INTEGRAL

CALCULUS

FOR

BEGINNERS

INTEGRAL
FOR

CALCULUS
BEGINNERS

WITH

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

THE

STUDY

OF

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS

BY

JOSEPH
FORMERLY
FELLOW OF

EDWAEDS,
SIDNEY
SUSSEX

M.A.
COLLEGE,
CAMBRIDGE

MACMILLAN
AND NEW

AND
YORK

CO.

1896
All

rightsreserved

First

Edition, 1891, corrections,

1890.

Reprinted
With additions

1892,
1894

1893.

and

reprinted

1896.

GLASGOW

PRINTED

AT

THE

UNIVERSITY

PRESS

BY

ROBERT

MACLEHOSE

AND

CO.

PREFACE.

THE

present

volume
to
a

is

intended of the
the

to

form

sound

introduction suitable for

a

study

Integral Calculus, subject.

Like its

student

beginning

companion,
it does
at
are

the

Calculus 'Differential! aim all

as

for Beginners,
but rather which

not

therefore of

at

completeness,
of the for the
a

the

omission

portions
best

subject
later

usually regarded
It will of be

left that

reading.
cesses prothe

found,

however,
are

ordinary
as

integration
methods calculation of
to the

fully treated,
and

also

principal
and of the solids

of

Rectification of
the

Quadrature,
and surfaces
is

volumes Some

revolution. student of

indication useful
the the

also

afforded of
to the

other
as

applications
method of
a

Integral Calculus, employed

or

such

general

be

in

obtaining
of
a

position
of Inertia. of
a

Centroid,
As
in want

the

value

Moment
the

it

seems

undesirable Mathematics with

that should
the

path
be

student

Applied
of

blocked of

by

acquaintance

methods

solving

M298720

vi

PREFACE.

elementaryDifferential Equations,and
time that his
course

at the
a

same

should the

be

stopped for
some

tematic sys-

study
and added
more

of

subject in
brief of

complete
has been of the
to and

exhaustive of
the

treatise,a

account

ordinarymethods
such

solution

forms occurring, elementary leading up kinds

as

all including
meet

the of

student

is

likelyto

with of

in
a

his

reading
to the

Analytical Statics,

Dynamics
Linear

and Particle,

the

elementary parts of general

cients, Coeffiis

Rigid Dynamics. Up
Differential the consistent The been

solution of the with treated

Equation
been

Constant
as

subjecthas
with

fullyas
text

the scope

of the

present work.
have

examples scattered throughoutthe

made carefully
or

selected

to

illustrate the A be able considerworked

articles which number

follow. they immediately of

so

these

examples should
be

by
in

the student the

"

that the several methods

"

explained
in sets

book-work

may

firmly fixed
harder

the
at
a

mind
the
more

before
ends

the attacking

somewhat
are

of the

chapters.These
character, and

generallyof
call for

miscellaneous

greater
these

and originality considerable

ingenuity, though
been set actually in

few

present any

A largeproportion of difficulty.

examples have
the
sources

examinations, and
for them
are

to

which

am

indebted

usuallyindicated.

PREFACE.

vii

My
the

acknowledgments
works of
many

are

due

in

some

degree
on

to

of

the

modern

writers

the

subjects
Treatises

treated

of,
Bertrand

but

more

especially
and

to

the

of

and

Todhunter,

to

fessor Pro-

Greenhill's

interesting
the
more

Chapter
advanced

on

the

Integral
may

Calculus,
consult
with

which

student

great
are

advantage.
due
to

My kindly
the

thanks

several

friends

who

have

sent

me

valuable

suggestions

with

regard

to

desirable

scope

and

plan

of

the

work.

JOSEPH

EDWARDS.

October,

1894.

CONTENTS.

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

CHAPTER

I.

NOTATION,
Determination of from

SUMMATION,

APPLICATIONS.
PAGES

an

Area,
......

1
"

Integration
Volume of

the

Definition,
10

4
"

9 13

Revolution,

"

CHAPTER

II.

GENERAL

METHOD.

STANDARD

FORMS.

Fundamental Nomenclature General Laws of

Theorem,
.......

14
"

19
21
"

and

Notation,
......

20

obeyed
xn,

by

the

Integrating

Symbol,
. .

22 23"26 26"28

Integration
Table of

x~l,

Results,

CHAPTER

III.

METHOD

OF

SUBSTITUTION.

Method The

of

Changing

the

Variable,
......

29
"

32 36
"

Hyperbolic

Functions,

33

Additional

Standard

Results,

37"41

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER INTEGRATION
BY

IV. PARTS.
PAGES

"by Integration
Geometrical Extension of the

Parts"

of

Product,

43"47
....

Proof, Rule,

48"49 50"52

CHAPTER PARTIAL Standard General

V. FRACTIONS. 55
"

Cases,
Fraction

57

........

with

Rational

Numerator

and

nominator, De58"61

CHAPTER
SUNDRY

VI. METHODS.

STANDARD

Integrationof
Powers Powers Powers and

f^L
J \/K
or

65"68
... .

Products

of Sines and

Cosines,
.....

69"74
75
"

of Secants of

Cosecants,
or

76
78

Tangents
a

Cotangents,
"

77
.....

"

/rfv
+ o
cos

etc.,

79"83

CHAPTER REDUCTION
of xm-lXP, Integration Reduction Formulae where X

VII. FORMULAE.

bxn,
....

87"89
90
"

for

/ xm~lXpdx,

93

Reduction

Formulae
7T

for

/ sin^a; cos^a: dx,

IT

94

"

95

Evaluation

of

/ sii\nxdx,

j"z

r -i

ain^x cos^x

dx,

96

"

102

CONTENTS.

xi

CHAPTER MISCELLANEOUS

VIII. METHODS.
PAGES

Integrationof

/^).fx.9 X. Y
.......

109"117
118
.

i\f

of some Integration SpecialFractional Forms, General and Geometrical Illustrations, Propositions Some Elementary Definite Integrals, Differentiation under an Integral Sign,
. .... ....

"

119
"

120
.

124

125 128

"

127
129

"

CHAPTER RECTIFICATION. Rules for

IX.

Curve-Tracing,
for Rectification for
a

.......

135"137
Illustrative
.....

Formulae

and

Examples,

13S

"

139 140 143

Modification Arc of
an

Closed Curve,
........

Evolute,

Intrinsic Arc

Equation,
Curve,

........

144

"

149 150

of Pedal

........

CHAPTER

X.

QUADRATURE.
Cartesian

Formula,
Closed

........

153
.......

"

157

Sectorial Areas. Area Other Area of

a

Polars, Curve,
.....

158"160 161"163

.......

Expressions,
between
a

'.''-.
.

164"165

Curve,
.........

two

Radii

of Curvature

and

the

Evolute,
Areas of

166"167
........

Pedals,

168"175
.......

CorrespondingAreas,

176

"

177

CHAPTER SURFACES Volumes of

AND

XI.
OF

VOLUMES

SOLIDS

OF

REVOLUTION. 183"184

Revolution, Surfaces of Revolution,

.......

.......

185"187

xii

CONTENTS.

PAGES

Theorems Revolution

of

Pappus,
a

.......

188
......

191

of

Sectorial

Area,

192

CHAPTER

XII.
OF

SECOND-ORDER

ELEMENTS

AREA.

MISCELLANEOUS

APPLICATIONS. Surface Cartesian Integrals,

; Moments

Element,
.....

195 199

"

198
201

Centroids Surface

of

Inertia,

"

Polar Element, Integrals, etc.,Polar Formulae, Centroids,

202"203
.....

204

"

207

DIFFERENTIAL
CHAPTER

EQUATIONS.
XIII.
THE

EQUATIONS
Genesis Variables Linear of
a

OF

FIRST

ORDER. 211"214 215 216

"

Differential

Equation,

.....

Separable, Equations,

219

CHAPTER

XIV. ORDER

EQUATIONS

OF

THE

FIRST

(Continued}.
221
"

Homogeneous Equations,
One Letter

226

Absent, Form,

227"229
230"233

Clairaut's

CHAPTER

XV. ORDER. EXACT DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS

OF

THE

SECOND

EQUATIONS.
Linear One

Equations,
Absent,
of
.

235

"

236

Letter

237"238
a

General Exact

Equation. Removal Differential Equations,

Linear
.

Term,
. .

239
. . . .

"

240

241"242

CONTENTS.

xiii

CHAPTER LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL

XVI.

EQUATION
COEFFICIENTS.

WITH

CONSTANT

PAGES

General The The

An

Form

of

Solution, Function,
.....

243"244 245
"

Complementary
Particular

251

Integral,
Reducible
to Linear

252"263 Form with Constant 264"265

Equation

Coefficients,

CHAPTER ORTHOGONAL TRAJECTORIES.

XVII. MISCELLANEOUS

EQUATIONS.
266"269

Orthogonal
Some Further

Trajectories, Dynamical Equations,

....

Important

270

"

271

Illustrative

Examples,

272"277

Answers,

278"308

ABBREVIATION. To indicate
cases

the

sources

from
a

which of

many have
as

of

the
an

examples
examination
"

are

derived, in
in
common,

where

group
are

colleges

held follows

the St.

references

abbreviated

(a)

Peter's, Pembroke,

Corpus

Christi, Queen's,

and

St.

Catharine's.

(j8)
=

Clare, Caius, Trinity Hall, and Jesus, Christ's, Magdalen,

Jesus,

King's.
and

(7)
(d)

Emanuel,
and

Sidney

Sussex.

Christ's, Emanuel,

Sidney

Sussex.

(e)

Clare, Caius, and

King's.

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS

CHAPTER

I.

NOTATION,

SUMMATION,

APPLICATIONS.

1. The

Use

and

Aim

of

the is

Integral
the

Calculus.
of of
an deavour en-

Integral
to

Calculus
some

outcome

obtain

general
space bounded

method

finding

the

area

of

the

plane

by

given
of

curved

lines. In
area

the it is
a

problem
necessary

of
to

the

determination this of
some

such

an

suppose

space small of

divided elements.

up

into We the
each

very

large
have of
to

number form
sum

very

then limit is

method all these

obtaining
when

the

of

elements small and

ultimately

infinitesimally
increased. that when it
may
once

their

number It will

infinitely
be found is such
areas

such be

method
to
a

of other

summation

discovered,
as

applied
length
of

problems
line,
volumes
moments
E. i. c.

the of

finding
surfaces

of of

the

curved the of
etc.
"E

the

given
the

shape

and

bounded of

by
the

them,

determination of

inertia,

positions
A

Centroids,

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

Throughout the book all coordinate all angles will supposed rectangular,
measured
in

axes

will be

circular

measure,

and

be supposed all logarithms stated.

supposed Napierian, exceptwhen

of 2. Determination Notation. be Summed.
an

otherwise

Area.

Form

of Series to

of the portion to find the area Supposeit is required of space bounded AB, defined by by a given curve of and BM its Cartesian equation, the ordinates AL A and

B, and the cc-axis.

0,0,0,0,
Fig. 1.

Let the
=

LM

Q^Qv QiQz,

be divided into n equal small "f lengthA, and let eacn """"
"

LQV parts,
a

Then b abscissae of A and ". a of the curve, be the equation (f)(x) y LA, QiPp $2^2*e^c-'through the several
=

and 6 be ?i/L Also if the ordinates

points L, of lengths are etc., ^(a+K), ^(a+2A),etc. "j"(a), Qv Q2, Let their extremities be respectively A, P1? P2, etc., the rectangles and complete AQV PjQg,P2Q3,etc. of these n rectangles falls short of Now the sum of the n small figures, the area sought by the sum etc. Let each of these be supposed 1, P1J22P2,

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

the
the may

term

h(f"(a+nh) or
is taken.

A0(6)

which limit

vanishes of this

when series

limit

Hence

the

also be written f6
I
a

"t"(x)dx.

3.

Integration from
summation
as

the

Definition.
be effected
:
"

This

may
we

sometimes
now

by

elementary means,
Ex.
1.

proceed

to illustrate

Cb

Calculate

/ e*dx.

Here

we

have

to

evaluate
+ ea+"

+ ea+h Lth==Qh[ea

where
This

+ nh.

ea)-^-=e* =Lth^h^p\ea=Lth^(eb
-

e\

"

"

"

[By Diff. Calc. for Beginners,

Art.

15.]

/b
Now

r=n-l

xdx

we

have

to find

Lt

2
r="

("+rA)A,

where

2(a + rh)h

and

in the

limit

becomes

22'
obtain the limit when h is

/61 "$x
a

we

have

to

diminished indefinitely

of

NOTATION,

SUMMATION,

APPLICATIONS.

"

b+ h

a-h and when

"'
without each limit, of these becomes

h diminishes

II
a

b'

Thus

J
a

/"==*.* f*JL
.r2
a

Ex. 4.

Prove

ab initio that

/"
We
now
are a [sin

sin

ofo?
=

cos

cos

6.

to find the limit of + + 2A)+ + k)+ sin(a sin(a l- Jsin n2/ 2,

. . .

to

terms]A,

sinf a+n
\

"

sin

|
*
"
-

This

expression
=

cosf a

"

cos

" a

(2n

1)-j"

2JJsin2

sm-

which

when

A is

small ultimately takes indefinitely

cos a
"

the form

cos

b.

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

EXAMPLES.
Prove

by

summation

that

2.

/ sinh sir xdx /

"

cosh b

"

cosh

a.

3.

/b
4. As
a

cos

OdO

sin 6

"

sin

a.

of Integration
further

xm.

example we
sum

next

propose

to consider

the limit of the

of the series

h[am+ (a+ h}m+ (a+ 2h)m+.

where
i

6
7 h
=
--

"

a
,

and

is made
The

m indefinitely large,

+ 1 not
1

being zero.
when A be is of

[Lemma.

"

Limit

of

fy v"/

I\m+l
_

yin +
"

is

+ 1

Aym
may

whatever diminished, indefinitely y finite magnitude. For the expression be written may

be, provided it

-1

y and less since h is to be than

zero ultimately we

may

consider the

to

be

unity,and
/

we

may
l
,

therefore whatever

apply

Binomial of m+l.

Theorem

to

expand

^\7?l+ ( 1 -J--

be the value

NOTATION,

SUMMATION,

APPLICATIONS.

(See Dif.
"becomes

Gale,

Art. for Beginners,

13.)

Thus

the

expression

-x(a convergent series)

y
"m

+ I when

A is

diminished.] indefinitely

In the result

put
and

i/ success! vely
=

a,

a+h, a+2h,etc....a + (n
(

"

l)h,

we

get

l-am+l_
~

r,
_

1
_

(a + n^

h(a+n-Ui)m
or

adding numerators
for
a new

for

new

numerator

and

nominat de-

denominator,

+ (a+ /t)w + (a + 2h)m+ fe[aw

or

(a+ n^l

+ (a+ A)m+ (a Lth=Qh[am

'

m+1
In may accordance be written
'6

with

the b"

notation

of Art.

2, this

xmdx="

m+1

8
The letters

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.
whatever, represent any finite quantities become infinite between
x=a

and b may providedxm does not

a
a as

and

is taken is necessary in the

When

small exceedingly to proof suppose h an that

and ultimately zero, it infinitesimal of higher limit

-

order,for it has been assumed all the values givento y.

When 6
=

in the

is

zero

for

1 and

the 0, ultimately

theorem

comes be-

xmdx=
o

"

"7

if

+ 1 be

positive,

or

oo

if m

+ 1 be

negative.

This theorem

may

be written

also

"r

as according

m+1

is positive or

negative.The

limit

or,

which

is the

same

thing,
"M4-'

-Lstn=

oo

differs from and

the

former
1
"

by
-"?,

"

i.e. by 0 in the
oo

limit,
is will

n or as m+1 according

is therefore also

or positive negative. The

case

when

+ l=0

be discussed later.
Ex. Find the of the the of portion the parabola 7/2=4a# the ordinate x"c.

1.

area

bounded

by

the curve,

and #-axis,

NOTATION,
Let
us

SUMMATION,

APPLICATIONS.

divide

NM

is the

length c into n equal portionsof which Then if (r+l)th,and erect ordinates NP, MQ.
the

PR when

be
n

drawn

to NM, parallel
sum

the

is infinite of the

of such

required is the limit PM as (Art. 2), rectangles

area

i.e. where Now nh

=

Lt^PN.NM
c.

or

[By
Area

Art.

4.]

=f
extreme

=f

of the
area

of the Ex.

rectangleof which the are adjacentsides.

Find the
mass

ordinate

arid abscissa

2.

of

rod

whose

densityvaries

as

the

of the distance from one end. with power Let a be the length of the rod, o" its sectional area supposed uniform. Divide the rod into n elementary portions each of

length
of
1
\
"
-

-.

The densitv

volume is w-,
n mass

of the and

(r+l)th

element

from

the

end
|

zero

its

density varies from

intermediate between

(
*

"

to

(7+la\m
"

*"

Its
.

is therefore and

coa**1-

**

10
Thus the

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

mass

of the whole

rod lies between

and and in the when limit, increases becomes indefinitely,

ra+1

5. Determination

of

Volume

of Revolution.

formed to find the volume by required axis the revolution of a given curve about an AB in its own planewhich it does not cut. the Taking the axis of revolution as the cc-axis, The in Art. 2. be described exactly as figure may

Let

it be

Fig. 3. trace in elementaryrectangles AQV P-fy^P2Qz"etc., and their revolution circular discs of equal thickness, of volumes L2 LQ19 "jrA nrP^ Q", etc. The several annular portionsformed by the revolution of the portionsAR^^ P^R^P^ P2E3P3, etc.,may be con. .

12
Then have

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

dividingas

before

into
re

elementarycircular laminae, we [Art.4.]

y^dx /c

"

4a:r

/ xdx
2

AN PA7' and

of =J cylinder
as [Or if expressed a

radius

heightAN.

series dx

Volume

4a?r

I
o

[c
x

r
=
"

2a?rc2.]
of the
=

[Art.4.]
formed spheroid prolate
l about

Ex.

2.

Find

the volume

by

the

revolution

of the

~+^ellipse
2 *

the #-axis.

Fig. 5.

Dividing as
axes

before the

coincide with

elementary the volume #-axis,

into

circular laminae is twice

whose

/ Try^dx.
Now -a2
a

x*)dx

to Article 4, is equal to which, according

5[a*.("-0)-^]
or

and

the whole

volume

is

NOTATION,

SUMMATION,
obtain the

APPLICATIONS.

13

[or if desirable we may the sign of integration, as

same

result

without

using

EXAMPLES.
1. Find

the

area

bounded #=".

by

the

curve

"

^^ the #-axis,and
the ,#-axis find the

the

ordinates
area

#=a,

2. If the

in

Question
method

1 revolve

round

volume

of the

solid formed. the of Art.

3. Find

by
the

2, the

area

of the when

the
x
=

triangle
a.

formed

by
Find

line y=x tan 0, the #-axis and of the cone formed also the volume the #-axis. of the

line

this

triangle

revolves
4. Find

about the about the the

volume the

revolution
cut

y-axisof
of the

by the reel-shapedsolid formed that part of the parabolay^"^ax by

the revolution of

off

by

latus-rectum. volume
=

5. Find

sphere formed
.r-axis.

the

circle

x2+y2
the
curves,

a2 about of the the

the the

6. Find

areas

figures bounded
the ordinate
area

by
x
=

each

of

the

following
volume

#-axis, and
revolution
=

formed

by

of each

about

h ; also the the #-axis :

(a)

7/3 a*a

(8)
7. Find each the
mass as

aty
a

of the of

circular

disc from

of the

which
centre.

the

density at
by the #-axis,supposing

point

varies the

distance the

8. Find

mass

prolate spheroid
=

formed the

revolution the

of the

l ellipse^2/a2-f^/2/62

about

density at

each

point to

be //x,

CHAPTEE

II

GENEEAL

METHOD.

STANDAED

FOEMS.

6.
the

Before

proceeding
Calculus,
will the in
we

further shall
cases

with

applications
a us

of

Integral
which of result

establish enable

general
to

theorem the

many

infer

operation
n

indicated

by

I
a

"p(x)dx

without often

recourse having difficult,process

to

the

usually
or

tedious,

and

of

Algebraic

Trigonometrical

Summation.
7. finite and PROP. and b of

Let

"/)(x) be

any

function

of

which values

is
a

continuous the b
"

between
x

given
a

finite
and

variable
a

let

be

"

6,
n

suppose

the
each

difference

to

be
a
=

divided nh. series It

into is

portions
to

equal
limit

h,

so

that
sum

b
"

required

find

the

of

ike
+

of +

the

ft[0O)
when increased

"p(a + h)
diminished

4"(a + 2h)+...

0(6
and

h)

0(6)],
n

is

indefinitely,

therefore

without
at
once

limit.
be
seen

[It
be the

may

that
sum

this
is

limit

is

finite, for

if

"$"(a+rh)

greatest

term

the

+ rh) a)"t"(a

+ h"$"(a

GENERAL

METHOD.

STANDARD

FORMS.

15
of

which
x

is

is finite four all values since by hypothesis""(#) finite, between b and

intermediate

a.]
of
x

Let

be \fs(x)

another

function

such

that

is "j)(x)

i.e.such its differential coefficient,

that

We

shall then

prove

that

Lth^["fa)+^a+h)+^
By
and
where

definition

^a)*
a
=

therefore is

a:

diminishes

quantity whose indefinitely ; thus

a
"

limit

is

zero

when

h(j)(a) Similarly h"f"(a

=\/s(a+ 7i) t/r(a)

+halt

etc.,
"

+ nil) Ih) \[s(a

=
"

where

the

quantities a2,
limits

a3,

...,

an

are

all, like

av

whose quantities

are

zero

when

h diminishes

indefinitely. By addition,
+ 0(a + h)+ "f"(a h["f"(a)

Let then

be the

of greatest is

the

quantities av
i.e.

a2,

an,

Afoi+ag+^.+On]
and therefore vanishes

"nha,

"("

"

a)a,

in the limit.

Thus

16

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

limit zero; hence if desire,it may be added to the left-hand member and it may then be stated that this result, The
term

is in fc"/"(6)

the

we

of

.e.

1 "/)(x)dx \ls(b) \ls(a).

=
"

This

result

denoted is frequently \[s(b) \fs(a)

" .

by

the

notation From the

p\/r(a3) J
that when is "/"(x) process obtain
rb

this result it appears function ^fs(x) (of which

the form

of

the of

differential

is obtained, the coefficient) summation trigonometric avoided. The letters b and

a are

or algebraic

to

I
a

"j)(x)dx may

be

to denote

supposed in finite quantities.We shall

as

the above work extend our now the limit when

notation

so

to let

I "f"(x)dx express
a
"

b becomes

i.e. of ^(6) ^js(a), infinitely large I

a

Ltb=x I "j)(x)dx. (j)(x)dx

=

(j)(x)dx fb
we

shall be

understood fb

to

-\I,(a)]

or

Lta=00\ "f"(x)dx.

Ex. Hence

1.

The

differential have

coefficient of ^"

is

plainlyxm.

if

we "$"(x)=xm

and "df(x)":L^ ' m+l

m+1

+ \

m+l

GENERAL

METHOD.

STANDARD

FORMS.

17
cos a?

Ex. 2. The quantitywhose Hence known to be sin x.

"6

differential coefficient is

is

cos

dx

sin b

"

sin

a.

Ex. 3. itself ex.

The Hence

quantitywhose

differential coefficient

is e* is

Ex. 4.

