An alternative method of milk treatment

J. Barabs The author is Dairy Officer (Technology), Meat end Dairy Service, FAO, Rome. Milk from a cow's healthy udder contains only few bacteria. From the time of milking to the time of processing, however, milk will have picked up many more, the amount depending on the standards of milking and milk-handling practices. The temperature of milk has a significant effect on the rate of bacteria development and, consequently, on the spoilage of milk. It is generally concluded that if the milk is not cooled and does not reach the processor within five hours after milking, it will not be suitable for processing. There are many areas in the world, particularly in less developed countries, where the cooling of fresh milk is difficult. There is often an unavoidable time-lapse between milking and delivery of the milk to a processing plant or to consumers. During this critical period, deterioration of milk frequently takes place and the result is the loss of large quantities of this most valuable food. In developing countries, most milk is produced by a large number of smallholders with small quantities of milk, making milk collection and delivery time-consuming and complicated. The more advanced milk collection process found in these countries begins with the producer delivering milk to a collection point where the volume is measured, or the milk weighed, and recorded, and sometimes it is sampled and checked for quality. The milk is later transported, usually by bicycle or donkey, to a larger collection centre where, if possible, it is chilled. The collected milk is subsequently sent in bulk to a processing plant by truck. The time-delay from milking to delivery at the processing plant often exceeds five hours, very negatively affecting the quality of mainly non-refrigerated milk, which is often rejected by dairy processing plants and is also not acceptable to consumers. In countries with an advanced dairy industry, the bacterial quality of raw milk is safeguarded by cooling during on-farm handling, storage and transportation, which is an effective method of preserving milk quality. In developing countries, on the other hand, this method would be too sophisticated and expensive, or perhaps not even possible. For these countries, it would be more advantageous to have access to alternative methods to protect raw milk from bacterial deterioration during the collection process and transport to the dairy plant (Barabs, 1994) In most developing countries, the lack of appropriate storage facilities and inadequate transport and communication systems compound the difficulties of preserving locally produced milk, as well as delivering it to processing facilities. This problem is very serious in countries where inappropriate practices and environmental conditions favour the microbial attack on milk and negatively affect its quality during storage, causing deterioration and wastage. Under these circumstances, any possible risks associated with the use of food additives to milk must be weighed against the benefits of preventing milk wastage and increasing its availability to the population.

Developing countries tend to adopt the same rules and/or procedures used in advanced dairy countries, resulting in the introduction of legislation that demands the use of refrigeration in widely scattered milk-producing areas with no technical or economic possibilities for its introduction. This not only impedes the development of milk production, but, even worse, it encourages the consumption of raw milk that has not been properly treated and therefore may be harmful to the consumer. Unfortunately, it is also true that a more practical approach to the problem of milk treatment is very often hampered by a conservative outlook that finds it easier to refer to existing impracticable rules and regulations than to face reality. It is unrealistic to try to enforce laws that involve the cooling of milk after milking and during storage and, possibly, refrigerated transportation, which, in countries in the early stages of dairy development, are rarely technically and economically feasible (Tentoni, Pastore and Ottogalli, 1968). For this reason, the use of healthy and suitable preservatives in milk should not only be authorized by local legislation, but also encouraged in those areas where local conditions do not permit, economically or technically, the use of refrigeration in milk collection/storage/delivery schemes. It has been proved that small additions of naturally occurring substances in the lactoperoxidase (LPS) system would stimulate this indigenous antibacterial system in milk and considerably extend its shelf-life. The use of chemical substances to preserve milk is not a new idea. The problem was first discussed officially at the international level in 1957 at an FAO Expert Consultation held in Rome, Italy. From initial research performed in countries with developed dairy industries and related research, it became clear that the use of the LPS system was one of the most promising methods for the preservation of raw milk. At the 20th Joint Session of the FAO/World Heath Organization (WHO) Committee of Government Experts on the Code of Principles concerning Milk and Milk Products, held in 1982, the use of the activated LPS system of raw milk was introduced, and the Committee invited the International Dairy Federation (IDF) to provide technical advice. After intensive research, the IDF concluded that the use of the LPS system as an alternative method of preserving raw milk was a completely new and acceptable approach for countries in the early stages of organized dairy-industry development. At its 21st session held in Rome in 1986, the Committee gave IDF the task of preparing the Code of Practice regarding the use of the LPS system as a means of preserving raw milk. The Code of Practice, after being circulated among the national committees of IDF and the Joint FAD/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives at its 35th meeting in 1989, was finally approved by the Codex Alimentarius Commission during its 19th session, held in July 1991 in Rome (FAD/WHO, 1991).
Regional workshop on raw milk handling and preservation, 13 to 15 September 1994, Alexandria, Egypt: an abstract from the conclusions and recommendations The workshop provided a valuable opportunity for experts in the region to exchange ideas and information on all areas of milk handling collection and preservation. It was noted with satisfaction that the implementation of milk preservation by activating its antibacterial system. using the lactoperoxidasehydrogen peroxide-thiocyanate method may greatly benefit all countries in the region.

