Solutions: Concentration

Introduction to Concentration

One very important property of solutions that must be addressed is concentration.

Concentration generally refers to the amount of solute contained in a certain

amount of solution. To deal with concentration you must keep in mind the
distinctions between solute, solvent and solution.

Because varying amounts of solute can be dissolved in a solution, concentration is a

variable property and we often need to have a numerical way of indicating how
concentrated a solution happens to be. Over the years a variety of ways have
developed for calculating and expressing the concentration of solutions.

That can be done with percentages using measurements of weight (mass) or volume or
both. It can also be done using measurements that more closely relate to ways that
chemicals react with one another (moles).

In the pages that follow, several types of concentration will be presented. They
include volume percent, weight percent, weight/volume percent, molarity (the
workhorse of chemical concentrations), and normality (presented only briefly here,
more about it in another lesson).

You will get experience with more than one way of establishing the concentration of
solutions. You can prepare a solution from scratch and measure each of the
components that go into the solution. You can prepare a solution by diluting an
existing solution. If an existing solution is colored, you can determine its
concentration by measuring the intensity of color using colorimetry.

Equilibrium

There is also a connection between concentration and the equilibrium of saturated

solutions that we will consider in this lesson. That involves the solubility product
constants (Ksp) for ionic compounds

Preliminary Information
Topic:
Solutions: Concentration

Purpose:

To become familiar with various ways of representing the

concentrations of solutions.

Objectives:

You have completed this lesson when you can:

1. Express concentrations of solutions in weight percent, volume percent, or

"weight/volume" percent.

2. Define molarity.

3. Calculate molarity, moles of solute, or volume of solutions when given two of these
three quantities.

4. Calculate the new molarity when the amount of solvent in a solution is changed
(dilution).

5. Determine specie concentrations (and amounts) in ionic solutions given the solution
concentration.

6. Use colorimetry to determine the concentration of colored solutions.

7. Given that there are several ways of expressing the concentration of a solution, list
the advantages of each and describe the situations in which each is most useful.

8. Write solubility product expressions for ionic compounds.

9. Calculate the numerical value of solubility product constants given the ion
concentrations at saturation or the solubility of the compound.

10. Calculate the concentration of one ion in a saturated solution given the
concentrations of the other ions and the value of the solubility product constant.

Percentage Concentrations
The use of percentages is a common way of expressing the concentration of a
solution. It is a straightforward approach that you have used earlier when dealing with
the composition of compounds. There are, however, some differences. One is that the
concentrations of solution are variable while the composition of compounds is
constant. Another is that the percentages can be calculated using volumes as well as
weights, or even both together.
One way of expressing concentrations, with which you might be familiar, is by volume
percent. Another is by weight percent. Still another is a hybrid called weight/volume
percent. In the pages of this section we will look at how to calculate each and the
cases where each is generally used.

Volume Percent
Volume percent is usually used when the solution is made by mixing two liquids.

For example, rubbing alcohol is generally

70% by volume isopropyl alcohol. That
means that 100 ml of solution contains 70
ml of isopropyl alcohol. That also means
that a liter (or 1000 ml) of this solution has
700 ml of isopropyl alcohol plus enough
water to bring it up a total volume of 1
liter, or 1000 ml.
volume of solute
Volume percent = x 100%
volume of solution

One potentially confusing thing about volume percent stems from the fact that the
volumes of liquids are not always additive. Sometimes the volumes change when two
liquids are mixed together. For example, mixing 70 ml of isopropyl alcohol and 30 ml
of water will not give you exactly 100 ml of solution.

Weight Percent
Another similar way of expressing the concentration of a solution is to express it in
weight percent (or mass percent, if you prefer).

weight of solute
Weight percent = x 100%
weight of solution

You've done this kind of calculation earlier - last term in the lesson on composition.
You may already be prepared to answer the questions in exercise 2 in your workbook.
If so, do that and check your answers at the bottom of the page. If not, read on.
As an example, let's consider a 12% by 12 g NaCl
12 % NaCl solution =
weight sodium chloride solution. Such a 100 g solution
solution would have 12 grams of sodium
chloride for every 100 grams of
solution. To make such a solution, you
could weigh out 12 grams of sodium
chloride, and then add 88 grams of
water, so that the total mass for the 12 g NaCl
= 12% NaCl solution
solution is 100 grams. Since mass (12 g NaCl + 88 g water)
(unlike volume) is conserved, the
masses of the components of the
solution, the solute and the solvent,
will add up to the total mass of the
solution.