EXAMPLES.
Write
1.
X

down

the values of
2. I X 2i,
0

/V"dr, CiX) /b
a
it

/V"cfo?, 3.
Cf/JCm
o.
ir

rl

,-2
I

cfo, d/X^

4.

/2
cos

rA

r4

dx,

6.

sec2^;dx^

7.

/
o

ia

8. Geometrical
The

Illustration of Proof.
above theorem may be

proof of
thus be a
:
"

the

interpreted metricall geo-

of a curve of which the ordinate is finite Let AB portion and continuous all points between A and B, as also the at makes tangent of the angle which the tangent to the curve with the a?-axis. Let the abscissae of A and B be a and b respectively. Draw ordinates A N, BM. be divided Let the portionNM into n equal portionseach of lengthh. Erect ordinates at each of these pointsof division

cutting the

curve

in

P, Q, R,

...,

etc.

tangents AP^
to parallel

and PQi, QRi, etc.,

the

Draw lines

the

successive

AP2,PQ2JQR2,...,
the let and ,r-axis,
=

let the

equation of

the

curve

be

y then
=

and ^r(x\

V^') ""M" + Zh\ etc., are + h\ "$"(a "f"(a\ "$"(a respectively

tanP.JPj, taii^Pft,
B

etc.,

E.

I. C.

18
and

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.
the lengths respectively

-h),

...,

are

Now

it is clear that the

sum algebraic

of i.e.

P2P, "2", R2R,

Hence

is
...,

MB-NA,

s,

Fig. 6.

Now

portion within square brackets may be shewn for instance be For if R^ with h. diminish indefinitely the sum of the several quantities PjP, Q^ etc., greatest
the

to

the

[P1P+Q1Q+...]
But if the abscissa of

is

"nR1R,

i.e.

"(b-a)-}~.

be called #, then

and

+ (x)

+ -^"(x

Qh\

[Diff.Calc. for Beginners, Art. 185.]

so

that

R^R

4- "9A) "(x
=

(x+ Oh),

and which is

(6 a)
-

an

infinitesimal in

of general

the first order.

20 10. When
we are

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

is not specified and the form of the (at present) merely enquiring
a

the

lower

limit

function \fr(x), unknown differential coefficient whose is the known function $(#), the notation used is

the limits

beingomitted.

11. Nomenclature.
The nomenclature
b

of these
or

is as expressions

follows

r(p(x)dx
is called the "definite" b ; a and

of "f"(x) between integral

limits

fx
I where
a

or "j)(x)dx

\[s(a) \{s(x)
"

the upper limit is left undetermined "corrected" integral;

is called

"f"(x)dxor
without
as

-^(x)

the

limits and regarded merely specified any of reversal of an operation the differential is called
an

calculus

"indefinite"

"

or

unconnected

"

integral.
12. Addition It will be

of

Constant.
that if is "p(x)

the differential coefficient of ^]s(x\ it is also the differential coefficient whatever of \lr(x) C is any constant + C where ; for is zero. the differential coefficient of any constant obvious
we Accordingly

might

write

This

constant

is however

not

written clown, usually

GENERAL

METHOD.

STANDARD

FORMS.

21

but

will be

understood

to

exist

in

definit all "cases of in-

integration though not expressed.

13. Different
will

of indefinite processes give results of different frequently

integration
form
;

for

instance is the

Idx }*/I-x2
,

is sin'1^

or

"

cos~%, for

Vl
pressions. ex-

differential coefficient of either of these Yet it is not to be inferred that sin"1^^

"

cos'1^. sin"1^ and

"

But

what
a

is

reallytrue

is that

cos"1^

differ by

constant, for

so

that

f
"7

dx

Vl-a2
,

sin ~lx

or

dx=

"

cos-^

J/s/l-a;2
the
constants beingdifferent. arbitrary

14. Inverse

Notation.

verse notation for the inAgreeably with the accepted tions, funcand inverse Hyperbolic Trigonometrical we might express the equation

or

j5^)
it is useful occasionally

^);
to

and

employ

this

notation,

22

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

character which very well expresses the interrogative of the operation are we conducting.

15. General

Laws

satisfied

by

the

Integrating

Symbol \dx.
(1) It will symbols that
be

plain from

the

meaning

of

the

but that

constant. is "j"(x) + any arbitrary (fi(x)dx l-y-

(2) The
for if u, v,

is distributive; operationof integration

w

be any

functions of

x,

-T-j |u^+l^^+l^^r
and therefore

constants) (omitting
=

\wdx l |i;cfe-f JurZ#+

of integration is commutative (3) The operation with regardto constants.
(I'll

For

if

-j"

v,

and d
,

be any du

constant,we

have

so

that

(omitting any

constant

of

integration)

au

\avdx9

or

a\vdx=\avdx,
establishes the theorem.

which

GENERAL

METHOD.

STANDARD

FORMS.

23 of

16. We several

proceed to a detailed consideration forms of functions. elementaryspecial

now

17.

Integration of

xn.

By differentiation of
d
_

"

+ 1
nrfll

we

obtain

xn+l
_

dx

+ l
seen

(as has Art. 7, Ex. 1)

Hence

been

already

in

Art.

and

in

Thus
power

the of
x

rule

for the

Increase is,
so

of any constant integration the index by unity and divide

by

the index

increased.

For

example,

/nA
X X

r
=

11

x~^

~"''}X x=if
EXAMPLES.

}x

T4=

"4^4-

TTn'^e down

the

of integrals
1.
x

"#"

^7999 #1000.

^"J

""}

-^"Jf

O.

24

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

18. The

Case

of x~\
that x~l Thus
or
-

It will be remembered ential coefficientof

is the

differ-

logx.
fl
Jx

\-dx
This therefore forms
f
an

logx.
to the apparent exception
^n+l

rule general

\xndx
=

19. The

Supplyingthe

result, however, may be arbitraryconstant, we

deduced have

as

case. limiting

/xndx
=

"

-I-A

n+l

n+l

where

C+

"".

+ l

and

is still an

constant. arbitrary

Taking the

limit when

l=0,
the form

takes

logx,

Calc. for Beginners, Art. 15.] [Diff.

and

as

C is

we arbitrary

may
-

suppose

that

it contains another

tively nega-

infinite A. portion

portion

togetherwith

arbitrary

7i

~\~J.

Thus

Ltn==-i {xndx logx + A.

=

20. In
we

the

same

way

as

in the

of integration

xn

have
1
=

+ b)n (n + V)a(ax

and

+ 6) ^-log(a% "v

=
"

GENERAL

METHOD.

STANDARD

FORMS.

25

and

therefore

f/
y

\(ax+o)ndx

IA

+ ")n+1 (oo5
'
=
"

"/

(n+l)a

and

I '"r Jax + b
we

-\og(ax + b\ 6V
a

f fFor convenience
shall often find
Jax

+ b

"jdx

printed as
Jax

"

I
+ b'
-r,

Jja2+x*
EXAMPLES.

dx

as

I J*Ja* +
,"

x*

o,

etc.]

Write

down
1. ax,
a

the

of integrals
a
"

of1, a+x,
x_ a+x a? x
'

x,

a"x?

1 a-\-x

2
x

3.
a

+ x

"

bx

(a-#)2" (a x)n*
"

a+x

a-x*

x+a

"

(a+x)2

(a

"

xY

21. We

may

next

remark

that since the differential of

coefficients of

and ["f"(x)]n+l

log$(x)are respectively

and

we

have

{["t"(x)]n"t"'(x)dx
=

and

is of great especially the integral It may thus : be put into words use. of is the differential of which the numerator any fraction is coefficient of the denominator log (denominator). second results
"

The

of these

For

example,

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

/ /co\,xdx J
=

*"

xdx
X

log sin log cos

#,

Sill

/tan
.#

dx

"

"

"

-a?^

"

log sec

x-

cosx

EXAMPLES.
Write down the of integrals

nex,~-,
" Ct ~\~

(a

22. It will the that

now

be

that perceived

the

of operations

Calculus are of a tentative nature, and Integral in integration ledge success depends upon a knowof the results of differentiating the simple
It is therefore forms
same

functions. of standard

which list the

necessary is now
as

to learn the table

the practically

and differentiation,

that proofsof these

appended. It is already learnt for

results lie in several and
a

of the the righthand members differentiating results. The list will be gradually extended list givenlater. supplementary PRELIMINARY TABLE
TO OF

RESULTS MEMORY.

TO

BE

COMMITTED

28

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

them.
as x

The

reason

is obvious. the

Each

of these

functions

decreases
efficients co-

increases
are

through
therefore further and
a

first

quadrant

; their

differential of each
" "

Also For

it is

negative. help to observe

the dimensions
" "

side.
zero

instance,x

being supposed linear, /

"

is of
to

"

X"1

dimensions.

There
C

could dx

therefore

be

no

prefixed
a

the

in-

tegral. Again

/
J

2 d~"

-\-X

is of dimensions -1.

-1.

Hence the The

the result of

integrationmust
not

be

of dimensions is of
zero

Thus

integralcould
student should the

be

tan"1a

(which
no

dimensions).

therefore factor
-

have is to be

in remembering difficulty

in which

cases

prefixed.

EXAMPLES.
Write
:
"

down

the

indefinite

integrals of

the

tions following func-

'

2.

3.

cos2-,
2 cot
x

coss#
.

sin #,

4.

+ tan

x,

cos^f
.

-+-^snr^/

\sin^7

#e + e*

'

log sin

^sec-1^.

\/^-i*

CHAPTER

III.

METHOD

OF

SUBSTITUTION.

25. The
to
z

Change

of

the

Independent
may

Variable.
be

independent
by
the

variable
x
=

changed

from

change

F(z), by

the

formula

being
Or if

any
we

function write will be

of

x.

V=f(x),

the

formula

To

prove

this, it is only

necessary

to

write

\Vdx\

then

=F.

du But
--

du
= "-_-=

dx
dz

~rrdx

V-j-9
dz

dz

dx

whence

I
=

-j-.

dz

30

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

Thus

to

/ integrate
1

-dx, let tan~1#=;s.

dx
n

Then

and the

becomes integral

*"
dz

26. In

usingthe

formula

after

the choosing
to

form
use

it is usual

make

of the transformation x F(z\ of differentials, writingthe

=

equation

j^=F'(z)dx
as

F'(z)dz]

the formula

will then side

of the left hand

Thus may in the

dx reproducedby replacing and x by F(z). by F'(z)dz,

be

we precedingexample,after puttingtan~1^ti=0,

write

*=d*
-

and
l+.r

I+x*

27. We
is
a

next
one

consider the between

case

when

the

integration

definite

limits. specified
x
=

The

result obtained

above, when

F(z) is

Let then and if the limits for

a;

be

and

b,we

have

METHOD

OF

SUBSTITUTION.

31

Now and Also

when

x x

a,

z z

F~

when

b,

F~

\a) ; \b}.

f{F(z)}=-j^,{F(z)}

and
whence

so

with rethat the result of integrating gard f{F(z)}F'(z) limits F~\a) and F~\b) is identical to z between with that of integrating f(x)with regardto x between the limits
Ex.1. Let
a

and

6.

Evaluate

/
-

cos

\Txdx.
;

N/a?
dx=Zzdz 2-2(^2=2

x"z^^ and
-

therefore I -cos2. J z

cosfjxdx"
^x

/cos
J

dz

smz

Ex. Let

2.

Evaluate

/.Aos

x^dx. 3xPdx=dz

and ^3=2;,
/.

therefore

/^2cos x*dx

llcoszdz ^smz=^
=

sin x\

Put

^?=tan

e, then dx=sec20d6
when when
#
=

0,
1,

we

have have

0,
4

we

0=.T ;

32

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

ir

ir

:.

f-T^=dx \J\+*

P *?"| sec20 dB

{
=

sec#

{
-

B tan fsec

0 dB

fsec 0 "
dx
x _x

sec

sec

V2

1.

Ex.4.

Evaluate

f
"4
exdx
=

\ Tsech^^]. [i.e.

e'

jo
When

Let
3=e.

6^

^, then

dz.

#=0, 0=1, and

when

Hence

rtan-'/V= tenL

""

tan-1

2
"

Ji

The

indefinite

is tan~V. integral

EXAMPLES.
1.

Integrate

excosex

(Put

^=4

cos(log x)

(Pat logx
I*

4
"

2. Evaluate

J 1+^4
acos#

\-=-,dx (Put x*=z\

"
-

J l-f#6

(Put a*=z). v
x.

reintegrate+ fl ^ Evaluate
"

-,

a^sin

ex + b tanh

(Put ^+1=4

5. Evaluate

/"

dx
-

(Put (Put x-\=z). (Put ^=02).

6. Evaluate

a*

7. Evaluate

/*"

"da?
-1

J 2V^(1+^)
8. Evaluate

[
/
J 2W#

dx.

9. Evaluate

dx.
-

METHOD

OF

SUBSTITUTION.

33

NOTE

ON

THE

HYPERBOLIC

FUNCTIONS.

28. Definitions.
it is desirable that the purposes of integration the definitions and student shall be familiar with of the direct and inverse fundamental properties functions. hyperbolic values of the By analogy with the exponential functions the exponential cosine, etc., sine, tangent,

For

"
_

"

e-*
~

ex+e~x
_
__

ex-e~x
PTP

2
are

e?+e-*'

written respectively
cosh x,

tanh#,

etc.

29. We

Elementary Properties.
have clearly

tanh

-,

C/

X "C"JLJ.iJ.l

coth

=
"

e~x

sinho?

t"rihx

-=cosh

2 sinh

cosh

"

"

"

-^"

^
"

sinh2#,
common

AM

with many other results analogous to the formulae of Trigonometry.

E.

i. c.

34 30. Inverse Let

us

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

Forms. for
the

search sinh"1^.

meaning

of

the

inverse

function Put

then

smh

and Thus and

we

"

x"

log(x"
a

shall take this

with expression

sign, positive

viz., + #2) as sinh"1^. log (" + "v/l

31. cosh~1x Similarly, putting
x
"

y,

we

have

ty+e-y cosh y
==
"

JL

and and whence and

we

e*y
ey
=

x"*Jx*-l,
log(x " *Jxl 1),
"

shall take this

with expression
1

positive sign,

viz.,

/#2
"

as

32.

Again,puttingi"nh-lx
x
=

"

y,

we

have

tanh

and

therefore

e2y=-"
1"
x

whence

tanh

lx

4-log S ^
"

"-

1"

05

36

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

cu-l
=

whence

tan-

0, 2

eu-l
^TTT
=

tan2
2"

and

tan

a;

.e-

0_e-

!~4^-: ~2~
Hence
^
=

tan

1sinh u

gd u.

Thus

logtan(j+|)=gd-^
of
x.

the inverse Gudermannian

EXAMPLES.
Establish the
1.

results : following

"

/cosh#cfo?=sinh#.

4.

/cosech2.rc^= -coth#.

2.

/sinh
J

xdx

cosh

x.

5.

J cosh%

/sm,.^o?.r

"

sech

x.

3.

6. (sech2A'dr=taiihtf.
J

7. Writing sg results :
"

for sin

gd x, etc.,establish

the

following

(a) /

METHOD

OF

SUBSTITUTION.
,*

37

36.

Integralsof

and

The

differential coefficient of

-4-f
-

loge"

is

* =

log"
a
,

"

smh

,
-

1 l.

dx
=
..

bimilarly
37. In resemble and the

0.

.,

x
--

\/x2
"

a?

Jx/^2-^2
the inverse for the

log

^ =cosh-1-.
,

forms hyperbolic

these
^,

results

that

integral I

Va2-*2 analogyis an might have

dx
t
=.

sin'1-* viz.,
a

aid to the memory. established the results thus

:
"

38. We

f To find I dx Hence

)*Jx*+a^
=

put

oj

sinh it, then

cosh

du

and

\/x2 +
=

az

cosh

u.

W^2

+ tt2

leZu t6
= =

sinh"1-.
a

a? Similarly a cosh putting Fa sinh u f dx I!" ri Jx/x2" a2 J " sinh

=
" -

u,

we

have

du
=

f
J

7 laK

=u

cosh~1-.
a

11^

Integralsof
39. To Let then

integrate *A2-tf2.
a?
=

a a

sin 0 ;
cos

dx

0 d$,

38

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

and

{+/tf-^dx
=

ia sin 6

cos

0+

-^

or

sina

40. To Let then

,

integrate
cc
=

sinh z,

cf^ since
1 + sinh20

acosh0

then

cosh2z,

we

have

I J^^dx

a2\ cosh2z

dz

|a sinh

cosh "z+ -^-

.....

Va2

2-smh-1x

METHOD

OF

SUBSTITUTION.

39

41. To Let then

then

integrate
x
"

a a

cosh z, sinh
z

dx since
cosh%
"

dz ;

sinh20,
a2 sinh20 dz

Jsif^cPdx J

C62?
=

Ja

sinh

cosh

"

^-,

\2
or

"

a2!

-log-

we

42. If have

we

put

tan#

", and

therefore

__

[by Art. 40.]

tan
"

x ^

sec

05

a? + J log(tan

.,

sec

^),

snce or
_ _

2 cos2#

J log^
n
-,

"1"

40

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

43.

Integralsof
^ 2t
=

cosec

and

sec

x.

Let tan

differential takingthe logarithmic

9x
^

1
-

dz
7
=
"

dx
or
-;
"

dz
"

^dx

2tan2
Thus

n,

smx

I cosec

xdx"\

"

logz

logtan

^.

In this Then and

example let x
dx
=

-=

2*

+ y.

dy, logtan logtan

+ 9)(T

sec

ydy

Hence

Isec xdx

r+s) (

or

""

*x-

44. We

have

now

the STANDARD

ADDITIONAL f dx
. ,

FORMS,

x+\/x*+a?
g
a

Jx/^+o1
f
dx

,x

JTP^l
\\/a2 x2dx
"

=1"g

I+/x2 4 a2 die

l+Jx2 a2dx
"

fi2
=

2G"

METHOD

OF

SUBSTITUTION.

Icosec

dx

logtan^.

Isecsccfo =log tanf^-

EXAMPLES.
Write

down

the

of integrals

3.

4.

5.

7.

1 8.
cosec

2#, cosec(a#+"),

-sin2^'

1"

tanV

3sin^-

^'
10. Deduce
"/

sin ^7+ 6

cos

/cosec#cfo?=logtanby expressing cosec

-

as

^j

11.

Find

\SQexdx by puttingsin

x=z.

42

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

12.

Show

that

/ /
sec x

dx
=

cosh

13.

Integrate

tflogtf'

when

lrx

represents

log

log

log
...

the
^7,

log

being

repeated

times.
r

15.

Prove

[ST.

PETER'S

COLL.,

etc.,

1882.]

44

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

with

new

\ dx integral 0'(#) lx/r(#)cfo

be
more

which

may

than integrable easily

the

original

product.
be put into words thus rule may of the product "j"(x)\{s(x) Integral 46. The
=

:
"

1st function

-the
Ex. Here another
1.

of 2nd Integral of [Diff. Co. of Integral

x
cos nx.

1st x Int. of

2nd].

Integratex
it is

important
which

to

connect

if
x

possiblejxcosnxdx
has been function in removed. Then

with This

in integral

the factor

if x be chosen the be done as may second "$(x\ i.e.unity,occurs integral

$(x\ placeof x.

since in the

Thus

by

the rule

(xvxnxd**,*!*"?J
'

/"l.5
J

sin
"

9^7

If
"~~~~\

cosn"N
-

I
n /

n\
cos nx

sin
'

nx

47.
an

Unity may integration.

be taken

as

one

of the factors to aid

Thus

/logxdx"
=

/1 logx
.

dx

logx
log x

"

/x

"

x)dx -(log

=x

"

I \dx

INTEGRA

TION

B T

PARTS.

45

48. The

operationof integrating by parts may

times.
? dx

be

several repeated
mt.

Thus

f 9 / #2cos

#2sin
"
-

nx
"

nx

f sin / 2#
0
-

nx

7 dx.

and
n

finally,
Hence

f
J

$x^ J

nx

dx

=**** "
n

-*\_^COS
nL
n

#2sin
_ ~

nx

Zx
I

cos T9

nx

2 sin
7^

nx
*

of the subsidiary into 49. If one returns integrals form this fact may be utilized to infer the the original result of the
Ex.
1.

integration.
dx
=

/eaxsin bx
/eaxcos
and

"sin

bx-~\

e^cos

bx

dx,

and

bx dx

"cos

bx+-l

e^sin bx dx ;

if P therefore,

stand

for respectively and

/eax$m
we

bx dx

/eaxcos
bx,

bx

dx,

have

aP

+bQ

eaxsin

and
whence

-bP+aQ=eftxco8bx"
n P=eax-

nrct

sin bx
=
"

"

b
r?

cos

bx
/

a2+o2

and

w+v
"

(a2 +

(bx 62)~Yeaxcos
\

"

tan"1

).

aJ

46
The
we

INTEGRAL

CALCUL

US.

student

will observe

that

these
"

results

are

the

same

that

should

obtain

by puttingn=

I in the formulae

^)""ss""it^"^(^+"^)'
Gale, for Beginners, Art. 61, Ex. 4.] [Diff.

And
pnsi^

this
/

is

otherwise
game as

obvious.

For
a
""

if to

differentiate
62 and
to

rxsm/j^,\ jg fag
increase the

to

multiply by
r
""

factor

Va2 +

angle by tan"1-, the

a

which integration,

is the

inverse
and

must operation,

divide

out

again

the

factor

Va2+62

diminish

the

angle by
xl

tan"1-.

Ex.

2. r

\/a2 Integrate
"

by

the rule of

by parts. integration

J A/o2^2^=

[Note this step.]

%

c
-

a2sin~

l-i

Iv a2
J

"

CL

and dividing whence, transposing by 2,

which

agrees
3

with

the result of Art. 39.

Ex. Here

e*xsm2x Integrate
e3xsin% cos3#
=

cos3^.

"

"

"(1

"

cos

x 4#)cos

-=

-x _(2e3a:cos
-

INTEGRA

TION

B Y

PAR

TS.

47

Hence, by Ex.
I e^siiA

1,
cos3# dx
"

"\
-j=

cos

fx

"

tan~

1r j

J_
-

3\/2 ,: V

cos(3^-^--^cosf5^-tan-1|) V 3/J 4/
^34

[Compare
n=
"

Ex.

16, p. 55, Diff.Gale, for Beginners, putting

l in the

result.]

EXAMPLES.

Integrateby parts : 1. xex, x^e*,xze?) x cosh #, ^?COS2 2. ^?COS^7, ^2COS07,

3. 4. 5. 6.
x

sin

cos

#,

sin

sin 2# sin 3^.

#2logtf, ^n(log^)2. ^nlog^7, e*sin x cos ^ cos 2#. e^sin^costf, eaxsin^ sin qx sin r^?.

7. Calculate

|^sin^^,
0

/*x sin2^pc?^1, /
0 0

8. Show

that

9.

Integrate Isin"1^^,/^sin"1^^, \

50. Let
axes

Geometrical

Illustration.

and

referred to be any arc of a curve Ox, Oy, and let the coordinates of P of Q (xv y^).

PQ

rectangular be (XQ, yQ),

the

Let

PN,

QM

abscissae of the
area

PNV QM1 pointsP, Q. Then plainly

=

be

the

ordinates

and

PNMQ

rect.

OQ

rect. OP

area

But

area

PNMQ

48

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

and

area

PN^M^Q

I x dy.
cv\ o o

Thus

ri

Let

us

now

consider the

curve

to be defined

by

the

equations
and and let y

t0and t"be

the values We then have

the values of t corresponding to #0, y0, and a^, 2/1 of cc and y respectively.

ri

ri
7

I
*0

2/"x^=l vdu=\
*"
"0

r*i

and

I o?c?2/=l udv**\

and

INTEGRA

TION

B Y

PARTS.
'*

49

so

that the

above equation

may

be written

and thus the rule of

by partsis established integration

geometrically.
51.

