PROJECTWORK FOR
ADDITIONAL MATHEMATICS
2009
circle
PROJECTWORK FOR
ADDITIONAL MATHEMATICS
2009
First of all, I would like to say Alhamdulillah, for giving me the strength and
health to do
this project work. Not forgotten my parents for providing everything, such as
money, to
buy anything that are related to this project work and their advise, which is the
most
needed for this project. Internet, books, computers and all that. They also
supported me
and encouraged me to complete this task so that I will not procrastinate in doing
it. Then I
would like toexpress my gratitude to my teacher, Miss Elissa for guiding me and
my friends
throughout this project. We had some difficulties in doing this task, but she
taught us
patiently until
we knew what to do. She tried and tried to teach us until we understand what we
supposed to do with the project work. Last but not least, my friends who were
doing this
project with me and sharing our ideas. They were helpful that when we combined
and
Circles are simple closed curves which divide the plane into two regions,
an interior and an exterior. In everyday use the term "circle" may be used
interchangeably to refer to either the boundary of the figure (known as the
perimeter) or to the whole figure including its interior, but in strict
technical usage "circle" refers to the perimeter while the interior of the
circle is called a disk. The circumference of a circle is the perimeter of the
circle (especially when referring to its length).
A circle is a special ellipse in which the two foci are coincident. Circles
are conic sections attained when a right circular cone is intersected with a
plane perpendicular to the axis of the cone.
The circle has been known since before the beginning of recorded history. It is
the basis for the wheel, which, with related inventions such as gears, makes
much of modern civilization possible. In mathematics, the study of the circle has
helped inspire the development of geometry and calculus.
• 1700 BC – The Rhind papyrus gives a method to find the area of a circular
field. The result corresponds to 256/81 as an approximate value of π.[1]
• 300 BC – Book 3 of Euclid's Elements deals with the properties of circles.
• 1880 – Lindemann proves that π is transcendental, effectively settling the
millennia-old problem of squaring the circle[2]
The letter π
The name of the Greek letter π is pi, and this spelling is commonly used in
typographical contexts when the Greek letter is not available, or its usage
could be problematic. It is not normally capitalised (Π) even at the
beginning of a sentence. When referring to this constant, the symbol π is
always pronounced like "pie" in English, which is the conventional English
pronunciation of the Greek letter. In Greek, the name of this letter is
pronounced /pi/.
The constant is named "π" because "π" is the first letter of the Greek
words περιφέρεια (periphery) and περίμετρος (perimeter), probably
referring to its use in the formula to find the circumference, or perimeter,
of a circle.[3] π is Unicode character U+03C0 ("Greek small letter pi").[4]
Definition
In Euclidean plane geometry, π is defined as the ratio of a circle's
circumference to its diameter:[3]
While the value of π has been computed to more than a trillion (1012)
digits,[14] elementary applications, such as calculating the circumference of
a circle, will rarely require more than a dozen decimal places. For
example, a value truncated to 11 decimal places is accurate enough to
calculate the circumference of a circle the size of the earth with a
precision of a millimeter, and one truncated to 39 decimal places is
sufficient to compute the circumference of any circle that fits in the
observable universe to a precision comparable to the size of a hydrogen
atom.[15][16]
Because π is an irrational number, its decimal expansion never ends and
does not repeat. This infinite sequence of digits has fascinated
mathematicians and laymen alike, and much effort over the last few
centuries has been put into computing more digits and investigating the
number's properties.[17] Despite much analytical work, and supercomputer
calculations that have determined over 1 trillion digits of π, no simple
base-10 pattern in the digits has ever been found.[18] Digits of π are
available on many web pages, and there is software for calculating π to
billions of digits on any personal computer.
Calculating π
π can be empirically estimated by drawing a large circle, then measuring
its diameter and circumference and dividing the circumference by the
diameter. Another geometry-based approach, due to Archimedes,[19] is to
calculate the perimeter, Pn , of a regular polygon with n sides
circumscribed around a circle with diameter d. Then
That is, the more sides the polygon has, the closer the approximation
approaches π. Archimedes determined the accuracy of this approach by
comparing the perimeter of the circumscribed polygon with the perimeter
of a regular polygon with the same number of sides inscribed inside the
circle. Using a polygon with 96 sides, he computed the fractional range:
.[20]
π can also be calculated using purely mathematical methods. Most
formulae used for calculating the value of π have desirable mathematical
properties, but are difficult to understand without a background in
trigonometry and calculus. However, some are quite simple, such as this
form of the Gregory-Leibniz series:[21]
History
See also: Chronology of computation of π and Numerical approximations of π
by John Wallis in 1655. Isaac Newton himself derived a series for π and
calculated 15 digits, although he later confessed: "I am ashamed to tell
you to how many figures I carried these computations, having no other
business at the time."[31]
In 1706 John Machin was the first to compute 100 decimals of π, using the
formula
with
which deliver 14 digits per term.[35] The Chudnovskys used this formula to
set several π computing records in the end of the 1980s, including the first
calculation of over one billion (1,011,196,691) decimals in 1989. It
remains the formula of choice for π calculating software that runs on
personal computers, as opposed to the supercomputers used to set
modern records.
