Religion Compass 5/1 (2011): 111, 10.1111/j.1749-8171.2010.00251.

Ancient Near Eastern Wisdom Literature (Didactic)

Michael V. Fox*
University of Wisconsin, Madison

Abstract

Wisdom Literature is found in several major cultures of the ancient Near East: Egypt, Mesopotamia, Syria, and Israel, and in peripheral areas. Texts of this type are extant from some two millennia, as early as 2600 B.C.E. to the rst century C.E. Works from these areas are demonstrably related in style and content and connected at several points, early and late. Wisdom Literature shows us the ancient Near East functioning as a single world, with distinctive but interconnected cultures. This article looks at didactic Wisdom Literature, books that seek to educate young men in the skills of leading a good and virtuous life. These texts seek to shape a man who has the characterqualitiesskills of comportment, practical talents, ethics, and religious bearingthat will make him well suited to the position and who can transmit the ideas and attitudes to future generations. Most of these books present themselves as teachings of a father to his son or sons. The article surveys Wisdom books in Egypt, Mesopotamia and its periphery, and Israel. The latter discusses the dating, composition, contents, and main messages of Proverbs, Qohelet, Ben Sira, the Qumran Wisdom texts, and the Wisdom of Solomon.

Works of ancient Near Eastern Wisdom Literature are extant from some 3500 years in four culture spheres: Egypt, Mesopotamia, Syria, and Israel. These texts are demonstrably related in style and content and connected at several points. Wisdom Literature shows us the ancient Near East functioning as a single world, with distinctive but interconnected cultures. There are various genres within the loose category commonly called Wisdom Literature. Most cohesive and clearly dened is didactic wisdom. Didactic wisdom books offer instruction to young men in the skills of leading a good and virtuous life. A second, loosely dened, category is commonly called critical (or speculative) Wisdom. Books in this group reect on and criticize doctrines and values found in the culture at large, particularly those taught in didactic wisdom. The prime biblical exemplar is Job. Similar poems are found in Mesopotamia. The present essay will concentrate on didactic wisdom, with special attention to the biblical texts. The Ancient Near East Didactic Wisdom Literature comprises pedagogical texts intended primarily to instruct and acculturate boys to their particular culture, social caste, and religious group, and to promulgate its ideals and self-image. Often the counsels apply to adults as well, but all assume that their audience is male. These texts seek to shape a man who has the character-qualitiesskills of comportment, practical talents, ethics, and religious bearingthat will make him well suited to his social role and who can transmit the ideas and attitudes to future generations. Most of these books present themselves as teachings of a father to
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his son or sons. Though this setting is often a literary ction, it does convey wisdoms concept of the primary locus of moral education. Some of the texts were taught in the schools, but they do not seem to have been composed specically for that purpose (Fox 2000, pp. 612). Most scholars situate wisdom in the educated scribal class (see, most extensively, Perdue 2008, pp. 184). It should be noted that there are often variant spellings for ancient Near Eastern names, and the ancient works are often given different modern titles. Egyptian Wisdom Texts and Translations. Old and Middle Kingdoms: Hardjedef (Lichtheim 1973, pp. 58 59), Kagemeni (Lichtheim 1973, pp. 5961), Ptahhotep (Lichtheim 1973, pp. 6180), King Merikare (Lichtheim 1973, pp. 97109), Amenemhet I (Lichtheim 1973, pp. 135 39); New Kingdom: Anii (Lichtheim 1976, pp. 13546), Amenemope (Lichtheim 1976, pp. 14663); Late Egyptian: Anchsheshonqy (Lichtheim 1980, pp. 15984), Phibis or Papyrus Insinger (Lichtheim 1980, pp. 185217). Didactic wisdom in Egypt extends from the Old Kingdom, about 2600 B.C.E., to the Ptolemaic period (third or second century B.C.E.; see Lichtheim 1983). The entirety or signicant parts of some seventeen wisdom books are extant (not all are listed above). Fragments of many other wisdom texts have been recovered. The goal of Egyptian wisdom is to inculcate Maat, which means both justice and truth. Maat embodies the virtues that Egyptian culture and religion cherished. Its essence was harmony with the society of humans and gods, and its wellbeing was to be maintained by Pharaoh (see Assmann 1990). The most important and best preserved of early Egyptian wisdom books is the Instruction of Ptahhotep. After receiving permission to appoint his son as his successor, the vizier Ptahhotep offers 37 maxims (varying from 4 to 18 lines in length), each on its own topic. Ptahhotep prescribes proper behavior for various levels of ofcialdom and good relations with other people, including superiors, inferiors, wife, friends, and friends wives. He cultivates the virtues of moderation, generosity, honesty, and modesty. In an epilog he compares two kinds of sons, those who can listen and those who refuse to do so. Of special interest to Bible studies is the New Kingdom Instruction of Amenemope (about 1000 B.C.E.). In thirty numbered chapters, Amenemope teaches the way of life, meaning the behavior that will bring success and divine favor. He teaches the ideal of the truly silent man, who accepts Gods will in serenity and trusts in his justice. Amenemope places great emphasis on moral and religious virtues. These virtues include composure and reserve, honesty, and kindness, especially for the defenseless and weak, who are under Gods special protection. The great sins are dishonesty, lack of self-control (which characterizes the hot man), and greed, which manifests itself in striving too hard for success. In 1924, the Egyptologist A. Erman proposed that Proverbs 22:17-24:22 includes selections from Amenemope. (The inuence is primarily in 22:17-23:11). Some objections were raised over the years, but recent studies by Bryce (1979), Ro mheld (1989), Washington (1994), Shupak (2005), and Fox (2009, pp. 75367) have conrmed the connection while bringing greater nuance to the comparison. Fox (2009) examines the way the editor of Proverbs 22:17-24:11 used and reshaped materials from Amenemope and describes with some specicity the editorial process of incorporating the Egyptian work