Integralsof

the
nx

Form
nx

I a^sin
Reduction

#mcos dx, I

dx.

for such integrals the above as be found. Denote them respectively readily by may have at Sm and Cm. Then, integrating we by parts,
once cos nx m~

formulae

and(7m=
Thus

and

Om=
cosnx
=

,sin7i#
,
"_ ---

____+m^

771(971 v___
"

and

Cm=
n

"

-l"-

,cosnx
----

m(m

"

1)
"

Thus and m

when
=

the four

for integrals

the

cases

are

found, viz.,
"Sn
"

I sin

nxdx=
D

cos n

me
,

E. I. C.

50

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

GT0
=

xv

f
I
cos nx

sinrac
dx
7
=

at. o\
=
~

eosnx

Icesin

nx

dx

"

"

sinnx \"
,

t
0
=

\ cos \x J
can

T^CC ax

all others the above

be deduced

by

successive

of applications

formulae. of the

52. Extension

Rule
of

for

Integration by
dashes denote

Parts.
If
to
u

and

be

functions suffixes

and

differentiations and
x we

rule for

with respect integrations of the extension prove the following may by parts, integration
=

\uvdx

uvl

"

u'v

where

u^n~1^ is written

for =uvl

with

TI

"

dashes; for

\uvdx

"

\u\dx,

Vufv^dx =u'v2 "\urfv^dx, \vtf'v2dx =u"vz

=
"

Vuf'Vzdx,
"

I u'"vBdx ufv^
etc.
=

I u^'v^dx,

etc.

Iu(n l)Vn _1dx

-

u(n~ Vvn

I vf^Vndx.

52

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

we

have bx dx
=
"

Ixneaxsm

eaxsin (bx
r

"

d")

"

^ r2

eaxsin(bx

"

r3

^^~
n\

or

eax{P sin bx

"

cos

where
X
-

3-

COS

30"
"

...

xn

xn~l sin 0
"

xn~^ sin

Q=

"

"

^-

20

n(n

"

1)" ^- sin 30

...

Similarly

L^a*cos ix
Ex.
1.

dx

eP*{Pcos bx+Q

sin

bx}.

Integrate ix^smxdx.
\e*smxdx
"

Since

S^e^sinf .r

-^J,
-

we

have

f^3ea:sm^^=^32'^ea;sm('.r ^ 3^22~Vsin^
-

2"
.

VVsinf ?" 4
.77
-

6
.

2~VsinCr- TT)

=etc.

Ex.

2.

Prove
^|

^Vto^ito-^-iy^j^^ /r=n
EXAMPLES.
1.

-rjQ ^s

Integrate (a) femai"~lxdx.

(d)

/"

(5) (sfaitr^xdx.
(c)

(e) \

Ixv"Pxdx. '(/) /"cos-1^.

INTEGRA

TION

B Y

PARTS.

53

2.

Integrate (a) [x

dx. sm"1f

(c) /sin-1'

(")

/^5^"'.
tan
-

(d)

/ptn
~

lx

pin tan

lx

-dx.

(c)
J
*-*

dx.

dx.

4.

Integrate (a)

../*..
I

...

r
..

e(suix + cosx)ax.

(a)

\x

(b) I xefsm^x (c) I cosh

5.

dx.

(e) I^22*sin (/) /cos

2." dx.

ax

sin bx dx,

b log"\dx. -j

Integrate

/log
-

sin'1^ dx.

6.

Integrate

7.

Integrate

8.

Integrate
(d) Integrate

/cos 201og(l+tan 0)dO.

9.

J*4"|^.
1-cos^ /" c?2v
"

^^

TKJPOS) 1892"]

(")
i

[a, 1892.]
c?v
"
"

10. Prove

/\

T-"

that
j

/u

2dx=u

du
v
"

/ v-"dx.

C d^u

11.

Integrate

/(asin%

+ 26 sin

cos

cos2^)e*^
[a,1883.]

54
Show that

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

12.

if

be

rational

function integral

of x,

where

the

series within

the

brackets

is

finite. necessarily

[TRIN. COLL., 1881.]

13.

If

u"

Ieaxcos bxdx,

"

Ieaxsm

bx

dx,

prove

that

and

that Prove that

+ "2)0*2 + v2) (a2

=

era*.

14.

-"

m+1 Also that

m+L

(m+1)2
3

^"-1 where
15.

(-ir-^!?

I stands Prove

for

logx.

that

(i.)

{e^w
J

+^""j)"2 leax^n-'2bxdx. J
a?+ri2b'2

[BERTEAND.]
16. Evaluate

/x* log(l x^dx,

-

and

deduce

that

iT5

277

3T9

-==9""310ge2'[a,1889.]

CHAPTER

V.

RATIONAL

ALGEBRAIC PARTIAL

FRACTIONAL

FORMS,

FRACTIONS.

ALGEBRAIC

FRACTIONAL

FORMS.

54.

Integration

of

-"

or

"

a?

\
forms

and

-"

-9(x"a\
into
Partial

*"2

Either Fractions.

of

these Thus

should

be

thrown

=___

x2

a2
"

2aj\x

"

1,
=

a^

"

a
;"
-

F
=
"

1
.1 coth"1

i^"l
a

s-

log
"

"

2a

4-

^ a;2

=!f(-J-+_J_Yfo
2aJ\a4-a)
a
"

Ja2"

x/

1
,

a+oj

F
a;

l,i
=-tanh"1-

T^l
.

^"

losr"
toa
"

2a

La

aj

56

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS,

Compare the (
with
.

forms

of the results in square

1

brackets

the result before tabulated C dx

"

for
x\

-=

viz.,

1
= o
-

Jcr+or

!~n

tan'1"
a a/

dx 55.

Integrationof

Let

f-H
a

f
6
c
2

=1f.
a

dx

J
\

a^a

AV_^2a/ 2J
"

4a2

dx
or
2

we

take
as

the former b2 is " or

"

or

the 4ac.

latter

arrangement

cording ac-

"

Thus

if 62

4ac,

or

coth"1"
7_
.

If b2

"

4"ae,
I
=
"

tan

"

l"
-.-

or

--

"

cot

These any

but differ at most by constants, expressions givencase a real form should be chosen.

in

RATIONAL

ALGEBRAIC

FRACTIONAL

FORMS.

57

56.

of of expressions Integrals
px + q

the form

can

be obtained

at

once

by

px + q
~~

_p

tion followingtransformapb 2a (2ax+b) the

,

the

of integral

the first part being

+bx+ ^" log(ax2 Za

and
that

c),

of the second

part beingobtained
notice how

by

the last form is

article.

[The beginnershould
obtained. shall Jirst fraction

the above

It is essential that the numerator be the that all the #'s of the

of the coefficient of the differential

numerator

denominator, and
are

therebyexhausted.]
T?
'

+ J log(^2

4*7 +

5)

tan-1^ + 2).
be thrown

57.

Although the expression px

+ q may

into the form

we by inspection, might proceedthus

:"

Let where
X and

pa?+gsX(2oaj+6)+/i,
/x are

constants

to be determined.

Then

by comparingcoefficients,
pb
=

giving

and

--

58

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

EXAMPLES.

Integrate
1.

f
2

xdx
.

4.

f fo+1)^

//y"
x* + 2x+l 3.

/7/y. ^a^

5.

J x2+?
6.

/Jfl-LZ-^p.

/"

f/v"

\2

/ 0^t1
"

c^

58. General Fraction and Denominator. of Expressions

are

with

Rational

Numerator

the form

A~4,
9w

where

f(x) and

"/"(#)

functions of x, can be integral algebraic by resolution into Partial Fractions. integrated of putting such an The method into expression Partial Fractions has been discussed in the Differential Calculus forBeginners, Art. 66. When the numerator is of lower degree than the denominator the result consists of the A A
sum

rational

of several such

terms

as

Ax+B

and

Ax+B

the numerator is of as high or higher degreethan the denominator we may divide out until the numerator of the remainingfraction is of lower when in that can degree. The terms of the quotient be integrated fraction and the remaining at once be put into Partial Fractions as indicated above.
A

And

case

may

Now
at
once

fraction of the form any partial into A log(x a).

-

"

integrates

Any

fraction

of the
1 r"l

form

"

-.

"

ix

^~*

^ a)

into integrates

(x"a)r~v

60
and the

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

is integral

Ex. 3. Put Hence

Integrate

/
x

^
"

-dx.

?/.

the fraction becomes until

Aj/
remainder,

Dividingout

y3 is a
l+

factor of the

2y

Hence

the fraction
1311111

and

therefore ^2
1 1

and

the

is integral

Ex.4. Let

Integrate
=

a?

+y

; then

"We

now

divide

out

by

RATIONAL

ALGEBRAIC

FRACTIONAL

FORMS.

61

is a factor of the remainder. until ty4 coefficients : detached use

2 + 3 + 3 + 1

To

shorten

the

work

we

) 1+2+1
l+

(J |
+

f+f+

i-i-i j+t+ f -f-f-i

f+"+f f +tf +if

tt-A-A
551
e

ll-5y-

Now and

11

-5j/-5y2

ll-

5(^-1) -5(^-l)2

by

Rule

Gale, for Beginners, 2, p. 61, of the Diff.

5#2

\(x)

and
3
x

+ 1

3(^

l+#

Thus
ijj

^.2
~

I!
i
-L

+ 1) 2(^7 1)4 4(tf I)3 8(^7 1)2 (a? 1)4(^3

-

1
A7

(2a?-l)-3
^2-

^-1)
and the is plainly integral

48

+ 1

62

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

EXAMPLES.
1.

Integratewith

regard to

the

followingexpressions :

v11*'

w'

T~\*

\V11V

~f~

\7

?T7

\'

^+ (iii.)
(iv) -/

a)-1^ + b)~\

(viii.)

"a*--")
"

"

"^

2. Evaluate

3.

Integrate
(i) W
dx f J (^2+a^2+62y

(iii) "'

4.

Integrate

(xd* (i.) v ;
J^+^2

[' (iii.) v
(iv.)f

+ l

J^+l
cto. Aa?2"t1

do?.

J^4-^2+l

(v.) r (vi.) /"(^-

RATIONAL

ALGEBRAIC

FRACTIONAL

FORMS.

63

5.

Integrate
/.
v

xdx

dx

dx

(vii.)

(iiL"

(^"T4)^"**"

^ ("")
(x\ VA*/

~(~"

lX-^-4)' (x*+ i\/

i

6.

Integrate
~3,J~* J~.

(VI.) -7
x"" \
~t

d^t?
/T
\o/i

f j
~t

""

"/

j ^

o\'

V*-'"^*^

(viii.)

''

+ iy (#-l)2(#2

^2

1)3

7. Evaluate

/Vtan~"^(9 and P\/c

the value

8. Obtain

cos

dx

9.

Investigate

10. Show

that

r. fa
"o

_f^

64

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

11.

Prove

that

[+*
J

dx

_2?r 2?r
~~

(x*

"ax+

"2X^2

"

bx

b'2)

V3

ab(d"

[COLLEGES
7,

1891,]

12.

Show

that

the
sum

of

the

infinite

series

be
can

expressed

in

the

form

and

hence prove

that

[OXFORD,

1887.]

CHAPTER

VI.

SUNDRY

STANDARD

METHODS,

doc

60,i.

Integration

of

where

-y=

ax2+2bx+c.

Case
When

I.

Positive.

is

positive
If

we

may dx

write

this

integral

as

which

we

may

arrange dx

as

If
I
__

If
Q p
I
_

dx
.

____.^=._.=_..___^_^==i

__

aJ 7/
+,

"\2

bz-ac

x/"J

according
form of

as

62 is

greater

or

less

than

ac,

and

the

real

the

integral
ax
,

is therefore

(Art. 36)
1
. ,
~

b
or

ax

.,
~

+
"

b
,

cosh

*
*

smh
"7^

T 1
,

Vo2

"

ac

Va

x/ac

62

according
E. T. C.

as

"2 is

"

or

"

66

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

In either

case

the

integral may

be written

in the

form logarithmic

~T=

log(ax+
^
"

b+

*Ja*Jax2 + 2bx+c),
~

the constant

T=

*J a
Also since and
1
=

logv
cosh sinh
ax
.
~

62

ac

beingomitted,
~

lz lz

sinh cosh
1

l\/z2
"

1
, ,

l\/z2 + 1
.
,

cosh

, l

+ b
=
"=.

sinh

\/aR
"

, "

ax

+ b
" "

1
=

and

sinh -7=.
V^

-1"

\/ac

7--

"

b2

"7^

cosh

T 1
-

x/aJi
\/ac
7
-?
"

\/a

b2

which and

forms therefore may be taken when a is positive less than ac respectively, b2 is greater or

61.

Case

II.

Negative.
f
"

dx
'

If in the

integral
A.
Then 1
r

)*Jax2+2bx+c
.

be

negative

write

a=

"

our

integral may
dx

be written

ZJ

or

or

"7=:

sin

68

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

Ex.

2.

Integrate

(
J
be

dx

This

integralmay

written
I

dx

and

therefore

is

"

sin"1-^^"
.

\/2
which may also be

\/41

expressed as
-^cos
V2
-F="

*/41

EXAMPLES.
1.

Integrate

{--^"
JV^
+ 2a? + 3

{
J
-,

dx

2.

Integrate

/"

dx

dx

A/2"Ja + Zbx+cx*dx
2"#"

3.* -2#2

3.

Integrate

(c positive).

4.

Integrate /\/a +

cyPdx

(cpositive).

62. be

Functions

of
first

the

Form

-.

-"=====

x/a^2+26^+c
integratedby putting Ax+B
into the iorm

may

which,
or

may

be done

as

in Art.
;
we

57, either by inspection

obtain

by equating coefficients
Ax+B
ex/

SUNDRY

STANDARD

METHODS.

69

The

of integral A

the first fraction is

and

that

of the second

has

been

discussed

in Articles

60, 61.

EXAMPLES.

Integrate

2.37 + 3

x+b

POWERS 63. Sine Index.

AND

PRODUCTS

OF

SINES

AND

COSINES.
Odd

or

Cosine

with

Positive

Integral
can

of Any odd positive power thus : immediately integrated

"

sine

or

cosine

be

To

integrate Isin2n+1# dx, let

.'.

cos

c,

smxdx=

"dc,

Hence

fsin^+^cfo ((I-c2) dc
=
-

__

70

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

Similarly, puttingsince
we

s, and

therefore

cosxdx=ds,

have
=

Icos*n+lx dx

(1

"

s2)nds
L_
"" '

nn

1 \7l.

64. Product

of form

sin^

cos?#, p

or

q odd.

product of the form method admits of immediate by the same integration either p or q is a positive odd integer, whenever whatever Similarly, any
the other be.
For
to integrate/sin5# .example,
-

cos4#

dx, put

cos#=c,

and

therefore Hence

sin xdx=
" "

dc.
"

/cos%

sin5^?dx

/c4(l c2)2dc
cos5^7 cos9^? 9cos7^;

~5~'

J^f~
we

"T"'
:
"

/^

sin5^ cos3# dx

proceedthus

I sin^(l sin2x)d (sin x)

-

65. When in terms For p + q

=

p+^
x x
=

is
or

negative

even

sin*tocos% expression of tan

admits
cot
x.

of immediate

integer,the integration
=

put tan
"

t,and therefore sec2^ dx

dt}and let

Thus 2n, n beingintegral.

=

|
^

)n
~

ldt

8a5
,
"

4-n~*-(j

Irftan^+6a5
__

I-

4--

p + i

SUNDRY

STANDARD

METHODS.

71 cosec2^ dx

if Similarly, and

we

put

cot

c,

then

"

"

dc,

\"DPxco"xdx=

result the
order.
Ex.
1.

same

as

the former

arrangedin

the

posite op-

Integratef?^"fo?.
J
sura

This may

be written
-

and

the result is therefore

It may

also be
,

in integrated

terms

of tan

thus

"

CcosPx sPx

J sin6^?
the result Ex.
2.

-r-^-dx
=

1
"

/T

\,,
an x=-

tan~5#
" -

J taii6
same as

"

being the

before,

/sec" (9cosec"

0 d"9

ftan~*0rftan0"" -f tan~%=

f cot*0.

66. Use

of

Multiple Angles.

of a sine or cosine, or Any positive integral power of sines and integral any product of positive powers in be expressed means can cosines, by trigonometrical of the angle, series of sines or cosines of multiples a and then each term be integrated for at once; may f
siunx
nx
7 dx
=
"

\cos

and
n

ifsin

nx

dx=

cosnx
--.

72
r

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

J}x x.

/ cos

/^^2^^r^,_
x

c/Lx =:

f /"-t-UU"^^

X
.

Sin 2.27

Ex.

2,

Ex. 3.

cos%

dx=

/"
_

j=

"4"
2# + 2# +

""**

/(|+ J cos

J cos 4dc)dx

"

%x + J sin

sin Ax. g1^

67. It has is odd

no

been already

shown

that when

the index thus in

such

transformation

is necessary,

the second

example
/ cos3# dx
=

/(1 sin2.2?)a? sin x

-

sin

sm x
"

x
^

which method
more

presents the
we are now

result

different form. will therefore discussing

in
case

The be of

value especial
nor

for the odd.

of

sin^cos?#, where

neither p
Ex. Let
4.
cos
x

are

Integrate I8m9xdx.
+
c

sin
2

=y
x
=

then
w

cos

2t sin

"

-,

2i sin

nx

"

yn

"

"

yn

Thus

cos

8^-

16

cos

6# + 56 cos4o?-

112

cos

2^+70.

SUNDRY

STANDARD

METHODS.

73
56 2# +

Thus

sin8.??
=

l(cos 8x
2

cos

6# + 28

cos

4#

cos

35),
Q*

andj

\$n$xdx="
J
5.
cos

"

irsiii8#
-

"

-8"

Osin6^
"

+ 28
.

OQsin4#
" -

"

-56

Kcsin2^? +35#
.
" "

"1
,

2i L_

2^

_J

Ex. Put

Integrate

/ sin6a7cos2^ o?^.
; then

.#+t sin ,#=y

cos

8#

"

cos

6^+8

cos

4#+ 6^

cos

2^; kx

"

10,
"

and whence

sin6^cos2^="

7J

"cos

'8# + 4

cos

"

cos

cos

2^7 +5

V,

It is convenient for such examples to remember that the several Coefficients may sets of Binomial be quickly in the scheme :" reproduced following
1 1 121 1331 14641 1 1 1 1
5

68. NOTE.

10
15

10 20 35 56

1 6 21 56 1

15 35

7
8

21 28

7
28

1 8 1

70

etc.,
each number

being formed
above
we

at

once

as

the

sum

the 7th

row

it and have
1 +

the

precedingone.
=

of the Thus in

one

mediatel im-

forming

0+1

1,

5=6,

5 + 10

15,

10 +

10=20,

etc.;

74

INTEGRAL

CALGUL

US.

and

in

multiplying out
we

such

product as

(y

1\6/
" -

+ (;*/
-

occurring above
and all the work
-

onlyneed
are

the

coefficients of
6 + 15

+ t)2 (1 t)G(l
"

appearingwill be
1
-

coefficients of

(1 t)Q (1
-

20+
5-

15

6 +

1,
+

coefficients of coefficients of
each
row

(1-/)6(1 + 0
student

are

1-5+

9-

5 + 9-5

1,
+

of The

4-10 are + 1)* 1-4+ 4+ + t)G(l to the being formed according figures will discover the
reason

4+4-4
same

1,
as

law

before. in which

of this

by

forming per-

the actual

of a+fo multiplication
are

cZ2+cfa3+... by l + ",
c,

the several coefficients

a,

+
"

6,6 +

c+c?,etc.
the required,

Similarlyif the coefficients in work appearingwould be

1+4 1+3
+

(1+04(1
1,
+ 2 +

O2

were

+ 6 + 4 +

2-2-3-1,
1,

1+2-1-4-1
and the last
row are

the coefficients
are

required.
:
"

The

coefficients here

formed
6-4
=

thus

1-0=1,

4-1=3,

2,

4-6=-2,

etc.

EXAMPLES.
1.

Integrate
odd indices in two ways.

doing those with 2. Integrate

3.

Integrate
ir ir

4. Evaluate

/
*0

ft

r"

sin^ctr,

/
0

/ cos5^?c?^,
^0

5.

Integrate sin
that

si 2.# cos2.r,

6. Show

/sin x
7. Show
/" N

sin 2.# sin 3# that

dx=-"\

cos

2#

cos ""$

4# +

^\ cos

6#.

(i.)I sm

wia?

cos

w^

a^7

"

cos(m+?iV v !
" " "

cos(m 72-V y )",

"
"

76
and

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

generally
dx 2w+2aj
=
-

"c"

^3
-

s"5

/"2n-fl
~

WC"-

where

cot

x.

70. Odd
cosecant
can

positiveintegral powers thus : be integrated

" "

of

secant

or

By

differentiation

we

have

at

once

d
"

and

(n + l)cosecn+2" n
"

cosec7lo?

"

x cosecna -7-(cot

doc

whence

(n +
and
+ (ti

1 ) secw+2^jdx

tan

secn#

I se

1 ) cose.cn+2xdx =~coix
f

cosecnx
/

cosecn#
\

dx

Thus

as

sec

dx

+ ^V logtanf^

and
we

Icosec
may infer at
once

c?x the
. .

logtan^
,

of integrals
.

sec3#,sec5#, sec7cc,
formulae.
Thus

;
=

cosec3aj, cosec5#, etc.,

in the above I, 3, 5, etc.,

by successively puttingn
/sec3#
dx
=

J tan

sec

^ logtan f

^V ),

/sec5^?da7= J tan
=

sec3^+ 1 /sec3^

J tan

sec3#+f tan

^7 sec

f logtanf

-+-

etc.

SUNDRY

STANDARD

METHODS.

77
"

71. Such
in

formulae
the

as

are

called with

"

REDUCTION

formulae, and

student We

will meet

many

others

Chapter
sin^cos^

VII.

consideration
as

postpone till that chapter the of such an expression of the integration been have as except for such cases

alreadyconsidered.
72. Since
is
a a

positive power
of
or a

of
or a

secant

or a

cosecant

negative power
of
or a

cosine is

sine, and

positive
of
a now

power secant to

cosine

sine

negative
that
we

power

cosecant

it will appear

are

able

integrate any

or integralpositive

negative power

of a sine, cosine) secant, or

cosecant.

INTEGRAL 73. may For

POWER

OF

TANGENT

OR

COTANGENT.
or

of Any integralpower be readilyintegrated.

tannx

tangent

cotangent

dx

tann

2x(sec?x l)dx
"

Itann-2a3c?tan# ltanw"

idM.n~lx
-^
n
"

f, J

tan?l-2#cfe.
1
#,

And

since

Itan

cfc

==

logsec

and
we

Itan%c dx may

(sec2# l)dx
"

tan

"

x,

tan3#, tan4^, tan5#,etc. integrate

we

Thus

have

/tan3#cfo?=

/tan x(sec2x-l)dx

78

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

this By continuing

process

we

shall

obtain evidently

2?i-l +

2^-3
# + (-l)nff, (-l)w~1tan

and

tan-+^=^^
_

tan^^

Similarly
Icoinx dx
=

cotn

cot71-1^
=
"
--

r-

71"1

f |COtn-2#CfcE,

whilst

icot^^aj

logsin x. I(cosec2^ 1 )dx

"

and and

cot2^ ^ therefore
we

"

cot

"

may

thus

integrate
etc.
or

cot3#3 cot4#, cot5^,

Hence admits any

integral of a tangent power of immediate integration.

etc. \a+bcosx,
cos x as

cotangent

dx

74. We

of Integration
may

write

+ b

j, sin2| s2|
-

SUNDRY

STANDARD

METHODS.

