!
1
1 1
1
1
2
!!! =
=
=
2
2 3
2
6
6
1
1
1
!!" = 0
1 =
=
2
2
2
1
!!" = 1
0 = 1 0 = 1
2

1 1/3 :
1
0
~

0 1/3 : 1/2 1
!
Step 2: make ! = 1; !! 3
!!" = 0
!!! = 1
3
!!" =
2
!!" = 3

1 1/3 :
1
0
~

0
1
: 3/2 3

!
!
Step 1: make ! = 0; !! (!) !!

!!! = 1
1
3
1
3
!!" = 1
= 1 =
3
2
2
2
1
!!" = 0
3 = 0 1 = 1
3

1 0 : 3/2 1
~

0 1 : 3/2 3
3/2 1
Therefore ! !! =

3/2 3

MATH280 Algebra CHAPTER 3 (Linear Algebra) by Mo Val

Q 4 i b) ! =

1
1 2!

1 + !

3

Step 1: Augment ! !"# !

1
1 2!

1 + !
3

: 1 0

: 0 1

Step 2: Get the Augmented Matrix in the form !: ! !!

Step 1: make 1 2! = 0; !! (1 2!) !!
!!! = 3 1 2! 1 + ! = 3 (3 !) = !
!!" = 0 1 2! 1 = 0 1 2! = 1 + 2!
!!" = 1 1 2! 0 = 1

1 1 + ! :
1
0
~

0
!
: 1 + 2! 1

Step 2: make ! = 1; !! !
!!" = 0
!!! = 1
!!" = ! 1 + 2! = 2 + !
!!" = !

1 1 + ! :
1
0
~

0
1
: 2 + ! !


Step 1: make 1 + ! = 0; !! (1 + !) !!

!!! = 1
!!" = 1 1 + ! 2 + ! = 1 3 ! = 4 + !
!!" = 0 1 + ! ! = 0 1 ! = 1 + !

1 0 : 4 + ! 1 + !
~

0 1 : 2 + !
!

4 + ! 1 + !
Therefore ! !! =

2 + !
!

MATH280 Algebra CHAPTER 3 (Linear Algebra) by Mo Val

1 2 3
Q 4 i c) ! = 2 3 4
3 4 6

Step 1: Augment ! !"# !

1 2
2 3
3 4

3 : 1 0 0
4 : 0 1 0
6 : 0 0 1

Step 2: Get the Augmented Matrix in the form !: ! !!

Step 1: make 2 = 0; !! (2) !!
!!! = 3 2 2 = 3 4 = 1
!!" = 4 2 3 = 4 6 = 2
!!" = 0 2 1 = 2
!!" = 1 2 0 = 1
!!" = 0 2 0 = 0

Step 2: make 3 = 0; !! (3) !!
!!" = 4 3 2 = 4 6 = 2
!!! = 6 3 3 = 6 9 = 3
!!" = 0 3 1 = 3
!!" = 0 3 0 = 0
!!" = 1 3 0 = 1


1 2
3 : 1 0 0
~ 0 1 2 : 2 1 0
0 2 3 : 3 0 1

Step 3: make 1 = 1; !! 1
!!" = 0
!!! = 1
!!" = 1 2 = 2
!!" = 2
!!" = 1
!!" = 0
1 2
3 : 1
0 0
~ 0 1
2 : 2 1 0
0 2 3 : 3 0 1

Step 4: make 2 = 0; !! (2) !!

!!! = 1
!!" = 3 2 2 = 1
!!" = 1 2 2 = 3
!!" = 0 2 1 = 2
!!" = 0 2 0 = 0

10

MATH280 Algebra CHAPTER 3 (Linear Algebra) by Mo Val

Step 5: make 2 = 0; !! + 2 !!

!!! = 3 + 2 2 = 1
!!" = 3 + 2 2 = 1
!!" = 0 + 2 1 = 2
!!" = 1 + 2 0 = 1

1 0 1 : 3 2 0
~ 0 1 2 : 2 1 0
0 0 1 : 1 2 1

Step 6: make 2 = 0; !! (2) !!

!!" = 2 2 1 = 0
!!" = 1 2 2 = 3
!!" = 0 2 1 = 2

Step 7: make 1 = 0; !! + !!
!!" = 3 + 1 = 2
!!" = 2 2 = 0
!!" = 0 + 1 = 1

1 0 0 : 2 0
1
~ 0 1 0 : 0
3 2
0 0 1 : 1 2 1



2 0
1
!!
Therefore ! = 0
3 2
1 2 1

11

MATH280 Algebra CHAPTER 3 (Linear Algebra) by Mo Val

1 !
1+!
Q 4 i d) ! = !

0
1
1 1 1 + !


Step 1: Augment ! !"# !
1
!
1+! : 1 0 0
!
0
1
: 0 1 0
1 1 + ! 1 + ! : 0 0 1

Step 2: Get the Augmented Matrix in the form !: ! !!

Step 3: make ! = 0; !! (!) !!

!!! = 0 ! ! = 1
!!" = 1 ! 1 + ! = 1 1 + ! = 2 !
!!" = 0 ! 1 = !
!!" = 1 ! 0 = 1
!!" = 0 ! 0 = 0

Step 2: make 1 = 0; !! !!
!!" = 1 + ! ! = 1
!!! = 1 + ! 1 + ! = 2
!!" = 0 1 = 1
!!" = 0 0 = 0
!!" = 1 3 0 = 1

1 ! 1 + ! : 1 0 0
~ 0 1 2 ! : ! 1 0
0 1 2 : 1 0 1

Step 3: make ! = 0; !! (!) !!

!!" = 1 + ! ! 2 ! = 1 + ! 1 + 2! = 2 !
!!" = 1 ! ! = 1 1 = 0
!!" = 0 ! 1 = !
!!" = 0 ! 0 = 0

Step 4: make 1 = 0; !! + !!

!!! = 2 + 2 ! = !
!!" = 1 + !
!!" = 0 + 1 = 1
!!" = 1

1 0 2! :
0
! 0
~ 0 1 2! :
!
1 0
0 0 !
: 1 + ! 1 1

Step 4: make ! = 1; !! !

12

MATH280 Algebra CHAPTER 3 (Linear Algebra) by Mo Val

1 0 2!
~ 0 1 2!
0 0
1

:
0
:
!
: 1 !

!
1
!

0
0
!

Step 5: make 2 ! = 0; !! 2 ! !!
!!" = 0 2 ! 1 ! = 1 3! = 1 + 3!
!!" = ! 2 ! ! = ! 1 + 2! = 1 + !
!!" = 0 2 ! ! = 1 + 2! = 1 2!

Step 6: make2 ! = 0; !! 2 ! !!