National participants described the situation in their own countries outlining plans and strategies for milk production on-farm milk handling milk collection systems milk quality control and legislation and discussed policy options for encouraging support, research activities and methodologies for the implementation of the milk preservation method in their home countries. The participants urged FAO and governments in the region to otter their fullest possible support for the introduction of the method mainly in remote areas in accordance with the Code of Practice approved by Codex Alimentarius. The workshop recognized that most locally produced milk comes from smallholders who have very limited possibilities for the proper handling of raw milk and that as a result activities hi raw milk preservation should be directed mainly towards this group. It was also recommended that a cooperative network of specialists and institutions be established in the region for the expansion of the lactoperoxidase method for raw milk preservation and for the exchange of results obtained in field application of the method. The workshop expressed special thanks to FAO for its technical guidance and to the University of Alexandria for the preparation of the workshop.

LPS is a protein naturally present in milk. One of its unique biological functions is an antibacterial/enzyme effect working only in the presence of hydrogen peroxide and thiocyanate. Both these substances are naturally present in raw milk in different concentrations, but they need to be adjusted. The method of activating LPS in raw milk is based on increasing insufficient levels of thiocyanate present in milk to about 15 ppm and subsequently adding an equimolar amount (8.5 ppm H2O2) of hydrogen peroxide. This amount of hydrogen peroxide is approximately 100 times less than that often used for the unauthorized conservation of milk. And the level of thiocyanate mentioned above is, for example, three to 20 times lower than that found in human saliva or in some vegetables, such as cassava and cabbage. In refrigerated milk, this treatment resulted in an antibacterial effect lasting five to six days (Bjrk, Claesson and Schulthes, 1979), and the shelf-life of raw milk in an ambient temperature was increased to seven to eight hours at 30C (Claesson, 1994; Patel and Sannabhadti, 1993). Toxicological investigations using high doses of thiocyanate showed that if the level of thiocyanate was kept in accordance with the Code of Practice, there would be no health problems. Field trials in Kenya, Nicaragua, Sri Lanka, Mexico, the Philippines, Pakistan and Cuba carried out by national research institutes with the cooperation of the Swedish University of Agricultural Science and FAO demonstrated a significant improvement in the quality of raw milk in these countries (Korhonen, 1980; Ponce et al., 1992; Barraquio et al., 1993; Amjad and Faqir, 1993; Lambert, 1993). The LPS method is fully effective, cheap, safe and applicable at milk collection points and can prolong the shelf-life of unrefrigerated milk up to three or four hours more than that of untreated milk. The duration of prolongation depends, of course, on the initial quality of the raw milk and on when the treatment was carried out. This additional conservation time is often essential for the safe delivery of milk of an appropriate quality to processing centres. If necessary, this method could also be used for preserving already refrigerated milk for extended periods, even in countries where refrigeration facilities are well established.

In countries with a warm climate, the alternative method of milk preservation - application of the LPS system - has great potential. Since it is recommended by the IDF Code of Practice, it is an important package of appropriate technologies, easily integrated into existing milk collection systems. It would also enable the expansion of milk collection into remote areas, where it has not been feasible under present conditions. The LPS system is an antibacterial system created by nature to protect both human and animal organisms. The use of this system through appropriate methodology and application at milk collection systems in developing countries is a good example of an applied biotechnological process that has great potential for wide field application. FAO is actively involved in exploring opportunities to exploit this potential for the benefit of milk producers in remote areas of developing countries. In September 1994, FAO organized a regional workshop on the subject, and an abstract of its conclusions and recommendations is published here (see Box).