79

(a

or

(fa Thus
=

-AgU-j
"

or

"(1)

CASE

I,

If

"

b this becomes

tani
a-

/a+6

or

tan

?|
2J-

Since

we

may

write

this

as

"

b,
"

1
=5- COS

1-

+ b

80

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

1
or COS"
"

+ bcosx

*-"

CASE

II.

If

"

in the form b,writingthe integral

(K

dian.~
,

(2)

in

placeof

the form

we (1)

have

in this

case

by

Art. 54

UjiAj

"

J.

A J ft i _1_ + bcosx
f*na

sv*

A b

"

n a

"

IT. 1 Ib +

17 a

"

Vf^
,

V6^~tan2
v6 +
a

Ib+

\/b
.

"

tan

"=

"log
'

\J~b +

rjr"

"

"

tan

^
"

By

Art. 33 this may

be written

tanh~:

/62-a2
2 tanh

or,

since

lz

cosh

"

02'
as

we

may

stillfurther

exhibit the result b

1
"

a. a

-L-^

tan2^
2

nX

:cosh~3
1

b+

"

^"-

b+

or

SUNDRY

STANDARD

METHODS.

81

We

therefore have
"

b,

i.e.

dx
a+

bcosx

er "

b.

or

cosh-

Jl?-

a+bcosx
one

but These forms are all equivalent, forms is to be chosen when the formula

of the real is used.

75. The

integralof

"

"

-r

a+

may
cos x

be im-

c sin

mediatelydeduced, for
b cosas-fc and
once smx
=

\/b2-{-c2cos(x tan~V ), b/
"

therefore

the proper form of the integral at can be written down in each of the cases or a greater

less than
Ex.

^/5*+c*.
dx
cos x

13 4- 3

in H- 4 sin

=f [ J
52

dx
--

(where

tana

^)

/132
_

13 + 5

:-a) coe(# a)
-

12 1
or

-i/2

.'T

"

a\

$. I. C.

82

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

f 76. The

dx
" --

integral I

Ja + 6sm#
,

may

be

easily deduced

by putting

then

f
"

dx
"

f
=B

dv

Ja + and the therefore

cases course

j". o sin

I-

Ja +

"^o

cos

its value

may

be written

down

in both

a^b.
it may be also independently investigated
x as

Of

by

first writinga + b sin

+ 26 sin | + sin2|j a(cos2| |,

cos

or

+ 26 tan cos2^(
a

J. tan2^

The

then integral 2

becomes

and

two

cases

arise

as

before.

77, The treated. dx

integral

I"
,

x
,"

may

be

similarly

dx

84
4. Prove
constants

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

that,with
involved

certain

limitations

on

the values

of the

J J(a-x)(x-(3)
P
and

=L= /"%=
/
a

.-(3
v

____

integrate Integrate
,.

(x

"

a)(/3 x)dx.
"

5.

"}

dx
'

JSC
.

"^%

\ (1""

}3(l-s
-

("'")
/""" \

.r
Ou27

(v-)
/
*

2^2
r

4- cos

a?

+ sin

.77

U11'-'

cos

COS.T'

^'''^

^^

J"2siii2"9 + 62cos2^'

(vii.)
cos
a

+ cos

and

(viii-) prove
o

6.

Integrate(i.)f-

dk

/ (ii.)
(iii.)
J

C?Jt'
____

^ V

a(^

b)+
"**

6(^ a)
-

7.

f Integrate 7 I
Integrate

8.

f- ^
-

J sm^

+ sm2^

9.

Integrate

fcos201ogcos^+shl fa. COS0-S1TL0

1+cosx

10. Interate

SUNDRY

STANDARD

METHODS.

85

11.

Integrate

12.

Integrate /
J VI

sm

_dx.
x

+ sin
sec^ cosec

13,

Integrate /
"

dx.
x

J 1+

14.

Integrate /-"f^fl_f_.
J
v a

b tan2#

15. Evaluate

fVr^
/ 1 +
o

"

"^'
x

sin

16.

Integrate [****"****"",. J logtan ^7 Integrate

.

17.

Vsin 2(9

18.

IntegrateJ

fcot0-3cot30

19.

Integrate / J Wo?
~

20.

Integrate /"7
J (x si

21.

Integrate f-^ Integrate fA/_

'

22.

CQS

^
6y

cos

+ cos (9(1

+ cos 6")(2

6")

23.

Integrate
1
"

" .

sin

^?

"

sin

a?

24.

Integrate f^ (sin 0+ Integrate f

J

"mg-coeg
cos

25.

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

26.
.

Integrate
J

sin"1
-

dx.

l+x2

27.

Integrate
J

\"

( sin^,
28.

[*"-X-dx,
'

{^^dx,
and prove that

Integrate
J
sin

2#

sin

3^

sin

4^7

sin"r

5 +

[THIN.

COLL.,

1892,]

CHAPTER

VII.

REDUCTION

FORMULAE.

REDUCTION

FORMULAE.

79.

Many
and

functions reducible whose

occur

whose
or are

integrals
of the

are

not

immediately
forms,
In
some

to

one

other not

standard

integrals algebraic
which
at

directly
may

obtainable. be the

cases,

however,
some

sucft

integrals
formula itself

linearly

connected

by

with
may

integral
mediately im-

of

another

expression,

be
to

either

integrable
than For the

or

any

rate

easier

integrate

original

function. be shown
that

instance

it will

(a2 + #2)^fe

can

be

expressed

in

terms

of

+ #2)^fe,and J(a2

this

latter

itself

in

terms

of

which J(a2 + ar)^cfe,

being

standard

form Such

the

integral
connecting
Formulae.

of

I(a2 + #2)^cfc may

algebraical

be

inferred. called

relations

are

Reduction

80. methods

The

student

will

realise been

that

several

reduction instance the

have

already

used.

For

88

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

parts of Chapter IV., and It is proposed to consider and in the presentchapter, such formulae more fully of some for the reproduction to give a ready method of the more important,
of Integration method by the formulae A of Art. 70. of xm-lX* 81. On the integration for anything of the form a+bxn. In

where

stands

several
a

cases

the

can integration

be

performed
in

directly.
I. If p be
the positive integer, binomial

expandsinto
Next and
s

finite series, and each term

/v"

is integrable.

suppose

p fractional

-,

and

beingintegers

positive.
777/

II. Consider Let

.'.

the

case

when
=

"

is
=

positive integer.

X bnxn~ldx

+ bxn

zs,

szs~ldz
zs~l
r-

and

\x

bn)

and

when

"

is

this expression is integer, positive the binomial and

directly integrable by expanding each term. integrating

III. When
"

is

the expression negative integer,

(zs-a)~n+'

REDUCTION

FORMULAE.

89

may may

be

put
be
TD

into

then

and the integration fractions, partial proceededwith (Art.58).

r

IV.
may

If

"

"

is
:
"

an

we or negative, integerpositive

proceedthus

rn
,
_

rn

m-\
and is

--

by

cases

II. and
a

III. this is integrable when

a

"

"

either

positive or
b + ax~n=-zs.
777
r
"

substitution

negative integer by the That is, the expression is

when integrable

\-- is
n S

or negative. integral, positive,

Three

cases or

thereforeadmit of integration by simple substitution.

(1) p (2) (3)
"

mediately im-

integer. positive

an

integer.
an

777
"

[-p

integer.

Ex.

1.

Integrate (^(c
m=6,
3, and

Here

"

=an n

integer.

Let
so

that the becomes integral

%x*dx=

2zdz.

Then

90

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

Ex. Here

2.

+ x^dx. Integrate/ x*(a?

m

", n

3, p=b

and

"

+p
'

is

an

integerc

The Let then and

is / integral

-3-.
XT

the

becomes integral
9
*

which
=

might be put
6, the

into

process of will be avoided effected (Art.70).

sec

fractions. If, however, z be put partial tions fracinto partial puttingthe expression and the final integration may be quickly

82. Reduction Leta with

any + 6xH

formulae

for

\xm~\a
be
"

^C;

then

\xm~lX^dxcan

connected

of the
xm
-

six integrals : following \XP

-

1^
m+n
-

\xm-n-IXPdx,
xm
-

lX?+ldx,

Xm+n
:
"

to according

the

rule following A

Let indices whose

"X+1JTya+1 where
and X

and

JUL are

the smaller

of x

in the respectively
to be connected.

two

expressions
dP

are integrals

Find

-p.

arrange Re-

whose

linear functionof the expressions and to be connected. are Integrate, integrals

this
as

the connection

is complete.

92

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

Integrating, P=(n
and

/"( a?fdx-na? 1) I(x2+

n+I

Putting?i

5 and

ft

3,

((
J

and Then

3i

6.4

Ex.

3.

Calculate

the value

of

[^x^-^ax-x^dx,
to connect

being

positive integer. We

shall endeavour

with xm~l*J%ax-x*dxy f l%m"JZax-x'*dx i.e.

(xm~\2a-x*fdx. with (xmJf^(Za-x?dx

to P=^m+1?(2a-^)1r according

Let

the

rule,then

Hence

(m

xfdx 2) fxm+^(2a
-

xm^(2a^
-

(2m + l)a fxm~\2axfdx

-

REDUCTION

FORMULAE.

93

xm*J?Ltix
o

ra

+ 2

Jo

+ 2
o

/la,
. _

xm*j%ax

x*dX) and

be

positive integer,

2ra-l

2m-l
.
--

2m
.
-

-3
a

3/ J.m-z
5

. _
"

etc.

2m

-1
'

2m-3
m

3
' '

"mT2
Now
to find

'

+ 1

"*4

IQ or

fj^ax

"

x^dx, put
"cos

x=a(\
Then
an

0).

dx

sin ( sin 0.
we we

^l^ax
"

x^

"

Also

when when

#=0,
#
=

have have

$=0,
O
=

2a,

TT.

Hence

70=

fVsinW^-

T(l
-

cos

20)rf0

Hence

-m-

1)...3

+2?r_ 2

(m+2)(m

l)...3

(2m + l)! m!(m + 2)!

EXAMPLES,

Apply
reduction
1.

the

rule formulae

stated

(when

in Art. 82 to X=a + bxn) :

"

obtain

the

following

/
J

2.

94

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS

3.

(,-^
J

4.

( J
=xm^ (a"*-*X*dx
J

^P
-

{x"+n

mm]

6.
.

/
Integrateout

7. Obtain
m
=

the
m
=

of integrals

/xm^(^Lax x^dx for

"

the

cases

l, m=2,

3, and
0 and

their numerical
2a.

values

when

the limits

of

are integration

83. Reduction
A

formulae be

for

sin^a? co"x
a

dx. formula

similar rule may

givenfor
cosqx

reduction

for
This

Isiupx
j

dx, with
any

be expression may six integrals : following

"

connected

of the

I sin^

"

2# cos?#

dx,

\ si
\ si
sin^+2^ cos^
-

\ sinpx

cos9'

^x dx,

I sin^
by
the

2x cosv+2x dx,

*x

dx,

Put smaller
two

rule. following sinX+1#cosAA+1" P where

=

and

are

the

indices of since and

cos#

in respectively

whose expressions
-T-,

are integrals

the to be connected.

Find

and

rearrange

as

linear

functionof the

ax

whose expressions

are integrals

to be connected.

REDUCTION

FORMULAE.

95

and Integrate
Ex. Connect the

the connection

is effected.

integrals

/"
Let P=s

=(p (p
=

"

"

cosg^(l sin2#) (q-f l)si l)smp~2x cos9# I )sin^~2# ( p -h ^)sin^ cosPx

"
"

"

[Note the

last two

lines of rearrangement and

as

linear

functionof

sin^cos^
* . .

sin^~2^7 cos%], dx

P=

(p

I ) /siii^~2^7 cos9^

(p

q)Isi

Hence

/sin.^

cos%^

8m
=
-

*~^X cosq+l* p + q

+"zi (*
P + qJ

It will be where

remembered,
or

however, that
odd

in

the

case

either p

is

an

be effected can integration The present method is useful integers. q are both even

integerthe complete 64, 67]. immediately[Arts.

in the
case

where

p and

EXAMPLES.
Connect the

integral fsin*4?cos?#e"i? with

1
.

smp+2x

cosq.v dx.

2.

/siii^
I smpx

cos"~23? dx.

3.

4.

/*sin^/ sin^
+

5.

2# cos"~2# dx.

96

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

6. Prove

that

fsin^^
_

cousin-1*
n

"-I
n

f^,.
J

Employ
7. Establish

this formula formula

to

sin8^. sin%, sin6#, integrate for

of reduction

/cosw#

dx,

8.

Integratesin4

84. To

calculate the
V

integrals
71

5^n
=

f 2"

I smn#?

aa?

and

J
0

(7n
=

fl I

J
0

Connect
Let P

Isinn^cdx
sinn~3#cos;E dP
"

with

Isinn

2x dx.

to according

the rule; then

sunx

"

"

"

dx
=

(n
---

"

l )sinn2x
~

"

.*.

f lsinn^a^= J
.

smn~lxcosx
,
"

"

If
.

-\smn~zxdx. J
when
?"

Hence

since

sin" -^

cos

"

vanishes
x
=

is

an

integernot
x
=

less than

2, when

0, and

also when

J,

we

have

71"1
=
---

"

3
^
---

71
7i

"

5
4
^
*

""wto

71

71"2

"

if

71

be

even

this
Ti-l

comes ultimately

Ti-3

3 4

Iff

"~'ii^V"g

2j J

REDUCTION

FORMULAE.

97

Ti-1

7i-3 n-2
'"

that is
n

TT

422'

If

be odd
"

we

similarly get
1
"

Q
ll/
^^

A,
TJ
*

.v

f-j
" "

il/

^^

-L
"

O
"r"

9 Z"

/" 2"
.

Ufl

71

"

"P

3J
x r

"S I

dm w E*-1-11 w

rl w U**/j

-|

and

since

I sin xdx
o

"

cos

Ti-1
we

7i-3
1
"

4 2'"

have

$n

5* 3*
be
seen

In

similar way

it may

that

I"cosnxclxhas
o

the precisely

in each value as the above integral This may be shown too from odd, n even. case, n other considerations. These formulae are useful to write down quickly of the above form. any integral
same

/""".""",, "^|."

[The student should notice that these are easily by beginning with the denominator. of natural numbers ordinarysequence Thus the first of these examplesis
(10 under

written

down

most

We then have the written backwards.

9)x (8 under 7)x (6 under 5),etc.,

factor
a
-.

and writing at (2 under 1), a stopping first denominator with

E. I. C.

But

when

the

is

odd,

in

forming such
no

sequence

it terminates

(3 under

2) and

factor

is

written.]

35 G

98

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

r"

85.

To

investigate integralbe

formula

for
0

2si

Let this

denoted

by f(p,q) ;

then

since

tanP^^
J
we

p + q

p + qJ p be not

have, if p and
2

q be

and positive integers,

less than

GASP:

I.

If "" 6e

ei"e7i

2m, and

# afeo

even

2n,

(2m-l)(2m-3)

2rv

/(

3)...l

"/v

andj

/(O,2")
"

^/^

9""
=

/i

7/1

^i

"

2ft

"

TT

Thus

CASE

II.

If p

6e

6^67^

=2m,

and

q odd
=

=277
etc.

"

1,

2m~1

/(2m, 2^-1)=
-

-/(2m-2, 2^-1)
'

and

100

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

These

relations

will

be

found
an

T(n + 1) where

n-{- 1 is either

sufficientlydefine integer or of the form

to
'

2k

+ 2

being
For

positive integer.

instance,

T(6)

=5F(5)=
=

5
.

4F(4)

5
.

4
.

3r(3)

5 .4.3.

2F(2)

5.4.3.2.ir(l) )= S
.

5!

V-) =F(f

PXiHf

I- fr(f )= i
.

f r(" )

This do
not

function propose

is
to

called
enter

Gamma its

function, but

we

into

properties

further

here. The

products

1.3.5...

2n-I 2u
...

2.4.6

TT

which

occur

in

the

foregoing

cases

of

I
o

sin^0

cos?0

d9

may
^

be

expressed
^(2n+l\_2n-l
1

at

once

in
2n-3

terms
2n-5

of

this

function.

lr/l\
'

\~~2~)

2~

V2/'

so

that
/y
7T

and

sothat

Hence

in

Case

I.

REDUCTION

FORMULAE.

101

In Case

II.

In Case III.
In Case IV.

we

have evidently

the

same

result.

It will be noticed therefore have the same result, viz.,

7T

that in every

case

we

f
and that the ^
?9 1

+1
+ l

in occurring

the denominator

is

the

sum

of the
is
a

and

the

#4-1

^"

in the numerator.

convenient of the above quickly integrals

very
IT

This

formula form.

for

evaluating

Thus

rs f \in"6" cos80 dO
.,

-*
5?T

V^TTj" f f i| ^/?T __f f j" ' " " * "

_

2.7-.6.5.4.3.2.f~~215'

102

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

87. The student been pointed out

should,however, observe (asit has

that when either p or q previously), both of them odd the or are expression integers, without reduction sinP$cos?# is directly a integrable formula
For

at all.

instance,
=

[sin^(l-sin26'Xsm6'=^7 (sin66"cosW6" 79 J

and

Similarly,
-2 0 cos26"(l cos2"9+cos46")dcos
"i

COS76n" COS3"9, QCOS5"9

-

+2"

"Jr4-"-*^*.jo,!

But

when

and

are

both

or integral required,

if the
must

and limits of
even

the indefinite be integration the reduction

other than formula

0 and

^,
tt

we

either

use

of Art. 83

or

as proceed

in Art. 67.

EXAMPLES.
Write down the values of

REDUCTION

FORMULAE.

103

prove

the formulae

(1}

I sm2mOcos2n6d0
J

="

-Em+n

I?L_?.-_. 2

(2)

f sin

J
4.

-Bm+n-l
down
cos

Write

the indefinite

of integrals

0 dO, fsitfO

cos3"9 dO, fsitfO

fsitfO cos50 dO,

fsin70 cos20 d09

Evaluate

cos4^ dO. fsiu60

__"
0

/"
7T

rf

rT

sin5^cos2^^.

J
0

/ sin4#"w,

J
0

/ sm26

/3"
7T 7T

6.

/"
0

/-^

/"

"T

J
the formulae of Art.
84

'

J
for

7. Deduce

sm x

dx from

the

result

r("ii)r(z"l) y 7
V

27

"

of Art. 86.

EXAMPLES.
1. Prove

that
=

(a) I cos2w"" ^
"/

-1 tan "/" + cos-nc/"

^^t

M
\

\f cos2

2iii/ J

(b)

104
2.

INTEGRAL
a formula Investigate

CALCULUS.
of reduction

to applicable

when

and are n if ra=5, 7i

and positive integers,

=

completethe

tegrati in-

7.

[ST.JOHN'S COLL., GAME., 1881.]

of reduction for

3.

a formula Investigate

and

by

means

of this

show integral

that

._J_
271+2
2 27i+ 4 2.4 271+ 6

adinf

2.4.6

271 + 8

2. 4. 6. ..27i

~~3. 5.7...27i + l'

Sum
1
I
m
,

also the series

1 2 1
I
t

1.3 2.4

1
I

1.3.5
"

1
_1_

OjCll ITlrT

\f

271+1
4. Prove

2^ + 3

27i + 5

2.4.6

271 + 7

[MATH. TRIPOS, 1879.]

that
2n+l

(rf

*-,
6. Find

prove

reduction

formulae

for

+ bx)P*dx, (a) x"(a

J

(y)

and

obtain the value of

*^*"+a")"*r, (S) /2p+l /*"(*"

-

[COLLEGES"CAMR]
n

7. Find

reduction

formula

for

Ieaxcosnx dx, where

is

and positive integer,

evaluate

[OXFORD, 1889.]

RED

UCTION

FORMULAE,

1 05

8. Find

formulae

of reduction
x

for

/#wsin
Deduce from the latter

dx
a

and

/eaxsinnx
of reduction

dx. for

formula
a*

Jcos
Tt

8in"*"fe.

[COL1KGES

189o.]

9. If

un=

rT / si
o

prove

that

^-lrc--

and

deduce

un=

-"

2n+1 In

-^^-+^

n("" 1)

rC-f1-/ /b
--

--3),
sv

\
""

"(^" l)(n-2)
'

(2ro-lX2ft-3)...3 TT
8'

[MATH. TRIPOS, 1878.]

10.

Show

that

1 V

1 \

'

wi"

2/3

n"2fifJ")

[TEIN. COLL., CAMB., 1889.]

11. Prove that
7

*
1

1 2.4.6 ...2m _1.3.5 ...(2w-l) TT ~2.4.6...2m 4~3.5.7...(2m+ l) 2*

'

12. Find

formula

of reduction

for

f-~=L
^
v'^
"

Show

that

3. 5. 7.

..(27i+l)l

where
13.

a1} a2,

...

are

the binomial

coefficients.

[ST.JOHN'S, 1886.]

Show

that
mx

2TO

/cos
=

cosm#

dx
sn^ mm
"

r+-

4~~

sn^
~"

~T72
where
m

is

an

integer.

[COLLEGES

a,

1885.]

106
14. Show

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

that

being a positive integer.

15. Prove

[OXFORD, 1889.]

that if

Im,n=
(m + n)Im) n=
"

I cosm#
cosmx
1

sin
cos

nx

da:,
+

nx

m/m_i? n_i?
+

[if ^-l^(2+i+i
16.

92

93

-+^J- [BERTRAM]
m(m"l)T v
m*-n2

9"i\

If

/m?
/m
r

I cosw#

cos

nx

dx,

prove and

that

,1

cos%^7
w=
"
-

m2-^2

"I

d f cosmx\
-

cEr\oos9u;/

)+

./^m-2, n,

show

that

/I
prove

cosm^7 sin

7^^;

dx\

that

^m
'

w=

--

1
"

"

wm_i
+ n

M_I.

?i

Hence

find the value

(when
cosm#

is

of integer) positive

/If
o

sin 2mx

dx.

[7,1887.]

18. Prove

that

J
19. If
m

' r2 / cosnx

cos

nx

dx=

IT
"

2n+1" that

[BKRTRAND.]

be even,

prove

co
-

m-n.
i
. -

[COLLEGES, 1882.]

108

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

28.

Find

reduction

formula xmdx
'

for

the

integral

(log#)n'
29.

[OXFORD,

1889.]

Find

reduction

formula
C

for xmdx

[ft 1891.]

30.

Prove

that

if

X=a

Z""=/n
[ST.
31.

JOHN'S,

1889.]

Find

reduction

formulae

for

\CLJ

I tann

dx.

(Q\

f
J (a+"cos#

dx
.

csin#)n

32.

Establish
u

the
v

following
functions

formula of
x"

for and with

double dashes

integration denoting
to
x :
"

by

parts,

and and

being
suffixes

entiation differ-

integrations

respect

/ /u
(-

l)n-1nu^n-1hn+i

(-

l)"n I uMvn+idx

(- l)n

{dx (u^vndx.
[a, 1888.]

CHAPTER

VIII.