!!" = ! 2 ! 1 ! = ! 1 3! = 2! 1
!!" = 1 2 ! ! = 1 1 + 2! = 2!
!!" = 0 2 ! ! = 1 + 2! = 1 2!

1 0 0 : 1 + 3! 1 + ! 1 2!
~ 0 1 0 : 1 + 2!
2!
1 2!
0 0 1 : 1 !
!
!


1 + 3! 1 + ! 1 2!
Therefore ! !! = 1 + 2!
2!
1 2!
1 !
!
!

Tutorial questions-Bases and dimension

Page 80

Question 5
To find a basis of the null space of the coefficient matrix A and state its
dimension.

[Note: The general solution of !" = ! is of the form ! = !! + !! where !! is a
particular solution and !! is a general element of the null space. The number of
arbitrary constants or parameters in !! is equal to the number of basis
elements.]

[Note: The dimension of the null space of a linear operator is equal to the
number of arbitrary constants in the general solution]


1
2+!
Q 5 a) ! =

1!
3
!
1 4!
!= ! =
= !!
1 + 2!
Step 1:
!! = 0, !"#! !" !"#$%"!"& !"#$%&#%$ !" !! !"## !"#$%.
!" !"#$# !"!#!$%&

Step 2: !"#$%&"'% = 0

13

MATH280 Algebra CHAPTER 3 (Linear Algebra) by Mo Val

Q 5 b) ! =

Basis:

1 + !

2!

1+!
1!
!
!
!= ! =
0 +
1
!!
!!

1!
; !"#$%&"'% 1
1

Q 5 c) ! =

1
1!

1
1+!

!
1 + !

1!

2

!
1+!
1 + !
!
! 1 +!
0
0
!= ! =
+

0
0
1
!
!!
!!
!
1 + !
Basis: 1 !"#
; !"#$%&"'% 2
0
0
1
1
2+!
Q 5 d) ! = 1 !
3 !
!
1 + 2!
1!
2 !
!
!
!= ! =
+

0
1
!
!!
!

Basis: 2 ! ; !"#$%&"'% 1
1

Question 6
To find a basis for the null space of the differential operator noting that
dimension of the null space should be equal to the degree of the operator

Q 6 a) !! 4! + 3

Step 1: To find the null space i.e. when !! 4! + 3 !! = 0

Step 2: Make the equation linear in terms of D i.e. !!

! 3 ! 1 !! = 0
! = 3 !" ! = 1
Step 3: Write the equation in the form of !! = !! !
! = ! + !"; !, ! !"# !"#$%"!"& !"#$%&#%$
!! = !! !! + !! !!
Basis: ! !! , ! !! !"#$%&"'% !" 2

Q 6 b) !! + 2! + 2

Step 1: To find the null space i.e. when !! + 2! + 2 !! = 0

Step 2: Make the equation linear in terms of D i.e. !!

14

MATH280 Algebra CHAPTER 3 (Linear Algebra) by Mo Val

Using the quadratic equation

2 4! !

2(1)
! = 1 !
! = 1 !

!=

Step 3: Write the equation in the form of !! = !! !
! = ! + !"; !, ! !"# !!"#$!%!& !"#$%&#%$
!! = !! (!!!!)! + !! (!!!!)!
!!!! !
!!!! !
Basis: !
,!
!"#$%&"'% !" 2

Q 6 c) !!

Step 1: To find the null space i.e. when (!! )!! = 0

Step 2: Make the equation linear in terms of D i.e. !!


! + 0 ! !! = 0

! = 0

Step 3: Write the equation in the form of !! = !! !
! = ! + !"; !, ! !"# !"#$%"!"& !"#$%&#%$

[Note: For repeated factors we add similar expressions that are each multiplied
by a power of t]
!! = ! + !" + !! ! ! !
!! = !! (!)! + !"! (!)! + ! ! !! ! !
Basis:
! ! ! = 1
!" 0 ! = !
! ! ! ! ! = ! !

!"#$%&"'% !" 3
!
Q 6 d)!

Step 1: To find the null space i.e. when (!! )!! = 0

Step 2: Make the equation linear in terms of D i.e. !!


! + 0 ! !! = 0
! = 0

Step 3: Write the equation in the form of !! = !! !
! = ! + !"; !, ! !"# !"#$%"!"& !"#$%&#%$

15

MATH280 Algebra CHAPTER 3 (Linear Algebra) by Mo Val

[Note: For repeated factors we add similar expressions that are each multiplied
by a power of t]
!! = ! + !" + !! ! +. . . +!! !!! ! !
!! = ! + !" + !! ! +. . . +!! !!! ! !!
!
!!!
Basis: 1, !, ! , , !

!"#$%&"'% !" !
!
Q 6 e) ! + 4

Step 1: To find the null space i.e. when (!! + 4)!! = 0

Step 2: Make the equation linear in terms of D i.e. !!
!! 4! ! !! = 0
!
! + 2! !! 2! !! = 0
!! + 2! !! 2! !! = 0
STOP
Start over
Step 3: In order to reduce the equation we need to complete the square
Add and subtract 4!!

[!! + 4 + 4!! 4!! ]!! = 0

!! + 2 ! 4!! !! = 0
!! + 2 2! !! + 2 + 2! !! = 0
!! 2! + 2 !! + 2! + 2 !! = 0

Using the quadratic equation

2 4! !
!=

2(1)
! = 1 !
! = 1 !

Or
2 4! !
!=

2(1)
! = 1 !
! = 1 !

Step 3: Write the equation in the form of !! = !! !
! = ! + !"; !, ! !"# !"#$%"!"& !"#$%&#%$
!! = !! (!!!)! + !! (!!!)! + !! (!!!!)! + !! (!!!!)!
Basis: ! !! !"#$%&"'% !" 4

16

MATH280 Algebra CHAPTER 3 (Linear Algebra) by Mo Val

Question 7

Tutorial questions- Independence and rank

Page 82

Question 8
To determine if a matrix is independent. Using coefficient matrices from Q 3.

[Note:
!" = !, !! !"#$%& !"#$!"# !" ! !"# !"#$%$"#$"& !" !" =
0; !. !. !! !"## !"#$% !"#$%$&$ !" !"#$ ! !"#$ !"#$%& !"# !"#! !! !"#$%&"' ! !" !"#$!%.
If A is a square matrix the columns are independent if and only if det A 0 i.e
!!! !"#$%$.]

!! = 0 !"# !3 !)

Question 9
To test the sets of functions for independence using Wronskians.

[Note: Functions are independent if their Wronskian 0. The Wronskian is the
determinant of a (square) matrix with entries of functions and their respective
derivatives of successive orders. Where the No. of Derivatives !"# !"#$%& = 1
!". !" !"#$%&'#(. ]

Q 9 a) ! ! , ! !!

! ! ! !!
! ! ! , ! !! = !

