Time Domain Analysis of Vibration Data

Using Time Domain Signals to Further Diagnose Machinery Health

Summary
This article provides valuable information on using time domain signals to further diagnose machinery health and confirm problems detected with frequency domain analysis. Moreover, time waveform analysis may be the only method available to detect certain types of problems, such as cracked and broken gear teeth or rolling element bearing defects on low speed applications.

JM02012 SKF 11 pages January 2004 SKF Reliability Systems @ptitudeXchange 5271 Viewridge Court San Diego, CA 92123 United States tel. +1 858 496 3554 fax +1 858 496 3555 email: info@aptitudexchange.com Internet: www.aptitudexchange.com

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JM02012 - Time Domain Analysis of Vibration Data

Introduction
Studying time domain analysis is very useful to the overall understanding of what is occurring in the frequency domain. Time domain is the actual data received from the machinery, and further processed through Fourier Transform formulas to arrive at the frequency domain. There are many useful components of time domain that give insight into machine health. The time domain discerns actual frequencies and amplitudes of components within a machine. In general, the time domain is nothing more than a record of events as they happen. If we setup a signal generator in the lab and produce a sine wave we can see it in the time domain spectrum just as it is seen on the screen of an oscilloscope. Complications arise when the technology is applied in the real world. A sine wave, simply stated, is a single frequency, and therefore a solitary signal. In reality, a machine does not exhibit a solitary signal. For example, an operating motor connected to a gearbox, and then to a compressor produces thousands or millions of signals that add and subtract to / from each other based upon their relationships and the influence of external forces. That is all discerned from the time domain signal, which at first glance appears to be a series of squiggly lines of various amplitudes and frequencies (Figure 1). Time domain analysis is much more than a series of squiggly lines. It gives us the opportunity to detect several problems that can only be seen when collecting and analyzing this type of data. Time domain analysis can also add a factor of confidence to the analysis of data in the frequency spectrum. In some instances it can help confirm a

particular problem that may otherwise have been a best guess scenario. There are some applications where the need for time domain data is absolutely mandatory. Some applications that are mandatory concerning time waveform analysis are: Cracked, broken, or deformed gear teeth in gearboxes. Rolling element bearing defects on very low speed machines (<10 RPM). Motor startup transient problems that result in bearing deterioration and winding problems. Reciprocating compressors: short-lived impact type vibration problems such as piston slap, loose rod and main bearing and inlet or discharge valve problems.

This paper illustrates three cases: two gearboxes and a low speed bearing. There are many documented cases where, without time domain information, the problem could not be solved or time and cost to repair a machine would have been extended. Several arguments arise in which a timesavings or the ability to store the data is sighted as the cause for not collecting the time domain signal. Saving time is certainly a valid point to consider, but the key to analyzing machinery is to collect data that helps resolve the problem. If needed data is not collected when analyzing a machine, the time required to recollect the data or make a decision based upon a lack of key data can cost even more resources and time. And with the use of modern computer storage systems, the few bytes of additional information needed do not impact the storage capacity of the system negatively. Therefore, storage capacity is not a valid argument.

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JM02012 - Time Domain Analysis of Vibration Data

Figure 1. Typical time domain signal of an Enveloped Acceleration reading with various frequencies coming together to display the overall signal of the machine at a particular point in time.

Factors for Interpreting the Time Domain Spectrum

Once a time domain spectrum can be readily identified, the next step is to become familiar with its components and interpret their various meanings. The time domain spectrum is made up of two axis planes: the X-axis is time and the Y-axis is amplitude. Lets first define the X-axis. The X-axis can be equated to a process of taking a photograph of what is occurring to a machine at any particular point in time. This time span, or photograph in time can be adjusted by controlling the upper frequency, or Fmax of the frequency spectrum. This is accomplished by controlling the time factor. Frequency = 1/T
T = Time