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in Proverbs. A new edition of Amenemope, with French translation and commentary, has been provided by Laisney (2007). The Ptolemaic books of Anchsheshonqy and Phibis (Lichtheim 1983) give practical advice but also emphasize the paradoxical nature of life and mans inability to understand it or to secure success. They show the inuence of Greek literature and in many ways resemble Ben Sira (Sanders 1983). Mesopotamia and Syria Texts and Translations. Sumerian: Suruppak (Alster 1974, pp. 3547); Babylonian: Counsels of Wisdom (Foster 1993, pp. 32831); Shube-Awilum (Foster 1993, pp. 33235). See also Lambert (1960). Aramaic: Ahiqar (Porten & Yardeni 19861999, vol. III, pp. 2453,). Mesopotamian didactic wisdom literature, like the Egyptian, is found as early as the mid-third millennium B.C.E. in the Sumerian book of Suruppak, supposedly an antediluvian sage. This book is preserved in different forms, and was translated from Sumerian, the classical language in Babylonia, to Akkadian in the latter part of the second millennium. Important instructions in Akkadian are the wisdom of Shube-awilum, written in Akkadian and found at Ugarit (West Syria) and Hattusha, in Anatolia (Foster 1993, pp. 33235; Hurowitz 2007). The Babylonian Counsels of Wisdom (Foster 1993, pp. 32831; Hurowitz 2007) offers admonitions in personal and ethical matters. (The term wisdom literature in connection with Mesopotamian literature, if not avoided entirely, is usually dened broadly, to include various fables, disputations, and dialogs. For a selection of these, see Lambert 1960.) The extraordinary geographic, temporal, and linguistic distribution of Mesopotamian wisdom literature demonstrates its enduring cosmopolitan character. Mesopotamian Wisdom is composed of shorter sayings and admonitions (rather than the thematic paragraphs typical of Egyptian Wisdom.) It also has a more practical bent, emphasizing how to get along in life more than ethical precepts. Mesopotamian Wisdom has not been studied extensively; for several valuable essays on this topic see Clifford (2007). From Southern Syria, on the periphery of the Assyrian empire, comes the extensive Instruction of Ahiqar, written in Aramaic in the seventh century (Kottsieper 1990) and found in the Jewish archives at Elephantine (Egypt), in a fth century manuscript. Ahiqar was translated into numerous languages and underwent considerable transformations in the course of the centuries. It inuenced Proverbs in several places (see Fox 2009, pp. 76774) and also Ben Sira and some other Biblical texts (Kottsieper 1990, pp. 14453). A frame-tale recounts how the Assyrian vizier Ahiqar was betrayed by his nephew, forced into hiding, then later reconciled with the king. The advice is both practical and religious, emphasizing discipline, care in speech, resignation to the will of the gods, and calm and controlled behavior. Israel The major works of didactic wisdom literature in ancient Israel are the biblical books of Proverbs (Hebrew, eighth c. B.C.E. fth c. B.C.E.), and Qohelet (Hebrew, fourth c. B.C.E.). Jewish Wisdom books outside the Hebrew canon include the Hellenistic-period works of Ben Sira (Hebrew; early second c. B.C.E.), the Wisdom of Solomon (Greek, rst c. B.C.E.rst c. C.E.), and some fragmentary texts from Qumran (Hebrew, late
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second c. B.C.E.). For a comprehensive study of post-biblical Jewish Wisdom, see Collins (1997).
PROVERBS