!
! !!
!
!!
!!
!
!
! = ! !
!
! = ! ! ! = 2 0
!"#$%&'#( ! ! , ! !! !"# !"#$%$"#&"'

Q 9 b) cos !, sin !, 1
cos !
sin ! 1
!(cos !, sin !, 1) = sin ! cos ! 0 !"#$%& !"#$% !"#$%& 3
cos ! sin ! 0

!=
1 !!! !!" !!"
sin ! cos !
cos !
sin !
! = 1 !!! 1
+ 1 !!! 0
cos ! sin !
cos ! sin !
cos !
sin !
!!!
+ 1
0

sin ! cos !
! = ( sin !)( sin !) (cos !)(cos !) = sin! ! + cos ! ! = 1 0
!"#$%&'#( cos !, sin !, 1 !"# !"#$%$"#&"'


Q 9 c) cos ! !, sin! !, 1
! cos ! !, sin! !, 1

17

MATH280 Algebra CHAPTER 3 (Linear Algebra) by Mo Val

cos ! !
sin! !
1
=
2!"#$ sin !
2 sin ! cos !
0 !"#$%& !3
2 sin ! sin ! + 2 cos ! cos !
2 cos ! cos ! + 2 sin ! !"#$
0

2 sin ! cos !
2 sin ! cos !
! = 1[ 1
] + 0 + 0
!
!
2 sin ! 2 cos ! 2 cos ! ! 2 sin! !
!
!
!
! = ( sin 2!)(2)(cos ! sin !) (sin 2!)(2)(sin ! cos ! !) = 0

!"#$%&'#( cos ! !, sin! !, 1 !"# !"# !"#$%$"#$"&

Q 9 d) 1, sec !, tan !

! 1, sec !, tan !
1
sec !
tan !
!
0
sec
!
tan
!
sec
!
=
!"#$%& !"#$% !1
!
0 tan !(sec ! tan !) + sec !(sec !) 2 sec !(sec ! tan !)

sec ! tan !
sec ! !
! = 1[ 1
] + 0 + 0
!
!
!"# ! tan ! + sec ! 2 !"! ! ! !"#$

! = sec ! tan ! 2 !"! ! ! !"#$ sec ! ! !"# ! tan! ! + sec ! !
= 2 sec ! ! !"!! ! sec ! ! sec ! ! tan! ! = sec ! ! tan! ! sec ! !
= sec ! !(tan! ! sec ! !) = sec ! ! 1 0

!"#$%&'#( 1, sec !, tan ! !"# !"#$%$"#&"'


Question 10)
Show that the basis functions i.e. functions in the null space are independent
using Wronskians.

Q 10 a) Basis: ! !! , ! !!

!!
!!
! ! !! , ! !! = ! !! ! !
3!
!
! = (! !! )(! ! ) ! ! 3! !! = ! !! 3! !! = 2! !! 0
!"#$%&'#( ! !! , ! !! !"# !"#$%$"#&"'


Q 10 b) Basis: ! !!!! ! , ! !!!! !
! !!!! !
! !!!! !
! ! !!!! ! , ! !!!! ! =

1 + ! ! !!!! ! 1 ! ! !!!! !
! = ! !!!! ! ) 1 ! ! !!!! ! ! !!!! !
1 + ! ! !!!! !
= 1 ! ! !! ! 1 + ! ! !! ! = ! !!! (2!) 0
!"#!"#$%& ! !!!! ! , ! !!!! ! !"# !"#$%$"#&"'

18

MATH280 Algebra CHAPTER 3 (Linear Algebra) by Mo Val

Q 10 c) Basis: 1, !, ! !

1 ! !!
! 1, !, ! = 0 1 2! !"#$%& !"#$% !1
0 0 2
1 2!
!=1 1
+ 0 + 0 = 2 2! 0 = 2 0
0 2
!"#$%&'#( 1, !, ! ! !"# !"#$%$"#&"'
!

Question 12
To find the rank of the coefficient matrix and note that the dimension of the null
space is equal to !". !" !"#$%&' !" ! !"#$

1
2+!
Q 12 a) ! =

1!
3
!
1 4!
!= ! =
= !!
1 + 2!
Step 1:
!! !" 2 !"! !"#$ !"#$
!"#$ !" 2
!"#$%&"'% = ! !

Step 2: Check !"#$%&"'% = 2 2 = 0

Note: ! = !: !! !"#$%&"' !" !"# !"#$%&'( !" = ! !"## !"#!$% !"#$%
! = !: !! !"#$!"#$ !" !"# !"#$%&'( !" = ! !" !"#$!%
! = !"#$%& !" !"#"$%"& !. !. !, !
1
1 + !
Q 12 b) ! =

1!
2!
1+!
1!
!
!
!= ! =
0 +
1
!!
!!
Step 1: !! !" 1 !"! !"#$ !"#$
!"!" !" 1

Step 2: Check !"#$%&"'% = 2 1 = 1


1
!
1!
Q 5 c) ! =

1 + ! 1 + !
2

!
1+!
1 + !
!
! 1 +!
0
0
!= ! =
+

0
0
1
!
!!
!!
Step 1: !! !" 1 !"! !"#$ !"#$
!"#$ !" 1

Step 2: Check !"#$!"#$! = 3 1 = 2

19

MATH280 Algebra CHAPTER 3 (Linear Algebra) by Mo Val

1
Q 5 d) ! = 1 !
!

2+!
3 !
1 + 2!

1!
2 !
!
!
!= ! =

0 +
1
!!
!!
Step 1: !! !" 1 !"! !"#$ !"#$
!"#$ !" 1

Step 2: Check !"#$%&"'% = 2 1 = 1

Q 12 b) In a square matrix ! = !. If ! = ! ! !"#$%&"' !"#$%$ !!" ! =
! !! !"#$%&"' !"## !" !"#$!% !" !! !"#$%&"'% !" !"#$

20

MATH280 Algebra CHAPTER 3 (Linear Algebra) by Mo Val

Tutorial questions Eigenvalues and eigenvectors

Page 83

Question 13
To show the matrix product AX is a scalar multiple of X

0 1
1
Q 13 a i) ! =
; ! =

1 0
1
0 1 + 1 1
1
!" =
=

1 1 + 0 1
1
!" = 1!
0 1
1
Q 13 a ii) ! =
; ! =

1 0
1
0 1 + 1 1
1
1
!" =
=
=

1 1 + 0 1
1
1
!" = !
Eigenvalues of A are 1& -1
Eigenvectors are X



1 2
2
Q 13 b i) ! =
; ! =

3 2
3
1 2 + 2 3
8
2
!" =
=
=4

3 2 + 2 3
12
3
!" = 4!
1 2
1
Q 13 b ii) ! =
; ! =

3 2
1
1 1 + 2 1
1
1
!" =
=
=

3 1 + 2 1
1
1
!! = !
Eigenvalues of A are 4& -1
Eigenvectors are X


1 1
1
Q 13 c i) ! =
; ! =

2 2
1
1 1 + 1 1
0
1
!" =
=
=

2 1 + 2 1
0
1
!" = 0!
1 1
1
Q 13 c ii) ! =
; ! =

2 2
2
1 1 + 1 2
3
1
!" =
=
=3

2 1 + 2 2
6
2
!" = 3!
Eigenvalues of A are 0& 3
Eigenvectors are X

1 2
1+!
Q 13 d i) ! =
; ! =

1 3
1

21

MATH280 Algebra CHAPTER 3 (Linear Algebra) by Mo Val

!" =

1 1 + ! + 2 1
1 1 + ! + 3 1

3+!