Whereas series typically increase the accuracy with a fixed amount for
each added term, there exist iterative algorithms that multiply the number
of correct digits at each step, with the downside that each step generally
requires an expensive calculation. A breakthrough was made in 1975,
when Richard Brent and Eugene Salamin independently discovered the
Brent–Salamin algorithm, which uses only arithmetic to double the
number of correct digits at each step.[36] The algorithm consists of setting
and iterating
until an and bn are close enough. Then the estimate for π is given by
Memorizing digits
Recent decades have seen a surge in the record for number of digits memorized.
Advanced properties
Numerical approximations
Due to the transcendental nature of π, there are no closed form
expressions for the number in terms of algebraic numbers and
functions.[11] Formulas for calculating π using elementary arithmetic
typically include series or summation notation (such as "..."), which
indicates that the formula is really a formula for an infinite sequence of
approximations to π.[48] The more terms included in a calculation, the
closer to π the result will get.
Consequently, numerical calculations must use approximations of π. For
many purposes, 3.14 or 22/7 is close enough, although engineers often use
3.1416 (5 significant figures) or 3.14159 (6 significant figures) for more
precision. The approximations 22/7 and 355/113, with 3 and 7 significant
figures respectively, are obtained from the simple continued fraction
expansion of π. The approximation 355⁄113 (3.1415929…) is the best one that
may be expressed with a three-digit or four-digit numerator and
denominator.[49][50][51]
The earliest numerical approximation of π is almost certainly the value
3.[27] In cases where little precision is required, it may be an acceptable
substitute. That 3 is an underestimate follows from the fact that it is the
ratio of the perimeter of an inscribed regular hexagon to the diameter of
the circle.
Open questions
The most pressing open question about π is whether it is a normal number
—whether any digit block occurs in the expansion of π just as often as one
would statistically expect if the digits had been produced completely
"randomly", and that this is true in every base, not just base 10.[52] Current
knowledge on this point is very weak; e.g., it is not even known which of
the digits 0,…,9 occur infinitely often in the decimal expansion of π.[53]
Bailey and Crandall showed in 2000 that the existence of the above
mentioned Bailey-Borwein-Plouffe formula and similar formulas imply that
the normality in base 2 of π and various other constants can be reduced to
a plausible conjecture of chaos theory.[54]
It is also unknown whether π and e are algebraically independent,
although Yuri Nesterenko proved the algebraic independence of {π, eπ,
Γ(1/4)} in 1996.[55]
For any circle with radius r and diameter d = 2r, the circumference is πd
and the area is πr2. Further, π appears in formulas for areas and volumes
of many other geometrical shapes based on circles, such as ellipses,
spheres, cones, and tori.[57] Accordingly, π appears in definite integrals
that describe circumference, area or volume of shapes generated by
circles. In the basic case, half the area of the unit disk is given by:[58]
and
gives half the circumference of the unit circle.[57] More complicated shapes
can be integrated as solids of revolution.[59]
From the unit-circle definition of the trigonometric functions also follows
that the sine and cosine have period 2π. That is, for all x and integers n,
sin(x) = sin(x + 2πn) and cos(x) = cos(x + 2πn). Because sin(0) = 0,
sin(2πn) = 0 for all integers n. Also, the angle measure of 180° is equal to
π radians. In other words, 1° = (π/180) radians.
In modern mathematics, π is often defined using trigonometric functions,
for example as the smallest positive x for which sin x = 0, to avoid
unnecessary dependence on the subtleties of Euclidean geometry and
integration. Equivalently, π can be defined using the inverse trigonometric
functions, for example as π = 2 arccos(0) or π = 4 arctan(1). Expanding
inverse trigonometric functions as power series is the easiest way to
derive infinite series for π.
Physics
Although not a physical constant, π appears routinely in equations
describing fundamental principles of the Universe, due in no small part to
its relationship to the nature of the circle and, correspondingly, spherical
coordinate systems. Using units such as Planck units can sometimes
eliminate π from formulae.