Unlike much of the Bible, which is concerned with divine revelation and historical events, the book of Proverbs deals in everyday, individual concerns: nding a good wife, parenting, making a living, getting along well with others, helping the poor, and the like. It seeks to inculcate the wisdom necessary to being productive and choosing the right course of action, called the way of life. Wisdom will allow its possessor is to nd favor and high regard in the eyes of God and man (Proverbs 3:4). The wise man will enjoy security and well-being and will help maintain the just social order, in accordance with Gods will. The book of Proverbs consists of six collections of the words of mostly anonymous wise men. The case of 31:1-13 is, exceptionally, ascribe to a woman. The collections were probably composed by scribes associated with the royal court (see 25:1), but they arose in a variety of settings. Some seem to be folk sayings (which Westermann (1995) considers the fount of wisdom; and see Fontaine 1982 on the rhetorical-social performance of folk proverbs). Some proverbs suggest a village background, others the city, others the royal court. Some components, especially the longer poems, are the work of skilled authors. Some sayings and poems have foreign origins. This is clear in 30:1-9; and 31:1-9. And as observed above, most of 22:17-23:11 comes from the Egyptian Instruction of Amenemope. On the social context of Proverbs, see Whybray (1989; 1990), Washington (1994), Perdue (2008, pp. 7075 and passim), and Fox (2000, pp. 617; 2009, pp. 50003. The central collections, in chapter 1029, date from the eighth or seventh centuries B.C.E., but most of the individual proverbs are not datable and may have arisen earlier or been inserted later. The introduction, chapters 19, seems to be later, originating in the fth or fourth century.
COMPONENTS