2 + !

Make 2 + ! = 1; !"#"!$ !" 2 + ! = 2 !

3 + ! 2 + ! 5 + 5!

=
= 1 + 1!
2! 2+!
5
1+!
=2!

1
!" = (2 !)!
1 2
1!
Q 13 d ii) ! =
; ! =

1 3
1
1 1 ! + 2 1
3!
!" =
=

1 1 ! + 3 1
2 !

Make 2 ! = 1; !"#"!$ !" 2 ! = 2 + !

3 ! 2 ! 5 5!

=
= 1 1!
2+! 2!
5
1!
=2+!

1

!" = 2 + !"
Eigenvalues of A are 2 ! & 2 + !
Eigenvectors are X

0 1
1
Q13 e) ! =
; ! =

1 2
1
0 1 + 1 1
1
!" =
=

1 1 + 2 1
1

!" = !
Eigenvalue of A is 1
Eigenvector is X

22

MATH280 Algebra CHAPTER 3 (Linear Algebra) by Mo Val

Question 14
To find det ! !!!

[Note: ! is an eigenvalue of A if and only if det ! !!! = 0]

0 1
Q 14 a) ! =

1 0

! 0
Step 1: Calculate !!! =

0 !

0!
1
Step 2: Calculate det ! !!! : det
= (0 !)! 1 = !! 1
1
0!


1 2
Q 14 b) ! =

3 2

! 0
Step 1: Calculate !!! =

0 !

1!
2
Step 2: Calculate det ! !!! : det
= 1! 2! 2 3 =
3
2!
!! 3! 4

1 1
Q 14 c) ! =

2 2

! 0
Step 1: Calculate !!! =

0 !

1!
1
Step 2: Calculate det ! !!! : det
= 1 ! 2 ! 1 2 =
2 2 !
!! 3!

1 2
Q 14 d) ! =

1 3

! 0
Step 1: Calculate !!! =

0 !
1!
2
Step 2: Calculate det ! !!! : det
= 1 ! 3 ! 2(1) =
1
3!
!
! 4! + 5

0 1
Q 14 e) ! =

1 2

! 0
Step 1: Calculate !!! =

0 !
!
1
Step 2: Calculate det ! !!! : det
= ! 2 ! (1)(1) =
1 2!
!! 2! + 1 = (! 1)!

23

MATH280 Algebra CHAPTER 3 (Linear Algebra) by Mo Val

Page 84

Question 15
To solve the characteristic equation of a matrix and hence find its eigenvalues
and corresponding eigenvectors.

[Note the equation det ! !!! = 0 !" !"##$% !! !!"!#$%"&'$&# !"#$%&'( !"
the matrix A. The characteristic polynomial det ! !!! is found from
subtracting ! !"#$ !! !"#$%&#' !"#$%!& !" !.! !"#"!$ !" !! !"#!$%&'(!)
which are determined from the characteristic equation. By augmenting
!
! !!! !"# !"#$% we can determine the variables of Z (AZ=0) ! = !
!
The set of solutions to ! = !" ! ! is called the Eigenspace of A corresponding
to ! . There is one eigenspace for every distinct eigenvalue. By solving this
system using the calculated eigenvalues we can determine the general
eigenvectors of the matrix and also determine the basis elements
!
!"#$!"# !"#$%& ! ! = !



0 0 4
Q 15 a) 1 0 4
0 1 1

Step 1: Calculate det ! !!! by subtracting ! from the diagonal entries of A

0!
0
4
!"#
!"#$%& !"#$% !1
1
0!
4
0
1
1 !

= 1 ! ! 1 ! 4 1 + 1 !!! 0 + 1 4 [ 1 1 ! 0 ]
! !! + ! 4 + 4 = !! !! + 4! + 4 = !! ! + 1 + 4 ! + 1
= 4 !! ! + 1

Step 2: Solve for ! in det ! !!! = 0
4 !! ! + 1 = 0
2 ! 2 + ! ! + 1 = 0
Eigenvalues: ! = 2 or ! = 1

Step 3: Solve for the unknown variables of the eigenvector Z, AZ=0

! = 2

02
0
4
: 0
1
02
4
: 0
0
1
1 2 : 0
!
Step 4: Make 2 = 1; !!
!
Step 5: Make 1 = 0; !! !!

24

MATH280 Algebra CHAPTER 3 (Linear Algebra) by Mo Val

1 0 2 : 0
~ 0 2 6 : 0
0 1 3 : 0

!
Step 6: Make 2 = 1; ! !!
Step 7: Make 1 = 0; !! !!

2
Eigenvector 1= ! 3
1

1 0 2 : 0
~ 0 1 3 : 0
0 0 0 : 0
!"# ! = !
! 3! = 0; ! = 3!
1! 2! = 0; ! = 2!

! = 2

1 1 1
Q 15 b) 1
0 2
0
1
2

Step 1: Find the eigenvalues by solving det ! !" = 0

1 ! 1
1
det ! !" = det
1
!
2 !"#$%& !"#$% !!
0
1 2!

= 1 1 ! ! 2 ! + 2 + 1 1 1 2 ! 1 + 0
= 1 ! 2! + !! + 2 1 2 + ! 1
= 2! !! 2 + 2!! !! 2! + 2 ! + 1
= ! + !! + 1 !!
= (!! !! + ! 1)

Solve det !" ! = 0
!! !! + ! 1 = 0
! 1 !! + 1 = 0
! = 1, ! = !, ! = !
Step 2: Substitute the eigenvalues into the eigenspace ! !" ! = ! and solve
for Z the eigenvectors

1 ! 1
1
: 0
1
!
2 : 0
0
1 2! : 0

25

MATH280 Algebra CHAPTER 3 (Linear Algebra) by Mo Val

! = 1
1 1 1
1
: 0
1
1 2 : 0
0
1 21 : 0

2 1 1 : 0
~ 1 1 2 : 0
0
1
1 : 0
1
!!
2
1
1
1

: 0
2
2

1 1 2 : 0
0 1
1 : 0

1
0
0

1
0
0

1
0
0

Eigenvector for ! = !

