Post MT ANTH 311 1. energetics of body size- small bodied primates must eat very nutritious food.

Fruits, fat, flowers (water and sugar). Relies less on sap, insects 2. females have a higher quality diet than males more prominent in species where males are larger than the female. Think reproduction. High vs low quality diet. High quality: fruits, seeds, young leaves, stuff thats easy to break down. Simple sugars are absorbed right into our bloodstream. Low quality: species cannot waste energy doing anything else- all of their energy is going towards digestion. Mature leaves is of a poorer quality diet, bark Making plants attractive Some parts of plants that are more attractive juicy, fleshy parts, reproductive parts -good seed dispersers: smaller seeds get passed through animal toxins/alkaloids some parts of plants have a type of defense that encourages them not to be eaten. Chemical deterrents: secondary compounds. Chemicals in the plants that make it difficult to digest, makes you sick, tastes badddd. Tannins: the leaves are important for photosynthesis- doesnt want to be eaten and so they protect themselves this way. Sacculated stomachs colobines. Like the cow (chambered stomachs) all have adapted this stomach to help break down secondary compounds. Primary component of diet is leaves. Cheek pouches: amalase helps break down food, the longer they are in the cheek pouches, the longer the digestion process is. Primate adaptations to chemical elements Geophagy: clay-based soil helps with morning sickness eat this rich soil (monkeys). Producing fruit en masse: this means the species will fruit at the exact same time (short periods of time). The tree will have ripe fruit all at the same time. Synchronous. Massed fruiting species that eats the fruit may not be able to monopolize all the fruit at that one time. Socio-ecological model Social organizations will respond in a predictable way. Food abundance: is the food found everywhere?

Distribution: Small trees? Quality: how good is that food? This tells us about female relationships in a group. Distribution of food in a particular home range- see how food is distributed in space and in time. Food distribution determines the distribution of females. Also between groups and in groups. Group living and competition Gregariousness: social -living in a group = sharing of resources contest competition: FIGHTING for food scramble competition time and who gets there first two types of competition contest competition: direct, aggressive, physical fights, alpha females can do whatever they want. Scramble competition: doesnt matter what the rank is, if I get there first I eat it. Food for everyone. Equally likely that I might not enough food, you might get enough, it depends who gets there first. These competition types are influenced by SIZE OF THE FOOD PATCH: a feeding site. It could be one tree more than that if the patch isnt big enough to feed all members, there will be competition. It tells us when to expect to see females competing. Socio-ecological model: Size of food patch: how many monkeys/primates fit IN the food patch. Small food patch = some will break off and need to feed somewhere else. This can affect social organization because those individuals who stay together are those who are closely bonded. Temporal availability : how long is the food around for? Distinct seasons? Dry seasons = no food? At specific times of the year, you may see competition and changes in social relationships. Seasonal change in the diet can result in seasonal change in competition. switching to fallback foods (switching to foods that are of poorer quality, more effort to find, etc, needs more energy). Is eaten in case of emergency. One of the ways in which females compensate for seasonal changes in food availability. Spatial distribution of food patches: are the patches far apart to reach the next feeding site? If food is far apart, it takes a lot of energy to get there, therefore you are likely to see competition. Mar 4

fallback foods help avoid food competition better to save something that is easier to process, only when other foods aren't available second strategy is change in ranging pattern or grouping pattern so that they maintain a high quality diet. Even spatial distribution: low quality. Ie grass, leaves. Compared to other foods like insects and flowers they are of low quality. They are reliable. Enough for everybody. Not monopolizable. One individual can claim all of the grass. Not worth time trying to defend resource. Scrambled competition- whoever gets to the food first eats it. There is usually enough for everyone. Relationships between females in this group are not as strong. No need to protect it. Highly foliverous primates. Scramble competition = not a lot of social behaviour. Think gorillas. Clumped: ie fruit, high quality foods. Competition between females. Contest competition: in situations where food is dispersed and in high quality, associated with females in dominance hierarchy. Benefit of established hierarchy reduces fighting and stress than having to fight for access. Benefits no matter what your rank is, there is less uncertainty. -fruit are easily defendable within a group. Dominant individuals can protect fruit from subordinate individuals. These types of foods are also defendable BETWEEN groups. Female bonded group. Aiding kin increases inclusive fitness (moving onto the next generation) -fruits in patchy, clumps = female philopatry (females stay in natal groups) with STRONG bonds between other females. The higher the rank you have, the more likely you will have access to prized resources. They reach sexual maturity faster if they have higher ranked, allows you to have more babies. Higher ranked females have shorter interbirth intervals, they can get pregnant sooner, higher infant survival. Lower ranked primates = lower birth weight babies Being high ranked comes with stress- they are more stressed than lower ranked individuals. Dry seasons = tend to see high ranks used more often. There is a difference between when food is highly available and less available. More likely to survive during drought periods if youre higher ranked. Rank can be acquired in different ways: 1.matrilineal dominance hierarchy: I get the rank that my mother gets. Born into it. Nothing I can do to improve it -intrafamilial rank: every time a daughter is born, the youngest becomes the most dominant. Sons dont integrate themselves into the hierarchy. Tends to be stable over several generations.