Chapters 19 are an introduction to the book. Since the introduction reinterprets the concepts of chapters 1029 and cites some of their verses, it was probably prexed later. The introduction brings out the theological messages of the older proverbs and elevates the importance and even transcendence of wisdom. The main components of chapters 19 are ten discourses or Lectures spoken by a father to his son. The teachings in them are ethical and religious more than practical. They warn the young male listener especially against deadly temptations by evildoers, both male (who may lead him into crime; 1:8-19; 2:12-15) and female (who may entice him to adultery; 2:16-22; 5:1-23; 6:20-35; and 7:1-27). The Lectures seek to imbue the youth with wisdom, understood as moral character, which will strengthen him against such enticements. Interspersed among the Lectures are ve Interludes (A: 1:20-33; B: 3:13-20; C: 6:1-19; D: 8:1-36; E: 9:1-18). These are poems of diverse origins on several topics. Most signicant are the ones that personify wisdom as a woman, whose existence precedes creation and who resides in special proximity to God, but who also lives among humanity and warns people against folly (A, D, E). The central chapters, 1029, with four collections of proverbs (10:1-22:16; 22:1724:22 (not designated by a heading in the Hebrew); 24:23-34; 25:1-29:27) comprise mostly independent sayings. They speak about many topics: the behavior of the righteous
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and the wicked; actions and attitudes that please God and disgust him; the ways of getting along well with others; laziness and diligence; effective and deleterious speech; and more. There are also several epigrams or short poems (23:26-28; 23:29-35; 24:30-34; and 27:23-27). The book concludes with four appendices, probably added later (30:1-9; 30:10-33; 31:1-9; 31:10-31). The last is a paean to the Woman of Valor, who embodies the practical and religious virtues taught to males in the previous chapters. The fact that this woman is depicted as mistress of a prosperous manor, whose success is largely her doing, is indicative of the social setting of the intended audience of the book (see Yoder 2001). Recent scholarly interest has focused on several issues: 1. Structure and organization. Are the individual proverbs organized in hierarchical structures or thematic patterns? Favoring larger proverb structures are Van Leeuwen (1988), who formulated a structuralist approach to the question, applying it to chapters 2526, and the commentators Meinhold (1991) and Waltke (2004; 2005), as well as the authors of many articles, e.g., Hurowitz (2000; 2001; 2004). Heim (2001) argues for the division of 10: 1-22:16 into proverb clusters. Fox (2000; 2009) is skeptical about tightly organized structures outside of chapters 19 but sees thematic or associative clusters in much of the book. 2. Womens role and status. Camp (1985) examines the origin and meaning of feminine imagery in the book, in particular in the personication of wisdom as a woman (in Interludes A, D, and E). Several studies focus on the Strange Woman (the adulteress described in Prov 2:16-22; 5:1-23; 6:20-35; and 7:1-27; 22:14; 23:27), interpreting her as representing woman as the Other and symbolizing forces considered threatening to patriarchal control of women, family, property, and society generally. See Newsom (1989); Camp (1985); Brenner and Dijk-Hemmes (1993). Yoder (2001) discusses women from a socioeconomic perspective as they are portrayed in Proverbs 19 and 31:10-31. 3. Reward and punishment. An idea that has been in the center of discussion is that didactic wisdom literature is characterized by a Tun-Ergehen Zusammenhang (deed-consequence nexus) in which recompense arises automatically and invariably from the deed (Koch 1955). Studies by Miller (1982, pp. 12139), Bostro m (1990, pp. 90140), Sandoval (2006), and Adams (2008) reveal considerable complexity and variation in the formulations and presuppositions of the passages that are supposed to show the deed-consequence nexus. Proverbs does not assume a mechanistic retributive schema (Van Leeuwen 1992). Rather, attention to the form and rhetorical intent of proverbial discourse shows the apparently absolutistic sayings to have a particular didactic function (Sandoval 2006). 4. Epistemology. The underlying epistemology of Proverbs is almost always described as empirical, that is to say, knowledge is derived from experience (e.g., Crenshaw 1998, Clifford 1999, p. 218, Frydrych 2002). Fox (2009, pp. 96376) argues that the epistemology of Proverbs (and of most of didactic wisdom literature) can best be described as a coherency theory of truth, in which truth consists in consistency with a given set of propositions. Recent commentaries in English: Murphy (1998), Clifford (1999), Fox (2000; 2009), Waltke (2004; 2005). History of interpretation: Whybray (1995).
QOHELET

