Map projections

Map projections

By Girish Kumar B V

Map projections

Definition In simple terms map projection is the transformation of spherical surface to a flat 2-D plane surface (map surface). Plotting of latitudes and longitudes on to a map surface is also called map projection. The basic problem of map projection is representation of a curved surface on to a plane. Applicationally it is often the problem of representing the earth on to a flat map. It may be stated that there is no perfect solution to the problem and this may be readily summarized by trying to apply an orange peel to a flat table surface. To achieve continuous contact between the two surfaces, the orange peel would be distorted by stretching, shrinking, tearing. Thus, we can say that all representations of curved surface on a plane involves stretching, shrinking resulting in distortions of tearing resulting in interruptions. Different techniques of representations are applied to achieve representations which posses certain propertie favorable for specific purpose. This technique of representation is called map projections. Another generalized definition for projection involves: Computations done on the physical surface of the earth are brought in terms of local datum. The transformation of these features on to a map surface using an intermediately surface known as projection surface is called map projection. Every flat map misrepresents the surface of the Earth in some way. No map can rival a globe in truly representing the surface of the entire Earth. However, a map or parts of a map can show one or morebut never allof the following: True directions. True distances. True areas. True shapes. The Globe If you have a model globe then you probably should refer to it while reading this material.

Map projections Earlier people assumed the shape of the earth to be perfect sphere. Later, with the advent of technology it has now been proved that the shape of the earth is not a perfect sphere but an spheroid, based on the fact that the radius of the earth is slightly more at the equator when compared to the poles. With the help of satellites, it has been possible to ascertain that the earth is slightly flattened at the poles. Evolution of maps Globes are the best representations of the earth because all distances, areas, and shapes are proportionally correct. Unfortunately globes of any size are rather inconvenient to tote about and store, and detailed images of even a large country would require globes larger than a room. Using portions of a globe would work but they still dont lie flat. To, deal with this problem ancient person created maps. The earliest maps only showed very small portions of the earth and were very serviceable without worrying about spheres. But the Greeks had grander plans and by 600 BC

Map projections As mentioned earlier, the earth is very nearly a sphere but not quite. In the language of mathematicians the earth's shape is very close to an ellipsoid, which is an ellipse (oval) rotated in three dimensions. Ellipsoids that are nearly spheres are sometimes called spheroids. Astronomers call a body shaped like the earth an oblate spheroid, which is a specific kind of ellipsoid made by rotating an ellipse in three dimensions around its shorter axis. But the earth has irregularities that keep it from being a simple geometric solid.

Latitude and Longitude on a Sphere

Z
N

Greenwich Meridian =0

Meridian of longitude Parallel of latitude

P

W
=0 -180

R
=0 =0 180E
= 90 0-

- Geographic longitude - Geographic latitude Y R - Mean earth radius OGeocenter

=0 N 90

Equator

Latitude Latitude is the angle formed between the cutting plane on the equator and the cutting plane on the parallel passing through the point under consideration. Longitude Longitude is the angle between the cutting plane on the prime meridian and the cutting plane on the meridian passing through the point under consideration.

Map projections

Notice that the globe has a network of vertical and horizontal lines. The horizontal lines are called parallels because they run parallel to each other, and the vertical lines are called meridians because any one shows all the places that have the same local time. Each location along a parallel has the same latitude, or distance from the equator. Each location along a meridian has the same longitude. Geographic Co-ordinates Equator (00)

Longitude (Meridian)

Latitude (Parallels)

N W S
Range - 1800W 00 1800E

N E W S
0 Range:Range 90S - 90 0 - 90N N 00 900S

Every point on the globe has a meridian running through it from north to south and a parallel running through it from east to west. Maps and globes only show some of the meridians and parallels because if they showed all of them then the map would be black with lines and not very useful. Longitude and latitude are measured in degrees and marked with the "" symbol. There are 360 degrees of longitude; measured 180 degrees east and west of the prime meridian, and 180 degrees of latitude, measured 90 degrees north and south of the equator. Datum As the surface of the earth is uneven it is very difficult to carryout any computations on the surface of the earth. In order to overcome this problem, geodesists have conceived an imaginary mathematical surface which closely fits 5

Map projections the surface of the earth and whose center is in close approximation with the center of mass of the earth, and its axis is parallel to axis of rotation of the earth. Types of Datum Horizontal Datum Vertical Datum Horizontal Datum It is a mathematical surface used for plotting of horizontal control. E.g.: Everest Spheroid, WGS 84. Vertical Datum It is a mathematical surface used for plotting of vertical control. Eg MSL Representation of the Earth