To calculate the mass percent or weight percent of a solution, you must divide the
mass of the solute by the mass of the solution (both the solute and the solvent
together) and then multiply by 100 to change it into percent.

Examples (Ex. 1)

Your workbook has some examples of calculations involving weight percent in example
1. An explanation of those examples is given here.

Example 1-a asks, "What is the weight Question:

percent of glucose in a solution made by What is the weight percent of glucose in a
dissolving 4.6 g of glucose in 145.2 g of solution made by dissolving 4.6 g of
water?" The way that I recommend you go glucose in 145.2 g of water?
about doing this is to look at what you Analysis:
need to find, look at what you are given, To get weight percent we need the weight
and determine what the relationship is. of the solute and the total weight of the
Let's start with what you are trying to find, solution.
the weight percent of glucose in the
solution. What do we need in order to Determine total weight of solution:
calculate that? We need to divide the 4.6 g glucose
weight of glucose by the weight of the + 145.2 g water
solution. We have the weight of glucose, 149.8 g solution
that is 4.6 g. What about the weight of the Calculate percent:
solution? That is not given, but we can
figure it out by adding together the weight Weight % glucose =
of glucose and water to get 149.8 g. Now
we can calculate the weight percent of 4.6 g glucose x 100 = 3.1% glucose
glucose as shown to get 3.1%. 149.8 g solution
 The next question is a little bit
different. You are asked how you would Question:
prepare 400 g of a 2.50% solution of How would you prepare 400. g of a 2.50%
salt. You are given 400. g of solution solution of sodium chloride?
(that is total) and you know that 2.50% Analysis:
of that is going to be salt. You need to We need to find out how much salt is needed
find out how much salt you need and and how much water is needed.
how much water you need. You can Determine weight of salt:
simply multiply 400. g by 2.50% to find 400. g x 2.50% salt = 10.0 g salt
out how much salt there is (shown in
2.50 g salt
the top line), or you can set up the 400. g solution x = 10.0 g salt
100 g solution
calculation shown on the next line.
Either way, you find that you need 10.0 Determine weight of water:
g of salt. Since you need a total mass of 400. g total
400. g and 10. g of that is salt, the - 10. g salt
remaining 390. g would have to be 390. g water
water. So, to prepare this solution you Answer:
would have to mix 10.0 g of salt with Dissolve 10.0 g salt in 390. g water.
390. g of water.

If you have any questions about these calculations be sure to stop and go over them
again or work with the instructor if you need to, so that you can get squared away on
how to work these kinds of problems.

Practice (Ex. 2)

Take time now to answer the following questions (also given in exercise 2 in your
workbook). The third question, you will note, has an extra twist to it. Take some time
to do these now, get some help if you need it and then check your answers below.

What is the weight percent of ethanol in a solution made by dissolving 5.3 g of

ethanol in 85.0 g of water?
How would you make 250. g of a 7.5% solution of glucose in water?
A sample of a solution weighing 850.0 g is known to contain .223 moles of potassium
chloride. What is the weight percent of potassium chloride in the solution?

Answers (Ex. 2)

The answer to "a" is 5.9% ethanol. If you got 6.2% probably what you did was to not
add together the mass of the ethanol and the water to get the total mass of the
solution.

Question "b" brings up a couple points. One is that the question asks "how would you
prepare?" So the answer is not just 18.75g of glucose. Since the question asks you how
to do something, you need to answer with how you would do it. You would dissolve
18.75 g of glucose in 231.25 g of water. The other point this brings up is a matter of
significant digits. According to the number of digits given in the question it would be
very legitimate to say that you would dissolve 19 g of glucose in 231 g of water. That
would be a very appropriate thing to do. However, if you are trying to prepare a
solution, try to prepare it as well as you can. Get as close to the 7.5% as you can. If
you were to round this value to 19g and then dissolved it in 231 g of water, what
would actually prepare would be 7.6% solution. In terms of significant digits, that is
not a problem, you just have a slight variation in the last digit and that fits. But if you
want to prepare a 7.5% solution instead of a 7.6% solution, then you have to be more
careful than just two significant digits.

