THE KALINA CYCLE FOR CEMENT KILN WASTE HEAT RECOVERY POWER PLANTS

Mark D. Mirolli Chief Technology Officer Recurrent Resources, LLC

Abstract Cement production is one of the most energy intensive industrial processes in the world. In many world regions, energy cost is 50% to 60% of the direct production cost of cement. Energy cost is incurred due to the need for large quantities of thermal heat for the kiln, calcination and drying processes and electrical energy for operation of motors for grinding mills, fans, conveyers and other motor driven process equipment. The Kalina Cycle utilizes the waste heat from the cement production process to generate electrical energy with no additional fuel consumption, and reduces the cost of electric energy for cement production. The thermal efficiency improvement of the Kalina Cycle is 20% to 40% in comparison with conventional waste heat power plants that utilize the hot gases available in a cement plant. A Kalina Cycle power plant offers the best environmentally friendly alternative for power generation from low-grade waste heat. It maximizes kW-hrs generated using a closed loop system to recover heat for electricity production without hazard to the environment. The Kalina Cycle uses a mixture of ammonia and water as its working fluid; a common solution used extensively world wide for refrigeration plants. In the event of an accidental release, ammonia is considered a biodegradable fluid. It does not contribute to photochemical smog, global pollution or global warming; and will not deplete the ozone layer. Its use as an industrial fluid is well documented with a proven track record for safety in industrial plants. This paper is a summary of Kalina Cycle Technology for cement plant waste heat applications. Specific plant designs are referenced to present a summary of the power plant systems and to describe the financial advantages of the Kalina Cycle waste heat power plant to the cement plant owner. Background In many countries, energy costs represent the largest component of direct production cost for cement. Energy cost represents as much as 50% to 60% of cement direct production cost. Energy cost is incurred due to the need for large quantities of thermal heat for the kiln, calcination and drying processes and electrical energy for operation of motors for grinding mills, fans, conveyers and other motor driven equipment. Although the fuel use and energy use will depend on the type of process, equipment and system efficiency, and fuel heating value, typical requirements for coal use is in the range of 150-250 kg per metric tonne of cement, and typical requirements for electrical energy use is in the range of 80-125 kWhr per metric tonne of cement. The Kalina Cycle can use the waste heat from the cement production process to generate electrical energy with no additional fuel consumption, and reduce the cost of electric energy for cement production.

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Table 1 WORLDWIDE CEMENT INDUSTRY AND ELECTRICAL ENERGY USE (2000 PRODUCTION) World Market: World Cement Production Average Electricity Requirement Total Electricity Energy Requirement Equivalent Capacity (80% PLF) 1.7 billion tons per year 100 kWyr/ton 170 billion kWhrs/year 24,300 MW

Major Producing Countries: China India United States Japan Republic of Korea Brazil Thailand Germany Italy The Kalina Cycle The Kalina Cycle is a new thermal cycle for energy conversion for electric power generation that improves the efficiency of energy conversion and specific capital cost ($/net kW) of waste heat to electricity conversion in cement plant applications. The increased thermal efficiency and the specific thermodynamic advantages of the Kalina Cycle for low temperature heat sources makes it well suited for industrial Waste Heat Recovery (WHR) power generation applications, allowing a higher generating capacity for a given heat source than can be achieved with the conventional Rankine steam cycle or organic Rankine cycle plants. The Kalina Cycle is an energy conversion process utilizing a working fluid mixture of ammonia-water in a closed-loop arrangement to maximize electricity output from an existing waste heat source. The components of the Kalina Cycle are proven industrial equipment ensuring a reliable and trouble-free plant operation without interfering with the cement production process. The Kalina Cycle advantage over the Rankine cycle varies inversely with the temperature of the heat source. The temperatures of the heat sources (preheater and clinker cooler exhaust streams) for a typical cement facility are in the range, 200 oC to 400 oC. With this temperature range, the Kalina Cycle is 20% to 40% more efficient than the Rankine Cycle. This means that a 20% to 40% larger power plant is possible with the Kalina Cycle. The capital cost for a Kalina Cycle power plant is comparable to that of a Rankine cycle power plant. The primary advantage is the ability to get more electrical energy from the available heat source, and therefore achieve a greater annual savings in energy cost. 575 million tons per year 95 million tons per year 92 million tons per year 77 million tons per year 50 million tons per year 41 million tons per year 38 million tons per year 37 million tons per year 35 million tons per year