-nepotistic. (kin based) and despotic (alpha individual) 2.individualistic: I have some potential to improve it. Scrambled competition Van shaik: pressures- limits as to how big a group can be before it becomes two groups. Becomes too hard to reproduce and get food. From a wild primate standpoint, not a lot of research on scrambled. Nepotistic (rank is based on mothers rank) and egalitarian despotic (predictable alpha female) and tolerant (still a hierarchy but still lets lower ranked primates do things) NOT TWO EXTREMES, its a continuum. Mar 6, 2013 Movie notes 1. How are termite fishing skills acquired in chimpanzees? 2. What is the function of male patrols? To defend the territories- listens for their foes. Guards territories. 3. What can grooming behavior in chimpanzees tell us? Alliances are apparent by observing who grooms whom. 4. List some characteristics of chimpanzee hunting behavior for red colobus monkeys at Gombe. The most avid hunter recruits males to join hunting party. Tries to strand monkeys at the top of trees. Individual selfish behaviour done in a communal setting. Colobus monkeys chased by chimps. 5. What is unique about colobus hunting at Tai Forest, Cote dIvoire, compared to Gombe Stream, Tanzania? driver and blocker- allows prey to come in front and this creates a trap. 6. List distinctive characteristics of Bonobo physiology and society. not smaller(despite being pygmy chimps) just more slightly built. 7. List examples of tool use in chimpanzees. Alpha female. Play a very different role than they do among chimps. Strongly bonded group of high ranking mothers and adult sons. Almost never disciplines babies. Males stay with their mothers for their entire lives. Sex used to diffuse violence and form bonds 8. What behavior in chimpanzees is suggested to have a medicinal function? swallowing leaves- helps to remove/expel tapeworms. 9. List some gestures/symbols in chimpanzee culture 10. What factors are thought to be causing population decline in chimpanzees throughout Africa? clasp hands between males groom one another kissing lessens tension march 8 socio-ecological model egalitarian: means equal access to resources. Prominent in gorillas because there is no reason to compete.

Nepotistic: you gain your mothers rank. Born into rank and it doesnt change. Despotic: alpha female doesnt groom anybody. This is the extreme- having a despotic leader. Tolerance: the other extreme: still a dominance hierarchy but dominant individuals cannot be despotic. If there are no reason to compete for resources within your group, theres no need to build alliances with other females by grooming, etc. folivores. Female-female coalitions: rely on kin to help us get those resources. Long-term coalitions. A lot of effort to maintain these relationships. Understand these relationships really well. Know table on p 212. Confuse paternity: tricking a male into thinking hes the father. Gets other males to care for offspring. If estrus: no set mating season, no birth season. Random. One male has a greater chance of defending a female from other males because there are only one of her. Reproductive synchrony: ovulates at the same time. Mating season. infanticide: by males (unrelated). When females lose a baby they go into estrus right away. Sexual coercion. No sexual coercion where males and females are the same body size. Questions for Film: What males will do 1. Why are audio signals common in male displays across a diverse array of species? To attract females. Establish territory, ward off rivals. You dont want to be relying on vision for everything. 2.How is being consumed by a female postmating an adaptive behavioural strategy for some males? Better off being the mantis being eaten before passing on genes. Only road to reproductive success for some species. 3. Is the tooluse display exhibited by brown capuchins an example malemale competition, female choice, or both? Why? female choice- females choose the males that can bash the loudest. 4. What strategy does each lizard colour employ? What is the blue lizard strategy an example of?