Bibliography
Amjad, A. & Faqir, M.A. 1993. Milk preservation by chemical methods. Final report. University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan. Barabs, J. 1994. Milk hygiene with particular reference to milk handling and preservation. Proc. Regional Workshop on Raw Milk Handling and Preservation, University of Alexandria, Egypt. Barraquio, V.L., Resubal, L.E.M., Bantoc, I.B.M. & Almazan, E.N. 1993. A study on milk preservation by chemical methods. University of the Philippines, Los Baos, the Philippines. Bjrk, L., Claesson, O. & Schulthes, W. 1979. The lactoperoxidase/thiocyanate/hydrogen peroxide system as a temporary preservative for raw milk in developing countries. Milchwissenschaft, 34(12): 726-729. Claesson, O. 1994. The lactoperoxidase/thiocyanate/hydrogen peroxide system. Proc. Regional Workshop on Raw Milk Handling and Preservation, University of Alexandria, Egypt. FAO/WHO. 1991. Codex Alimentarius Commission. 19th Session of the Codex Alimentarius Commission, Rome, 1-10 July 1991. Alinorm 91/13. Korhonen, H. 1980. Paper presented at the seminar on milk preservation held in Nairobi, Kenya, by Alfa Laval AB, Tumba, Sweden. Lambert, J.-C. 1993. The lactoperoxidase system. Experiences from Cuba, the Philippines and Pakistan. Proc. Sem. Dairy Development Policy and Implementation, Harare, Zimbabwe. Patel, D.A. & Sannabhadti, S.S. 1993. Effect of activation of lactoperoxidase system and heating to thermization temperature on shelf-life of buffalo raw milk. Indian J. Dairy Sci., 46(11): 529-533.

Ponce, P., Capdevilla, Y., Alfonso, H.A., Lopez, M.G., Leon, R. & Taboada, A. 1992. Conservacin de la leche en Cuba mediante la activacin del sistema lactoperoxidasa. Wld Anim. Rev., 73: 31-41. Tentoni, R., Pastore, M. & Ottogalli, G. 1968. Hydrogen peroxide for milk collection under difficult conditions. Annali di microbiologia ed enzymologia, p. 85-123.
http://www.fao.org/docrep/v6200t/v6200T0t.htm

Use of microfiltration to improve fluid milk quality.

Elwell MW, Barbano DM. Source
Northeast Dairy Foods Research Center, Department of Food Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA.

Abstract
The objectives of the research were to determine the growth characteristics of bacteria in commercially pasteurized skim milk as a function of storage temperature; to determine the efficacy of a microfiltration and pasteurization process in reducing the number of total bacteria, spores, and coliforms in skim milk; and to estimate the shelf life of pasteurized microfiltered skim milk as a function of storage temperature. For the first objective, commercially pasteurized skim milk was stored at 0.1, 2.0, 4.2, and 6.1 degrees C. A total bacterial count >20,000 cfu/mL was considered the end of shelf life. Shelf life ranged from 16 d at 6.1 degrees C to 66 d at 0.1 degrees C. Decreasing storage temperature increased lag time and reduced logarithmic growth rate of a mixed microbial population. The increased lag time for the mixed microbial population at a lower storage temperature was the biggest contributor to longer shelf life. For the second objective, raw skim milk was microfiltered at 50 degrees C using a Tetra Alcross M7 Pilot Plant equipped with a ceramic Membralox membrane (pore diameter of 1.4 microm). The 50 degrees C permeate was pasteurized at 72 degrees C for 15 s, and cooled to 6 degrees C. Bacterial counts of raw skim milk were determined by standard plate count. Bacterial counts of microfiltered and pasteurized microfiltered skim milk were determined using a most probable number method. Across 3 trials, bacterial counts of the raw milk were reduced from 2,400, 3,600, and 1,475 cfu/mL to 0.240, 0.918, and 0.240 cfu/mL, respectively, by microfiltration. Bacterial counts in the pasteurized microfiltered skim milk for the 3 trials were 0.005, 0.008, and 0.005 cfu/mL, respectively, demonstrating an average 5.6 log reduction from the raw count due to the combination of microfiltration and pasteurization. For the third objective, pasteurized microfiltered skim milk was stored at each of 4 temperatures (0.1, 2.0, 4.2, and 6.1 degrees C) and the total bacterial count was determined weekly over a 92-d period. At 6 time points in the study, samples were also analyzed for noncasein nitrogen and the decrease in casein as a percentage of true protein was calculated. After 92 d, 50% of samples stored at 6.1 degrees C and 12% of samples stored at 4.2 degrees C exceeded a total bacterial count of 20,000 cfu/mL. No samples stored at 0.1 or 2.0 degrees C reached a detectable bacterial level during the study. When the bacterial count was <1,000 cfu/mL, shelf life was limited because sufficient proteolysis had occurred at 32 d at 6.1 degrees C, 46 d at 4.2 degrees C, 78 d at 2.0 degrees C, and >92 d at 0.1 degrees C to produce a detectable off-flavor in skim milk produced from a raw milk with a 240,000 somatic cell count