1 !
1
0

!! !!
1
1

: 0
2
2

3
3

: 0
2
2
1
1 : 0
2
!!
3
1
1

: 0
2
2

1 1 : 0
1 1 : 0
1
!! !!
2
!! !!
0 1 : 0
1 1 : 0
0 0 : 0
!"# ! = !
! = !
! = !
1
!! = ! 1
1

1
1
!
2
1 2!

: 0
: 0
: 0

!"#$ !! !"# !!
1
~ 1 !
0

!
2
1
1
1 2!

: 0
: 0 !! 1 ! !! = !! + (1 + !)!!
: 0
26

MATH280 Algebra CHAPTER 3 (Linear Algebra) by Mo Val

!!! = 1 + 1 + ! ! = 1 ! + 1 = !
!!" = 1 2 2! = 1 2!
1 !
2
: 0
0 ! 1 2! : 0
0 1
2!
: 0

!"#$ !! !"# !!
1 !
2
: 0
0 1
2!
: 0
0 ! 1 2! : 0
!! + !!!
!! + !!!
!!" = 2 + 2! + 1 = 1 + 2!
!!! = 1 2! + 2! + 1 = 0
1 0 1 + 2!
0 1
2!
0 0
0

: 0
: 0
: 0

2 !"#$%&'() !!"" !"#"$%"& !"# ! = !

! = 1 2! !
! = ! 2 !

!
1 2!
!! = ! = ! 2 + !
!
1
Since ! is a real matrix !! = !; !! = !
!! = !!
1 + 2!
Therefore !! = !! = ! 2 !
1

27

MATH280 Algebra CHAPTER 3 (Linear Algebra) by Mo Val

Tutorial questions-Diagonalization
Page 85

[Note: A diagonal matrix is a square matrix where all entries not on the diagonal
are zero. A matrix is non-singular if its invertible i.e. !"# ! 0.
An n x n matrix A can be diagonalized if and only if it has ! independent
eigenvectors]

Guide to finding the ! !!
Q 15 a)
0 0 4
! = 1 0 4
0 1 1

2 2 4
! = 3 1 0
1 1
1
1
! !! =
!"# !
det !


det ! = + 4 3 + 1 + 0 + + 1 2 + 6 = 16 + 4 = 12


1 3 4
!!" = 1 6 4
4 12 4
1 3
4
!!" = +1
6
4
4 12 4

1 +1 4
!
!!" = 3 6 12
4 4
4

1 1 +1 4
! !! =
3 6 12
12
4 4
4


Question 16
Find ! !! and verify that ! !! !" is a diagonal matrix with eigenvalues on the
diagonal

0 1
1
1
Q 16 a) ! =
;! =
;! =

1 0
1
1

!"#!!
0
1 0
!=
=

0
!"#!!
0 1

1 1
! = !! , !! =

1 1

28

MATH280 Algebra CHAPTER 3 (Linear Algebra) by Mo Val

! !! =

1
!"# !
det !

det ! = 1 1 = 2
!
!"# ! = !!" =

!!" =

! !! !" =

=

1 1 1
2 1 +1

+1 1

1 1

1
!"# ! =
1
1
1
! !! =
2 1

1

+1
1

+1

1 1 1
2 1 +1

0 1
1 0

1 1

1 1

1 2 0
1 1
1 1 1 1
1 0
=
=
=
= !
1 + 1 1 + 1
1 1
0 1
2 0 2

Question 18

1 4
!"# !"#$ ! lim!! !!
3 2
Goal: To find !! = !!! ! !! . We need to find ! and D

Step 1: Take the fraction inside the matrix

1 4
5 5
3 2
5 5
Step 2: Find the eigenvalues by finding the characteristic polynomial and then
solving it

1
4
!
5
!! ! = det ! !" = 5
3
2
!
5
5
1
2
4 3
2 3
12
10 3
!! ! =
!
!
=
! + !!
= ! + !!
5
5
5 5
25 5
25
25 5
2
3
= !! !
5
5

2
2
!! ! = 0 !!" !! ! = 0
5
5
3
2
!! ! = 0
5
5
!

Diagonalize ! = !

29

MATH280 Algebra CHAPTER 3 (Linear Algebra) by Mo Val

2
= 0
5
2
!! = 1; !! =
5
Step 3: Find the eigenvectors by substituting the eigenvalues into the eigenspace
! !" ! = !

!! = 1
1
4
4 4
1

5
5 5
! 1! = 5
=
3
2
3
3
1

5
5
5
5

!"#$% ! !" ! = !

4 4

: 0
5 5

3
3

: 0
5
5

5
!!
4

1 1 : 0
3
3

: 0
5
5
3
!! !!
5
1 1 : 0

0 0 : 0


!"# !! = !
!! = !
1
!! = !

1

2
!! =
5

1 2
4
+
2
5
!+ ! = 5 5

3
2 2
5
+
5
5 5

3 4
= 5 5
3 4
5 5

!1

!+

30

MATH280 Algebra CHAPTER 3 (Linear Algebra) by Mo Val

!"#$% ! !" ! = !

3
5
3
5

4
: 0
5

4
: 0
5
5
!!
3

4
: 0
3

3 4
: 0
5 5
1

3
!! !!
5

4
: 0
3
0 0 : 0
1

!"# !! = !
4
!! =
3
4
!! = ! 3
1

Step 3: Find ! !"! !

!=

Step 4: Calculate ! !!

0
4
2 ; ! = 1 3
0
5
1 1

! !! =

1
!"# !
det !

det ! = 1 +


!"# ! =

! !! =

Step 4: Determine !!

3
7

4
7
=
3
3

4
3
1 1
1

4
3
1 1
1

! = !"! !!
31

MATH280 Algebra CHAPTER 3 (Linear Algebra) by Mo Val

!! = !!! ! !!

4
!! = 1 3
1 1

As !

4
!! = 1 3
1 1

4
1

!
!
3
1 1
=

0
2
0
5
1!
0

0
2

4
3
1 1

3
7

3
7

4
3 1 4
1 0 3 1
3 =7
3
0 0 7
1 1
1 1
1 3 4

7 3 4

4
3
1 1
1

4
4
1
3
3
1
3 =7
4
0 0
1
3

Question 20
!
Given the difference equation !!!! ! !! + !!!! = 0, where ! represents the
voltage. Find a constant matrix A such that

!!!!
!!
=
!
!!
!!!!
[Note: difference equations are of the form !!!! = !!! + !!!!! ]

Step 1: Express the difference equation in terms of !!!!

5
!!!! = !! !!!!
2

Step 2:

5
!!!!
!! !!!!
!! = 2
!!
Step 3: Separate the matrix product into two factors

5
!!!!
!!
1
=
2
!!
!!!!
1 0

5
! = 2 1
1 0
Q 20 ii) Find an expression for !! !" !"#$% !" !! !"# !! , by diagonalizing
A.