The book of Qohelet (also known as Ecclesiastes, from the Greek) belongs both to didactic wisdom (because much of it teaches how to lead the good life) and to critical wisdom (because it examines and criticizes the assumptions of conventional wisdom).
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Traditionally ascribed to Solomon on the basis of 1:1 and 1:12 (which designate the speaker as son of David and king over Jerusalem), the book is actually post-exilic, written either in the Persian period, fth or fourth c. B.C.E. (Seow 1997, pp. 1138) or Hellenistic, late fourth or third century B.C.E. (thus most, e.g., Schoors 1992; Fox 1999b; 2004). For an extensive study of the Hebrew of Qohelet, which has many peculiarities and points to a fth-third c. dating, see Schoors (1992) and Schoors et al. (2007). The book begins with Qohelets opening declaration that everything is hebel (vanity or absurd, see below) (1:3). Then follows a poem about the repetitions in the natural world and the absence of anything new under the sun (1:4-11). The speaker introduces himself as Qohelet and describes the task he undertook (1:12-17). He reports his experience of toil and pleasure (2:1-26). Qohelets words close, appropriately, with with a poem about death and its nality (12:1-8). The central chapters have little evident structure but move as mediations on various topics. (For an attempt to work out a detailed structure, see Wright 1968). Qohelets words are followed by an epilog that speaks about Qohelet in the third person, evaluating his words appreciatively but cautiously (12:9-14). (The epilog is usually considered a later addition, but Fox (1999b, pp. 36366) argues that it is the work of the author, who takes a different stance and talks about the ctional persona Qohelet. The books cohesiveness lies in the constant presence of a single consciousness mediating all the books observations, counsels, and evaluations. Qohelet reports on his own experiences and conclusions (Fox 1999b, pp. 14753). The book can thus be analyzed as an autobiographical narrative (Christianson 1998), and, in fact, Qohelets self-presentation in 1:12-13 and the description of his building activities in 2:1-10 resemble the formulations and claims of ancient royal inscriptions (Seow 1997, p. 119; Longman 1991, pp. 12023). Koh (2006) treats the whole book as a royal autobiography. Qohelets theme-word is hebel, literally vapor (1:3). He says that everything is utterly hebel (or vanity of vanities (1:2; 12:8)) and along the way applies it to a variety of events and phenomena. Qohelet uses hebel in a metaphorical sense, but scholars are divided on just what this is. Common translations are vain (that is, trivial, useless, the traditional understanding), futile, transient, and absurd (for the last see Fox 1999b, pp. 2749). The way one renders this word is closely aligned with ones understanding of Qohelets message. Qohelets message is both negative and positive. The reader of Qohelet is faced with the challenge of deciding just what Qohelet negates and what he afrms and how to explain the tension between his judgments. This is especially difcult because Qohelet makes contradictory statements about some of the same things, notably wisdom, pleasure, and Gods justice. Qohelet is unhappy about much in life. Everything is hebel and a pursuit of wind. Toil is miserable and without prot (1:3; 2:11, 18-22, etc.). Pleasures (described most fully in 2:1-17) leave him dissatised (2:1b-2, 11; 7:2-4). Though he seems to believe that God is just (3:17; 8:12b-13; 11:9b), he knows that Gods justice is repeatedly violated (e.g., 1:15; 7:13; 8:12a, 14). Moreover, death wipes out all distinctions between the righteous and the wicked and the wise and foolish, and it obliterates memory (1:11; 2:13-16; 3:19; 9:5). Wisdomin principle of great value (2:13)is vulnerable and not properly rewarded (2:15-16). Alongside his negative evaluations, Qohelet also has advice for living the (relatively) good life. Like the other sages, he offers some practical counsels (e.g., 7:5-11, 16-18; 10:4, 8-10, 20; 11:1-6) and praises the value of wisdom (2:13; 7:11; 8:1, 5; 9:16a; 9:18a; 10:2, 12, and more). Above all he commends the enjoyment of lifes pleasures (2:24-26;
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5:17-19; 6:6; 9:7-9; 11:8-10). Pleasure (others translate: joy, happiness) he deems good; it is the best thing in life (2:24; 3:12, 22; 8:15). It is mans portion in life (2:10; 3:22; 5:17, 18; 9:9); it is Gods gift (3:13; 5:18); and it must be seized before death wipes it away. The traditional interpretation, found in rabbinic literature (surveyed in Sandberg 1999) and later Jewish commentaries, is that what Qohelet considers vain and transient is the material life under the sun, whereas what is of eternal value are the study of Torah and good deeds. Among modern commentators, some emphasize the positive. For example, according to Frederickss (1993) brief, conservative, commentary, Qohelet connes his observations to the transient, human realm and offers ways of coping with transience. Mans duty is to resign himself to Gods will and accept circumstances beyond human control. Fredericks downplays Qohelets pessimism and his bitterness about lifes systemic injustices. Others have highlighted Qohelets pessimism and heterodoxy and regarded him as a deliberate polemicist. This latter approach is dominant in contemporary scholarship. Crenshaw (1987) describes the author as a radical, unrelenting polemicist struggling with the traditional beliefs of the wise. In a more modulated approach, Seow (1997, pp. 4760) sees Qohelet as above all troubled by lack of humans control of their destiny. He teaches a spontaneous response to life, with an afrmative acceptance of both the possibilities and limitations of being human. Fox (1999b; 2004) argues that the contradictions that have long troubled commentators are deliberate. They show that Qohelets central concern is with lifes meaningits absence and how it can be reconstructed, in a limited way. He is frustrated that life does not make sense, that the mass of disjointed deeds and events cannot be drawn together into a coherent and signicant picture. The irrationality of the world is his fundamental grievance, and it is what leads him to call everything hebel, best translated senseless or absurd. Nevertheless, one may grasp moments of goodness (chiey in the form of sensual pleasures) and intellectual clarity (wisdom). These moments are brief, limited, and uncertain, but they are enough to make life worth living. Recent commentaries in English: Crenshaw (1987), Fredericks (1993), Fox (1999b; 2004), Longman (1998), Murphy (1992), Seow (1997), Lohnk and Maloney (2003). History of interpretation: Fox (1999a). Survey of early interpretations: Ginsberg (1861).
BEN SIRA OR ECCLESIASTICUS