As the Fmax increases, the time span is decreases, and as the Fmax decreases, the time span increases. For example, when collecting a 400 line spectrum, if the Fmax is set to 10,000 RPM the time span captured is 2400 milliseconds, or 2.4 seconds. When Fmax increases to 20,000 RPM, the time span adjusts to 1200 milliseconds or 1.2 seconds. Conversely, if we decrease the Fmax to 5000 RPM, the time span adjusts to 4800 milliseconds or 4.8 seconds. So, at an Fmax of 5000 RPM we have a picture of the events happening in the machine for the last 4.8 seconds. Another way to look at this is to remember how the carnival shooting gallery works. Usually, targets are on a belt and appear at the right side of the gallery. As they are drawn across the target area another target appears on the right and begins to move. In a time domain, events or targets appear on the right

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JM02012 - Time Domain Analysis of Vibration Data side of the screen and move to the left. As other events occur in the machine, they appear on the right side and move across the screen. At any given moment, what we see on the screen is a moving summation of all the events that occurred in the past 4.8 seconds. If we freeze the collection and save the data we have a block of events from the past 4.8 seconds. We can examine this data for machine condition information. The Y-axis is the amplitude of the signal or the amount of energy causing the squiggly lines. For some types of analyzers the amplitude of the signal in the time domain is shown in true peak, or an actual 1-to-1 relationship of the signal shown compared to what is occurring on the machine. This is in contrast to the frequency domain, which is displayed in RMS derived peak. As many experts note, the two can be extremely different. At this point I do not propose to delve into RMS vs. True peak other than to say that if a reading of 10 g overall occurs in the time domain, and a reading of 2 g overall occurs in the frequency domain, the resulting 2 g overall signal in the frequency domain is due to the relationship of a small number of 10 g signals that average out when processed by RMS. Moreover, the amplitude of a signal in the time domain is an acceleration amplitude. In other words, the signal is not integrated. Therefore, for example, a velocity spectrum isnt actually a velocity measurement although the user collected the data in velocity. Actually, it is an integrated signal from the time domain. However, if the user selects Enveloped Acceleration, the time domain is in Enveloped Acceleration, as the enveloping process takes place prior to the development of the time domain display. A final point: energy is the same in both the time domain spectrum and the frequency domain spectrum. Other than the True peak and RMS derived peak differences, they contain the same amount of energy. The Fourier function allows us to see the time domain rotated 90 degrees, and see each sine wave within the same plane. Its as if a book were printed on clear plastic pages. Viewing this book with the cover facing you, you see all the letters in the book. This perspective, as it relates to vibrational data, is the time domain. Viewing the book by tipping it up 90 degrees, you see the edge of each page, or the leading edge. This relationship, as it relates to vibrational data, is the frequency domain.

Case 1: Ball Mill Gearbox

The following case history is a classic example of using time waveform analysis to detect gearbox problems. The system contains a gearbox that drives a very large ball mill used to crush ore. The owner drove the unit clockwise for 6 months, then reversed the motor leads and drove the unit counter clockwise for 6 months to even out the wear. Periodically the mill broke a tooth on the drive or pinion gear. This occurred often enough that the company kept a spare pinion gear on hand at all times. Gear mesh frequency at elevated levels was present in the gearboxs frequency domain (Figure 2). The owner assumed that a broken tooth or teeth occurred on the pinion gear and planned to replace the worn pinion during the outage scheduled for two weeks later.

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JM02012 - Time Domain Analysis of Vibration Data

Figure 2. Elevated levels of the frequency related to the pinion gear in a large ball mill. The elevated level of this spectrum as compared to the trended level is an indication of a broken tooth on the pinion.

Looking at the spectrum in Figure 2, the elevated gear mesh frequency shows a problem in the gearbox. However, it is difficult to determine the source of energy. The two known facts regarding the gearbox are: The input shaft speed is operating at 600 RPM. The output shaft speed is 210 RPM.

teeth on the spare pinion, no other information is available. We should also note that the speed, 600 RPM, is set as a marker on the spectrum. With the cursor on the gear mesh frequency (GMF), a note in the upper lefthand corner of the data window explains that the orders of running speed at which the cursor is positioned is 36.05 orders. This tells us that there are 36 teeth on the pinion gear, as the GMF is the number of gear teeth, times the rotational speed.

