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Sergio Benenti
Turin

September 28, 2011

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Holonomic systems Non-holonomic systems Dynamical system of rst kind Dynamical system of the rst kind Virtual displacements The Gauss principle Non-linear constraints

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Main objects: A set of mass-points (P , m ), B (B = body of indices) moving in the Euclidean ane 3-space under constraints of position. A conguration manifold Q of dimension n. Position maps r : Q E3 : q r (q ) = OP . (Kinematic) states: v T Q Kinetic energy: T =
1 2

r (q ) v (q, q )
1 2

m v 2 =

gij q i q j .

Metric tensor on Q: gij g ij .

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Position, velocities and accelerations during a motion q i = q i (t). r (t) = r (q i (t)), r dq i v (t) = , q i dt 2 i j 2 i a (t) = r dq dq + r d q . q j q i dt dt q i dt2

(1)

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First principle of dynamics: Newton equations for constrained particles, m a = A + R A R active force (known)

reactive force (unknown)

Second principle: constitutive conditions on the coinstraints.

Theorem
The Newton equations imply the following dierential system on T Q, dq i r =q i Ai = g ij A dt q j i dq r = Ai + Ri i j q k Ri = g ij R . jk q dt q j These equations do not form a dynamical system: Ri =?.

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What is the simplest and best constitutive condition on the constraints? Obvious answer (of a mathematician): Ri = 0

Denition
We say that the constraints are ideal if Ri = 0.

Theorem
The dynamics of a holonomic the dynamical system D : system with ideal constraints is governed by dq i =q i dt dq i = Ai i j q k jk q dt

associated with a vector eld D on T Q (the space of states).

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Remark
Condition Ri = 0 is equivalent to R w = 0 for all vitual r i displacements (or virtual velocity) w = q . q i

Remark
Think of a motion as a sequence of states of T Q i.e., as a curve in T Q, instead of a curve in Q. Crucial for the extension to non-holonomic systems.

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Denition
A non-holonomic system is a holonomic systema with additional constraints on the velocities.
a

???

A non-holonomic constraint is represented by a subset C T Q of the state manifold.

Denition
C is regular if it is a submanifold of T Q which projects onto Q (i.e., it does not imply any restriction to the congurations). and . . . Non-regular constraints have singular states.

Remark
Singular states are very dangerous: according to the theory we are going to build, when a non-holonomic system is in or reaches a singular state, then it does not know what to do after.
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Sergio Benenti (Turin)

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Interesting problems: Start from the Newton equations m a = A + R and nd dynamical equations as dynamical systems (vector elds) on T Q. Dene the notion of virtual displacement. Dene the notion of ideal constraint. State the Gauss principle as a theorem.

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Representations of C :
1

Parametric representation: C is described by n equations q i = i (q, z ), with m parameters z = (z ) ( = 1, . . . , m < n). Note that (q i , z ) can be interpreted as coordinates on C ; z ) are coordinates on the bers.

Implicit representation: C is described by r = n m independent equations C a (q, q ) = 0, a = 1, . . . r. i =m (maximal rank) rank z nm Regularity conditions C a =r (maximal rank) rank q i nr
2

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Remark
The parametric representation is used for developing the theory: to give denitions of virtual displacement and of ideal constraints. It leads to a dynamical system of rst kind Z : a vector eld dened only on the constraint submanifold C .

Remark
The implicit representation leads to a dynamical system of second kind D : a vector eld dened on the whole state manifold T Q but tangent (then reducible) to C .

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Dynamical system of rst kind

based on a parametric representation of C : q i = i (q, z ). Ideas: i 1 Coordinates on C : (q , z ). 2 Equations q i = i (q, z ) are interpreted as dierential equations dq i = i (q, z ). dt
3

Add equations of the kind

dz = Z (q, z ) dt in order to get a complete dynamical system on C . Steps: 1. Parametric representation of the accelerations: a (q, z, z ) = 2 r i j r + q i q j q i i j i + z . q j z
r qh

h 2. Newton equations m a A R = 0. Multiply by dz 3. Solve the resulting equations w.r.to z = . dt

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Solution: dz h = G dt Ah + Rh i j ij,h j i gih q j

where [G ] is the inverse (?) matrix of

i j G = gij i = i z

Problem: the term

i Ri G

contains the reactive forces.