MISCELLANEOUS

METHODS

AND

EXAMPLES.

f
INTEGRALS
OF

dx
."

FORM

\^
of

88.

The

integration

of

expressions
dx

the

form

can

be

readily
I.

effected

in

all

cases

for

which of

X X X

and

are

both

linear

functions

x.

II. III.

linear,

quadratic.
Y

quadratic,Y

linear.

If

and

be but

both
the

quadratic
process is
more

the

integration
troublesome.

can

be

performed,

89. The

CASE

I.

and

Y is

both

linear.

best

substitution

"

Let

-fe

dx

110

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

Putting
,

cdx
,

we

nave

=
,_

at/.

and

ax

+ b

-(y2
C

"

e)+ b,

and

becomes

21

"

"

jay2
the standard forms

"

ae

7 + bc
.

which, being

one

of

Jy
Ex.

2_^ "A

is

2,

immediately integrable.

Integrate /=

f
"

J (xLet

then

Thus

y-l

y+lj

90. The for the

same

viz., substitution, *Jy=y will suffice

l(fi( T\f] 'IT

of integration

-^ ^

when

is ^(cc) and X

any

rational F
are

functionof x, algebraic integral

and

eacfe linear.
Integrate /==

Ex.
.

J^have

Writing "/^+ 2=7/, we

%dy

and

.r

?/2 2,
-

MISCELLANEOUS

METHODS

AND

EXAMPLES.

Ill

so

that

-"L ="="

24/-32/

+ 16

(by common
Thus

division).

91. CASE The Put

II.

linear,F quadratic.
"

proper

substitution is :

X=\
y

Let

Putting
we

ax

+ b

t/

differentiation, have, by logarithmic

adx
ax

dy
y

+ b

and

ex2 +

ex

+/=

6Y + ft) -2((+/ a\ a2\/

-

Hence form which

the

has integral /=
:
"

been

reduced

to the

known

has been

alreadydiscussed.

112

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

Ex.

Integrate /= #+l=y-i,
/= then

f
./
__=_

Let

and y

#+1

__

i+i-2

i+%-y2
JI*

92, It will form be

now

appear

that any

of expression

the

J(
can

f
rational
common

being any integrated, "j)(x) function of x. For by algebraic

"b(x)
we can
.

integral
division

express

in

the

,,

"

torm

Af

Axn+Bxn~l+
remainder.

...

+Z

being the quotientand

the

We thus have reduced the process of a number of terms of the class integration Eaf

to the

and

one

of the class

M -dx.

The

and latter has been discussed in the last article, of the former class may be obtained by the integrals formula
e
v '

reduction

^(^_^/)4_2r-l
TO

r-lf
v

2r

MISCELLANEOUS

METHODS

AND

EXAMPLES.

113

where The
Ex.

F(r)stands

for I
J

f
,

xr

dx.
as
an

\Jcx*+ ex+f
exercise.

proofof

this is left

Integrate /=
division

f ^2 + 3^+5-^.
J

(x+l)*/x2+l
*=x

By
Now

*2+3*+5

+ 2 +

and

to

integrate /

x we

put #+!=_

and

get

Thus

93. CASE The Put Let

III.

quadratic,F linear.
"

proper

substitution is :

+/Y=y.
T /=

f
I
-

dx
"

J (ax2 + bx + c) V

"c

+/

Putting

*Jex+f=y,
edx
7

and ax24-"^ +

reduces to the form

E. I. C.

114

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

and

I becomes

-f
can
2
i

dy
be thrown into

e)Ay*
fractions partial

Now
as

"

-j

and

each

fraction

is

by foregoingrules. integrable
that the
same

94. It
may

is also

evident

substitution the

be made

for the

of of expressions integration

form

f
_

*(")
__

dx"

where when

is "p(x)

c)\/ex +f rational,integraland
(ax2+
bx +
to yt y"
_i_ "L
"

algebraic ;
"

for
to

^/ex+ fis put equal

\

reduces

0 2

the
and
as

form the

"^

/j/2nj_ \

/,/2n-2_i

which
'
-

by divisi"n'
be

rules

for

partialfractions, may

expressed

and

each

term

is at

once

integrable.

Ex.

Integrate

/=

Putting \/^+ l=y,

we

have

-7====2e?y,and
v^

116

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

Thus Also
so

/becomes

(a2
"

that

and

Thus

/ reduces

further

to

If

"

6,we

may

arrange

/
i
-

as

/"

V^TP

Ex.

2.

/= Integrate

J (2x2 \/3^2-2^ 2x2 -2^+1) -2^

__

/
-

+ 1

-,

dy
_

3^-1
~~

2#

"

values yj2and yf of ;/2 and minimum are given 2 by x \ and # 0, and are respectively and 1, so that for real be not greater than 2 and not less than 1. values of #, ?/2 must The
maximum
= =

MISCELLANEOUS

METHODS

AND

EXAMPLES.

117

Now

yi-f=^-y"='

2^2

and Thus / becomes

t-tfm^l-g
/2#"
-

2ar+l )(2a72 r("g3J x(x-l)

2.37+1

Now

Thus

'=/(-,==
2
=

cosh"1?/ +

cos"1-^/3^2-

N/2 \2^-

EXAMPLES.

Integrate
1. 4.

_4
"

2.

5.

"

3.

6.

118

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

96. Fractions This fraction

A

of form
can

al

ina;+CCOSa;. CT+f + Pisin^ + CfiOSX

into the form
"

be thrown

+ ^sinx (Oj

+ c1cos x)
are

x + + b^siu (ax so

where

A, B, G
A + term

constants

chosen

c-fos x) that

Ca^a,

and

each

-Bc^ + Cb^b, is then integrable.

97.

the expression Similarly

a

+ b sin x-\- c

cos

may

be

arrangedas
cos

(a

+6^+0

.)"+
_|
-

x + + 6xsin (Oj

x)n c-[Cos

the first and reduction formula and

third fractions may

be reduced

by

while [Ex. 25, Ch. VII.], is immediately integrable.

the second

98. Similar
a

remarks
x

apply to
x a

fractions of the form

x

+ b sinh

cosh

+ b sinh

cosh

ai + 99.

#' (ax # + qcosh x)n' x + Cjcosh + 61sinh frisinh

Some

Special Forms.
that sin
a?

It is easy to show

Isin^r sin
"

"

c\

a
.

"

'sin(a 6)sin(a c)
"

a),

MISCELLANEOUS

METHODS

AND

EXAMPLES.

119

sin2,^
and
" "

r"

-.

"

"

-.
"

a)sin(^ 6)sm(#
""

T\".

-,
"

c)
1
" ^^ "

sin2a
1/ ^^i E51111
1
,

/
__ ^^

Iv

r)\"nY\( rt (-t/ U lollll

/^ I/ I

QTTn

ollll

/7* cC"

" ^^

/Y

i tv^

f
whence I
-r",

sin
.

c?a?
M
"

Ssina 6)sm(a sm(a (a 6)sm(a

-^"7
,

.
"

. v

, /

"

" "

c)

a), lo^sm(o3 v 6

and

f
--

sin2^ dx
-

J sin(^ a)sm(x
"

-5-7

r-^-p

"

/ x o)sm(x

r
"

c)
x
"

sin2a

a
"

S
100. More

"

sin

(a

"

6)sm(a c)
"

1\

"

tan

"

7r

integrate any
_

Hermite generally of the expression

has

shown

how

to

form

where
Ti
"

8,cos 9) /(sin sin($ a1)sin(0a2) sin(0 an)' f(x, y) is any homogeneousfunction of

_ "

"

"

#, y

of

1 dimensions.

For

by
-

the

rules ordinary
_

f(t, 1) (* Oj)(t a2) (t a^

-

fractions partial 1) /(a,, (ax egCoj a3) (ax "") of

_

^" ax

(a2 ^Xag
"

"

a3)

...

(a2 an) ^"

"

a2

which

may

be written

__

^r((ar a1)(ar a2)

" "

...

(ar" aw) ^

"

ar

(the factor
of the above

ar

being omitted coefficient).

"

ar

in the denominator

Proc.

Lond.

Math.

Soc.,1872.

120

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

Putting
theorem

"

tan$, a1

tana1, a2

tana2, etc.,this

becomes

0, cos 6) /(sin sin($ a1)sin(0a2) sin(0 an)

"
"

"

/(sin ar, cos ar) r=isin(ar OL) sin(ar an) sin($

" " "

...

ar)

Thus

W: /(sin0,
~ "

cos

9)

/(sin or,
"

cos
"

a,)
7
\
"

"

^ism(ar

./

^
"

"

%)

sm(ar

an)

_logtan^ 2
J-'-'ii t/ctj-j.
;-:
.

EXAMPLES.

Integrate
sm ^ cos

^^7
x

4
cos
"

cos

cos cos

2#
^

"

cos cos

2a
a

sin 2^7
sn ^7

"

sin 2a
sn
a

"

"

cos
"

3#
x

"

cos cos

3a
.

O.

D.

cos

"

sin

sin2a)' #(sin2,#
"

GENERAL 101. There

are

PROPOSITIONS.
on general propositions

certain

almost which are integration definition of integration or meaning. Thus 102. I

self evident from the from the geometrical

f(j)(x)dx= J
~~

for each is equal to \^(^) \HC0 if "f"(x) he the differential The result beingultimately coefficient of \fs(x).
*

See Hobson's

Trigonometry, page

111.

MISCELLANEOUS

METHODS

AND

EXAMPLES.

121

of independent
z

it is

is used

in the

immaterial whether x or plainly the indefinite process of obtaining

pc
/""

integral.
/""

103. II. For if

1 "p(x)dx "f)(x)dx + (j
=

and which Let

of "p(x) integral the left side is \{s(b) side is \^(c) the right is the same thing. illustrate this fact geometrically. us be the indefinite \[s(x)
"

Let dinates

the

curve

drawn

N^^
Then

NJP^

be 2/ N^P^ be cc

anc^ 0(#0"
a,
x
=

c,

^e^ ^ne or" b respectively.

the above

equationexpresses
+
area

the obvious

fact that Area

104. III. For with the

["j)(x)dx [$(x)dx.
=
"

same

notation hand

as

before
"

the left

side is side

and

the

righthand

\/r(6)T// is [
"

122

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

105. IV.

f0(a x)dx f"/"(x)dx

=
-

For if
we

we

put

a
"

"

y,

have if

dx
x

dy,
y
=

and

a,

0,

Hence

I "p(x)dx= I (f"(ay)dy
"

"

(by in.) fV"-2/X2/

o

I "{"(ax)dx (by I).

"

in

this expresses Geometrically 00' QP the area estimating

the

obvious

between

fact that, the y and x

O'

Fig.9.

axes,

an

ordinate
our

like take
as our

O'Q,and a curve at 0',O'Q as origin

PQ, we may if we our F-axis,and O'X

direction positive

of the X-axis.

124
Thus since

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

sin"^^

sm"(7r #),
-

/
0

smnx

dx

/ sinw^7dx
0

and and

since

cos2n+1# cos2n#
rir

cos2n+1(?r x\ x\ cos2n(7r
" " "

I *o

+ 137(jfo7 COS2'l 0,
=

and

/ cos2w# dx
'0

%\

ft
dx. cos2n^7

We To

may put such a add up all terms

0 and
TT

into words, thus : proposition of the form smnxdx at equal intervals

"

between
to double.

is to add

up

all such

terms

from

to

"

and

For the second quadrant sines are merely repetitions order. of the first quadrant sines in the reverse Or geometrically, the curve about $mnx the ordinate being symmetrical y
= =

the ^, and

whole

area

between

0 and

TT

is double

that

between

|.
illustrations geometrical will

Similar

apply to

other

cases.

108. VII.

If
/"net

""ti

\
For, drawing the

"j)(x)dx=n\ "j
curve

pa

it is clear that it "j"(x), of the part consists of an infinite series of repetitions the ordinates OP0 (x 0) and JV^Pj lying between bounded (x a} and the areas by the successive of the curve, the corresponding ordinates and portions the #-axis are all equal.
y
= =

Thus

f "{"(x)dx=r'(t"(x)dx= f )dx
j"wa
I
/"a =

etc.

and

71 1 "p(x)dx. ^"(x)aa;

MISCELLANEOUS

METHODS

AND

EXAMPLES.

125

Thus, for instance, f2"

J
"

sin

xdx=%

"

sm

"",
"

\276u?

=4

Bin

"n

7 #aa?""*4

A%n-I
""

2n-3
...-"

I
2

IT
-.

2?^

2ra- 2

Fig. 10.

SOME 109. We

ELEMENTARY have
seen

DEFINITE
that

INTEGRALS.
the

whenever

indefinite
value

the be performed, can l^"(#)cfe integration the

of

definite

can integral "j)(x)dx

at

once

be inferred.
the

In

many

cases,

however,

the

value

of

definite

definit be inferred without can performingthe inintegral when it cannot and be even integration, performed. We propose to give a few elementaryillustrations.
Ex.
1. Evaluate

/=

{*(
J

Writing
we

have

and

vers~

TT

"

126

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

Hence

1=

~3/2f(TTf\2ay

Hence

/=

|
o

Putting
and
we

?/=

a(l-cos0),

obtain

/=?an+1

f'smn+10d0
=

7ra

n+i

...

down

to

? or
3

l 22

E,

as according

is

even

or

odd.
ir

Ex.

2.

Evaluate

/=

/ logsin #
0

ofo?,

Let then and /=

#=--#, 2

dx

"
"

dy

"

/ logcos y dy
rl

/ logcos

c"

rf

Hence

2/=

\
o

logsm^"ir+ / logcos

xdx

jo

log /I (log /f
o
IT

sin

cos

c?^

sin 2%

"

log

r"

"j
0

Io88inte"fo-i
2x=z,
o?^7
=

Put then then

^dz ;
I f

Iogsin2^^=^/logsin zdz"

MISCELLANEOUS

METHODS

AND

EXAMPLES.

127

Thus

27=

log 2, /-^ 2i

/=|logl.
log /?
r~% -\

sin xdx"

\ log cos
J

cfo?
=

log

-.

2t

2i

Ex.

3.

Evaluate

1=

/ -^
o

Expanding

the

we logarithm,

have

If

we

put
/=
"

x=l

"y, /
"

re

have

"

^-dy

dx.

Hence

we

also have e

J
1

"^'a?^=
\-x

"
"

"o

Ex.

4.

Evaluate

-I
log(tan0+cot0X0
o

Put

^=tan(9,

.-.

1=1

(log /2
o
IT

sin ^ 4-

log cos $)6"

sin /log

0 dO

Tr

log 2.

128

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

110.

Differentiation

under

an

Integral Sign.

to be "p(x, Suppose the function to be integrated c) which is of a quantityc independent x. containing Suppose also that the limits a and b of the integration and of are finite quantities, independent c.

Then

will

J0(a?,
a,

r"

For

let

f6 \ "f"(x, c)dx.
a

Then

+ Su

f 0(o3,

"

which, by Taylor's theorem,

And be

if z, say, be the

value greatest

of which

capable,

in the limit when vanishes and in the limit Thus diminished. ^

"

Sc is

indefinitely

'

"

'dx.

MISCELLANEOUS

METHODS

AND

EXAMPLES.

129

111. contain

The
c

case

in

which

is somewhat

the limits a and beyond the scope of the

also

present

volume.
112.
new

be used to deduce many proposition may has been performed. when one integrations This
since

Thus

f
--

L=

=dx

-*
Vc

tan-1
+
a

\l2=2(c+
*

a"

0),
c,

(x+cyJx-a

we

times n have, by differentiating

with

regard to

times with regard to n Also, differentiating

a,

we

obtain

/"

(^+ c)(^ a)
c,
r we

this differentiating Similarly, obtain o?^?

latter p

times

with

regard to

IJ

"2^+1

(^+c)^+1(^-a) 2

EXAMPLES.
1. Obtain

the

: integrals following
"

f(i+*)-V*"fo. (v.)Jf (i.)

J

An-^-xi+ (ii.)
J

ar)-*^

(vi.)
J

*?)"*"". r#-1(2-3a?+ -(vii. (iii.)

E. T. C.

130

INTEGRA

CA LCUL

US.

2.

Integrate (i.) + (a2

1

62

^2)v/(a2 ^2)(^2 62)'

-

[ST.JOHN'S, 1888.]
(x2 +

a2)^^+^

I~STJ"HN'S" 1889.]

|UL*
sin
3. Find
/-

6"Vacos2^ + 67iii2"9+V
sin dx
x

[TRINITY,1888.]

the values ^
f

of
x

J (cos x
/"

cos

a)V(cos x 4- cos fi)(cos+

cLx

cos

)
C% 1890-]

J cotfx + a\Jcos(a;+B)coa(a: + 'v} a)\/cos(^ + ^)cos(^ + y}

4.

Prove

constants

that,with involved,

certain

limitations

on

the

values

of the

d,L

\^ Olll

"

"

+ Zbx + (x-p)(ax?

cy*

(-ap2-2bp-cft
be

(x p)(b2 acf
-

[TRINITY,188G ]
5. Prove

that

\(cQ$x}ndx may

expressed by
j\r ^.v3
"

the series

_L
-"

-r

...

pf p etu,
n-

ND N2J Nft and n having any

. . .

being the coefficients of the

real value

expansion(1+ a) 2

or negative. positive

[SMITH'S PRIZE, 1876.]

6. Evaluate

the
W

definite integrals : following

"

(i\

fl
l

/a(a2
o
/"""

^2

/y.2
^'

^72)2
** x

[ST.JOHN'S, 1888.]

^UL'

dx
+

(l+tfX2+^)(3 Jo

#)

[OXFORD, 1888.]

7. Prove

that

f
-

8. Show

that

[0x^,1888.]

132

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

15. Evaluate

(i.)f
o

dx

[I.C. S., 1887.]

[I.C. S.,1891.]
16. Prove

(i.)

f^an^^
sec

37+

cos

[POISSON.]

J a2
a

"

cos2.2

beingsupposedgreater than unity.

17. Prove

[OXFORD, 1890.]

(i.)

f 1-2S"fc? g
=
-

18. Prove

that
=

"

"a3
3

""

"5

"
" " -

ctf +

...

z2)
19. Prove
IT

3.5

3.5.7

[OXFORD, 1889.]
that
/-7A "^"
_T

2r~% /

2 1 1

1 2
o

"

1*3-4

Q2

1
i

2
"

o2
^"
"

PL2 " x,6

beingsupposed "
20.

1.

Prove

that

[MATH. TRIPOS, 1878.]

21. Prove

that

1.1

1
''*

[A 1888.]

22.

If

$(x)dx= -,"),\*a

F $(x)dx.
0

[TRIN. HALL, etc.,1886.]

23. Prove

that
b

*""6^ Jf^C~^W
c-a?) ^-6)
x

provided
[ST.JOHN'S, 1883.]

remains

finite when

vanishes.

MISCELLANEOUS

METHODS

AND

EXAMPLES.

133

24.

Prove

that

and illus/""{"##) ra$(x)dx= + ""(2a-a?)}cfci7,

*

trate

the theorem

geometrically.
show that

25. If

f(x)=f(a+x\

and

illustrate Show

geometrically.
q-pj
\

26.

that q-p q-p

sums

value of the the limiting 27. Determine by integration of the following series when n is indefinitely great :
"

'

+ I
n

+ 2
n

+ 3
n

ri
n

[a,1884.]

/""

(iiL)_J_+

*_+

* .-+ +

-J*/2ri*-"n?
[CLARE, etc., 1882.]

\/2?i-l2 \/4?i-22 \/6rc-32

(iv-)
"

beinsr K sin2/" + sin2K + sin2fc +... +sin2K" !-, 2 J 2n 2n 2n (.

"

"

"

an

integer.
28. Show

[ST.JOHN'S, 1886.]
that the limit when
n

is increased

of indefinitely

'2n

3n

n2

2*

[COLLEGES, 1892.]
29. Show that the limit when
n

is infinite of
i

/*"+*.

is

e^a
this result to find the limit of

Apply

-('+
[CLARE, etc.,1886.]

134

INTEGRAL

CALCUL

US.

30.

Find

the

limiting limiting
the
n

value

of

(n\}n/n
is

when

is

infinite.
.

31.

Find
sum

the of

value

when

infinite

of

the

Tith

part

of

the

quantities
n
'

n+1

n+n
~

Ti~J

T~J

"V

and

show of

that the

it
same

is

to

the

limiting
as

value
3e
:

of

the

?ith
e

root

of base

the of

product
the

quantities

8, where

is

the

Napierian
32.

logarithms.
is

[OXFOKD,

1886.]

If that

na

always

equal
value

to

unity
of the

and

is

indefinitely

great,

show

the

limiting

product

[OXFORD.

1883.]

CHAPTER

IX.
/

EECTIFICATION,
113. propose the In the of the
next

ETC.

course

four

chapters we

of obtaining foregoingmethod of the limit of a summation by application to the problems of findingthe process of integration bounded by such lengths of curved lines,the areas of solids of and volumes lines, finding surfaces
to illustrate the

revolution, etc.
114. As idea order
we

Rules

for the

Tracing
curve

of

Curve.
some

shall in many cases of the shape of the

to

have the

to form under

rough

in discussion, of

integration, author's refer the student to the we larger may Treatise on the Differential Calculus, Chapter XII. for a full discussion of the rules of procedure. The followingrules, however, are transcribed for
properly assign
,

limits

convenience

will reference, and suffice for present requirements:"

of

in

most

cases

115.
1. A
curve.

For

Cartesian will

Equations.
detect

glance

suffice to

symmetry

in

136

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

(a) If

no

of y occur, the curve is symmetrical powers larly Simiwith respect to the axis of x. for symmetry about the ^/-axis. odd
=

Thus

y2

4"ax is

symmetricalabout

the cc-axis.
occur

(6) If

of both x and y which all the powers be even, the curve is symmetrical about axes, e.g.,the ellipse

both

^ y*_ a2+62~
(c)Again,if on changingthe signsof x and y, the there remains unchanged, equationof the curve is symmetry in opposite quadrants,e.g., the a2,or the cubic x3+y3 3ax. hyperbola xy If the curve be not symmetricalwith regard to tion either axis, consider whether any obvious transforma= =

of coordinates
2. Notice

could make the

curve

it

so.

whether

passes

through the

the coordinate the points where it crosses coordinates present whose axes, or, in fact any points themselves as obviously the equation to the satisfying

origin ; also

curve.

those parallel to the asymptotes; first, axes ones. ; next, the oblique 4. If the curve equate to pass through the origin of lowest degree. These will terms the terms zero givethe tangentor tangentsat the origin. the
5. Find

3. Find

dx'

y^; and

where the the

it vanishes

or

becomes

in-

find where finite; i.e.,

6. If
we can

or tangent is parallel

pendicul per-

to the #-axis.

of the of the other, x, it will be variables, say y, in terms in the solution, found that radicals occur frequently and that the range of admissible values of x which solve

equation for

one

givereal values ofloops upon a

for y is therebylimited. The existence is frequently detected thus. curve

RECTIFICATION,
7. Sometimes reduced to the 116. II. For the

ETC.

