INTRODUCTION TO NONLINEAR MECHANICS OF STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

1. Scope
We shall be concerned with beams and columns. These are structural elements where their length is the dominant dimension. In the note, we shall examine the behavior of beams constructed of different linear and nonlinear materials. Both homogeneous and composite beams will be examined. Of special interest are the relations of axial force versus axial deformation, and of bending moment versus curvature.

2. Assumptions for the Analysis

Many assumptions will be made for the analysis of beams and columns. An important assumption is the Euler-Bernulli assumption that plane sections before deformation remain plane after deformation. Note from Figure 1, that plane sections A, B, C, and D in the undeformed beam, remain plane, even though they are now inclined, in the deformed beam in the locations A, B, C, and D respectively. We shall always assume this to be true for linear and nonlinear materials, for homogeneous as well as non-homogeneous, composite structures. The assumption is quite realistic when the length of the structure is its predominant dimension. It is usually required that . It is common practice however, to
Figure 1: Euler Bernulli Beam Theory

accept this assumption even for cases where is as low as with the understanding that the assumptions is only

approximately satisfied. The most important implication of this assumption is demonstrated in Figure 2. Since a plane section before deformation remains plane after deformation (even though it has moved and rotated from its original position), the strains along the depth d of the section are always linear. We shall use this concept throughout the course of this class.
Figure 2: Implication of the Euler-Bernulli Beam Theory on the axial strain distributions along the depth of the beam.

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3. Implications of Linear Strains along the Cross-Section

3.1. Curvature relates to Strains
The curvature of a beam at a point (i.e. at a cross-section) is equal to the second derivative of deflection. Recall from the Mechanics of Materials class the elastic relation: or , where is the curvature. Note that the elastic relation indicates that under elastic conditions the relation of moment and curvature is linear with a slope of . It is not difficult to prove that for linear distribution of strain along the cross-section depth, the curvature is equal to the slope of the strain diagram, that is: (See Figure 2).

3.2. Elastic Example

Consider the rectangular cross-section of Figure 3 that carries a moment M = 2000 in-k. material be elastic with modulus of elasticity E = 4000 ksi. Let the

Figure 3: Development of stresses along a beam cross-section due to bending.

Because of the moment, strains will be developed in the cross-section that are compressive on the top and tensile at the bottom. The strains vary only along the depth of this cross-section, and are constant across the width. Let the strain at the top fiber be and the strain at the bottom fiber be . At a distance from the top fiber the strains are zero. This is the location of the neutral axis. The axial stresses and strains are related linearly through the modulus of elasticity, thus the stresses at the top and bottom fiber are and respectively. Since the strain distribution is linear and , the stress distribution is also linear. Note that and are related through as follows:

(1)

The compressive triangle of stresses generates a force . Similarly, the tensile triangle generates a force . The point of application of these forces is at the

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centroid of the triangles, i.e. at

and

respectively. and no axial force. . This means that the

The cross-section carries a moment of internal forces must have a resultant of zero or From this equilibrium we can calculate :

(2)
Substituting from Equation (1), we have

(3) Equation (3) is a quadratic equation in or finally .

Note that with a moment arm of externally applied moment of

, from which we have

or

. These forces form a couple in. The moment of this couple must be equal to the . Thus:

(4)
Of course, this approach, as general as it is, it is also unnecessary for an elastic problem since we can use the simpler expression or = 2.5 ksi. Now we can find the strains at the top and bottom fiber of the beam: . And finally, we can calculate the corresponding curvature . Again, for the elastic problem this process is not necessary since we know that , thus, . However, for problems that the elastic relation is not valid for the entire range of strains, the expression is not valid, and the approach of internal force equilibrium that was present here is the only means of calculating internal stress distributions.

3.3. Inelastic Example

Consider next, a material with response as shown in Figure 4. The material has symmetric stress-strain behavior in tension and compression, but its elastic range is limited. Let fy = 3 ksi and E = 4000 ksi. Thus , = f /E = 0.00075.
y y

Figure 4: Elastic-Perfectly Plastic material

Consider now the same cross-section as in the previous example subjected to a moment M. (Figure 5). As the value of M increases, the strains along the depth of the cross-section increase as well. We observe that as long as the stress-strain diagram is symmetric in tension and in compression, and the cross-section is symmetric

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about the bending axis, then the neutral axial due to bending alone will always be at the centroid of the cross-section.

Figure 5: Development of internal stresses due to an increasing cross-sectional bending moment.

These are the stages of interest: 1. If is less than a certain magnitude , then the all strains are smaller than the yield and thus the stresses are linear (Figure 5b). If the largest strain is equal to , then the largest stress is equal to . The tensile and compressive forces are equal and of magnitude . Forces are located at a distance from the centroid. Thus, the moment that they produce is:
-1

The corresponding curvature is 6 = , /c = 0.00075/10 = 0.000075 in .

y y

2. Let . Then the strains at the bottom and top fibers are (Figure 5c). For example, let . Then at some location , the strain is equal to . For all strains , the stress is calculated as . However, for strains greater than , the stress is equal to , based on the stress-strain relation of Figure 4. Thus, the resulting stress diagram along the depth of the beam cross-section is as shown in Figure 5c. Naturally, to evaluate the acting forces and , as well as their location, the position of the yield strain must be known. From Figure 5c, using similar triangles we have:

The calculation of the magnitude and location of forces and at a distance . from the centroid.

is as follows:

at a distance from the centroid. )=2 is . The moment on the cross-section is: . The corresponding curvature

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3. Let be larger than that of stage 2 above. The strains at the bottom and top fibers also become larger (Figure 5d). For example, let . At some location , the strain is equal to . For all strains , the stress is equal to . Again, for strains greater than , the stress is equal to based on the stress-strain relation of Figure 4. Thus, the resulting stress diagram along the depth of the cross-section is as shown in Figure 5d. To evaluate the acting forces and and their location, the position of the yield strain must be known. From Figure 5d using similar triangles we have: The calculation of the magnitude and location of forces . from the centroid. at a distance from the centroid. The moment on the cross-section is: )=2 . The corresponding curvature is . 4. In a progressive increase of applied moment, the strain field increases, in a way that a final, asymptotic case is developed that the strains are so large that the stress distribution is as shown in Figure 6. In this case the forces can be calculated as: at a distance . from the centroid. The moment of the cross-section is: . The corresponding curvature is that of infinite strains. That is .
Figure 6: Ultimate state of bending strength.

and is as follows: at a distance

The Moment - Curvature relation can now be plotted and is presented in Figure 7.

Figure 7: Moment-Curvature relation of the Cross-Section

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3.4. Inelastic Composite Example

Let us consider next the composite cross-section shown in Figure 8. This corresponds to a beam

Figure 8: Cross-section and material properties of a composite beam

consisting of a material that is elastic in compression with modulus of elasticity E = 4000 ksi, and has no strength in tension. To help the section carry bending (which requires both tensile and

compressive strength), a blade of a metallic material is epoxied at the bottom of the cross-section as shown. This material has a modulus of elasticity . Thus the yield strain of the material is with a yield stress .

3.4.1. Develop the

relation of the cross-section.

It is common for such problems to replace the blade with only a line which has.no thickness, and is located at the centroid of the cross-section. the proper concentrated cross-sectional area. The line, since it represents the metallic material,has Thus, we can substitute the actual cross section Note how

with the one shown with the thicker line at the bottom of the cross-section in Figure 9. the depth of the new cross-section is moment-curvature . To develop the

relation, we shall try a number of strain values at the bottom fiber

starting with the elastic limit ,b= 0.001.

Figure 9: Development of internal stresses within the composite beam due to an increasing cross-sectional bending moment

1. ,b= 0.001

3.4.1.1.
This is the case of first yield. From similar triangles (Figure 9b) we find that .

This results in the stress distribution shown in Figure 9c, and the couple of forces shown in Figure

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9d.

Since

is the resultant of the triangular distribution of stresses we have: . Equilibrium . The

of forces requires that

. Thus we find:

solution of this quadratic equation produces a negative and a positive root. the positive root: .

We shall only accept

This is because, pure bending requires both positive and negative As a result the neutral axis MUST be within the , we have a couple with a moment and .

stresses to exist within the cross-section. cross-section. arm the corresponding curvature is Since both and .

are equal to Thus the moment is

3.4.1.2.
For any case of bottom fiber strain greater than shown in Figure 9f. (Figure 9e) we have a stress diagram as

Note that since the strain at the bottom fiber (metallic material) is greater , and thus the corresponding tensile force is

than the yield strain, the corresponding stress is 120 kips. top fiber is .

Note that from similar triangles in the strain diagram (Fig. 9e) we have that strain at the , and thus the stress at the top fiber is Again, as in the case of , the compressive force can be calculated as .

Equilibrium of forces requires that .

Thus we find: As are

The solution of this quadratic equation produces a negative and a positive root. . Since both and .

discussed earlier, we shall only accept the positive root: equal to moment is , we have a couple with a moment arm

Thus the

and the corresponding curvature is

Following a similar process we find that for .

Note that as the strain at the bottom fiber increases, the location of the neutral axis moves upwards. Asymptotically as tends to infinity tends to and the moment tends to

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A plot of the moment vs curvature for this cross-section is presented in Figure 10.

Figure 10: Moment-Curvature relation of the composite Cross-Section

3.5. Ultimate Bending Moment Capacity of a Composite Cross-Section

In structural design, we are typically interested in the ultimate capacity of a cross-section to carry an applied load. materials). In such state, most materials become inelastic (other than perfectly brittle Nevertheless, the evaluation of the ultimate state strength, typically knows as nominal

strength is straight forward.

3.5.1. Example of a Composite beam.

Two ductile materials.

Let us consider the composite beam with the cross section described in Figure 11a. The beam consists of two materials with stress-strain relations as show in Figure 11b. The top material has only compressive strength, while the bottom material (a thin blade) has symmetric tensile and compressive behavior. Both materials are considered ductile with no practical rupture strain. The application of a moment (Figure 11c) results in a developed strain distribution along the cross-sectional depth. For a large enough moment, the strains can become very large (Figure 11d), resulting in the asymptotically approached stress distribution of Figure 11e. In the description of the strain and stress development, we see that the location of the neutral axis remains unknown.

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However, we do know that must be such that equilibrium of forces in the cross-section must be satisfied. Thus, based on Figure 11f:

Figure 11: Definition and stress development of a composite cross-section at ultimate strength state.

After evaluating the position of the neutral axis, the distance between the compressive and tensile forces becomes Thus, the ultimate or nominal moment that this cross-section can carry becomes: .

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