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Solution (by a mathematician):

Denition
i R =0 Ideal constraints i

Theorem
The dynamical equations of the rst kind are: dq i = i (q, z ), dt dz h = G dt

Ah i j ij,h ghi

i j q j

This is the dynamical system associated with a vector eld Z on C .

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Worksheet of the rst kind

1

Choose Lagrangian coordinates (q i ), compute the kinetic energy, the matrices [gij ] and [g ij ]. Compute the Christoel symbols (by the Lagrange euqations). Chose a parametric representation q i = i (q, z ) and compute the i matrix [ ]. i j Compute q j Compute the matrices [G ] and [G ]
h Compute G

2 3

Ah i j ij,h ghi

i j q j

with generic

Lagrangian forces Ai .
7

Give the Ai and write the dynamical equations.

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Dynamical system of second kind based on an implicit representation of C : C a (q, q ) = 0.

Theorem
i Ri = 0 Ri = a

C a . q i

The constraints are ideal i Ri = a

C a . q i

This is the Lagrange multipliers method (revisited). From the Newton equations m a = A + R we get -dependent dynamical systems on T Q: dq i =q i , dt D : dq C a i = g ij Ai hk,i q h q k + a . dt q j

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Denition
If the integral curves of D which intersect C in a point lie entirely on C , then we say that D is compatible with the constraints Problem: nd functions a (q, q ) (if any) such that D is tangent to C . Solution:

Theorem
There axists a unique (!) set of functions a (q, q ) such that D is tangent to C : b C b i C a (q, q ) = Hab F i + q q i q i H ab = g ij C a C b q i q j F i (q, q ) = Ai i h q k hk q

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Theorem
(i) The dynamical equations of second kind are: dq i =q i , dt D: dq i =F dt

i Gab

C b C a ij g j q q

Hab

C b C a ij g q j q q

The actual motions of the non-holonomic system are represented by the integral curves whose initial conditions satisfy the constraints. (ii) The reactive Lagrangian forces are Ri (q, q ) = Hab Fj C b C b +q j j q q j C a q i

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Worksheet:
1

K=

3 4 5 6 7 8

gij q i q j , [gij ], [g ij ] and Fi computed as in the rst method. C a Cia = . q i C ai = g ij Cia .

b = C ai C b . Gab = g ij Cia Cj i

1 2

[Gab ] = [Gab ]1 .
i = G C bi . Xa ab j j i = Cia Xa . i i ) F j . (j j i i ) F j X i q Di = (j a j

C b . q

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Special case of a single equation C (q, q ) = 0. Di = ( i i ) F q Worksheet: C 1 C = . i q i 2 C i = g ij C . j

3 4 5 6

C i X q

G = C i Ci . X i = G1 C i .
j i = Ci X j . i i ) F j . (j j

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On the denition of virtual displacement. We work on the state manifold T Q and use a parametric representation of C.

Denition
A bf dynamical state is a set of vectors (r , v , a )

Theorem
For the dynamical states compatible with the constraints we have the parametric representation v (q, z ) = r i , q i 2 r r a (q, z, z ) = i j ij + q q q i

i j i + z q j z

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Denition
A virtual displacememt at a state s0 = (q0 , q 0 ) is the vector tangent at = 0 to a curve c(q0 , ) : R C T Q : (q i (), q i ()) such that c(q0 , 0) = (q0 , q 0 ), c(q0 , ) = (q0 , q ()).

Remarks
1. The curve c(q0 , ) is compatible with the constraints: its image belongs to C . 2. The curve preserves the initial conguration q0 (so, it is a vertical curve). 3. A virtual displacement is a small displacement from a state s0 = (q0 , q 0 ) T Q to a neighboring state s = (q0 , q ) at the same conguration q0 Q. Why this denition? Wait a moment.

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A curve c(q0 , ) generates a one-parameter family of states (r , v ): i ) = constant, r = r (q0 r v () = q i q i ().

i q i =q0

It follows that

dr d = 0, dv r d = q i

i q i =q0

dq i . d

We are interested in computing the vectors w = dv d

=0

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Theorem
The vectors w , which represent the virtual displacements of the points P corresponding to a virtual displacement in C , are given by: C = TQ w (q0 , w) = r q i wi
i q i =q0

C TQ

w (q0 , z ) =

r i q i z

z
i q i =q0

Remark
The conguration q0 is xed. In the rst case (no non-holonomic constraint) each w is linear in the parameters (wi ) Rn . In the second case, w is linear in the parameters (z ) Rm .