Yellows make up in stealth (sneaky) what they lack for in strength. Blue uses buddy system- works to guard a mate. orange: aggressive. Blues can guard against yellow and hold off an orange. They share so many genes that it doesnt matter which mates with the female. 5. Is the first mating opportunity of a garter snake dominated by malemale scramble competition, malemale contest competition, or female choice? What about the 2nd mating? Not female choice. Not male combat. Scramble competition. After male mates with snake he leaves behind gelatinous plug which prevents other males. Smaller mating ball the second time- she is looking for bigger, faster males. Not a chance encounter- she has choice the second time. Cryptic female choice- she has choice but its not obvious from the outside. She can choose which sperm to fertilize her eggs. 6.Describe how sexual selection can drive major morphological change, as described in the manakin. If a male manakin hopes to breed, he has to make an un-bird like sound. Bird moves its wing back and forth (knocks together), feathers generate vibrations to attract females. Wings of male manakin evolve so that he can create the perfect pitch. March 13, 2013 arms race: one sex develops an adaptation and in response, the other evolves an adaptation that counteracts the other. Ducks: corkscrew cavity and goes in the opposite direction of the male. Not on the MT----Primate life cycle Males tend to have riskier lives- any type of intense intersexual competition, fighting amongst themselves = females live longer than males. Socialization: how you learn to be a member of your species or group. Who teaches me how to do that, what are the steps I go through? How do I make a nest? How do I protect myself? Mothers can correct behaviour as they go along in order to survive. Primates are the most helpless of all animal babies takes a long tie to develop mature brains. Human babies are born earlier on, before brain is developed. This is because it needs to pass throw very narrow birth canal (adaptation of bipedalism). Human primates cant give birth alone (obligate midwifery). Primate infants are costly

Less altricial: stresirrhines, lemurs, lorises. parking the baby More altricial: haplorhines, tarsiers, monkeys, apes, humans Birth in primates Unless talking about humans and marmosets, its unassisted. New infants draw attention of others everyone is attracted to infants. Variability in maternal care: Age of the mother: younger mothers tend to be worse than older mothers. Parity of the mother: experience. Multiparous (multiple offspring), nulliparous (none), primiparous (one) Rank of mother: stressed primates are more concerned about their offspring. Dominant females are more laid back because their offspring doesnt have much to worry about. Species differences: what is the diet like, what is the home range like? 27 March Film Notes 1. Describe basic traits of 1) white faced capuchins, 2)mantled howler monkeys, 3) black handed spider monkeys. (1) smart, (2) stupid spends more time digesting, avoids competition by eating unripe fruit (3) shy, fussy about food 2. How has the environment at Santa Rosa National Park changed since the land was purchased from the ranchers? Used to be just grass and shrubs, now it has sustained to maintain a great variety of life. 3. Describe how figs are exploited by each species of monkey. Howler money eats it before theyre fully ripe, spider monkeys are larger, checks to see if they are ripe. 4. Why do white faced capuchins need to feed more than the other species? Brains are bigger and use a lot energy 5. What does interspecies play teach juveniles of each species of monkey? learn the status of their own species relative to the others. Howlers are the closet of the 3 and should give way to the others, have guts and aggression. Spiders are the largest and fastest and should get what they want. 6. How do howlers behave when they hear or encounter other howler groups? Youngest adults are normally the most dominant. Move into new groups. 7. How does the forest change seasonally? Dry season What are the consequences for the capuchins?