The answer to "c" is 1.96% potassium chloride. Depending on how you went about
doing your calculations and rounding off you may have gotten 1.95% instead of 1.96%.
Don't worry too much about that. One more point about the last question here is that
in order to do it you needed to change from moles of KCl to grams of KCl. This is just
the opposite of what you will need to do when calculating molarity a little later in
this lesson.

Weight Percent
Another similar way of expressing the concentration of a solution is to express it in
weight percent (or mass percent, if you prefer).

weight of solute
Weight percent = x 100%
weight of solution

You've done this kind of calculation earlier - last term in the lesson on composition.
You may already be prepared to answer the questions in exercise 2 in your workbook.
If so, do that and check your answers at the bottom of the page. If not, read on.

As an example, let's consider a 12% by 12 g NaCl

12 % NaCl solution =
weight sodium chloride solution. Such a 100 g solution
solution would have 12 grams of sodium
chloride for every 100 grams of
solution. To make such a solution, you
could weigh out 12 grams of sodium
chloride, and then add 88 grams of
water, so that the total mass for the 12 g NaCl
= 12% NaCl solution
solution is 100 grams. Since mass (12 g NaCl + 88 g water)
(unlike volume) is conserved, the
masses of the components of the
solution, the solute and the solvent,
will add up to the total mass of the
solution.

To calculate the mass percent or weight percent of a solution, you must divide the
mass of the solute by the mass of the solution (both the solute and the solvent
together) and then multiply by 100 to change it into percent.

Examples (Ex. 1)

Your workbook has some examples of calculations involving weight percent in example
1. An explanation of those examples is given here.
Example 1-a asks, "What is the weight Question:
percent of glucose in a solution made by What is the weight percent of glucose in a
dissolving 4.6 g of glucose in 145.2 g of solution made by dissolving 4.6 g of
water?" The way that I recommend you go glucose in 145.2 g of water?
about doing this is to look at what you Analysis:
need to find, look at what you are given, To get weight percent we need the weight
and determine what the relationship is. of the solute and the total weight of the
Let's start with what you are trying to find, solution.
the weight percent of glucose in the
solution. What do we need in order to Determine total weight of solution:
calculate that? We need to divide the 4.6 g glucose
weight of glucose by the weight of the + 145.2 g water
solution. We have the weight of glucose, 149.8 g solution
that is 4.6 g. What about the weight of the Calculate percent:
solution? That is not given, but we can
figure it out by adding together the weight Weight % glucose =
of glucose and water to get 149.8 g. Now
we can calculate the weight percent of 4.6 g glucose x 100 = 3.1% glucose
glucose as shown to get 3.1%. 149.8 g solution

The next question is a little bit

different. You are asked how you would Question:
prepare 400 g of a 2.50% solution of How would you prepare 400. g of a 2.50%
salt. You are given 400. g of solution solution of sodium chloride?
(that is total) and you know that 2.50% Analysis:
of that is going to be salt. You need to We need to find out how much salt is needed
find out how much salt you need and and how much water is needed.
how much water you need. You can Determine weight of salt:
simply multiply 400. g by 2.50% to find 400. g x 2.50% salt = 10.0 g salt
out how much salt there is (shown in the
2.50 g salt
top line), or you can set up the 400. g solution x = 10.0 g salt
100 g solution
calculation shown on the next line.
Either way, you find that you need 10.0 Determine weight of water:
g of salt. Since you need a total mass of 400. g total
400. g and 10. g of that is salt, the - 10. g salt
remaining 390. g would have to be 390. g water
water. So, to prepare this solution you Answer:
would have to mix 10.0 g of salt with Dissolve 10.0 g salt in 390. g water.
390. g of water.
If you have any questions about these calculations be sure to stop and go over them
again or work with the instructor if you need to, so that you can get squared away on
how to work these kinds of problems.

Practice (Ex. 2)

Take time now to answer the following questions (also given in exercise 2 in your
workbook). The third question, you will note, has an extra twist to it. Take some time
to do these now, get some help if you need it and then check your answers below.

What is the weight percent of ethanol in a solution made by dissolving 5.3 g of

ethanol in 85.0 g of water?
How would you make 250. g of a 7.5% solution of glucose in water?
A sample of a solution weighing 850.0 g is known to contain .223 moles of potassium
chloride. What is the weight percent of potassium chloride in the solution?