To diagonalize A we need to find D which represent the eigenvalues of A

32

MATH280 Algebra CHAPTER 3 (Linear Algebra) by Mo Val

Step 1: Determine the eigenvalues of a by solving the characteristic polynomial
!! ! = det(! !")


5
5
5!
!! ! = 2 ! 1 =
! ! + 1 = !!
+ 1
2
2
1
!

5
!! ! + 1 = 0
2
2!! 5! + 2 = 0
2! 1 ! 2 = 0
1
!! = ; !! = 2
2

1
! = 2 0
0 2

The solution of the equation depends on getting an expression for !!


!!!!
!!
!
=
!
!!
!!!!

!! = !!! ! !!

Step 2: Determine ! whose entries are the eigenvectors

To find the eigenvectors

!"#$% ! !" ! = !

!
For !! = !
5 1
2 1 : 0

1 : 0
2 2
1
~

1
1
: 0
2
1

: 0
2
Swap !! !"# !!

1
1
: 0
2
2 1 : 0

!! 2!!

1
1
: 0
2
0 0 : 0

33

MATH280 Algebra CHAPTER 3 (Linear Algebra) by Mo Val

For !! = 2

Swap !! !"# !!

!"# !! = !
1
!! = !
2

1
!! = ! 2
1

1
5
2 1 : 0 ~
1 : 0
2
2
1
2 : 0
1 2 : 0
1 2 : 0
1

1 : 0
2
1
!! !!
2
1 2 : 0

0 0 : 0
!"# !! = !
!! = 2!
1
2
!! = ! 2 + !

1
1
1
! = 2 2
1 1

To get the Ridley solution swap !! !"# !! and multiply the new !! by 2

2 1
!=

1 2

2 0
1
!=
0
2

1 2 1
! !! =

3 1 2

!!!!
!!
! !!
!! = !! !
!!

2 0 !1
!!!!
2 1
2 1 !!
1
=
!!
!!
1 2 0
3 1 2
2

34

MATH280 Algebra CHAPTER 3 (Linear Algebra) by Mo Val

2 1
1 2

=

1
3

0
1 2 1
1 !
3 1 2
2

2 1
1 2
1 2 1

3 1 2
=

2!

2!
0
2!
0

1 2 1

3 1 2

0
2!!
0
2!!

2 1
1 2

!!
!!
!!
!!

2!! !!

!! + 2!!

2! 2!! !!
2!! !! + 2!!

1 2 2! 2!! !! + 2!! !! + 2!!

!!!!
=

!!
3 2! 2!! !! + 2(2!! !! + 2!! )

1
!! = 2! 2!! !! + 2 2!! !! + 2!!
3
1
!! = !! 2!!! !! 2! !! 2!!! + !! 2!!!!!
3
1
!! =
2!!! 2!!! !! 2! 2!!! !!
3

Q20 iii) Given: !! = 10, !!! = 0 find !!"


1
0=
2!!!! 2!!!! !! 2!! 2!!!! (10)
3

10 2!! 2!!!! = 2!!!! 2!!!! !!
10 2!! 2!!!!
2!! 2!!
2!! 2!!
!! =
=
10
=
10
20
2!" 2!!"
2 2!! 2!!!
2!" 2!!"

1
!!" = 2!! 2!! 20 2!" 2!! (10)}
3

!!" = !!"#$#% I got far enough


Question 21
Find an expression for !! in terms of !! and !!
Given !!!! ! + 1 !! + !!!!! = 0

Step 1: !!!! = ! + 1 !! !!!!!

!!!!
!!
! + 1 !! !!!!!
! + 1 !
Step 2: !
=
=
!!!!
!!
!
1
0

35

MATH280 Algebra CHAPTER 3 (Linear Algebra) by Mo Val

Step 3: Diagonalize

! + 1 !
= !
1
0

Find the eigenvalues by finding the characteristic polynomial and then solving it


! + 1 ! !
!! ! = det ! !" =
= !! ! !" + !
1
!

!! ! !" + ! = 0
! ! 1 + ! 1 ! = 0
! ! 1 ! ! 1 = 0
! ! ! 1 = 0
!! = !; !! = 1
Find the corresponding eigenvectors by solving the eigenspace ! !" ! = !

!"# !! = !

! + 1 ! ! : 0

1
! : 0

1 ! : 0
~

1 ! : 0

!! !!

1 ! : 0

0 0 : 0

!"# !! = !
!! = !

!
!! = !

1
!"# !! = 1

! + 1 1 ! : 0

1
1 : 0

! ! : 0
~

1 1 : 0
Swap !! !"# !!
1 1 : 0

! ! : 0
!! !"!

1 1 : 0

0 0 : 0

!"# !! = !
!! = !

36

MATH280 Algebra CHAPTER 3 (Linear Algebra) by Mo Val

!! = !

1

1

!
1

1

1

Step 4: ! = !"! !!

!=

! !! =

1
1 1

! 1 1 !

!=

Step 6: !! = !!! ! !!

0

1

!!!!
!!
!
= !!! ! !! !

!
!!!
!!!!
!!
! !!
!! = !! !
!!!!

!!!!
!
!! = 1

1
1

1
1 1
! 1 1 !

!!
!!!!

!
0

0
1

1
!!!!
!
=
!!
!1 1

1
1

!
0

0
1

1
!!!!
!
!! = ! 1 1

1
1

!! !! !!!!

!! + !!!!!

!! !!!!
!! + !!!!!

1
!!!!
!!!! !! !!!! !! + !!!!!
=

!!
! 1 !! !! !!!! !! + !!!!!

Substitute !! !"# !!

!! =

!
0

1
!! !! !! !! + !!!
!1

1
!! !! !! !! !! + !!!
!1
1
!! =
!! 1 !! !! 10 !!
!1
!! =

Kapow!!!

37

MATH280 Algebra CHAPTER 3 (Linear Algebra) by Mo Val

Question 22

Find the trajectories in the vector fields using Diagonalization

Q 22 a) ! + !, 4! + !

[Note: Let ! be the points in a region in space. We have a vector ! = ! (!).
! forms a vector field in the region. The vector field attaches an arrow to each
point in the region. If we join the arrows with curves v will always be tangent to
the curve at the point r. These curves are called trajectories of the field.]

The principle !" = !"

Where P is a linear transformation

!
Every number ! is an eigenvalue of the differentiation operator !" with
corresponding eigenfunctions/eigenvectors ! = !! !"

The Aim of this is thus to find an equation for ! , !, !. These equations are
!
eigenfunctions which are in the null space of D=!" = !

To find the trajectory at a point
!!
= ! !
!"
!!
= !"
!"