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16527875

Improving the safety and shelf-life of milk using a membrane separation strategy

The physical removal of microorganisms and somatic cells from raw milk using membrane separation can significantly improve the safety, quality, and shelf life of milk and dairy products. The objective of this work was to understand the factors that limit the effectiveness of microfiltration and to evaluate the effect of this process on the quality and shelf life of milk. Membrane fouling was identified as the main factor responsible for flux reduction. This suggested that the destabilization of the fouling layer is the appropriate solution for increasing the yield of the microfiltration process. To evaluate the potential of microfiltration to increase milk shelf life, a 14-week refrigerated shelf life study was conducted, in which the rate of proteolysis and microbial growth were quantified. The microbial counts for microfiltered and high-temperature short-time (HTST) pasteurized milk remained close to zero for 14 weeks, while for HTST pasteurized samples the counts exceeded the Pasteurized Milk Ordinance (PMO) limit after about 40 days of storage. Raw, microfiltered milk exceeded the PMO standards after 21 days, and raw milk after only seven days. Despite the low microbial counts, a significant degree of proteolysis was observed in the microfiltered and HTST pasteurized milk. Overall, microfiltration led to a significant increase in microbial shelf life of milk. The observed proteolysis is a limitation that needs to be further investigated.

issue being addressed

The safety, quality, and shelf life of fluid milk and dairy products is of extreme importance both to consumers and the dairy industry. Pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms contaminate raw milk at various points during and after milking. The microflora in raw milk continues to grow between the dairy farm and the processing plant, particularly if the temperature during transportation and storage of milk is not maintained below 45 degrees Fahrenheit. The existing legislation mandates that milk be pasteurized at the processing plant. While pasteurization kills the harmful bacteria, it is not effective against spores and somatic cells. Also, the dead bacteria left in pasteurized milk can limit its shelf life, due to the activity of the thermally resistant enzymes that they secrete. The physical removal of bacteria and spores using membranes has the potential to avoid these problems and to lead to a significant increase in the shelf life of milk and dairy products, particularly if done early in the process, prior to pasteurization. This would avoid the need for excessive heat treatment of the milk, resulting in milk and dairy foods with enhanced freshness and nutritional attributes. Such a treatment would also allow the longer transportation and storage of raw milk, benefiting New York milk producers. Cold microfiltration could also benefit processors, by minimizing microbial fouling of the microfiltration membranes.

response

This research focused on elucidating the reasons for membrane fouling in the cold microfiltration of raw skim milk, which could help make this process economically attractive. The mechanisms responsible for

the membrane fouling in cold microfiltration of skim milk were investigated using a range of physical and chemical methods. It was found that fouling by proteins and the high viscosity of the fouling layer lead to low fluxes in cold microfiltration. This suggested that destabilization of the fouling layer is the appropriate solution for increasing the yield of the process. To evaluate the potential of microfiltration to increase milk shelf life, a 14-week refrigerated shelf life study was conducted. The rate of proteolysis and microbial growth were quantified. The microbial count for microfiltered and high-temperature short-time (HTST) pasteurized samples remained close to zero for the entirse duration of the study. For HTST pasteurized milk, the counts exceeded the Pasteurized Milk Ordinance (PMO) limit after 40 days. Raw, microfiltered milk exceeded the PMO standard after 21 days, and raw milk after only seven days. For raw and pasteurized milk, the degree of proteolysis was correlated with microbial growth. For microfiltered and pasteurized milk, the degree of proteolysis was significant, despite the very low microbial counts. Further studies will focus on understanding the reasons for the observed proteolysis in the milk subjected to both microfiltration and pasteurization.