Answers (Ex. 2)

The answer to "a" is 5.9% ethanol. If you got 6.2% probably what you did was to not
add together the mass of the ethanol and the water to get the total mass of the
solution.

Question "b" brings up a couple points. One is that the question asks "how would you
prepare?" So the answer is not just 18.75g of glucose. Since the question asks you how
to do something, you need to answer with how you would do it. You would dissolve
18.75 g of glucose in 231.25 g of water. The other point this brings up is a matter of
significant digits. According to the number of digits given in the question it would be
very legitimate to say that you would dissolve 19 g of glucose in 231 g of water. That
would be a very appropriate thing to do. However, if you are trying to prepare a
solution, try to prepare it as well as you can. Get as close to the 7.5% as you can. If
you were to round this value to 19g and then dissolved it in 231 g of water, what
would actually prepare would be 7.6% solution. In terms of significant digits, that is
not a problem, you just have a slight variation in the last digit and that fits. But if you
want to prepare a 7.5% solution instead of a 7.6% solution, then you have to be more
careful than just two significant digits.

The answer to "c" is 1.96% potassium chloride. Depending on how you went about
doing your calculations and rounding off you may have gotten 1.95% instead of 1.96%.
Don't worry too much about that. One more point about the last question here is that
in order to do it you needed to change from moles of KCl to grams of KCl. This is just
the opposite of what you will need to do when calculating molarity a little later in
this lesson.

Molarity
Another way of expressing concentration,
the way that we will use most in this
course, is called molarity. Molarity is the
moles of solute
number of moles of solute dissolved in one molarity =
liter of solution
liter of solution. The units, therefore are
moles per liter, specifically it's moles of
solute per liter of solution.

Rather than writing out moles per liter, these units are abbreviated as M or M. We use
a capital M with a line under it or a capital M written in italics. So when you see M or
M it stands for molarity, and it means moles per liter (not just moles).

You must be very careful to distinguish between moles and molarity. "Moles"
measures the amount or quantity of material you have; "molarity" measures the
concentration of that material. So when you're given a problem or some information
that says the concentration of the solution is 0.1 M that means that it has 0.1 mole for
every liter of solution; it does not mean that it is 0.1 moles. Please be sure to make
that distinction.

Normality
When you need to compare solutions on the basis of concentration of specific ions or
the amount of charge that the ions have, a different measure of concentration can be
very useful. It is called normality.

We will deal with normality more completely in the lesson on acid-base titrations and
give it just a cursory mention in this lesson. For that reason there are no objectives or
examples of normality in the workbook for this lesson.

The normality of a solution is simply a multiple of the molarity of the solution.

Generally, the normality of a solution is just one, two or three times the molarity. In
rare cases it can be four, five, six or even seven times as much. The symbol for
normality is N or N.

Whether the multiplying factor is one, two

or three depends on the formula of the CaCl2 Ca2+ + 2 Cl-
chemical and what it is being compared to.
Note that calcium chloride has two moles 1 M CaCl2 = 2 N CaCl2
of chloride ions for every mole of CaCl2. 2.4 M CaCl2 = 4.8 N CaCl2
Because of that, the multiplying factor for etc.
calcium chloride is two.
 AlCl3 Al3+ + 3 Cl-
Similarly, for aluminum chloride the 1 M AlCl3 = 3 N AlCl3
multiplying factor is three. 2.4 M AlCl3 = 7.2 N AlCl3
etc.

Colorimetry
One useful and often used way of determining the concentration of a chemical in a
solution, if it has a color, is to measure the intensity of the color and relate the
intensity of the color to the concentration of the solution. Several useful factors are
very important. After discussing those important factors and the mathematical
summary of them called Beer's Law, we will look at colorimeters, the instruments
that you will use to measure color intensity.

Next we will deal with the problem of actually figuring out the concentration of a
solution from the absorbance measurements that can be made using the colorimeters
by looking at Calculations for Colorimetry. There are three methods that can be used
depending on what information is available. They involve using proportionality,
graphing and Beer's Law.

Your Lab Work for this lesson will involve puting all of that together when you
experimentally determine the concentration of an unknown solution.