Sea surface

Spheroid

Earth surface

Global and Local Datum

Map projections

The above fig shows the global and the local datum positions relative to the earth. Map projections are attempts to portray the surface of the earth or a portion of the earth on a flat surface. Some distortions of conformality, distance, direction, scale, and area always result from this process. Some projections minimize distortions in some of these properties at the expense of maximizing errors in others. Some projections are attempts to only moderately distort all of these properties. The following three surfaces minimize the distortion within permissible limits, when used for projection and are commonly used for projecting the earth surfaces on to a plane surface. Different kinds of projection surfaces 1) Cone 2) Planar surface 3) Cylinder Conic

The projection is based on an infinite number of cones tangent to an infinite number of parallels. Good for areas having predominant East-West expanse Planar

Map projections

Good for Polar Regions because distortions maximizes as one moves away from the point in planar projections.

Cylindrical Projections
(Mercator)

Mercator Transverse

Oblique

Oblique

Transverse

Different map projection properties o Conformality When the scale of a map at any point on the map is the same in any direction, the projection is conformal. Meridians (lines of longitude) and parallels (lines of latitude) intersect at right angles. Shape is preserved locally on conformal maps.
o

Distance A map is equidistant when it portrays distances from the center of the projection to any other place on the map. Direction A map preserves direction when azimuths (angles from a point on a line to another point) are portrayed correctly in all directions.

Map projections

Scale Scale is the relationship between a distance portrayed on a map and the same distance on the Earth.

Area When a map portrays areas over the entire map so that all mapped areas have the same proportional relationship to the areas on the Earth that they represent, the map is an equal-area map.

Make a map of the Earth 1. Cut off the top of a soda bottle where the bottle straightens. Cut off the skinny neck of the bottle without slicing through the "globe." 2. Draw lines of latitude and longitude on the inside of the globe. Doing this will be easier using a bowl or some other round object to guide the marker .

3. To represent a planar projection, place the globe on a piece of tracing paper. Hold the flashlight above the globe and shine its light down through the globe and onto the tracing paper. Draw the lines of latitude and longitude as they are projected on the paper.

Map projections

4. For a cylindrical projection, roll the tracing paper into a cylinder the diameter of the globe. Shine the flashlight through the globe and onto the tracing paper. Draw the lines of latitude and longitude as they are projected onto the paper. 5. A conical projection is a compromise between planar and cylindrical projections. Make a cone out of the tracing paper and rest it on top of the globe. 6. Shine the flashlight through the globe and into the cone. Draw the lines of latitude and longitude as they are projected onto the cone. 7. Discuss alternative map-making methods that would minimize the distortions inherent in maps.

Types of projection
Polyconic Lambert Conic Conformal Universal Traverse Mercator

Polyconic projection 10

Map projections

Standard Parallels Scale is true along the standard parallel.

The main features of this projection are: Scale is exact along each parallel (standard parallels) and central meridian. It is neither conformal nor equivalent. Used in preparation of topographical maps of scales 1:250000, 1:50000, 1:25000 (in India). Procedure followed by SOI Topographical maps in India are prepared using the polyconic projections. As per the Auxiliary Tables published by SOI. Each quadrangle is projected independently with all its four sides straight. The part of the earth is believed to be flat and quadrangle maps are prepared. Drawbacks: It has got a roll and fit. Meridians and parallels do not intersect at right angles. No seamless data available in a rectangular coordinate system, which is very essential for using maps.
72O 25O 73O 73O 74O 25O

Scale 1:50,000

72O

73O 73O

74O

Conclusion: However, now in India the SOI has changed mapping of IMW maps from International Polyconic to LCC Projection.

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Map projections

Standard Parallels Upper limiting parallel Upper standard parallel Central parallel Lower standard parallel Lower limiting parallel

Calculation of standard parallel:

Scale along parallel = Scale along meridian

Lambert conformal conic projection The main features are: It is conformal and conical. Scale is true along two standard parallel. Used for maps of countries having predominant East West expanse Used extensively in India for preparation of geographical maps, IMW maps, grid in respect of topographical maps. Parallels and meridians intersect at right angles .

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Map projections

Universal Transverse Mercator projection Main features are: Cylindrical and conformal in nature. Sixty, 6O wide zones cover the earth from East to West starting at 180 O West. Scale is true along the central meridian. Used extensively for map-making in USA. Used for quadrangle maps from 1:25,000 to 1:250,000. This projection in India is used by National Hydrographic Surveys.

Procedure followed by Survey of India

6O

0O 84ON

12O 72ON 8O

0O

0O 64OS 72OS 80OS 180OW 0O 180OE

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Map projections

Comparison with Lambert conformal conic projection Both are excellent conformal map projections, used worldwide and can be used to map any area on any scale. Transverse Mercator is suitable for areas of N-S extent.

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