The book of Ben Sira (often called Ecclesiasticus, from the Latin) was composed about 200180 B.C.E. by Joshua (or Jesus) ben Sira (the name has various forms and spellings). It was written in Hebrew, in which form it was known (and respected) down to rabbinic times. The Hebrew version was subsequently lost, and the book was known mainly from the Greek translation (carried out by the authors grandson) and the Latin. In 1896 the Cairo Geniza yielded a vast number of Jewish documents, among them parts of the Hebrew Ben Sira, and fragments were subsequently discovered elsewhere. Currently, parts of six Hebrew manuscripts are extant, which together constitute some two-thirds of the book. The book belongs to the Greek Orthodox and Roman Catholic Bibles but not the Jewish or Protestant sacred scriptures. Ben Sira is a lengthy Wisdom book dealing with a broad range of personal and public behavior along with religious and ethical principles. The counsels are frequently organized by topic or fashioned into longer poems; for example, a recommendation to discipline ones sons strictly (30:1-13, with the header, Concerning Children in the Greek), advice on comportment at meals (31:12-32:2), and exhortations to revere God (35:1-26).
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Chapter 24, given the title In Praise of Wisdom in the Greek, is of special importance. In it, wisdom is personied as a woman. (Cf. the personication of wisdom in Prov 19 mentioned above.) She says that she issued from Gods mouth, then traversed the earth, until God told her to make her dwelling in Zion. There she became Israels special possession. She offers her blessings to all comers. Then Ben Sira identies wisdom with Torah: All this is (true of) the book of the covenant of God Most High, the law Moses commanded us as an inheritance for the congregations of Jacob (24:23). Ben Sira emphasizes obedience to Torah and dedication to the study of Israels sacred texts (38:34b-39:11). The identication of wisdom with Torah becomes axiomatic in rabbinic Judaism. A long paean to Israels ancestors begins, Let us now praise famous men (44:1a) and continues by describing Israels great men from Abraham to Simon II, who was high priest at the end of the third century B.C.E (44:1-50:24). Further appendices include a prayer of thanksgiving (51:1-12) and an autobiographical poem on Ben Siras attainment of wisdom and his lifes work (51:13-30). Translations: The New Revised Standard Version of the Apocrypha, pp. 86160. Translation and commentary: Skehan & Di Lella (1987).
QUMRAN WISDOM TEXTS