137
when simplified

is much equation polarform. Polar Curves.

some

It is advisable
"

to follow

such

routine

as

the

: following 1. If possible, form a table of r and 9 which the satisfy

of

values corresponding for chosen

etc.

curve

values both

of 9, such

as

0,

"^, "","f
O
JP

Consider

and positive
2. Examine

values negative
whether

of 9.

initial line. 9 leaves the

r
=

there be This will be so when

symmetry a change

the of signof

about

unaltered, e.g.,in equation

be frequently

the carclioide

a(l

"

cos$).

obvious from the equation of the curve confined that the values of r or 9 are between certain limits. If such exist they should be ascertained, asijm9, it is clear that r must e.g.,if r lie in magnitude between the limits 0 and a, and the
3. It will
=

curve

lie wholly within whether circular.

or

4. Examine

the circle r a. has any the curve

=

asymptotes,

rectilinear

RECTIFICATION. 117. The process of between two curve

of the lengthof an arc finding fication. specified pointsis called recti-

the differential coefficient Any formula expressing of s proved in the differential calculus gives rise at in the integral to a formula once by integration calculus for findings. add a list of the most We common. (The references are to the author's Diff. Gale, for Beginners.} 118.

values

In each of the

the limits of integration are variable corresponding to independent

case

the

138

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

the two points which is sought.

terminate

the

arc

whose

length

Formula

in

"he Diff. Calc.

Formula

in the Int. Calc.

Reference.

Observations.

P. 98.

For

Cartesian

Equa

tions of form

P. 98.

For Cartesian Equa tions of form

*=/(*/)"
P. 103. For Polar of form

Equation

P. 103.

For Polar of form

Equation

ds
_

dt

M(di)+(Tt
rdr

l(dx\* Idy

P. 100.

For is

case

when

curvi

given as
use

Pp. 103,
105.

For

when

Peda

dr

Equation is given
For
use

ds

P. 148.

when

Tan

Pola gential Equation is given

119. We
Ex.
1.

add illustrative
the

: examples
"

Find

length of
to
one

the

arc

of the

xL=kay parabola
the latus-rectum.
x"%a.

extendingfrom
y="
,

the vertex and

,

extremityof
are

yi="

the limits

#=0

and

Hence

140
Ex. p
=

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

4.

Find

the

rsina and Here

r2.

between

length of the the points at

=

arc

of the the

equiangularspiral
radii
vectores
are

which

arc

f 2- -^r
J

=r

VV2-r2sin2a
any
arc

Ex. whose Here

5.

Find

the

length of
=

of the

involute

of

circle,

equation isp
s
=

where of the

^
arc

and

\^2are the values respectively.

of

at the

beginning

and

end

120. In

Formula

for formula

Closed

Curve.

using the

in the the

case

of

closed be

oval, the originbeing within

that the

curve,

it may is

observed

length of
the

the

whole

contour

given by

I pd\fs, for
"

portion

\~dj)~~]
-jy

when disappears

the limits

are

taken.

Ex.
e

Show

that

the
"

perimeter of
of its

an

of ellipse of
a

small

tricity eccen-

exceeds

by

length that

circle

having

the

same

area.

[7, 1889.]

Here where Hence

p2 ^
is the

+ 62sin2^ a2(l e2sin2^ ), c^cos2^

=
-

angle
=
-

which

makes

with

the

major

axis.

.A i^sin2^ I a( -e*sui*\ls.
-

2i

Hence

I \-^-\\ ,=4a{|-lA f}(very approximately)

RECTIFICATION,
The radius of (r)
a

ETC.

141

circle of the

same

area

is

given by

vZ^ab^a^l-erf,
/
I

o
"
"

and

its circumference

1 27ra( \

"

-e2
4

e4
...

).
/

32

*.

Circumf.
o
' =
"

ellipsecircumf
-

circle
.

( \lo
"

\irae*
=
_

""

2ira

3'2

t"4

of circle], far as [circ.

as

terms

e4. involving

64

EXAMPLES.
1. Find
=

the length of the arc by integration where the points between a2,intercepted

of the
x"a
cos

circle and a

2. Show

that

in

the

catenary y

cosh

the

length of

arc

from

the vertex

(where #=0)
s
=

to any
c

point is given by
x
-.

smh

c
v

3. In

the

that where

the

evolute of length of the the

it meets

viz., 4(# 2a)3 27a#2,show parabola, from its curve cusp (# 2a) to the point is 2a(3v3 1). parabola
a
-

"

4. Show

that the

lengthof

the

arc

of the

cycloid,

.r=a(0+ sin 0) ^ a(l-cos"9)J y

=

between
5. Show

the

pointsfor

which

0=0

and

0=2^,

is

that in the

for epicycloid

which

y=(a

0 6)sin

b sin

26

measured beiijg
n

from show

the

point at
222

which

0=7rb/a.
and that x*. if
5

When measured

"=--,
from
a

that

4r+y*"a*j
on

be

cusp which

lies

the

s3 oc y-axis,

142
6. Show

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

may

that in the ellipse # be expressedas

cos

$, j/

6sin^, the perimeter

7. Find

the
r (i.)

length of
=

any

arc

of the

curves

acos0. aem0.

r (iii.)
=

a6.
asin2-.
2t

r (ii.)

r (iv.)

8.

Apply

the formula

s=_"
-f cos

to \pdty

the rectify

cardioide

whose

equationis r=a(l
radii vectores

0).
of the
curve

[TRINITY,1888.}

9. Two

OP, OQ

equallyinclined to arc length of the intercepted of the measure anglePOQ.

are

drawn

the

initial line
a

; prove

that

is act, where

is the

the circular

[ASPARAGUS, Educ.
an arc

Times.']
can

10. Show

that the

lengthof

of the when

curve

yn=xm+n
or
"

be

found

in finite terms

in the

cases

"

is

an

integer.
11.

*m

*m

Find
curve

the

of the

length of the arc between (c2 a2)p2=c2(r2 a2).

"
"

two

consecutive

cusps

12. Find

the whole

lengthof

the

loopof

the

curve

3ay2=x(x-a)2i.
13. Show

[OXFORD, 1889.]
=

a? that the lengthof the arc of the hyperbola xy and x=c is equal to the arc of the between the limits x=b the limits aV2 between curve r=b, r=c. ""2(a4+r4)
=

[OXFORD, 1888.]
14. Show

that

in the
arc

parabola

and "=1+0080,-^ =:-__^_

T
'

d"Y

sin^w*

hence

show

that the

between intercepted

extremity of

the latus rectum

and the_yertex is a{\/2-flog(l +\/2)}.

the

[I.C. S., 1882.]

RECTIFICATION,
121.

ETC.

143

Length

of the

Arc

of

an

E volute.

It has been shown Gale, for Beg.,Art. (Diff. that the difference between the radii of curvature

157)
at

Fig. 12.

two

pointsof a arc corresponding

curve

is

equal to

the

lengthof

the

of the evolute ;

if ah be the arc of the evolute of i.e., of the original then (Fig. curve, 12)
.e.

the

portionAH
(at H),

(atA)

"

/"

144

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

regardedas a rigid curve, and a from it, be unwound then the string beingkept tight, pointsof the unwinding stringdescribe a system of of which is the original AH. curves one curve parallel
e

and

if the

volute be

Ex.

Find

the

lengthof

the evolute

of the

Let a, a', be the centres of curvature /3, /3' the extremities of the axes, viz., A, A', B, B' of the evolute to the arc arc a/3 corresponds and we have (Fig. 13)
arc

ellipse. to corresponding
respectively.The
AB of the curve,

a/2 /o(at 5)-p(at A)

=

~-

"

rad. [for Thus the

of

curv.

of

ellipse
=

^.

Ex. 3, p. 153,Diff. Beg."]. Calc.for the evolute

lengthof

the entire

perimeter of

EXAMPLE.
in the above manner for the parabolay2 kax that the within the parabola lengthof the part of the evolute intercepted Show
=

is4a(3\/3-l).
122. Intrinsic The

Equation.
s,

relation between measured

the

given curve,

from

lengthof the arc of a a given fixed point on

Fig. 14.

the curve, and the extremities of the of the

curve.

anglebetween
arc

the

is called the

tangentsat the Intrinsic Equation

RECTIFICATION,
123. To

ETC.

145

obtain

the Intrinsic

Equation

from

the

Cartesian.
be given as y=f(x). of the curve Let the equation and Supposethe #-axis to be a tangent at the origin, from the origin. the lengthof the arc to be measured Then also
tan

-^=/("),

(1)

s=\ *Jl+ [f'(x)~]2dx

(2)

from (2), If s be determined and x by integration eliminated between this result and equation (1), the relation between s and ^ will be obtained. required
.

Ex.

1.

Intrinsic

equationof

circle.

If

be i/r

tangent

the at the

angle between
point P,
and
a

the initial tangent at A and the have the radius of the circle, we

and

therefore
2.

s"a^r.
of the
c

Ex.

the case equationis s

=

In

catenary y

ccosh-,
c

the

trinsic in-

tan

^.
=

For

tan^
as
"

^
dx

and

\/ 1
"

/-,
-r

smh2-

"

""x
=

dx
P. I. c,

146

INTEGRAL

CALCUL

US.

and

therefore

sinh

-,

of the constant whence together,

being chosen integration

s
=

so

that

and

vanish

tan

\js,

124.

To

obtain

the Intrinsic

Equation

from

the

Polar.

Fig. 16.
/
",

to the the initial line parallel pointfrom which the arc is measured.

Take

tangent at
Then

the

with the

usual notation
T

we

have the curve,

.......

the equationto =/(0), 0+0, ^

=
.......................................

(1) (2)

from and 0, "f" (4), by integration of equations(2) and eliminated (3),the by means will be found. relation between s and \fs required If
s

be

found

Ex.

Find

the intrinsic

equationof the r=a(l -cos 0).

cardioide

Here and

i/r
a sin

148

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS,

125. When

the

Equation

of the Curve

is

given

as

we

have

tan

dy ^
=

d)'(t)
=

,-

-^ ax

j (t)

^_-^

.......

.....

........

(1)

By

means

of

equation(2)s

may

be

found

by

tegrati in-

of t. the result and If then, between shall obtain the eliminated, we

in terms

equation(1) t be required relation

between
Ex.

and

^.

In the

cycloid y"a(\ t\
*
= ,

-cos

we

have

tan

*mt
=

tan 2

1+costf

Also

^ dt
5=4a

+ cos02+ ax/(l

sin2*

2a

cos

-,

whence Hence

sin
4ot sin

if s he measured

from

the

where origin

Z=0.

is the equation T/T required.

126. Let

Intrinsic

Equation

of the Evolute.

be the equationof the given curve. s=f(\f/) of the arc of the evolute measured Let s' be the length fixed pointA to any other pointQ. Let from some the original 0 and P be the points sponding correon curve to the points A, Q on the evolute;p0, p the P: at 0 and radii of curvature \j/the angle the and ^ the tangent QP makes with OA produced, with the tangent at 0. the tangentPT makes angle

RECTIFICATION,
Then
and "*//-^r,
=

ETC.

149

ds

or

Fig. 18.

Equation of an Involute. if the curve the same With AQ be givenby figure, have the equation we s'=f(\}/),
127. Intrinsic
and whence
Ex. Hence The intrinsic

\Is
"

\//,

\
equation
of the

catenary
is

is s=ctsm\Ir

(Art. 123).
the intrinsic of equation its evolute

and

p0=
=

radius
c

of curvature
= =

at the vertex

y
-

and sec2i/r
s
=

T/r=0

' . .

the evolute

The

1 ),or c(sec2-v//intrinsic equation of an involute

is

tan2^.

is

I(ctan "fy + A)d^r

c

+ A^r + logsec T/T

constant

;
we

and

if s be

so

measured
s
=

that 5=0
c
T log(sec

when

^=0,

have

150

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

128.

Length of Arc

of Pedal

Curve.
the

originupon the tangentto any curve, and ^ the angle it makes with the initial line, we regardp, % as the current may polarcoordinates of a pointon the pedalcurve. culated Hence the lengthof the pedal curve be calmay by the formula

If p be the

from perpendicular

Ex. of the

Apply the above method to find the lengthof pedalof a circle with regard to a point on the a cardioide). (i.e.

any arc circumference

Fig.

19.

Here, if 2a

be the

diameter, we
p
=

have
=

from

the

figure

OP

*
cos

2ctcos2*.

Hence

arc

of

pedal
=
=

/2 A/a2cos4+ a2 sin2-

cos

-a

2 + C.

/2a
j

cos

*dx

4a sin

The

limits for the upper half of the Hence the whole perimeter of the

curve

are

0 and

TT.

pedal
=8a.

1 2[4asin-Jo
L-

RECTIFICATION,

ETC.

151

EXAMPLES.
1-. Find 2. Find

the the

length of

any

arc

of the

curve

fu\a x)=aP.
"

[a,1888.]

lengthof the
y
=

givenby completecycloid
a "a cos

0. 1

3. Find

from

for which the lengthof the arc measured the originvaries as the square root of the ordinate. the
curve

4. Show

that the intrinsic

s
=

equation of
a

the

parabolais

tan

sec

^r+

+ sec ^). i/r log(tan

5.

Interpretthe expressions

the wherein closed given

line
curve.

are integrals

taken

rou

id the

of perimeter

[ST.JOHN'S, 1890.]
axis of
an

Jw

6. The

major

is ellipse

1 foot

in

length,and

its feet

is 1/10. ^/^eccentricity

Prove

its circumference

to be 3*1337

nearly.
7. Show cardioide
4r=3asec 8. Find

[TRINITY,1883.]
that
r
=

the

a(l +

0 remote
the

length of the arc of that part of the cos 0), which lies on the side of the line is equal to 4a. [OXFORD, 1888.] from the pole,
an arc

lengthof

of the cissoid

r_asin26"
cos

ff
curve

9. Find

the

lengthof

any

arc

of the

10. Show

that the intrinsic

=

3a3/2=2^ is 9s
11. In
a

equation of 4a(sec3Vr1).
-

the semicubical

bola para-

certain

curve

show

that

5=ee\/2+

152

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

12.

Show

that

the

length

of

an

arc

of the

curve

is

given by
13.

=/("9) +/"(#)
curve

C. the intrinsic

Show is
s
=

that
a

in the

alogseca

tion equa-

gd~l\ff.
that the

14.

Show the

length

of the

arc

of the

curve

y=logcoth-

between

is log s!n x^. yj),(#2, 3/2) points (xl9

sinn

X-^ the

15.

Trace

the

curve

y2
which

g"

(a

"

#)2,and

find the

length

of that

od/

part of the evolute

16.
=

corresponds to
of
an arc

loop.
1881

[ST. JOHN'S,
Find the

and

1891.]

(p

equiangular spiral pole. Show that the arcs of an from equiangular spiral measured the pole to the different with another points of its intersection pole but a different angle equiangular spiralhaving the same will form in series a [TRINITY, 1884.] geometrical progression.
an

length

of

rsma)

measured

from

the

17. has

Show

that

the

curve

whose
s
=

pedal equation
a"-.
Zi

is

p2=r2

"

a?

for its intrinsic Show

to

equation
whole

18.

that that of

the
an

length

of

the

is

equal

whose ellipse minimum

semi-axes

limagon r=acos are equal

of the of
a

in

length

to the 19.
curve

maximum Prove that

and the

radii of the

vectores

limacon.

length

nth

pedal

loop of

the

rm=amsinmO

is
,-m

mn-m+1

a(mn+I)
o

(smmO)
of

dO.

^
of the
curve

1883

20.

Show

that

the

length

loop

[ST. JOHN'S, 1881.]

CHAPTER

X.

QUADRATURE,
129. The

ETC.

Areas.

Cartesians.

bounded process of findingthe area is termed quadrature. portionof a curve It has bounded ordinates considered for the been

by
the

any
area

already shown
any curved and
x
=

in Art. 2 that

by [x
as

line

[y
sum

"f"(x)], pair of any

axis
an

b] and

the

the limit of the is

of

of x9 may be infinite number

of inscribed
area

and rectangles;

that

the

expression

1 ydx

or

0 (x)dx.

In two

the

same

way

the
=

area

bounded
=

given abscissae [y

c, y

d]

and

by any curve, the y-axisis

fxdy.
by two Again,if the area desired be bounded given curves [y "p(%)and 2/ \^(^)]and two given ordinates it will be clear by similar \x a and x 6], reasoningthat this area may be also considered as the limit of the sum of a series of rectangles constructed
130.
=
=
"

154

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

as area

indicated will

figure. The be accordingly

dx
or
-

in the

expressionfor the

Li% PQ
x=a

fj"(0) \fs(x)]dx.
J

Fig. 20.
Ex.
1.

Find
x=c,
area=

the x"d

area

bounded the

"- + by the ellipse 2

^2
-

1, the

b2

ordinates

and

Here

f ^Sr
a

2a

For the

we quadrant of the ellipse above expression becomes a

must

put d

=a

and

c=0

and

"

a2
. .

?
2

or

^"
.

2a

givingirab
Ex.
curves

for the the

"

area

of the whole above

=

ellipse.
included
between
cut to
x"a.

2.

Find
=

area

the #-axis

the

at

y2 ax. and parabolatouch at the origin So the limits from of integration #=0 are (a,a). The area is therefore sought
%ax

y2

x2 and the

The

circle and

again

fa

x2

156
For the
"

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

portionbetween
a

the
as

curve

and

the

asymptote the

limits are For the

to

0, and double
therefore

before.

loopwe

have

a+x

for the

between portion

the

curve

and

the
/v.
_

asymptote,

x\l /O

In

dx.

" a+x

Fig.22.
To

integrateIxJa~xdx, put
J
*

a ~p x

x=a

cos

and

dx"

"a

sin 0 c?$.

Then

ftfJEfcfcl\ Va+x
-

1-cos2^

r
=

a2/

and

area

of

--}" I)

QUADRATURE,

ETC.

157

Again,

rxJ?E*dx=
J_
"a+#

cos

"^gain fl^1 l-cos2#

"

Bd9

[The meaning
+

of the

negativesignis
in
_

this

"

In
are

the choosing

sign before

the

radical

y=#/v/^"
*

we

tracing the

a+x

the curve below the #-axis on the left of the origin and above the axis on the rightof the origin. Hence y being be is it referred to between limits the expected to, negative that we should obtain a negative value for the expression

portionof

Thus

the whole

area

is required

in this example that the greatest also be observed assumed that infinite one. In Art. 2 it was ordinate is an for the the result area finite. Is then was every ordinate ? t rue and the the bounded curve asymptote rigorously by between limits let us integrate To examine this more closely small positive so as e is some a + e and quantity, 0, where have to exclude we the infinite ordinate at the point x" "a,

[It must

"

as

before

J
where
so

A/fEfdfc. [""c
"

*a+x

that 8 is

small angle. positive

This

is integral

which

close approaches indefinitely

to the former

result

when

8 is made

to diminish

without

limit.]

158

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

EXAMPLES.
1. Obtain rectum.

the

area

bounded

by

parabola and
the

its latus

bounded the areas by the curve, ordinates in the following cases : specified
"

2. Obtain

and ^7-axis,

the

(a) #=ccosh-,

to x=h.
x= x=a a

to x=b. to x"b.

3. Obtain 4. Find

the the
=

area areas

bounded
the

of X2la2+y2/b2l is divided
5. Find

by the curves y2=4ax, #2=4ay. portionsinto which the ellipse

the
curve

by

the whole

area

the line y=c. included between

"

X2y2=a2(y2x2)
and its

asymptotes.
the
area

6. Find

between

the

curve

y2(a+x)=(a

"

xf

and

its

asymptote.
7. Find the
area

of the

loopof

the

curve

y*x+ (x + af(x + 2a)

0.

131. When

Sectorial the
area

Areas.

Folars.

is bounded by a curve r=f(6) and two radii vectores drawn from the origin divide the area into elementary in givendirections, we small angle89, as shown in the sectors with the same figure.Let the area to be found be bounded by the arc

to be found

PQ and the radii vectores OP, OQ. Draw radii vectores OP19OP2, OPn-i at equal angularintervals. Then by drawingwith centre 0 the successive circular arcs it may be at once that the seen PN, P1NV P2^2,etc., of the circular sectors OPN, OP^N^ limit of the sum is the area required. For the remaining OP2N%, etc., elements PNPV P^N^P^ P2^2P3,etc., may be made to the rotate about 0 so as to occupy new on positions
...

QUADRATURE,

ETC.

159

greatestsector say OPn-iQ as indicated in the figure. Their sum is plainly less than this sector ; and in the limit when the angle of the sector is indefinitely
diminished its
area

also diminishes

without finite.

limit provided

the radius

vector

OQ

remains

Fig. 23.

The

area

of

circular sector is

of angleof sector. X circular meas. J(radius)2 the summation Thus the area required l?L"Zr2S(), being conducted for such values of 9 as lie between Ox being xOP and 0 6 xOPn-i, i.e., xOQ in the limit,
=
=

the initial line. In and the notation

=

of the will be
or

xOQ

this /3,

calculus integral expressedas

if xOP

a,

Ex. and Here

1.

Obtain

the

area

of the semicircle the

bounded

by

acos

the initial line. the radius vector

to

sweeps
area

over

angularinterval

from

0=0

0"

-.

Hence

the

is

i.e., ^radius)*.

160
Ex. 2. Obtain

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

the

area

of

loopof

the

curve

r"a

sin 3ft

This curve will be found to consist of three equal loopsas indicated in the figure (Fig. 24). The proper limits for making the integration extend over the first loop are 0=0 and 6 of 0 for which r vanishes.
=

-,

for these

are

two

successive values

.-. area

of

loop 1 fWn2
=

30 dO

f\l

-cos

60)d9

3~~ 12'
2

The

total

area

of the three

loopsis

therefore!^.

Fig. 24. EXAMPLES.

Find
1. r2
=

the

areas

bounded

by
3. One
r=
r
=

"2cos20+ 62sin2ft

2. One 5. The

9=13 and
6.

loopof 4. One loopof loopof r=asin2ft bounded by the portionof r=ae^coia 0=/3 + y (y being less than 2?r).
sector sector sector

a a

sin 4ft shift ft

radii vectores

Any

of of of

7.
8.

Any
Any

7^0=^ ((9=a to 6*=^). r0""a (0=a to ^=)8).

r(9
=

9. The 10. If

cardioide
s

(9=a to a(l cos 0).

a
"

fi).
between
2

be the

lengthof
A
=

the

curve

r="tanhbetween the

the

originand
show

27r,and A

the
"

area

same

points,
1888.

that

a(s air).

[OXFOKD,

QUADRATURE,
132. Area Let P
on
a

ETC.

161

of

Closed

Curve.

(x,y) be the Cartesian coordinates of any point closed curve ; (x+ Sx,y + Sy)those of an adjacent
Let

Q. point

(r+ (r, 9),

Sr , 6 +

$0)be the corresponding

shall suppose that in Also we polar coordinates. from P to Q along the along the curve travelling infinitesimal arc PQ the direction of rotation of the OP that the is counter-clockwise radius vector (i.e.

Fig.25.

hand to a person the left Then the element direction).

area

is

on

in this travelling

ir2(S$ Hence
curve

AOPQ
f

$(xSy ySx).
"

another is

for expression

the

area

of

closed

Wxdy-ydx),
beingsuch round the completely
the limits 133. If
we

that the
curve.

point(x,y) travels
that

once

put

so

^M^
=

we (fo)

may

write

the above

where as ^\xzdv, expression

terms

is

the limits of integrati that the current point (x,y) travels so chosen As v is really once completelyround the curve. 6 is a rightanglecare tan 6 and becomes infinitewhen be taken not to integrate must throughthe value oo
to be in expressed

of

and

E. i. c.

162
Ex.

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

Find

by

this method

the

area

of the

ellipse

#2/a2+.y2/"2=l. Putting y
=

vx,

we

have

and

JV
between chosen properly

f"^L= f*

L2

Now,

limits. in the first quadrant v varies from

area

0 to

oo

Hence
.

of of

quadrant =?"