One can deduce, based upon the input and output speeds, that the gear ratio is about 3:1. However, without counting the number of

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JM02012 - Time Domain Analysis of Vibration Data

Figure 3. Time domain spectrum of the same data in Figure 2. The use of time spaced overlays is helpful in calculating the relationships between peaks in the spectrum and the frequency that is related. The time spacing is 0.2874 seconds, which translates to 208.8 CPM.

If we further analyze the data we can determine more information about the gearbox (Figure 3). The X-axis tells us that we collected data for 3 seconds. In that time period, 11 bursts of energy, or targets appeared on the screen. Using the harmonic markers in the time domain, two cursors were generated. The left cursor is set on a prominent energy spike. The right cursor is set on the next prominent burst of energy. A simple calculation of the spacing between energy bursts determines the interval between bursts is 0.2874 seconds, which is equal to a frequency of 208.8 CPM (F=1/T). Thus, whatever is causing the bursts of energy is occurring at the same rate as the rotation speed of the output shaft on the bull or driven gear. If the energy bursts occurred once every 0.100 seconds the source would be the 600 RPM input shaft (one rotation every 0.1 sec). This spectrum is a perfect example of a gear with damaged teeth (singular or plural). As the damaged area comes in contact at mesh, the

resulting jerk or jump is captured as a burst of energy. The time waveform analysis was necessary, as the GMF is not always that visible in the vibration spectrum. Condition monitoring was able to save this customer over one million dollars by providing information about the condition of his gearbox. The company did not have a spare bull gear on hand. If they found the problem during the outage, they could have lost the 2 days of production required to obtain another bull gear.

Case 2: High Speed Gearbox

Located in a petrochemical plant, this compressor was connected to a gearbox that increased the input speed from 3600 RPM to 7546 RPM. The operators complained about the increasing noise and vibration that began shortly after the bull or driven gear was replaced. Figure 4 depicts the gear mesh frequency on the high-speed gearbox of this petrochemical plant. 6

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JM02012 - Time Domain Analysis of Vibration Data

Figure 4. A zoomed in view of the gear mesh frequency of the gear on the gearbox in a petrochemical plant. The center frequency of the gear mesh is 401,322 CPM. The spacing of the higher amplitude sidebands is 7513 RPM, which is the output shaft speed. The smaller sidebands are spaced at 210 CPM, which is also the output shaft speed.

For clarity, we zoomed in at the gear mesh frequency in order to easily measure the spacing of the sidebands. In this case, we can use the band cursor and determine that the sidebands are equal to the output shaft speed: around 7513 RPM. If desired, the lines of resolution can be increased to improve the accuracy of the determined frequency. However, increasing the number of lines increases the time required to collect data. The preferred method is to accept the slight inaccuracy for improved speed and collect all data at 400 lines of resolution. An increase can be implemented if needed. Note that the presence of shaft speed sidebands around the gear mesh is a sign of serious damage to the

gear attached to that shaft. If examined closely, the frequency spectrum in Figure 2 also exhibits very small sidebands located around 210 RPM, which is the same speed as the output shaft. Figure 5 shows the time signal of the suspect gearbox. As noted in the Y-axis, this data was collected using enveloped acceleration, gE. These energy bursts appear to only go upwards from 0 amplitude, unlike the data collected in acceleration, which somewhat symmetrical above and below the 0 line. The above display is normal for some enveloped spectra, as it is the result of the enveloping process and is of no concern.

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JM02012 - Time Domain Analysis of Vibration Data

Figure 5. Further exploration into the time domain of suspect gearbox. Again, the spacing markers are displayed to assess the time difference between peaks. In this instance, the time frame is 0.0079 seconds, which relates to a frequency of 7559 RPM. This is the speed at which the output shaft rotates.