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The Kalina Cycle process uses a binary working fluid of ammonia and water in a closed-loop cycle. A key feature of the technology includes the ability to vary the ammonia-water concentration throughout the power plant system to optimize energy conversion, and to add heat recuperative stages for increased efficiency. The use of ammonia permits efficient use of waste heat streams allowing boiling of the ammonia-water working fluid to start at lower temperatures. The use of a binary fluid allows the composition of the working fluid to be varied through the use of distillation, providing a richer concentration through the heat acquisition stage (Heat Recovery Vapor Generator) and leaner composition in the low-pressure condenser. Since the molecular weight of ammonia is close to that of water, a standard back-pressure, multi-stage turbine-generator is used. A typical process schematic for a Kalina Cycle waste heat recovery power plant for a cement facility is shown in Figure 1. The heat sources are the preheater exhaust and the clinker cooler exhaust gases. Two Heat Recovery Vapor Generators (HRVGs) are provided, one for the preheater exhaust (stream 2526) and one for the cooler exhaust (stream 43-46). A rich mixture of water and ammonia is boiled and superheated in the HRVGs and the superheated vapor is expanded through a back-pressure turbine (Point 31). The turbine exhaust is too rich (high ammonia concentration) to condense, so it is then cooled and diluted with the bottoms from a vapor separator/demister, and is then fully condensed in the low pressure condenser (Stream 18-1). At this stage, part of the working fluid is sent to the vapor separator/demister through recuperative heat exchangers and part of the working fluid is mixed with the high ammonia concentration vapor stream from the vapor separator/demister. This process restores the working fluid to the optimum ammonia-water concentration for the heat acquisition stage of the cycle. The working fluid is then condensed in the high pressure condenser (stream 13-14) and returned to the HRVGs. The Distillation and Condensation Sub-System (DCSS) consists of the demister/separator, recuperative heat exchangers, high and low pressure condensers and control system. It provides the vital function of establishing the high ammonia-water concentration for the heat acquisition stage and a low ammoniawater concentration at the condensation stage. The DCSS technology is a key component for the high efficiency of a Kalina Cycle plant for industrial waste heat applications. The distillation process leans out (i.e. lowers the ammonia concentration of) the turbine exhaust stream just prior to the low pressure condenser. Since a leaner mixture has a lower saturation pressure at a given temperature, the exhaust stream will then condense at a lower pressure. A lower turbine exhaust pressure increases the pressure expansion of the working fluid through the turbine, thus maximizing turbine power. All heat input for the distillation process is acquired only from the turbine exhaust stream. This process is possible because of the variable temperature boiling and condensing feature of an ammonia-water mixture. This process will not work for pure working fluids such as water or hydrocarbons because these pure fluids boil and condense at a constant temperature. The second stage of the DCSS restores the working fluid to the original ammonia-water concentration. A feedpump then directs this fluid back to the HRVGs to repeat the process in a closed-loop arrangement. A mixture of ammonia and water is used as a working fluid for several reasons: First, the use of a lighter component (ammonia), allows efficient use of the waste heat stream at a higher pressure by causing boiling to start at lower temperature. Second, the use of a mixture allows the composition to be varied through the use of distillation, such as the richer composition through the boiler, with the leaner composition in the low pressure condenser. The variable temperature boiling process of ammonia-water reduces losses in heat transfer processes throughout the power plant, thereby increasing the efficiency of the power cycle.