"

-,

and

therefore

area

ellipse

=irab.

134. If the
current

originlie

without
we

the

curve,

as

the

elements such
as

triangular of space such as OP1QV including portions lie outside which OP2Q2 shown in the figure

point P

travels round

obtain

Fig.26.

the

curve.

removed travels element and S6

These portions however are ultimately from the whole integral when the point P the element over P2Q2, for the triangular 9 is decreasing

as OP2Q2 is reckoned negatively is negative.

135. If however

the

curve

cross

the expression itself,

no perimeter,

^ I(xdy

"

ydx), taken

round
sum

the whole
areas

the longerrepresents

of the

of the several

164

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

the curve is when adapted to the cases specially defined by other systems of coordinates. Ss of a plane curve, and OF If PQ be an element the chord the pole on from the perpendicular PQ,

Fig. 28.

|OF.PQ,and any sectorial area summation the along the whole being conducted of the Integral culus CalIn the notation bounding arc.
AOPQ
=
=

this is

[Thismay

be at

once

deduced

from

| rW,
ds

thus

:"

(V2d0ir^ds sin 0 \r
= =

is (where "f"

the

angle between

the

tangent

and

the

radius vector)

137.

Tangential-PolarForm.
ds

d*p

Again,
we

since

5^

P +

have

area

ds \ \p

QUADRATURE,
a

ETC.

165

formula

suitable for

use

when

the

Tangential-Polar

equationis given.
138. Closed When
some

Curve. is closed this admits expression of

the

curve

simplification.

For and
term in

round integrating Hence disappears.

area
=

the whole when the

the perimeter
curve

first
we

is dosed

have
^

the equation of Ex. C ale.forBeginners, By Ex. 23, p. 113, Diff. the one-cusped be the as (i.e., cardioide) expressed epicycloid may p
=

Fig. 29.
Hence its whole

a2cos2^ \d^ taken area=-^/f 9a2sin2;'

"

tween be-

limits

i/r 0
=

and

^="
becomes
IT

and

doubled.

Putting-^ 3$,this
= =

3a2

f (9sin2^
^o

co**0)dO
=

67ra2.

166

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

139.

Pedal for

Equation.
curves

Again,
we

given by
dr

their

pedal equations,

have A

ip

ds

i p

}p

sec

0 dr
sin
a,

Ex. Hence

In the any

equiangularspiral p=r
sectorial
/"2
=

area

y2si
rcosa

140. Area of curvature In this

case

included and the

we

between evolute.
as our

curve,

two

radii

take

element
two
arc

of

area

the

contained elementary triangle of curvature and

by

contiguousradii
ds of the
curve.

the infinitesimal

To

first order
t

infinitesimals

this

is

and |/o2"S\^,
or

the

area

p, between
a

.e.

p\

Ex.
to the

1.

The

area

and its involute, circle,

tangent

circle is

(Fig.31)

QUADRATURE,

ETC.

167

the tractrix and its asymptote is between Ex. 2. The area found in a similar manner. such that the portionof its tangent The tractrix is a curve and the ^7-axis is of constant between the point of contact

length c.

Fig.31.

Taking two adjacenttangents and elemental triangle 32) (Fig.

the axis of

as

forming an

Fig. 32.

EXAMPLES.
1. Find

the

area

of the

two-cuspedepicycloid

[Limits \jf 0
=

to

"^=7rfor by
=

one

quadrant.] pedalequation

2. Obtain

the

same

result

means

of its

7.2 ^2 +
r=a [Limits

1^2.
one

to

2a for

quadrant.]

168
3. Find

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

the

area

between
at

the radius
curvature. 4. Find

of curvature

catenary s the vertex, and

the

the

tan

^,

its

evolute,
of

any

other

radius

the
any

area

between
between the

s epicycloid

AsmB^s,

its

and evolute,
5. Find

two

radii of curvature.

the

area

s"Ae^y spiral equiangular

its

and evolute,

any

two

radii of curvature.

AREAS 141. Area If of Pedal

OF

PEDALS.

Curve.

be the tangential-polar _p=/(Vr) equation (Diff. Gale, for Beginners,Art. 130) of a given curve, S\fs will be the angle between the perpendiculars two on and the area of the pedal may be contiguous tangents,
as expressed

(compare Art. J|p2c^/r

131).

Fig.33.
Ex. Find the
area

of the

pedal of

circle with

regardto

(thecardioide). pointon the circumference if OF be the perpendicular Here the tangent at P, and on OA the diameter obvious that OP ( 2a), it is geometrically
=

bisects the the

Hence, calling angle AOY. YOA"^, of the circle tangential polarequation

we

have

for

Hence

^/

QUADRATURE,

ETC.

169

where the limits are to be taken as 0 and TT, and the result to be doubled so as to include the lower portionof the pedal. Thus

*cos*fe^ 4a2. ^l=4aaf 2 J

=

f
J
o

4222

Fig. 34.

142. Locus Let 0 be of

a

of

Origins of

Pedals

of

given

Area.

tangentto

be the polarcoordinates point. Let pt \js the foot of a perpendicular OF upon any givencurve.

fixed

Fig.35.

Let P

be any from

other P

fixed the

upon

the perpoint, J"F1(=^1) pendicul tangent. Then the areas

170 of the

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

with pedals

0 and

as are origins respectively

and j[ftL2"% ijV2cfyr taken

areas

between
A

certain

and Al coordinates of P

Call limits. Let r, 6 be the respectively definite with

these

polar
their

regard
"

to

0, and

x9

Cartesian
Pi and p is
2 Al
=
"

equivalents.Then T cos($" -t/r) P =p

~~

cos

ifs
"

y sin

i/r,

known
=

function
"

of

\fs Hence
"

\(p \p^d\fr
"

cos

i/r
"

y sin

\l/fd\^

Vp^d"^2x \pcos ^ d\/r 2^/ d\fs |psin \fs

1 cos + x* I + 2a32/ cos2i/r c?i/r
+

si \[s

1 si 2/-2
cos

Now

Jp

I sin \/r 2 Ip d\[s, d\fs, \/r

between

such limits that the whole pedal is described Call them will be definite constants.

-20,
and
we

-2/,

a,

2A, 6,
ax2 +

thus

obtain
=

2Al

"2A +

2gx + 2fy+

If then P move its locus must

in such a manner be a conic section. of Conic, result in

2hxy + by2. that Al is constant,

143. Character It is
a

known

that inequalities

Hence

it will be obvious

that if p, q, r,

...

stand
,

for

172

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS,

will

thereby be

removed.

Thus

"2 is

point such

that the

both and \psiu\^d\[^ \pcos\fsd\fs integrals if II be the for any

=

vanish, and
is "2
we

area

of the

pedal whose

pole

have

other 211 + ax2 + The

area

in the

2A1 case. general

2hxy + by*
of this conic is

"

Art. 171). Conic Sections, (Smith's -d.1 IH

=

Thus
I?
"

TT

*/ab
"

h2
,
""

,
-"

(area or conic).
closed oval the equation

^7T

For

the

case particular

of any

of the conic becomes

whence where
r

J.1
is the radius of the circle values of
on

which

lies for "2.

constant

Av

i.e.the distance of P

from

146. Position In any oval

at plainly

of the which

Point
has
a

"2 for Centric

centre

Oval.
is
as

the

point "2
is taken

that centre, for when

the centre

the integrals and \psui\fsd\ \pcos\fsd\fs origin, both vanish when

is performedfor the integration elements of the integration (opposite

the

complete oval cancelling),

147centre

Ex. any

1.

Find

the

area

regard to
Here and Hence

point within (a limagon). A

n
=

the

of the pedal of a circle with circle at a distance c from the

n+^,
7ra2.
.

Ai=ica*+"

QUADRATURE,
Ex.
2.

ETC.

173
with regard ellipse

of the pedal of an to any point at distance c from the centre. of the pedalwith In this case II is the area Find the
area
-

regardto

the centre

/* Vcos2"9 + b%m*0)dO

+ (a2

"2)|.

Hence
Ex. 3.

^1=|(
The
area

of the
an

taken
c

with

respectto

pedalof the cardioide r=a(l "cos 0) internal pointon the axis at a distance

from

the poleis

|(5"s-2"c+2c'). [MATH.TBIpos"187a]
Let 0 the two

pole,P the given internal point; p OF2 and PTl on any tangent perpendiculars
be the and
cos

and pl from 0

and P
pl "p

the angle Y$P respectively ; ""

"

OP"c

; then

c cos

"",and

^Al=2A

"

2clp

+ / cfc" ""

Fig. 36.
Now in order that p may limits sweep
=

out

the whole

pedalwe
Now

must

between integrate
the cardioide

""

0 and

""
=

-^and

double.

in

36) (Fig.
p=

OQ

sin

Y2QO

OQ

sin^xOQ.
[Dif.Calc., p. 190.]

174

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

For

r2"0

itf0"|
=

Hence

|-{*-("-W-|
|-*=f,
/3

or

J-J-J,
-

so

"

-.

23
,

A*cos

Hence

/p

"j" d"j" 2
=

/
'

2a cos3 2

cos

d(f" "/"
3,so?2

4a

/ cos%
o

fl

cos

12#

rf [4cos%

cos")"iz

6422

42

Also

^^^ fc2cos2d"cta=3.2c2i
J
Sir

222

Finally

24

Tcos^ "fe, 4a*"*^*J"

=

24a2

6
642
mi

2
?rac
'

A Al

_?ra
--

8~

T"

148. When

Origin for
f2 is taken
2A
l
=

Pedal
as

of Minimum

Area.
that

it appears origin,
cos

211 +

(05 J

+ y sin

\Jsfd\ls.

Hence

as

the term

is necessarily \(x + ysm\}s)"2d\fs cos\fs

it is positive,

clear that

Al

can

never

be

less than

II.

QUADRATURE,
"2 is therefore the
a

ETC.

175
the

for origin
minimum

which
area.

corresponding

pedal curve
149. The

has

Pedal formula is
area

of

an

Evolute
area

of

Closed

Oval.

for the

of any

closed oval

proved

in Art. 138

of

Hence

) jp2*/' Jjft
=

oval +

plainlyexpresses that the area of any pedal of the oval itself is equal to the area of an oval curve togetherwith the area of the pedalof the evolute (for
which
-ry This is the

radius

vector

of the

pedalof

the

evolute).

also admits

of

proof. elementarygeometrical
pedalof
the evolute of
an

of the Find the area Ex. with regardto the centre. The
area

ellipse

above

article shows evolute

=

that
area

of

pedalof

of

pedal of ellipse area

-

of

ellipse

-(a2+ b2)

irab

?(a b)2.
-

176 150. Area

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

bounded

by

Curve, its Pedal, and

pair
Let

of

Tangents.
two

contiguouspoints on a given 7, F' the corresponding pointsof the pedal of curve, since (with the usual notation) Then any origin0.
bounded PF=-vjrthe elementarytriangle

P, Q be

by
YY'

two

tangentsPY, QY' contiguous

and

the chord

is to

the firstorder of infinitesimals

Fig.38.

Hence
curves

the and be

area a

bounded of any portion by the two curve pair of tangentsto the original

may

as expressed

and
area

is the of the

same

as

the

portion of the corresponding

evolute.
and

pedal of the

151. Let

Corresponding Points f(x, 2/)

=

Areas.
Its
area

0 be

any

closed

curve.

(A^)

QUADRATURE,
is the

ETC.

177

by expressed

\ydxtaken line-integral

round

the complete contour. If the coordinates connected relations the curve

of the current point (x,y) be with those of a second point(" rj) by the mg, y nrj, this second pointwill trace out is expressed /(w" nrj) 0 whose area (J.9)
=
= =

by

the

I line-integral rjdg taken

we

round

its contour.

And

have

l=

dx \y

\ nrjm

whence

y) f(xt

it appears that the area of any 0 is mn times that of f(inx, ny)

1.

closed
=

curve

0.

152. Ex.

Apply

this method

to find the
1

area

of the

ellipse

**

,"*
~

=, a r

the

point", T\ traces corresponding

out the circle

and

area

of

ellipse
=~

x area

of circle

Ex. Let

2.

Find

the

area

of the
mx
=

curve

(mV
=

n^f)2
=

Wif-

^
is

ny

ij,

then the

curve corresponding

or

in

polars pedal of
an

r2

^- cos2 0 +
m2

sin20, ri2
"--,

the central
E. i, c.

symmetrical about ellipse,

M

both

axes.

178
Hence the
area

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

of the first curve

=
"

area

of second

mn

EXAMPLES,
1. Find

the

area

of the

loopof
of the
=

the

curve

ay"L=x\a-x).
2. Find

[I.C. S.,1882.] [I.C. S., 1881.]

prove
a.

the whole

area

curve

3. Trace

the

curve

a?y2 a2x2-x*. y\ and a2#2=;?/3(2ct

"

that its
and

area

is

equalto

that of the circle whose

radius is

[I.C. S., 1887

the curve cfiy*xb(Za x\ and prove radius is a as 5 to 4. to that of the circle whose
4. Trace
=
"

1890.]
area

that its

is

5. Find

the whole

area

of the

curve

[CLARE, etc., 1892.]

6.

By

means

of the

/y integral by
the the

dx

taken

round

the

contour

of the

formed triangle

lines intersecting

show

that

they enclose

area

PKIZE, 1876.] [Sir.

7. Find
8. If

the

area

between

y2

and
a
"

its asymptote. with the axis of #,

ty be

the
area

angle the tangent

of y
an

makes

show

that the

oval ds "fy

curve

is q:

/r
the

cos

or

/x
the

sin

^rds,

integration being taken

all round

perimeter.

180

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

line to a point P on the curve if A be the ; and by the curve, the initial line,and the radius vector 9,42
21.
=

area

bounded

to

P,

then

2rf.

Find

the

area

of the closed
3a sin
_

portionof
0
cos

the Folium

~sin^6"TcoW
In what ratio does the line x+y
=

[I.C. S., 1881]

Za

divide

the

area

of the

loop?
22.

[OXFORD, 1889.]
Find the
area

of the and

curve

r=aOebe

enclosed

between of the
curve.

two

given radii vectores

23.

two

successive

branches

[TRINITY,1881.]
Find the
area

of the

loop of

the

curve

a0cos 0 between

24. Show

that

the

area

of

loop of
cases

the
n

curve

acosn0

is

^"
4?i
-,

and

state

the total of

area

in the the

odd, n
r
=

even.

25.

Find

the

area

loop of

curve

cos

3$ + b sin 3$.

[I.C. S., 1890.]

that the 26. Show the curve r=acos5$ circle. 27. Prove that the
area area

contained

between

the circle of the

r=a

and of the

is

equal to three-fourths
of the sin 0
curve cos

area

[OXFORD, 1888.]

2ac r2(2c2cos2"9
-

9+

a2sin2#) aV
=

is

equal to
28.

irac.

[I.C. S., 1879.]

whole
area

Find
=

the
acos

of

the b
"

curve

representedby
the
two

the

equation r
29.
curve

0+
area

b,assuming
included

a.

Find
r
=

the

between

loops of
[OXFORD,

the

a(2cos 0 + ^3).
the
area

1889.

30.

Find

between

the

curve

r=a(sec $+cos 0)
of the

and

its

asymptote.
Prove r2 that
=

31.

the

area

of

one

loop

pedal

of

the

lemniscate Find

a2cos2$

with

respect to the

poleis a2.
[OXFORD, 1885.]

32.

the

area

of the

loop of
of the

the
=

curve

(x'\-y)(x^+y2) ^axy.
33.

[OXFORD,
curve

1890.]

Prove

that the

area

loop of

the

QUADRATURE,
34.

ETC.

181

Find

the whole

area

contained

between

the

curve

and

its

asymptotes.
that the the the
area

[OXFORD, 1888.]
of the the

35.

Show

(*L^ a2+b2-r2 ellipse p2

=

in-

eluded
vector

between from

curve,

semi-major axis,and

radius the

centre, is

"

tan"1^/^^-, a,
between
at

being

semi-axes
36.

of the

ellipse.
area

[CLARE, etc.,1882.]
the
curve 5
=

Show

that the
at

in eluded its

atan^,

its

tangent

0 and

tangent
-

ig V*"" """
tan

-a2 tan

^ + a2 tan "/"
the
of

+ a2log(sec ""

c").
[TRINITY, 1892.]

37. Show p =^isin

38.

that

area

the

Sty and
that
are areas

its pedalcurve the

curve r
=

the epicycloid space between taken from cusp to cusp is ^irA2B.

Show

whose

TT a2(f

a(^\/3 + cos^#) has three loops 2\/3), a2(f f\/3), spectively. a\ -far fV") reTT
-

[COLLEGES, 1892.]
39. Find the
area

of

loop of the curve x*+y* Za2xy.

=

[OXFORD, 1888.]

40.

Find

the

area

of the

pedal of

the

curve

d*)l, =*("**the

originbeing taken
Find the
area curve

at

*Ja2 62, y
"

0.
one

[OXFORD, 1888.]
of the branches of

41.

included

between its

the

3%2

and a2(#2+;?/2)
area

asymptotes.
curve

[a,1887.]

42.

Find

the whole

of the
=

43.

Find

the

area

tf+yi a\x*+y*). of a loop of the curve (mV + n,y)* aV b2y2=

-

[a,1887.]

[ST.JOHN'S, 1887. ]
and find their

44.
areas

Trace
:
"

the

shape

of the

followingcurves,

(i.) (^+^2)3 =aay*.

+ 2/)3 a^?/4. (^2 (ii.)
=

[BELL, etc., SCHOLARSHIPS,

45.

1887.]

Prove

that the 3?
'

area
'

of

V2

1 / X2

V2\2

"

7TC2/

182

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

46.

Prove

that

the

area

in

the

positive
is

quadrant

of

the

curve

(av+w^w
47. Prove that the of the

^(5+5).
[a;18900

area

curve

f")

is

-3""

(V2

a2)
[ST.

tan-1
-

JOHN'S,

1883.]

48.

Prove

that

the

area

of

the

curve

9,aV
h

62 where
49. is

less that

than the

both

and of the

5,

is

7r(ab

"

c2).
+

[OXFORD,

1890.]

Prove

area

curve

^4-3o^3

a2(2^2+y2)=0
TRIPOS,
curve

is

fTrtt2.
50.

[MATH.
that the
areas

1893.]

Prove

of

the

two

loops

of

the

are

(32^

24^3)

a2,

and

(167r-24\/3)a2,
[MATH.
TRIPOS,

1875.]

CHAPTER

XI.

SUKFACES

AND

VOLUMES KEVOLUTION.

OF

SOLIDS

OF

153. It
was

Volumes shown about

x
=

of Revolution
in

about if the

the
curve

a"axis.

Art.

that
x

y=f(x)
the the

revolve ordinates formula

the

axis
x
=

of
x2

the is to

x^ and

portionbetween be obtained by

*2

Tr2
.

dx.

154. More

About

any

axis.
the

if generally, if PN be

revolution

be about

any

line
a

AB,

and

any

perpendiculardrawn

from

184

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

point P on the curve upon the line the volume contiguous perpendicular,
or

AB is

and

P'N'

as expressed

if 0 be

givenpointon

the line AB

155. Ex.

1.
curve

Find

the volume

formed

by

the revolution

of the

loopof
Here

the

f=x2?"^ (Art.130, Ex. =/

J
o

3) about

the tf-axis.

volume

I x*a~xdx. 7ry2dx=7r J
J
o

+ x

Puttinga +x=z,

this becomes

rf2a3 log
Ex. 2. of a Find the volume

5a2z

2az2

3 _J"

arc parabolic

formed tion of the spindle by the revoluthe vertex to one about the line joining

extremity of

the latus rectum.

Fig.
Let the Then and be parabola

40.

y2
is y P

4o

the axis of revolution

2^7,

"fi

VOLUME

OF

REVOLUTION.

185

Also

and

volume

=
.

dAN

4?r

75

156.

Surfaces

of Revolution.
the curved

Aain, if S be
out

surface of the solid traced

arc

y the revolution

of any

AB

about

the

^c-axis,

Fig. 41.

suppose

PN PN, QM two adjacent ordinates, being the of the smaller,3s the elementaryarc PQ, SS the area
zone elementary

traced

out

by

the revolution

of

PQ

186

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

about

the

#-axis, y and
it

y +
as

Sy

the

lengths of
that the

the

ordinates of P and Q. Now take we may traced would from

out

axiomatic is
at the

area

by PQ

in its revolution

greaterthan
distance PN
at

it

be if each

point of

it

were

the axis, and less than distance QM from the axis. Then therefore

if each 8s and

pointwere

SS lies between
in the limit r/^ -j=

^y
have 8

and 2w(y + Sy)Ss,

we

2-7T2/
as

or

"

This may

be written

as

may

happen

to

be of

convenient
-r-"

in any

particular

example,the
from

values

beingobtained -j-" -^, etc.,

the differential calculus.

1.

157. Ex.
formed Here

Find

the

surface of the

of

belt
=

of the about

paraboloid
the #-axis.

by

the revolution

curve

y2

"ax

dx

V x

dx "/"

y"dx /X"1
dx

Ex. line. Here

2.

The

curve

a(l+
=

cos

6}

revolves

about

the

initial

Find

the volume
=

and

surface
TT

of the

formed. figure

volume

/try^dx
TT

/?'2sin20 d(rcos 0)

/a'2(l 0 -f cos2$), cos -{#)2sin2#a c/(cos

188
2. A

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.
its chord.

Show

of radius a, revolves round quadrant of a circle, that the surface of the spindle generated

and

that its volume

-^-(10 3?r).
-

3. The rectum

curved

part of the parabolayL "ax cut off by the latus revolves about the tangent at the vertex. Find the surface and the volume of the reel thus generated.
=

THEOREMS 158. I. When line in its own any

OF

PAPPUS closed

OR

GULDIN. revolves about

a

curve

plane,which does not cut the curve, the volume of the ring formed is equal to that of whose height and a cylinderwhose base is the curve is the length of the path of the centroid of the area of the curve.
Let the #-axis be the axis of rotation.
area

Divide

the

(A)

with

elements up into infinitesimal rectangular sides parallel such as to the coordinate axes,

Fig. 43.

each PjPgPgP^,

of

area

SA.

Let the ordinate is

Let rotation take placethrough an 89. Then the elementarysolid formed and

PlNl y. infinitesimal angle

=

on

base

SA

its height to first order infinitesimals is ySO,and therefore to infinitesimals of the third order its volume is SA
.

THEOREMS

OF

PAPPUS.

189

If the

rotation

be

through
. .

any the

finite
whole

angle a
area

we

obtain by summation SA y If this be integrated over have for the volume curve we

a.

of the

of the solid formed

a!i/cL4.
Now of
a

for the ordinate the formula of masses number m2, ..., mv

X?7? II

of the centroid with ordinates of

2/i" 2/2'""""

is y=

-^ then
y
"

we

seek

the value

of the curve, each the ordinate of centroid of the area element 8A is to be multiplied by its ordinate and the sum of all such productsformed, and divided by the
sum

of the elements,and

we

have

or

in the

language of

the

Calculus Integral

A (yd (yd A
J

i
-

\dA
Thus Therefore But is the
A

volume
is the

formed of the area

A(ciy). revolvingfigureand

ay

of the length

path

of its centroid.