As before, we place the left marker on one spike and the right marker on the adjacent similar spike. The resultant time interval is 0.007937 seconds, which is equal to 7559 RPM. We now have two indications that there is a problem with the bull gear in this box. Examination of the box reveals that 21 of 53 teeth are damaged on the bull gear. Further investigation into the manufacturing process of the gear revealed that the teeth were incorrectly cut when this gear was manufactured. Note that the gear mesh frequency does not change as the number of damaged teeth

increases. The GMF frequency is still calculated the same way: the number of teeth, times the shaft speed. However, amplitude changes as damage increases. Therefore, a trend chart may be the first indication that a problem is developing.

Case 3: Low Speed Bearings

Low speed bearings can be nearly impossible to analyze if using only the frequency domain. The following case study involves a unit that turned at 0.50 RPM, in which the operators noted an increased noise level at the bearing. Fmax was chosen so 500 RPM gives us a collection time of 48 seconds.

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JM02012 - Time Domain Analysis of Vibration Data

Figure 6. Data collected in the frequency domain of a failing bearing in a machine turning at 0.50 CPM. As can be seen above, there are no predominant peaks in the spectrum that indicate a failing bearing.

What can be discerned from the spectrum in Figure 6? Nothing! The very low amplitudes of gE are normal for low speed applications. The Ball Pass Frequency Outer Race, (BPFO) at this speed for this bearing was 5.9 RPM, though there is no indication of this frequency in the spectrum. The collection limits were controlled operationally due to the speed of the application. Therefore, a reduction of the Fmax or increase in the number of lines for better resolution was not conductive to the operation. We arrived at an impasse. Therefore, time domain data was examined. In short, as each roller passed over the flaw in the bearing, a burst of energy was generated.

Using enveloped acceleration, these repetitive signals were enhanced and displayed. Using the harmonic cursors, the time interval was determined as 10.23 seconds, which gave us a frequency of 5.86 RPM (Figure 7). The bearing database calculated that at 0.50 CPM this bearing would have a BPFO of 5.9 RPM. Considering the data obtained and the method of analysis, it was agreed upon that the bearing was damaged, and the recommendation to order a replacement was made. The replacement cost for this particular bearing was $250,000. Confirmation of bearing damage on the outer race was given after the replacement bearing was installed.

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JM02012 - Time Domain Analysis of Vibration Data

Figure 7. Time domain signal of the 0.50 CPM application shown in figure 6. The time differential marker is shown on the spectrum at a spacing of 10.23 sec. This translates to 5.86 RPM. The outer race of the bearing has a frequency of 5.9 RPM.

Case 4: Felt Monitoring of Paper Machines

In the example below, overall trending of some paper machine rolls showed increased levels of vibration. Felt problems such as felt deterioration or felt steering generally appear as increased amplitude levels of the felt's rotational speed frequency and its harmonics (1 x felt RPM + harmonics). In Figure 8, the enveloped acceleration spectrum shows the felt RPM plus its harmonics. The felt vibration may be modulated with press roll resonance patterns (normally in the range of 60-100 Hz, depending on press forces, speed, mass, etc.). Considering a velocity spectrum that includes the press roll resonance patterns, the felt harmonics could be recognized. Time domain analysis can here be used to verify the felt problems. Figure 9 shows clearly the felt rotational speed.

Summary
Time domain data is a valuable analysis tool to determine some of the factors affecting your machinery. The methodologies of time domain analysis and several case studies that exhibit real world applications of time domain technology were explained. It is as important to collect the proper type of data, as it is to analyze the collected. Time domain data and analysis is useful in applications such as gearboxes and low speed bearing applications. Using the time domain signal, the analyst can determine components that are failing or processes that may otherwise go undetected until machinery failure. In some cases, this failure can cause significant financial detriment to a process or plant.

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JM02012 - Time Domain Analysis of Vibration Data

Figure 8. 1 x Felt RPM showed up (48.4 CPM) in the enveloped acceleration spectrum. The roll running speed is 285 CPM. After steering, the felt frequency dropped (lower figure).

Figure 9. The time plots show nicely the felt frequency (~48 CPM)

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