! ! = !"

! ! = ! + !, 4! + !

!+!
1 1 !
! ! ! = 4! + ! =

4 1 !

!
1 1
! = ! ; ! =

4 1

Now ! is a function of t
! = !(!) is the general trajectory
For Matrices, we call !, !

!" !"
In calculus this problem is solved by !" , !" = ! + !, 4! + !
!

In algebra !" ! = ! + !, 4! + !

= !!
! = !!

38

MATH280 Algebra CHAPTER 3 (Linear Algebra) by Mo Val

!
1 1
=
!
4 1

!
!

Now we cant simply stop here and solve for ! , !"# ! !"#$% ! !"#$%&!$
methods as we will have two variables i.e.
! = 1! + 1!
! 1 ! = !
We therefore require a different approach. We know that the eigenfunctions
consist of eigenvalues ! !" and
!
0
! = ! !! !" = !
= {!" !"#$% !"#$%&'"# !" !!"#$%&!$ methods are also
0 !!
used. We define a new variable to separate the variables. Now X the eigenvector
of A with x, y components that are unknown is equal to T(columns of
eigenvectors of A )multiplied by U

Define ! = ! !! !
!
!=

!

Therefore
! = ! !! !

! = !! !! !
! = ! !! !"

! = ! !! !"#

! = !


Step 1: Find the eigenvalues of A
1 1
!=

4 1

1!
1
!! ! = det ! !" =
= 1 ! ! 4 = !! 2! 3
4
1!

!! 2! 3 = 0

! 3 ! + 1 = 0
!! = 3; !! = 1
Step 2: Find the corresponding eigenvectors

!! = 3:

13
1
: 0
2 1 : 0
~
~
4
13 : 0
4 2 : 0

1
!!
2

39

MATH280 Algebra CHAPTER 3 (Linear Algebra) by Mo Val

1
: 0
2
2 : 0

!! 4!!
1
1
: 0
2
0 0 : 0
!"# !! = !
1
!! = !
2
1
1
!! = ! 2 = !

2
1
!! = 1:
1+1
1
: 0
2 1 : 0
~
~
4
1+1 : 0
4 2 : 0
1
!!
2
1
: 0
2
4 2 : 0
1

!! 4!!
1
1
: 0
2
0 0 : 0
!"# !! = !
1
!! = !
2
1
1
!! = ! 2 = !

2
1
!=

1 1

2 2

!=

3 0

0 1

! = !
!
3 0
=
!
0 1

!

!
40

MATH280 Algebra CHAPTER 3 (Linear Algebra) by Mo Val

! = 3!
! 3 ! = 0
! = !! !!
! = 1!
! + 1 ! = 0
! = !! !!
! = !"

!
1 1
! = 2 2

!! !!
!! !!

!
1 1
! = 2 2

!! !!
!! !!!

Q 22 b) ! ! + !, ! 2!, ! + 2!

! = ! ! + !, ! 2!, ! + 2!

! = !, !, !


!
Therefore ! = !
!
! = !

! = !"

! ! + !
!
1 1 1
! 2!
!
!=
= 1

0 2
! + 2!
!
0
1
2

1 1 1
!= 1
0 2
0
1
2

Define ! = ! !! ! !" ! = !"
! = !"
! = ! !! !
! = ! !! !"
! = ! !! !"#
!!
But ! = ! !"
! = !

41

MATH280 Algebra CHAPTER 3 (Linear Algebra) by Mo Val

Step 1: Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A
1 1 1
!= 1
0 2
0
1
2

1 ! 1
1
!! ! = det ! !" =
1
!
2 !"#$%& !!
0
1 2!

!! ! = + 1 ! ! 2 ! + 2 + 1 1 2 ! 1 + 0
!! ! = 1 ! !! 2! + 2 ! 3
= !! + 2! 2 !! + 2!! 2! ! + 3 = !! + !! ! + 1
!! ! = (!! !! + ! 1)




!! !! + ! 1 = 0
! 1 !! + 1 = 0
!! = 1; !! = !; !! = !

!! = 1


1 1 1
1
: 0
2 1 1 : 0
1
0 1 2 : 0 ~ 1 1 2 : 0
0
1
21 : 0
0
1
1 : 0



1 1 2 : 0
2 1 1 : 0 ~!! + 2!!
0
1
1 : 0


1 1 2 : 0
0 3 3 : 0
0 1
1 : 0

1 1 2 : 0
! +!
0 1
1 : 0 ~! !+ 3!!
!
!
0 3 3 : 0

1 0 1 : 0
0 1 1 : 0
0 0 0 : 0
!"# !! = !
!! = !
!! = !

42

MATH280 Algebra CHAPTER 3 (Linear Algebra) by Mo Val

1
!! = ! 1
1

!! = !
1 !
1
0

1
1 !
0

1
0!
1

1
2
2!

!
2
1
1
1 2!

: 0
: 0
: 0

: 0
: 0
: 0

!! 1 ! !! = !! + 1 + ! !!
1 !
0 !
0 1
1 !
0 1
0 !

2
1 2!
2!

2
2!
1 2!

: 0
: 0
: 0

: 0 ! + !!
: 0 !! !!!
!
: 0 !

1 0 1 + 2! : 0
0 1
2!
: 0
0 0
0
: 0
!"# !! = !
!! = !(2 + !)
!! = ! 1 2!
1 2!
!! = ! 2 + !
1
!"#$% ! !" !"#$ !! = !!
1
!! = ! 1
1
1 2!
!! = ! 2 + !
1

43

MATH280 Algebra CHAPTER 3 (Linear Algebra) by Mo Val

1 + 2!
!! = ! 2 !
1
1 1 2!
1 2 + !
1
1

1 + 2!
2 !
1

1
!= 0
0
!
1
! = 0
!
0

0
0
!
!
0
!
0
!
!

0
!
0
0
!
0

! 1 ! = 0
! = !! !!
! ! ! = 0
! = !! !"
! + ! ! = 0
! = !! !!"
! = !"

!
1 1 2!
! = 1 2 + !
!
1
1

1 + 2!
2 !
1

!! !!
!! !"
!! !!"

Question 23
Use diagonalization to find the paths of particles in the velocity fields

Q 23 a) ! + ! ! ! , 4! + ! + ! !

! = !" + ! !

! = ! !! !
! = ! !! !" + ! !
! = ! !! !"# + ! !
! = ! + ! !! ! !

!
!+!
!
1 1 !
! !
= 4! + ! + !! =
+
!
4 1 !
!
!!

1 1
!=

4 1

1!
1
!! ! = det ! !" =
= !! 2! 3
4
1!