• The cosmological constant:[60]
• Coulomb's law for the electric force, describing the force between two
electric charges (q1 and q2) separated by distance r:[63]
• Kepler's third law constant, relating the orbital period (P) and the
semimajor axis (a) to the masses (M and m) of two co-orbiting bodies:
Pi in popular culture
A whimsical "Pi plate".
AIM
○ Develops mathematical knowledge in a way which increases students
confidence
○ Apply mathematics to everyday situations and begin to understand the
part that mathematics play in the world in world we live.
○ Improve thinking skills and promote effective mathematical
communication
○ Assists students to develop positive attitude and personalities, intrinsic
mathematical values such as accuracy, confidence and systematic
reasoning.
○ Stimulate learning and enhance effective learning.
Part 1
There are a lot of things around us related to circles or parts of a circles. We
need to play with circles in order to complete some of the problems involving
circles. In this project I will use the principles of circle to design a garden to
beautify the school.
Definition
diameter:
The ratio C/d is constant, regardless of a circle's size. For example, if a circle has
twice the diameter d of another circle it will also have twice the circumference C,
preserving the ratio C/d.
Alternatively π can be also defined as the ratio of a circle's area (A) to the area of
a square whose side is equal to the radius:[3][5]
The ancient Babylonians calculated the area of a circle by taking 3 times the
square of its radius, which gave a value of pi = 3. One Babylonian tablet (ca.
1900–1680 BC) indicates a value of 3.125 for pi, which is a closer approximation.
In the Egyptian Rhind Papyrus (ca.1650 BC), there is evidence that the Egyptians
calculated the area of a circle by a formula that gave the approximate value of
3.1605 for pi.
Diagram 1 shows a semicircle PQR of diameter 10cm. Semicircles PAB and BCR of
diameter d1 and d2 respectively are inscribed in PQR such that the sum of d1 and
d2 is equal to 10cm. By using various values of d1 and corresponding values of
d2, I determine the relation between length of arc PQR, PAB, and BCR.
5π = ½ π(3) + ½ π(7)
5π = 3/2 π + 7/2 π
5π = 10/2 π
5π = 5 π
Q321 cm
10
d
E
D
5π = 5π
bii) The length of arc of outer semicircle is equal to the sum of the length of arc
of inner semicircle for n = 1,2,3,4,….
Souter = S1 + S2 + S3 + S4 + S5
15 π = 15 π
Part 3
a. Area of flower plot = y m2
y= ((10x – x2)/4) π
b. y = 16.5 m2
66(7/22) = 10x – x2
0 = x2 - 10x + 21
0 = (x-7)(x – 3)
x=7 , x=3
= 4.3 * 4.5
= 19.35m2
d. Differentiation method
dy/dx = ((10x-x2)/4) π
= ( 10/4 – 2x/4) π
0 = 5/2 π – x/2 π
5/2 π = x/2 π
x = 5
y= ((10x – x2)/4) π
= 5/2 π - x2/4 π
y+ 52 = -1/4 π (x – 5)2
y = -1/4 π (x - 5)2 - 25
x–5=0
x=5
Tn (flower Diameter
bed) (cm)
T1 30
T2 39.697
T3 49.394
T4 59.091
T5 68.788
T6 78.485
T7 88.182
T8 97.879
T9 107.576
T10 117.273
T11 126.97
T12 136.667
e. n = 12, a = 30cm, S12 = 1000cm
1000 = 6 ( 60 + 11d)
640 = 66d
d = 9.697
CONCLUSION
Part 1
Not all objects surrounding us are related to circles. If all the objects are circle,
there would be no balance and stability. In our daily life, we could related circles
in objects. For example: a fan, a ball or a wheel. In Pi, we accept 3.142 or 22/7 as
the best value of pi. The circumference of the circle is proportional as pi x
diameter. If the
circle has twice the diameter, d of another circle, thus the circumference, C will
also
Part 2
The relation between the length of arcs PQR, PAB and BCR where the semicircles
PQR is the outer semicircle while inner semicircle PAB and BCR is Length of
arc=PQR = Length of PAB + Length of arc BCR. The length of arc for each
Part 3
In semicircle ABC(the shaded region), and the two semicircles which is AEB and
BFC, the area of the shaded region semicircle ADC is written as in Area of shaded
region ADC =Area of ADC – (Area of AEB + Area of BFC). When we plot a straight
link graph based on linear law, we may still obtained a linear graph because Sin=
Sout
REFERENCES
(1) www.scribd.com
(2) www.4shared.com
(3) www.dogpile.com
(4) www.oneschool-net.com
(5)Wikipedia
(6)Additional Mathematics Form 4
(7) www.alumnisbpip.ning.com