A number of texts found among the Dead Sea scrolls have strong afnities with didactic Wisdom, notably Beatitudes; Wiles of the Wicked Woman, parts of the Ways of Righteousness; and, most importantly, Sapiential Work A (or 4QInstruction). (Some of these appear on multiple manuscripts and fragments; see Harrington 1996, pp. 3174). Sapiential Work A comprises instructions in matters of attitude and faith, in part imitating Proverbs gnomic forms. Striking features are the possibility that the reader may be poor (several proverbs begin [If] you are poor); the injunction to study an unknown book called The Mystery of What is Coming; and the expectation of an afterlife for the elect. Adams (2008) situates the beliefs and eschatology of this document in the development of Wisdom theology. a Mart nez and Watson (1994, pp. 37998); Harrington (1996, Translation: Garc passim, with commentary and discussion).
WISDOM OF SOLOMON

The Wisdom of Solomon was written in Greek in 3741 C.E. (Winston 1979, pp. 20 25; others date it to the rst century B.C.E.). The author was a Hellenized Jew of Alexandria who sought to encourage pride and faith in the Jewish religion. It is part of the Greek Orthodox and Roman Catholic canons but not the Jewish or Protestant. The components of the book are (A) Wisdoms gift of immortality (1:1-6:21); (B) the nature and power of wisdom and Solomons quest for her (6:22-10:21); (C) divine wisdom or justice in the Exodus (11-19); excursus on divine mercy (11:15-12:22); excursus on idolatry (13-15) (Winston 1979, pp. 49). The book is rooted in the tradition of Jewish wisdom literature, which includes exhortatory discourse. It also draws on Hellenistic rhetoric and philosophy, primarily Middle Platonist. The books main themes are theodicy and immortality, Solomons pursuit of wisdom, wisdoms glory, and wisdoms power in history. Wisdom (Sophia) is an emanation of God and, according to Winston (1979, p. 38), she is identical with the Divine Mind. She was the means of creation and the guiding force in history.
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Translation: The New Revised Standard Version of the Apocrypha, pp. 5785; translation and commentary: Winston (1979). Short Biography Michael V. Fox is Halls-Bascom Professor Emeritus in Hebrew at the University of Wisconsin, Madison. He studies the Hebrew Bible in its ancient Near Eastern Context, with particular attention to Egyptian literature. His current work centers on Wisdom Literature. His Proverbs commentary (vol. I: Proverbs 19, Anchor Bible 18A, New York: Doubleday, 2000; vol. II: Proverbs 1031, Anchor-Yale Bible 18B, New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009) is a comprehensive examination of the book of Proverbs with special attention to its place in ancient Near Eastern literary and intellectual history. He is currently working on a text-critical edition of Proverbs for the Oxford Hebrew Bible and a commentary on Job for the Old Testament Library. He holds a BA and MA in Near Eastern Studies from the University of Michigan and a PhD in Biblical Studies from the Hebrew University, Jerusalem. Note
* Correspondence address: Michael V. Fox, 1220 Linden Drive, Madison, WI 53706, USA. E-mail: mvfox@ wisc.edu

Works Cited
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