Likes to drink everyday, tree hole water has dried up 8. What happens when extra group males approach a capuchin group? 9. What is one benefit oft he spider monkeys loose (fission fusion) social grouping during the dry season? 10. In what way does the Tabebuia tree try to counteract howler feeding in the dry season? Synchronize their flowering to just three days so that the howlers can only damage a few trees. 11. Why do monkeys sleep on the small thin branches of the trees? 12. How does living in Santa Rosa N.P. affect the spiders? 13. What are the threats to all three species outside the N.P.? apr 1, 2013 spider monkeys are good indicator species. Whenever something happens theyre the first to leave keystone species: if you were to remove them, there would be a cascading impact on the ecosystem. Will affect other thing further down the line, disproportionate effect on environment relative to how many are actually there. Top of food web (major predators) -primates in peru removed = changed ecosystem. 55% drop in primate seed dispersed trees. Most of the time this is negative. Indicator species: says something about health of environment as a whole. Flagship species: must draw peoples support. Doesnt have to be endangered just has to be attractive. iucn: every species has a level of conservation risk. -high level of human activity? Rate of extinction seems to appearing much faster than it ever has been. Anthropogenic: human induced. Questions for Film: Milking the Rhino 1. How does James Ole Kinyaga, the Masai chief in Kenya, try to convince his people to support wildlife & habitat conservation? Guys cook, Wildlife coming back, grass, wildlife, benefits busses, schools, roads

2. In Namibia, how have the profits from the ecotourism projects changed the way of life for the Himba people? People and cattle stay put at center of valley. Boring of water for cattle. Bare grass, wildlife is decreasing, annual grass (not perennial) 3. Describe how the ecotourism lodge and the Himba village are at odds with one another. How are their values different? Lodge people want to give a certain level of comfort. Locals dont like it because theyre not actually protecting wildlife. Ecotourism lodge wants to show people how they are naturally and locals want to sell things. 4. What were the problems originally between the Masai and Ian Craigs ranch? Cattle and land. Massai think they own the cattle over the world = problems with ranchers. Craigs cattle were stolen. Conservation. 5. What is the myth of wild Africa? A place where this is wildlife Land allocated for ranching, hunting tools, 6. How did the white colonizers change life for traditional societies in Africa? Took over management of wildlife. Movement to create national parks. People were still living in these areas. 7. What were early conservationists like in Africa? -government after independence from the colonizers? Tourism grew 8. How has allowing sustainable hunting thought to have changed attitudes towards wildlife in Namibia among the Himba? People will conserve wildlife if they are allowed to kill it. They need to see the value of it in order to conserve it. 9. What is a conservancy, as seen in Namibia? Group of people who have determined their own boundaries, geo and socially for conservation. Community could have same rights as private landowners. Egalitarian approach. Apr 12 Questions for Film: Ape Genius (NOVA) 1. What is the significance of the peanut in the tube experiment?

Peanut in a clear tube- the chimp uses water as a tool to get the nut out. something humans would do. 2. Describe how chimpanzees at Fongoli, Senegal are catching bushbabies. Chimp would approach cavity, take the tool and jab into the cavity multiple times. Or break open the entire cavity. 3. What is significance of copying? What does it take to copy? Apes copy behaviour naturally without any training. Harder than it looks. Seemed like play at first but were relying on sophisticated skill set for copying. Have to be able to know about that goal to know you share it. Know your body and other bodies to be able to line them up. chimps watch each other to try and get grapes. Learning by imitation is an essential skill for culture. Long believed to be uniquely human. 4. Do we see cooperation in chimpanzees? How is it different among apes compared to humans? great ape research institute in japan. Food is hidden under a stone, swapped for a heavier one. Two chimps cannot work together but they learn to ask for help from a human. 5. Do chimpanzees offer to help others? In what ways? if they understand what your goal is they will help you. They understand what someone else wants. 6. Is there a difference between chimps and bonobos, given that the latter are thought to be more peaceful and congenial? bonobos are the most social. On cooperation test, they are more cooperative than chimps are. Take cooperation even further when young male died workers tried removing his body they were very defensive. 7. What is limiting ape cooperation? How is it different in humans? emotional issues, violence, rivalries, impulsive. 8. What is limiting about Kanzis use of language? How is it different from humans? picked up English without being taught. 3000 english spoken words. Upon closer inspection lacks full mental package- will not symbols to make conversation (human things). 9. How do humans change as they age in terms of mind reading (knowing what others are thinking)? Young children havent fully developed it. 3 year olds make convincing mistakes but 4 year olds are accomplished mind readers princess and ball

apes share some mind reading ability. 10. Are there any uniquely human mental traits? What are they? less emotionally reactive. 11. Why do humans respond to cues like pointing but apes do not? children predisposed to copying while apes dont. they expect to be taught and apes can copy. They do not teach each other.