Introduction to RADIOBIOLOGY (HUMAN BIOLOGY)

Effect of x-rays on human is the result of interactions at the atomic level The deposited energy can result in a molecular change The abnormal molecule may in time function improperly or cease to function or cell death

This

process is reversible, ionized atoms can become neutral by attracting a free electron can be mended by repair enzymes

Molecules

Cell

and tissues can regenerate and recover from the radiation injury

Sequence of Events after Radiation Exposure

EARLY Responses to Radiation

1. Acute radiation syndrome 1.1. Hematological Syndrome 1.2. Gastrointestinal Syndrome 1.3. Central Nervous System Syndrome

 2. Local tissue damage - 2.1. Skin - 2.2. Gonads - 2.3. Extremities

3. Hematological depression 4. Cytogenetic damage

LATE Responses to Radiation

1. Leukemia

2. Other malignant diseases 2.1. Bone Cancer 2.2. Lung Cancer 2.3. Thyroid Cancer 2.4. Breast Cancer

 3. Local tissue damage 3.1. Skin 3.2. Gonads 3.3. Eyes 4. Shortened life span 5. Genetic damage 5.1. Cytogenetic damage 5.2. Doubling dose 5.3. Genetically significant dose

Effects of Fetal Irradiation

1. Prenatal death 2. Neonatal death 3. Congenital malformations 4. Childhood malignancy 5. Diminished growth and development

Composition of the Human Body

At the most basic level, the human body is made up of atoms. The atomic composition of the body determines the character and degree of the radiation interaction. The molecular and tissue composition defines the nature of the radiation response.

ATOMIC COMPOSITION OF THE BODY

60 %..................Hydrogen 25.7 %..................Oxygen 10.7 %..................Carbon 2.4 %..................Nitrogen 0.2 %..................Calcium 0.1 %..................Phosphorus 0.1 %..................Sulfur 0.8 %..................Trace Elements

Molecular Composition
There are five principal molecules in the body: Four are macromolecules: Proteins
Lipids (fats)

types

of

Carbohydrates (sugars and starches)

Nucleic Acids

80% 15% 2%

1%
1% 1%

Water Protein Lipids Carbohydrates Nucleic Acid Other

WATER

the most abundant molecular constituent of the body

 most metabolic reactions occur in water

Water

also plays

an important role

in transporting
chemicals within the body

Blood

is mostly water which

carries vital substances

Oxygen, sugars, salts,

vitamins
It

also carries waste materials

CO2, urea
HOMEOSTASIS

 ANABOLISM the production of large molecules from small CATABOLISM the breaking down into smaller units of macromolecules

Protein
makes up 15 % of cell content the basic building block of cell

Protein

Proteins are long chains of macromolecules consisting of amino acids connected by peptide bonds.
There are 22 amino acids used in protein synthesis or the metabolic production of protein.

Uses of Protein
Proteins support. provide structure and

Proteins function as: Enzymes Hormones Antibodies

LIPIDS

or FATS not soluble in water but are soluble in certain solvents such as alcohol, ether or chloroform

FUNCTION:

storage of energy protection against cold assistance in digestive processes

CARBOHYDRATES

carbon hydrogen oxygen - provides most of the cells energy - stored throughout the body but primarily in the liver and muscles - classified as: Monosaccharides Disaccharides Polysaccharides

composed of:

NUCLEIC

ACIDS constitute genes, the instructions that control cells activities and play important role in protein synthesis
-

very large and complex

contain atoms of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and phosphorous which form the nucleotides (building blocks of DNA)

 DNA

has a unique ability to make copies of

or replicate themselves. it replicates prior to cell division and each newly formed cell receives an exact copy of the original cells DNAs molecules double helix the radio-sensitive target molecule

 RNA

helps synthesize protein single helix

 Sodium

(Na+) Chloride (Cl-) Potassium (K+) Calcium (Ca+2) ions that play important role in metabolic processes -maintains proper water concentration in body fluids, pH, blood clotting, muscle and nerve functions

THE HUMAN CELL

2 MAJOR PARTS:

Nucleus DNA, RNA, protein and water

Cytoplasm makes up the bulk of the cell and molecular components/organelles

Endoplasmic Mitochondria

Reticulum

Ribosomes
Lysosomes

the

nucleus

is

more

radioresistant than cytoplasm.

Cellular Irradiation
When the critical macromolecular cellular components are irradiated, a dose of about 1 Mrad or 10 kGyt is required to produce a measurable change in physical characteristics of the cell.

Cellular Irradiation
When such a molecule is incorporated into the apparatus of a living cell, only a few rad are necessary to produce a measurable response.

Some single cell organisms require massive exposure to produce a lethal dose.

Cellular Irradiation
Human cells can be killed with a dose less than 100 rad (1Gy). The nucleus is much more sensitive than the cytoplasm to radiation exposure. Interference with any phase of protein synthesis could result in cell damage particularly DNA.

The

act of a single cell or group of cells to reproduce and multiply in number

General Types of Cell: SOMATIC GENETIC

SOMATIC

CELLS undergo

MITOSIS during cell division

GENETIC

undergoes

MEIOSIS

Phases of Mitosis
Interphase -has the DNA forming chromosomes. Prophase -the nucleus swells and the DNA takes a more structural form. Metaphase
the chromosomes appear and line up along the equator of the nucleus. During metaphase, mitosis can be stopped and damage can be analyzed.

 Anaphase each chromosomes splits to form a centromere and two chromatids connected by a fiber to the poles of the nucleus. These poles are called spindles and the fiber called spindle fibers. the number of chromosomes have been reduced by half. -the chromosomes slowly migrate toward the spindle.

 Telophase is characterized by the disappearance of the chromosomes into a mass of DNA and closing off of the nucleus like a pair of dumbbells into two nuclei. the cytoplasm divides equally into two cells and interphase begins.

Cell Cycle
Cell biologist identify four phases of the cell cycle 1. M 2. G1 first growth 3. S synthesis 4. G2 second growth DNA synthesis is in the S phase

Phases of Meiosis
Genetic cell meiosis. division is called

Genetic cells begin with chromosomes like somatic cells.

46

During the first division, the daughter, replicated the DNA with 46 chromosomes.

 During the second meiosis, there is no S phase so the DNA does not replicate. Granddaughter cells have 23 chromosomes. There is some exchange of chromosomal or crossover resulting in the genetic constitution and changes in inheritable traits.

Human Development
During the development and maturation of a human from the two united genetic cells, a number of cell types evolve.
Collections of cells of similar structure and function form tissue. Tissue forms organs and organs form organ systems.

 two parents give rise to an offspring

with a unique gene combination from

either of them
each parent gives 1/2 of his/her genes

to the offspring.
a gene is a discrete unit of information

on the DNA that codes for one protein,

perhaps one of the many enzymes needed

by our bodies.

Immature

cells are called: undifferentiated cells precursor stem cells

Mature

cells less radiosensitive that stem cells

ORGAN SYSTEMS:
NERVOUS

REPRODUCTIVE
DIGESTIVE RESPIRATORY ENDOCRINE

*Cells of organ systems are identified by their rate of proliferation and stage of development.

 EPITHELIUM-

covers the skin, blood vessels, abdominal and chest cavities and GI tract high in protein, consists of fibers (bone ligaments, cartilage)

CONNECTIVE

MUSCLE

a special type of tissue that can contract , also high in protein can be found throughout the body

NERVOUS

consists of specialized cells called neurons, transmits electrical impulses for control and response.