Stripping ratio stripping ratio refers to the ratio of the volume of overburden (or waste material) required to be handled

in order to extract some volume of ore. For example, a 3:1 stripping ratio means that mining one cubic meter of ore will require mining three cubic meters of waste rock. Stripping ratios are typically reduced to show the volume of waste removal required to extract one unit volume of ore, for example, 2:1 as opposed to 4:2. When compared to surface mining, which requires overburden removal prior to ore extraction, underground mining operations tend to have lower stripping ratios due to increased selectivity. mining at a higher stripping ratio is less profitable than mining at a lower stripping ratio because more waste must be moved (at a cost per unit volume) for an equivalent volume of revenue generating ore. If the ratio is too high given a particular price of ore and associated cost of mining then it may not be economical to conduct mining.

Strip mining

"Strip mining" is the practice of mining a seam of mineral, by first removing a long strip of overlying soil and rock (the overburden). It is most commonly used to mine coal. Strip mining is only practical when the ore body to be excavated is relatively near the surface. This type of mining uses some of the largest machines on earth, including bucket-wheel excavators which can move as much as 12,000 cubic meters of earth per hour.

There are two forms of strip mining. The more common method is "area stripping", which is used on fairly flat terrain, to extract deposits over a large area. As each long strip is excavated, the overburden is placed in the excavation produced by the previous strip. "Contour stripping" involves removing the overburden above the mineral seam near the outcrop in hilly terrain, where the mineral outcrop usually follows the contour of the land. Contour stripping is often followed by auger mining into the hillside, to remove more of the mineral. This method commonly leaves behind terraces in mountainsides.

In situ and Drift are the two major theories of coal formation.

Theories of Coal Formation The natural agencies causing the observed chemical and physical changes include the action of bacteria and fungi, oxidation, reduction, hydrolysis and condensation - the effect of heat and pressure in the presence of water. Many factors determine the composition of coal.

Mode of accumulation and burial of the plant debris forming the deposits. o Age of the deposits and the geographical distribution. o Structure of the coal forming plants, particularly details of structure that affect chemical composition or resistance to decay. o Chemical composition of the coal forming debris and its resistance to decay. o Nature and intensity of the peat decaying agencies. o Subsequent geological history of the residual products of decay of the plant debris forming the deposits. The In situ Theory of Coal Formation
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Major in situ coal fields generally appear to have been formed either in brackish or fresh water, from massive plant life growing in swamps, or in swampland interspersed with shallow lakes. The development of substantial in situ coal measures thus requires extensive accumulations of vegetable matter that is subjected to widespread submersion by sedimentary deposits. Accumulations of vegetable matter and associated mineral matter, generally clays and sands, are balanced by the subsidence, or motion of the Earths surface, in the area on which these materials are accumulating. Hence, coal formed like this has bands of coal and inorganic sedimentary rocks arranged in a sequence.

The Drift Theory of Coal formation It was the difference in coal properties of Gondwana coals that led to the formation of the drift theory. The mode of deposition of coal forming can be explained as said below:
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Coal is formed largely from terrestrial plant material growing on dry land and not in swamps or bogs. The original plant debris was transported by water and deposited under water in lakes or in the sea. There will not be a true soil found below the seam of coal.

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The transported plant debris, by its relative low density even when water logged, was sorted from inorganic sediment and drifted to a greater distance in open water. The sediments, inorganic and organic, settled down in regular succession. The process of sedimentation of the organic and inorganic materials continues until the currents can deposit the transported vegetation in the locations. These deposits are covered subsequently by mineral matters, sand, etc. and results in coal seams. The depositions can also stop for a particular period and again begin to happen depending upon the tidal and current conditions. The coal properties vary widely due to the varied types of vegetation deposited. Coal is non-renewable fossil fuel formed in ecosystem where plant remain were preserved by water and mud from oxidization and biodegradation. It can also be described as Coal is the compacted and preserved remains of plant matter and it is called a fossil fuel because it was formed from the remains of vegetation that grew as long as 400 million years ago. It is readily combustible black or brownish-black rock and along with oil and natural gas it is one of the three most important fossil fuels. Coal is formed when accumulated plant debris is altered physically and chemically. The plant debris such as leaves, barks, spores etc settled to the bottom of the swamp and decomposing begins under the bacterial action. The decomposition is not complete because the stagnant water in the swamps stops the decaying process due to the lack of oxygen. This partially decomposed material is known as peat. Peat is the beginning of coal forming process and is called Coalification. There are four stages in coal formation: peat, lignite, bituminous and anthracite. The stage depends upon the conditions to which the plant remains are subjected after they were buried - the greater the pressure and heat, the higher the rank of coal. Higher-ranking coal is denser and contains less moisture and gases and has a higher heat value than lower-ranking coal.

Coal is a sedimentary rock but the forms such as anthracite coal can be regarded as metamorphic rocks because of later exposure to elevated temperature and pressure. It has a wide range of uses; the most important use is for the generation of electricity. Formation of Coal Theories associated with coal formation 1. The In-situ theory :The organic material from which the coal was formed; belongs to the site of deposition. Many researchers have a strong objection on this theory as this specifies a reverse geological cycle but the presence of plant roots under the floor of coal seam signifies the importance of this theory. 2. Drift Theory : The original vegetation material from which the coal deposit had been formed does not belong to the site of deposition but transported by water to the present site. The supporters of this theory have valid reasons to sustain; the most important one is that the coal is sedimentary rock, its sediments brought down by erosion and deposited to low-lying areas of large water bodies and covered with the other inorganic sediments.