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Third, because of the similar molecular weight of ammonia versus water (17.03 vs. 18.01) the ammonia-water vapor behaves virtually the same as steam, which allows the use of standard steam turbine components. Fourth, standard materials can be used. Carbon steel and standard high temperature alloys are acceptable for handling ammonia. Only the use of copper and copper alloys is prohibited in ammonia service. Fifth, ammonia is readily available and relatively inexpensive. Sixth, ammonia is not harmful to the environment. Seventh, there are proven safety procedures for the handling and use of ammonia in industrial plant applications.

Additional project design and operating features of the Kalina Cycle for Waste Heat Recovery (WHR) power plant applications that are especially applicable for cement plant projects include the following: Design of the WHR power plant is such that cement production will not be interrupted in the event the power plant is shutdown, or trips off-line. Freeze protection is not required for the working fluid. There is no power plant liquid effluent (no boiler blowdown for once-through vapor generators). The plant capacity will automatically follow the heat source deviation by a sliding pressure operation mode. The HRVGs are simple heat exchanger designs that do not require steam drums. This allows fast cycling of the HRVG during startup and shutdown and increases the flexibility of the boiler design to minimize tube fouling caused by sticky dust deposits. Proven tube cleaning and dust removal systems are part of the HRVG design.

Kalina Cycle Power Plant Capacity The potential capacity of a Kalina Cycle WHR power plant for a cement facility will depend primarily on the waste gas mass flow rate(s) and temperature(s). Factors that influence these parameters or otherwise affect the design capacity of the power plant include the following: Cement production capacity Facility annual average capacity factor Type of cement production process Efficiency of cement production process Chemical composition of the waste gases Water-cooled or air-cooled condensers Design ambient temperature and humidity Diversions of waste heat for coal and limestone drying Plant layout Depending on the above parameters, a Kalina Cycle for a 3000 tpd kiln is expected to be in the range of 6 MW to 9 MW net electricity generation. Specific examples of possible waste heat to energy conversion schemes are as follows: Clinker cooler exhaust only (no preheater heat available for electricity production) of 607,500 lbs. per hr. and 649 F (343 C) to produce 3075 kW net electricity

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Preheater exhaust of 607,500 lbs. per hr. and 725 F (385C) and clinker cooler exhaust of 263,250 lbs. per hr. and 680 F (360 C) to produce 10,000 kW net electricity Multiple preheater exhausts (3 kiln operation) totaling 1,237,750 lbs. per hr. at 740 F (393 C) to produce 11,100 kW net electricity

Final electrical production values will depend on a range plant operating conditions including the source and temperature of cooling fluid and plant location.

Figure 1 TYPICAL KALINA CYCLE FOR A CEMENT KILN

31 25 30

1
52 53 62 " 63 64 65

43

2
54 26 60 '

3
6 61 ' 44 42 45 15 10 5 38

4
22

5
7 46 13 8 58 24 2 11 12

6
3 19 59 16 17 18

Kalina Cycle
Conceptual Flow Diagram

21

System 1-2A

KCS1-2

14 23

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Economics of Kalina Cycle Waste Heat Recovery Power Plant The capital cost for a Kalina Cycle waste heat recovery power plant is expected to be comparable to that of a Rankine cycle in terms of $/kW for a similar size power plant. The primary advantage is the ability to generate more electricity, and thus achieve greater savings in facility energy cost. A hypothetical project example is helpful to explain the benefits of a Kalina Cycle WHR power plant. An economic analysis is dependent on a large number of inputs and assumptions. These include project design and operational data, financial data, capital cost estimates, and operating cost estimates. Reasonable assumptions of these are dependent on the specific project, its location, and its owner. Assume that a 3000 tpd cement facility is using 100 kWhr/t and operates the equivalent of 100% capacity for 300 days per year. The electrical energy use would be 90,000,000 kWhr per year. At $0.06/kWhr, the annual cost for purchased electricity would be $5,400,000. Assume the owner wants to reduce dependence on the electricity grid by about 50% by building a 6 MW Kalina Cycle waste heat recovery power plant inside the fence with a capital cost of $9,000,000 and operating cost of $0.003 to $0.004 per kWhr. The simple payback period for the WHR power plant is less than 4 years after accounting for the operating and maintenance costs for the Kalina Cycle WHR power plant. There are a number of possible project financing structures possible for this type of power plant application including project debt financed and lease financed structures. ECONOMIC ADVANTAGE DEPENDS ON:

Avoided Cost of Purchased or Captive Generated Energy Heat Source Temperature and Flow Heat Source Availability Annual Average Load Factor Size of Kalina Cycle Power Plant Capital Cost of Kalina Cycle Power Plant Capital Cost of Alternative Energy Source Fuel Cost of Alternative Energy Source O&M and Overhaul Cost of Alternative Energy Source Financing Terms Escalation Tax Issues

Operation and Maintenance for the WHR Plant A Kalina Cycle waste heat power plant built within a cement facility will not require additional operating personnel. The controls of the waste heat power plant will be integrated with the cement plant control system to prevent any possible impact of an upset situation on cement production. For example, a tube leak in the HRVG would cause the power plant to be immediately isolated from the cement kiln. Typical O&M costs for this type of power generation system are in the range of $0.003 to $0.004 per kWhr of net generation. Scheduled plant maintenance will be conducted during normal outages for the cement kiln. Short outages (less than one week) are typical for the first four years, with a major outage for turbine and I&C system overhauls in the fifth calendar year of operation. The major outage is typically 3 to 4 weeks duration. Over the 20 to 30 year life of the power plant, this five year O&M schedule will repeat.

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Table 2 Waste Heat Power Plant Typical 5-Year O&M Schedule 1 2 3 S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S

Year: Equipment: HRVG Kalina System Turbogenerator Cooling System Balance Of Plant Electrical I&C M: Major Overhaul S: Short Outage

4 S S S S S S S

5 S S M S S S M

CO2 Emission Benefits of the Kalina Cycle The Kyoto Protocol on Global Warming is an historic agreement that will have significant impact on the cement industry. Initially, many countries will be asked to set voluntary reduction targets. Whether these countries responsibility will remain voluntary in the future or other pressure will be applied will depend to a large extent on the responsiveness and effectiveness of their programs for reduction of emission of greenhouse gases. In addition, the international agreements and regulatory facilities under development for banking, sale and/or trading of CO2 offsets offers the cement industry a unique opportunity to acquire additional benefits through implementation of cogeneration projects that will offset CO2 emissions from fossil fuel fired power generation facilities. If a waste heat recovery power plant energy generation replaces purchases from the grid, a case can be made for demonstrating an offset of greenhouse gas emissions from grid power plants. If we assume a coal consumption rate of 0.76 kg/kWhr, for electric power generation, this would result in emissions of 1.325 kg of CO2 per kWh of electricity generated. A 10 MW Kalina Cycle waste heat recovery power plant operating at 85% load factor would therefore offset (reduce) 98,700 metric tons of CO2 emissions per year. This could either be credited against possible future reduction requirements for the cement facility or sold on the international market for CO2 offsets. Summary The Kalina Cycle is a new technology that changes the project economics of converting cement kiln waste heat into electricity. It offers a 20% to 40% performance improvement relative to conventional waste heat systems. The technology has been proven in a demonstration facility at hot gas temperatures exceeding 535 C (1992 to 1997), and in use in other applications including steel production (1999) and hydrocarbon processing (2005). It can be readily integrated into the operation of industrial processes without causing a disruption in the in the manufacturing facility. References Mlcak, H. A., An Introduction to the Kalina Cycle, Proceedings of the International Joint Power Generation Conference, Book No. H01077-1996. Mirolli, M. D. and Leibowitz, H., First Kalina Combined Cycle Plant Tested Successfully, Power Engineering, May, 1997. Iiyoshi, T. et. al., Introduction of a Power Generating System by Low Temperature Waste Heat Recovery (Kalina Cycle Power Generating System), 2000.

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