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The denitions of ideal constraints given separately for holonomic and non-holonomic systems can be incorporated in a single denition.

Denition
1. We call virtual work of the reactive forces the sum R w . 2. The constraints are ideal if the virtual work vanishes for all virtual displacements. In the two cases, C = T Q and C T Q, the virtual work is

R w = R w =

r i w = Ri w i , q i i r i R z = R z , i q i z z R

respectively. Then, ideal constraints wi Rn Ri w i = 0 i Ri z = 0 z Rm z

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These are precisely the denitions given above by our mathematician.

Sergio Benenti (Turin) September 28, 2011

Remark
i The second condition Ri = 0 reduces to the rst condition Ri = 0 in z absence of non-holonomic constraints.

Remark
A virtual displacement w has the meaning of a acceleration. This funny circumstance is the prelude of the Gaussian formulation of mechanics. Proof: we have the decomposition a = a0 + a z , where a0 = 2 r i r i + q i q j q i q j j , a = r i . q i z

The rst vector a0 depends on the kinematic state of the system. The second vector a z is a virtual displacement:
Sergio Benenti (Turin)

a z = w (q, z, z ).
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Remark
The constitutive conditions be traslated into equation

R w = 0 of the ideal constraints can

(m a A ) w = 0

to be satised for all sets virtual displacements w compatible with the constraints. This is the well-known formulation of the virtual work principle.

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Take the denitions of virtual displacement and of ideal constraints given above.

Theorem
(Gauss principle) In any dynamical state (r , v , a ) of a non-holonomic system with ideal constraints the accelerations a are such that the function 1 A 2 G= m a 2 m assumes a minimal value.

Remark
The implication Newton equations = Gauss principle holds because of our denition of virtual displacement only.

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Non-linear constraints 1. Linear non-holonomic constraints are the rule. The non-linear ones are really exceptional. 2. It is easy to propose examples of non-linear constraints: it is sucient to choose any set of non-linear independent equations C a (q, q ) = 0. However, any example of non-linear constraint remains meaningless unless we know how to realize it by means of a device. The famous Appell-Hamel example was a matter of discussion (see Neimark, Ch.4, Sec.2): in order to be really a non-linear device, a certain distance of the Appell-Hamel device must be innitesimally small. 3. Hertz remark: non-linear constraints can be realized by the limit x 0 of certain physical quantities x (masses, lengths, etc.) in devices realizing linear constraints.

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An example: the double pendulum.

Q = R4 Lagrangian coordinates (q 1 , q 2 , q 3 , q 4 ) = (x1 , y1 , x2 , y2 )

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Realization

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Non-linearity

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Dynamical equations of second kind. dx1 =x 1, dt dy1 =y 1 , dt dx2 =x 2, dt dy2 =y 2 . dt

dx 1 1 4 v 2 A + m2 x2 x 4 (x = x2 1 2 1 Ax1 + y 1 Ay1 ) + 2y 2 x1 1 1 y dt m 1 3y 2 (y 2y 2) y 2y 3 ] + x1 x2 y 1 2 2 Ax2 x 2 Ay2 ) + m2 x1 (y 1 v2 2 v1 1 2 y 1 2 3 2 m2 2 4 dy 1 x1 y 2 (x 1 Ax1 + y 1 Ay1 ) + = x2 y 1 v2 Ay1 + dt m 1 3 (y 2y 2) ] 2 (x 2 Ax2 ) + m2 x1 x 1 y 2 2 v1 1 v2 + x1 x2 x 1 y 1 y 2 2 Ay2 y where
4 2 4 2 = m1 x2 1 v2 + m2 x2 2 v1 , 2y 1y 2 2 v1 =x 2 1 , 1+y 2 2 v2 =x 2 2 . 2+y

Similar equations for

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dx 2 dy 2 and . dt dt
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Remark
If the pivoting point P0 has a mass m0 = 0 then the constraint is linear. Q = R5 : (y0 , x1 , y1 , x2 , y2 ) Two distinct congurations:

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Two states at the same conguration:

The constraint is linear. Hertz remark: non-linear constraints can be realized by the limit x 0 of certain physical quantities x (masses, lengths, etc.) in devices realizing linear constraints!
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Disregarding masses = a change of the conguration manifold Q!

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