impact assessment

The physical, nonthermal removal of bacteria, spores, and somatic cells from raw milk by membrane separation (microfiltration) leads to a significant enhancement of its microbiological quality and shelf life. Optimum process parameters coupled with the developed carbon dioxide techniques have the potential to make raw skim milk microfiltration an economically feasible process. The results of this work will also help understand the mechanism of fouling in cold milk milk fat (MF), which is critical for the development of an efficient MF process. It is expected that this will allow us to develop a highly efficient microfiltration process that could be used to significantly increase the quality and shelf life of raw milk and dairy products. This will directly impact NYS dairy plants, which will have immediate and direct access to the know-how and technical solutions that result from this research. Overall, this process has the potential to become economically attractive and gain acceptance in the dairy industry for applications such as microbial removal at the farm level for milk being used for fluid milk production as well as milk being used for cheese production. This process will also benefit dairy processors by minimizing microbial fouling of membranes. This will reduce cleaning costs and increase the life time of membranes, which are critical aspects of operating membrane separation systems in processing plants. http://vivo.cornell.edu/display/Improvingthesafetyandshelflifeofmilkusingamembraneseparationstrateg y

Pressure processing retains fresh milk taste, extends shelf life

December 13, 2006 CORVALLIS, Ore. New processing techniques for dairy milk are resulting in a fresher taste and a shelf life that outlasts conventional processing by more than 30 days. If commercialized, the technique could help local dairies find larger markets for their product while maintaining their high quality standards. Researchers in Oregon State Universitys Department of Food Science and Technology are using an emerging high-pressure technology to process milk at lower temperatures while still maintaining the safety of heat-pasteurized milk. The result is safe milk that tastes fresher and has a longer shelf life than conventionally processed milk. A recent report on the flavor impact of high hydrostatic pressure processing combined with low to moderate heat appeared in the Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. The use of high or ultra-high temperature pasteurization to kill microbes in milk results in a safe product, but also a heat-damaged product, said Michael Qian, one of the primary researchers on the project. Using high pressure to kill bacteria requires less heat and results in a less-processed flavor that is similar to farm-fresh milk. The flavor of milk is a product of its chemical properties, said Qian. Under ultrahigh temperature pasteurization the chemical composition changes, sometimes resulting in a cooked or burned flavor that may be unappealing to some consumers. This cooked flavor is representative of most milk processed and sold in other countries, but its cooked flavor has been largely unpopular in the U.S., said Qian. Even milk pasteurized at a moderate temperature can undergo a flavor change. A lot of the time consumers dont realize what they are tasting is a result of the processing technique, not the milk itself, he said. The level of heat used during processing is one of the reasons different brands of milk taste differently. Many of the brands of milk sold in stores today are labeled as ultra-pasteurized meaning theyve been heated at higher temperatures or for longer periods of time in order to kill bacteria, said J. Antonio Torres, a food scientist in OSUs College of Agricultural Sciences. Ultra is not better, its worse, he said. More vitamins are destroyed and more taste is lost the longer the milk is held at excessively high temperatures.

There is an inverse relationship between pressure and temperature in milk processing, Torres added, with greater pressure levels using less heat during processing. This discovery has led to a request for federal funds to demonstrate the technologys use with other foods. The success of high pressure in killing microbes has been extensively studied, but the OSU researchers, including Pedro Vazquez-Landaverde, are some of the first scientists to study the technologys effect on flavor, said Qian. Conventionally pasteurized milk can usually stay under refrigerated conditions for about 15-20 days before spoiling. Pressure processing can result in a refrigerated shelf life of more than 45 days, possibly resulting in new business opportunities. Around the nation there are certain milk producing regions that produce a surplus of milk, said Torres. This technology could help dairies that have a low-cost of milk production get their product to areas that are unable to produce the needed volume of milk. A dairy in California could ship its milk to New York. Organic dairies are areas of the industry that could see some of the greatest benefit from the technology, said Torres. Organic milk is one of the fastest growing divisions of the dairy industry, but consumers who favor the product remain fairly wide spread. If organic milk can be processed using pressure at a price that is economically feasible, dairies could significantly grow their markets. Milk processed under pressure could be commercially available within 3-5 years if its made cost-effective for the industry, said Torres. The technique is already being used with other products and in other industries as a means of microbial control. The research was paid for through funds collected from milk producers and distributed by Dairy Management Inc.
http://extension.oregonstate.edu/news/release/2006/12/pressure-processing-retains%E2%80%98fresh%E2%80%99-milk-taste-extends-shelf-life