44

MATH280 Algebra CHAPTER 3 (Linear Algebra) by Mo Val

!! 2! 3 = 0
! 3 ! + 1 = 0
!! = 3; !! = 1
13
1
: 0
2 1 : 0
~

4
13 : 0
4 2 : 0
2 1 : 0

4 2 : 0

1
!!
2

1
: 0
2
2 : 0

1
4

!! 4!!

1
: 0
2
0 : 0

1
0

!"# !! = !
1
!! = !
2

1
1
!! = ! 2 = !

2
1

!! = 1

1+1
1
: 0
4
1+1 : 0

1
1
2 1 : 0
~ 1 2 : 0 ~ 1 2 : 0
4 2 : 0
4 2 : 0
0 0 : 0
1
!! = !

2

!=

1 1

2 2

3 0
!=

0 1
1 2 1
! !! =

4 2 1
! = ! + ! !! ! !

45

MATH280 Algebra CHAPTER 3 (Linear Algebra) by Mo Val

!
3 0
=
!
0 1

1 2 1
!
+
!
4 2 1

! !
!!

1
2! ! ! !
4
[Note ! = !! + !! = !"#$%&#&'()*+ !"#$%&'# + !"#$%&'("# !"#$%&'(]

[For ! ! ! !" !"# !!"# !"#$: ! !" ! (!)]

1
3
1
1
! = !! !! +
! ! = !! !! ! !

!3 4
2
13

1
1
1
! = !! !! ! !
= !! !! + ! !
2
2
4
1
! + 1 ! = 2! ! + ! !
4
1
3 !
1
1
1
!!
! = !! +
! = !! !! + ! !
= !! !! + ! !
!+1 4
2
2
4

1
!! !! + ! !
4
!=

1 !
!!
!! + !
4

But ! = !"
1
!! !! + ! !
!
1 1
4

! = 2 2
1 !
!!
!! + !
4





















!3 ! =

46

MATH280 Algebra CHAPTER 3 (Linear Algebra) by Mo Val

Tutorial questions-The characteristic polynomial
Page 88

[Note: The sum of the eigenvalues of a square matrix is equal to the trace. The
product of the eigenvalues is equal to the determinant. If A is a square matrix,
then the trace of A [tr(A)] is the sum of the entries on the main diagonal. If A is
not square then the trace is undefined.]

Question 24
Find the trace of the matrices in Q 15 also find the sum of the eigenvalues these
should be equal and equal to the coefficient of !! in the characteristic polynomial

0 0 4
Q 24 A) 1 0 4
0 1 1
!! ! = !! !! + 4! + 4

!" ! = 1

! = 2 or ! = 1

! = +2 2 1 = 1
The coefficient of !! = 1 !

! = 3 [33 !"#$%&]
!! = 1

The coefficient of !!!! = 1 !!! !" !
!! = 1 ! 1 = 1

Question 25
Q 25 i) Find the characteristic polynomial of matrix ! =


!! ! = det ! !" =

!!
!

!
!

!

!

!
= !! !" !" + !" !"
!!

Q 25 ii) Show that !! ! = !! !"#$ + det !

!" ! = ! + !
det ! = !" !"

!! ! = !! ! ! + ! + !" !" = !! !" !" + !" !"

Q 25 iii) Verify the Cayley Hamilton theorem for 22 matrices (Show that !! (!)
is the zero matrix)

!! ! = !! ! ! + ! + !" !"

47

MATH280 Algebra CHAPTER 3 (Linear Algebra) by Mo Val

!"#$%&'( !" ! !"# !"#$%#& !"#$%&#%$ !" ! as each term is a matrix

!! ! = !! ! ! + ! + !" !" !

1 0
0 0
! ! !
! !

! + ! + !" !"
=

! !
! !
0 1
0 0

Question 27
Verify the Cayley-Hamilton Theorem using the characteristic polynomial in
factorized form

0 0 4
A) 1 0 4
0 1 1
!! ! = !! !! + 4! + 4 = 4 !! ! + 1 = 2 ! 2 + ! ! + 1
= 2! ! 2! + ! ! + ! = 0

Note This is wrong as all of the matrices should be 3x3 not 2x2

2 0
0 0

+
=

0 2
0 0


Question 29
Use Cayley-Hamilton theorem to find parametric equations for streamlines in
velocity fields

Q 29 a) ! = !, !, ! 3! 3!

Solution

! = !"

!
!
0
1
0
!
!
!=
= 0
0
1
! 3! !
1 3 3 !

0
1
0
!= 0
0
1
1 3 3


! 1
0
!! ! = det ! !" = 0 !

1
1 3 3 !


= + ! ! 3 ! (3 ] + 1 [0 + 1] + 0

48

MATH280 Algebra CHAPTER 3 (Linear Algebra) by Mo Val

!! ! = ! !! + 3! + 3 1 = ! !! + 3! + 3 1 = !! 3!! 3! 1
= (!! + 3!! + 3! + 1)

Evals !! = 1

!! ! = ! + 1 !

! = !!
! = !! !
!! = !! !
! ! ! = ! ! !

!! ! ! = !! ! !
!! ! ! = ! !" !"#$%# !"#$%&'( !!"#!$
!! ! ! = !
!! = 1; !! = 1; !! = 1
! + 1 ! ! = !

[Note: For repeated factors of D we add multiples of !]

! = !! !! + !"! !! + ! ! !! !!
Where ! !, ! !"# !"#$%"!"& !"#$%&#% !"#$%&'

To find these arbitrary constant vectors corresponding vector coefficients in !
and AX must be equated

!" = !"! !! + !"#! !! + !! ! !! !!

! = !! !! + !! !! + !" 1 ! !! + 2!"! !! + ! ! ! 1 ! !!

! = ! !! ! + ! + !" !! ! + 2! ! ! ! !! !


Equate coefficients

!" = ! + !
!" + ! = !
! + ! ! = !

!" = ! + !"
!" + ! = 2!
! + ! ! = 2!

49

MATH280 Algebra CHAPTER 3 (Linear Algebra) by Mo Val

!" = !
!" + ! = !
! + ! ! = 0

Now we need to find the eigenvectors
Solve for C in { ! + ! ! = 0}

! !" ! = 0
Therefore ! is the eigenvector corresponding to ! = 1

! !" ! = !

Solve the eigenspace

0
1
0
!= 0
0
1
1 3 3


1
1
0 : 0
0
1
1 : 0
1 3 2 : 0


1 1
0 : 0
0 1
1 : 0
0 2 2 : 0

1 0 1 : 0
0 1 1 : 0
0 0 0 : 0
!"# !! = !
!! = !
!! = !

1
!! = ! 1
1
Solve for B

! + ! ! = 2!
0+1
1
0
1
1
0
!+! =
~ 0
0
0+1
1
1
1
1
3 3 + 1
1 3 2

1
1
0 : 2!
0
1
1 : 2!
1 3 2 :
!

etc.

50