This establishes the theorem. COR. If the curve perform have and form a solid ring, we
a
=

complete revolution,
=

2-7T and

volume

A(2jry).

closed curve revolves about a 159. II. When any line in its own plane which does not cut the curve, the curved surface of the ring formed is equalto that

190

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

and whose of the cylinderwhose base is the curve is the lengthof the path of the centroid of the height perimeter of the curve. Let the #-axis be the axis of rotation. Divide the such as PXP2 s up into infinitesimal elements perimeter each of lengthSs. Let the ordinate PlNl be called y. Let rotation take place throughan infinitesimal angle S9. Then the elementary formed is ultimately area a with rectangle of the second sides Ss and ySO,and to infinitesimals order its area is Ss y"9.
.

Fig. 44.

If the rotation be through any finite angle a we obtain by summation Ss ya. If this be integrated the whole of over perimeter the curve have for the curved surface of the solid we formed
.

an/cfe.
of the seek the value of the ordinate (rj) centroid of the perimeterof the curve, each element of Ss is to be multiplied by its ordinate,and the sum
we

If

THEOREMS

OF

PAPP

US.

191

all such

formed, and products

we

divided

by

the

sum

of

the elements,and

have

Lt

or

in the

languageof

the

Calculus Integral

\yds ^yds
n

\ds
Thus and the surface formed
s
=

\yd8=8tj,
s(afj).
is the

of the revolving and perimeter figure, arj is the length of the path of the centroid of the perimeter. But This establishes the theorem. Con. If the curve perform and form
a a
a
=

completerevolution
2?r and

solid

we ring,

have
=

surface
Ex. The volume of

2 -73-77). s(

and surface of an formed anchor-ring by radius about of line in circle the a a a plane of the circle at distance d from the centre are respectively the revolution volume surface
=

Tra2X 2?rc? 27T2a2o?,

=

2:ra

Zird

4ir2ad.

EXAMPLES.
1. An

revolves ellipse Find revolves of the

about

major
2. A
an

axis.

the volume about

the tangent at the of the surface formed.

a

end

of the

square formed. scalene does not

extremity
3. A

other

to a diagonalthrough parallel diagonal. Find the surface and

volume

which

trianglerevolves about any line in its plane the cut triangle. Find expressionsfor the
of the solid thus formed.

surface and

volume

192

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

160. When

Revolution
any
we

of

Sectorial
area

Area. revolves about the

sectorial
may

OAB
the

initial line

divide

area revolving

infinitesimal
area

sectorial elements denoted

such

as

up into OPQ, whose

may

be

to first order

infinitesimals

by

|r"2o0.Being ultimatelya
centroid is f of the way in a complete revolution from

element, its triangular 0 along its median, and

travels
a

the centroid
or

distance

r sin 6) 27r(f

f irr sin 9.

Fig. 45.

Thus

by

Guldin's

first theorem is

the volume

traced

by

the revolution

of this element

to first order

and infinitesimals,

therefore
area

the volume OAB is

traced

by

the revolution

of the whole

f
161. If
x we
=

sin 9 d9. 7r[r3si

we

put
y
=

rcos9,

rsin9,
=

and

"
~

have
=

r3sin 9 S9 r3sin 9
.

r3sin

lf) (9$(tan
=

r*cos*9t St

xH

St,

EXAMPLES.

193
as expressed

and the volume

may

therefore be

(xHdt.
EXAMPLES.
and surface of the right the volume 1. Find by integration circular cone formed by the revolution of a right-angled triangle about a side which contains the right angle.
2. Determine

generatedby
3. Prove

the entire volume of the ellipsoid which is the revolution of an ellipse around its axis major.

[I.C. S.,1887.]

that the volume of the solid generated by the round revolution of an its minor is a mean axis, ellipse portional probetween of the those generatedby the revolution and of the auxiliary circle round the major axis. ellipse

[I.C. S., 1881.]

that the surface of the prolate 4. Prove formed spheroid by the revolution of an of about its e ellipse eccentricity major axis is equal to
2
.

area

of

ellipse
.

formed Prove also that of all prolate spheroids of surface.

an

by

of ellipse the volume the

curve

given

area, the

sphere has

the revolution the greatest of

C. S., 1891.] [I.

5. Find

of the solid

producedby

the revolution
x.

the

loopof

y^"x^

about

the axis of

C. S., 1892.] [I.

6. Find revolution

the surface and volume of the reel formed of the cycloid round a tangent at the vertex

by

the

7. Show that the volume of the cissoid y2(2a

"

of the solid formed tion by the revolu^)=x3 about its asymptote is equal

to 2?r2a3. 8. Find

1886.] [TRINITY,
the volume of the solid formed by the revolution of C. S. 1883. ] (a x)y2 a?x about its asymptote. [I.
-

the

curve

9. If the

curve

+ b

cos

0 revolve

about

the

initial

line,
be

show

that the volume greaterthan b.

E. i. c.

4- b2) provided a generated is "7ra(a2

[a,1884.]
N

194

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

10.

Find the

the

volume radius

of of

the the

solid

formed of the

by
curve

the r^

revolution
=

about between

prime
6
=

loop

and

0=|.
if the
area

[OxTOKD,

1890.]

11.

Show

that

lying

within

the

cardioide

and

without

the

initial
12.

line, the
The

parabola r(l+cos $) 2a, volume generated is 187ra3.

=

revolves

about

the

[TRINITY,

1892.]
the

loop
line y=a.

of

the Find

curve

Zay2=x(x
volume of

"

straight
13.
area

the

about a)2 revolves the solid generated.

[OXFORD,
Show of that the bounded coordinates of the centroid of the

1890.]

sectorial for its

r=f(0)

by

the

vectors

0=a,

ft,has

coordinates

f
14.

Show initial

that line

the
at

centroid distance

of

the

cardioide the

a(l"

cos

$)

is

on

the

from
-

origin.
round
is

6 15.

If

the
"

cardioide

a(l
the
+

"

cos

#)

revolve

the

line

p=rcos(9

y\

prove

that

volume

generated
y.

3^7r%2
16.

f 7T2"3cos

[ST. JOHN'S,

1882.]

The
a

about volume

is very 0\ where small, r=a(l -ecos e the initial line. Prove to parallel tangent of the solid thus generated is approximately
curve

revolves that the

27r2a3(l+e2).
17. the The lemniscate Show that r2 the
=

[I. C. S., 1892.1

about
_

a2cos2#
volume

revolves

tangent

at

pole.

generated

is
-

196
area

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

RSTU is Sx.Sy, and its mass rectangle be regarded (to the second order of smallness) may as 0(0,y)Sx Sy. Then the mass of the strip PNMV may be written

of the

or

in

conformitywith

the

notation

of the

Integral

Calculus

y =f(x). In performing this integration (withregard to y) x is to be regarded

=

between

the limits y
we

0 and

as

constant, for
masses mass

the

i.e. the

of the limit of the sum finding of all elements in the elementary PM, strip of the strip PM.
are

If then all such lie between be written

we

search

for the

mass

of the

area

AJKB

as strips

be summed which the above must the ordinates AJ, BK, and the result may

which

may

be written

with the limits of the integration b. from x a to x

=

regard to

being

DOUBLE

INTEGRATION.

197

Thus

mass

of

area

A JKB

or

n
164. Notation. This is often written

ff "j"(x,y)dxdy,
order. the elements dx, dy being written in the reverse There is no uniformly convention as to the accepted order to be observed, but as the latter appears to be shall in the the more used notation, we frequently volume adopt it and write present

'x, y)dxdy
when with
we are

to be made to consider the first integration y and the second with to regard
x,

to regard

and

when the firstintegration is with is to say, the right-hand element

regardto

x.

That

indicates the first

integration.
If the surface-density of a circular disc bounded by xP+y2 a2 be given to vary as the square of the distance from the y-axis, find the mass of the disc. "JL^ ^ Here we have [juv2 and its of the element 8x 6y, for the .mass is therefore /*#2"#6y, and the whole mass will be mass Ex.
=

//
The limits for y w411 be ;?/ 0 to y=*Jdl xL for the positive and for x from #=0 The result must then to x=a. quadrant,
=
"

198
be

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

multiplied by 4, for the four quadrantsthe the first quadrant.

the
mass

distribution of the whole

being symmetrical in
is four times that of

Fig.47.

Putting x=asm0

and

dx=acosOdO,

we

have

165. The

Other
same

Uses theorem

of Double may be

Integrals.
used

purposes, of which we givea which may the field to indicate to the student serve of investigation But our now scope in open to him. the presentwork does not admit exhaustive treatment of the subjects introduced.

for many other few illustrative examples,

DO

UBLE

INTEGRA

TION.

199
the

Ex.

Find

the statical moment

r2
'

of
4,2
=

quadrant of

ellipse

_+"_ 9 1,9 a2 62 about the

the surface-density beingsupposeduniform. y-axis, Here each element of area 8x8y is to be multiplied by its surface density in the constant is case cr (which by hypothesis and the the and its distance from sum x supposed) by y-axis, the whole of such elementary quantities is to be found over will from The be limits of the quadrant. integration y=0 to
7

_Va2
a

"

x* for ?/ ; and

from

#=0

to

x=a

for

x.

Thus

we

have

moment

/
00

Wa2 crxdxd'u=^"\
a

"

x2dx

J J

)
0

_"rbr _(a?-x2)%-\a_o-ba*
aL
3

Jo

166. The
at

Gentroids. formulae

Cartesians.
in statics for the coordinates

proved
a

of the centroid of

number

of

masses

mv

m2, m3,

are etc., y2), (xv y^, (x2, points

"

_ ~

apply these to find the coordinates of the centroid of a given area. (See also Arts. 158, 159.) be the surface-density For if at a given point,
We
may
o-

then

or

Sx

Sy is the

mass

of the

element,and

_ "

ox 8y)x S(cr I("rSxSy)9

or,

as

it may

be written

when dx

the limit is taken

I dy \\"
arx

\ardxdy J

200

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS,

jja-ydxdy
Similarly
the limits of
summation
~

ff~
j J

\\a-dxdy
integration beingdetermined
will be effected for the
so

that the
area

whole

in

question.
Find
Art.

the

centroid

of the that the

quadrant elliptic
the limit

of the

Example
of the

in

165.
was

It

proved
moments

there about

of the

sum

mentary ele-

was y-axis

?"
"

Also Hence

/ /"rdxdy=
*="

mass

of the

quadrant=^^-.
STT

3/4
"

=-"

Similarly

167. Moments When

square

of Inertia.

the sum Inertia with regardto the line. Such quantities in of greatimportance are
Ex. Find

is multiplied by the every element of mass of its distance from a given line, the limit of of of such products is called the Moment

Dynamics.

the moment of the paraof inertia of the portion bola f/2 4a# bounded by the axis and the latus rectum, about the #-axis supposing the surface-density at each pointto vary the nth power of the abscissa. as Here the element of mass is
=

/x being a

constant,and the
Lt

moment

of inertia is
\ //,

V*"a? 8y 2/i#
are

or

dy, \y*xndx
for
x

where

the limits for y

from

0 to

2vW, and

from

0 to

a.

DOUBLE

INTEGRATION.

201

We

thus

get
In.
=

Mom.

"
3
o

" f*
oj

fo
the is givenby parabola
Ca\~
~~l

Again,the

mass

of this

of portion

ny\/ax
Thus
we

l*xndxdy p\ \y\
=

xndx

--

271 + 3

have

Mom.

In. about

0ff=3

EXAMPLES.
the the first quadrant of the circle ,272+^2=a2 Find varies at each pointas xy. density the mass of the quadrant, (i.) " its of gravity, centre (ii.) .("") its moment of inertia about the #-axis. (iii.)
1. In 2. Work out

surface

the

results corresponding axis and

for the

of portion

the

parabolay^=^ax bounded by the varying as xpyq. surface-density

3. Find

the latus rectum, the

varies centroid of a rod of which the line-density the distance from one end. as Find also the moments of inertia of this rod about each end and about the middle point. the centroid of the trianglebounded by the lines at each when the surface-density y mx, x a, and the #-axis, from varies the the of distance the as point origin. square Also the moment of inertia about the #-axis. the
= =

4. Find

168. For of
area

Polar

Curve.

Second-order
use

Element. for
our

polarcurves
a

it is desirable to

element

second-order Let OP, OQ be two

infinitesimal of different form. radii vectores of the contiguous Let

curve

r=/(0);

Ox

the initial line.

0, 9 + SO be

202

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

angular coordinates arcs RU, ST, with and let SO respectively,

the first order.
area

the

of P
centre

and

Q.

Draw

two

cular cir-

and

0 and radii r and r + Sr of Sr be small quantities

Then
sector OSTsector ORU

RSTU=

"9 Sr to the second

may

order,
be considered

and
a

to this order

RSTU

therefore rSO

of rectangle

sides Sr

(RS)

and

(arcRU\

Fig,48.

at each pointR(r,9) is surface-density of the element RSTU is (tosecondthe mass cr "f)(r, 9), order quantities the mass of the sector err S9 Sr, and
=

Thus

if the

is therefore

Ltdr==Q[2o-rSr]S9,
the summation

being for

all elements

from

to

r=f(9),i.e.

"rrdr\80, Q/(0)
-i

in which

and

9 is integration taking the limit of

to be the
sum

regardedas constant,
of the
any sectors

for

infinitesimal values

of S9 between

radii specified

204

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.
0

or

(Art.164)

=2/

C~% rZacoaO

pr*dOdr

169. The

Centroid.

Polars.
a

the sum by finding any of the moments of the elementary masses about that line and dividing of the masses. by the sum Thus its
err

distance of the centroid of line may be found as before

sectorial

area

from

SO Sr

beingthe
r cos

element the

of

mass

and

r cos

its moment abscissa,

about

is y-axis

a-r

SO ST.

rcos(9. a-rdOdr Thus

JJ
x

\o-rdOdr j
r

sin 0

o-rdOdr
dO dr
circle in

and

similarly

'~fl
a-r

the

half of the the centroid of the upper of Art. 168. example established the result for that semi-circle that We Ex.
1.

Find

Also

between

the

limits

r=0

and

2acos

0 for r, and 0=0

to

/* frcos

^or c^^ dr=

Tfji 0R"
cos

"S

^^

53

15

'

DOUBLE

INTEGRATION.

205

and

/rsm6crrd6dr=

I jnsin0

dO
Jo

J J

JQ

L4

/~2

sin 0 cos40 dO

Ex.

2.

Find

the

centroid

of

the

area

bounded

by

the

cardioide

being r=a(l+cos #),the surface-density

uniform.

Fig. 50.
centroid is The abscissa we have
on evidently

the

initial line.

To

find

its

/ Ir cos 0 rdOdr
"x"

'rdOdr
r=0 to

the from

limits for
0 to
TT

being

from

r=a(l+cos

0),and

for 0

(and

double, to take
=2

in the lower
'"

half).

The

numerator

fT-1
J L3J0
+ 3

cos0o?0

cos20 0 1a3 /"'(cos

+ 3 cos30 +

cos*0)dO

206

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

cos2"9 | T(3
a3

cos46

;
'
'

1 ^4-'

'

'

2 4 o3;r 5

2
5

/TT
L2Jo
0
=

r~r2" Ia(l+cos 6)

dO

a2

T(l +2
0

cos

0+cos20)dO

2a2/ (l+ cos26")d"9

rf r

Hence

-?ra3

/ -?ra2

-a.

varies as the nfh power Ex. 3. In a circle the surface-density 0 of the distance from a point on the circumference. Find the about an axis through 0 perpenof inertia of the area moment dicular to the planeof the circle. and the diameter for initial line, the Here, taking0 for origin radius. is the r=2acos a The density 6, being bounding curve

=p,r".
Hence
moment

Hence

of the element and its rSOSr is //,rn+1S$Sr, axis is //,rn+38$ of inertia about the specified 8r. of inertia of the disc is the moment the
mass

f ffj
where the limits for
r are

0 to 2a

cos

0, and

for

0, 0

to

(and

double).
Thus Mom. Inertia

rcos"+4(9 dO J?^L(2a)"+4 4
+

DOUBLE

INTEGRATION.

207

Again, the

mass

of the disc is
r"5"
=

/*2acos0

2|J ^o
frcosw+20d0. _?^L(2a)w+2
n

+ 2

Jn

Hence

Mom.

Inertia

EXAMPLES.
1. Find

the centroid the the

of the sector

of

circle

(a) when when (ft)

2. Find
as

is uniform, surface-density varies surface-density

as

the

distance

from

the centre. the centroid of a circle whose the nth power of the distance from a its moments of inertia the tangent at 0, the diameter through 0. varies surface-density

point 0

on

the circumference.

Also

(1) about (2)about

3. Show

of uniform of inertia of the triangle that the moment the a nd lines bounded the ?/-axis by surface-density mlx+cl^ y about is the #-axis, y=mtfc + c"ft
=

Ml
6

GI-%

\ml

"

m2J

'

where

is the the

mass

of the

triangle.
of triangle uniform

4. Find

moments

bounded surface-density

of inertia of the by the lines

about the

the coordinate

axes

; and
same

show
as

that those

if M of

be the

mass

of
"

triangle, they are the placedat the mid-pointsof

5. Show

equal masses
uniform minor
axes

the sides. of inertia the of

a

that
2

the
2

moments

ellipse
are

bounded

by
---

_--f fC" a2 62 and

1 about and

major and
a 2

respectively

about

~,

line
I

through the
M

centre
mass

7)2
"

and to perpendicular of the ellipse.

its

plane,M"

being the

208

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

6.

Find
a

the

area

between

the

circles

r=a,

r=2acos#;
as

and distance

assuming
from the

surface-density
find

varying

inversely

the

pole,
the the

(1) (2)

centroid,
moment

of

inertia
to

about

line

through

the

pole

perpendicular
7.
Find for the
area

the

plane.
between the
curves

included

(1)

the

coordinates

of

its

centroid

(assuming
#-axis,
area

uniform

surface-density), (2) (3)

the the
moment

of

inertia

about when

the this

volume

formed

revolves

about

the

8.

Find
a

the line for for

moment

of the

inertia

of

the

lemniscate
to

r2

about

through
a

pole

perpendicular

its

plane

(1)
(2)

uniform
a

surface-density, varying pole.

as

surface-density
from the

the

square

of

the

distance
9.

Find

(1)

the

coordinates

of

the

centroid

of

the

area

of

the

cycloid

#=a(0-hsin$),
(2)
the volume formed about about about the the the

y=a(l by
base axis its

"

cos0)

revolution

(a)

(y=2a), (#=0),
at

tangent

the

vertex.

ELEMENTARY

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS.

E.

I.

C,

212

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS.
for the of the
same curve

definite value, the same different for different curves Problems

and

but

family.

in which it is necessary occur frequently to treat the whole family of curves as, for together, each instance,in findinganother family of curves,

member
set at
a

of which that
to be

intersects each member

a

of the former

givenangle, say
for such
not to

manifest letter
a

rightangle. And it will be the particularizing operations,

appear
or as we a

ought

constant

in the be treating of the

functions
one

operated upon,
curve

should

individual

of the

system
"

instead

whole

familycollectively. Now be got rid of thus : a may Solve for a ; we then put the equation into 0(",y)
=

the form

a,

........................

(2)

regard to x, a goes out, and an equation involving x, y and yv replaces equation(1). This is then the differential equation to the family of curves, of which equation equation (1)is the typical
upon of be
case a

and

differentiation with

member. of the differential solve for the

In the formation to impracticable

we

equationit may
In this

constant.

differentiate the

equation
=

f(x,y,a)
with
to respect
x

'

........

.............

(1)

and

obtain

and
thus

then

eliminate

between

equations(1) and (3),

x, y, and

a obtaining

relation between

yv

which

is true for the whole

family.
the the lines obtained by family of straight in the constant equation arbitrary

example,consider values to giving special

For

ORDER

OF

AN

EQ UA TION.

213

Solvingfor
and
or

w,

differentiating,
without Blether-wise, first solving for m, we have y= yi
=

m,

and

therefore then is the

y=%yidifferential

This

equationof
expresses

all

straightlines

and passingthrough the origin,

the obvious geometrical line is the same that fact that the direction of the straight as of the same line. of the vector from the origin at all points

172. Again, suppose the of curves the family to be

representative equationof
=

b whose values two containing of the family. A the several members particularize differentiation with regard to x will result in single a relation connecting x, y, yv a, b ; say

ftx9y,a,b) 0, constants arbitrary a,

(1)

If

we a

4(x9y9yl9a9b)0 differentiate againwith regardto

=

(2)
x we

shall

obtain

relation

connecting x,
2/2"a" V" 2/i"

y, yv y2, a, b ; say

\MX
and from

") ""
=

(3)

will

b may cally theoretia and equations appeared be eliminated (if they have not alreadydisand there by the process of differentiation), result a relation connecting x, y, yv y2 ; say these three

the

="" F(x"y,yi"yz) differential equation of the family.

of
an

173. Order

Equation.

We define the order of a differential equation to be the order of the highest differential coefficientoccurring
in it ; and
we

have

seen

that

if

an

equationbetween

214 two

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS.

unknowns contains one arbitraryconstant the result of eliminating that constant is a differential equation of the firstorder; and if it contain two
constants arbitrary

the result is And

n our

differential equation

of the second
so

that
to

order. to eliminate

: argument is general shall constants we arbitrary

have
a

and the result is to n differentiations, proceed an(l differential equationconnecting x, y, yv ...,2/n" order.
c

is therefore of the nth

Ex.
1.

Eliminate

and

from

the
=

equation x2+y2=2ax +

c.

x -f yy^ a. Differentiating, Differentiating again, l+^+y^^^ and the constants we having disappeared

have

obtained

as

their

differential equation of the second order (?/2 being differential w hich the highest coefficient involved), belongsto all
a

eliminant

circles whose Ex.

2.

centres

lie on

the #-axis.

the differential equationof all central conies Form whose coincide with the axes of coordinates. axes the typicalequation of a member of this family of Here

and and

we

have

whence is the differential

x(y? + yy2) -yyl=0 sought. equation

an

174. Elimination Now

irreversible process.

this process of elimination is not in general a reversible process, and when wish to discover the we of a family of curves equationof a member typical when the differential equation is given, are pelled comwe of integration, to fall back, as in the case upon
cases,

set of standard
are

and

many

equations may

arise

which We

not solvable at all.

to solve however, that in attempting may infer, differential equation of the nth order we to a are search for an algebraical relation between x, y, and n

VARIABLES

SEPARABLE.

215

these constants arbitraryconstants, such that when eliminated the given differential equation will are result. Such is regarded as the solution most a general solution obtainable. DIFFERENTIAL 175. CASE All all the There
are

EQUATIONS

OF

THE

FIRST

ORDER.

five standard

forms.

I. Variables

Separable.
which it is

equationsin
x's to
come one

other,

under

to get dx and possible side,and dy and all the y's to the this head, and solve immediately

by integration.
Ex.1, have Thus if
sec

y=

sec

x-",
dx y

we

cos

dx
x

"

cos

dy,
,

and
a

integrating, relation containing one

Ex.
2.

sin

sin y + A

constant arbitrary
x
=

A.

If

xy-^*
dx
+ y)dy, (y2
32

y+l
we

have

(x
\

+
2

dx )
J

and

therefore

"

logx"^
32

+y~+ A,
A.

2
one containing

constant arbitrary

EXAMPLES.
Solve the

y
I

differential equations : following

"

1.

dy=x*+x+\
'

dy
'

y*+y+l
in Ex.
3

dx

*++l'
that member
every

dxx*+x+l
member of the of the set in Ex.

4. Show

cuts

every

2 at

family of curves right angles.

216
7. Show

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS.
the square
vector
are

that all the

curves

equal

to

square

for which of the radius

of the normal is either circles or

hyperbolae. rectangular
8. Show

that

makes
no

constant

for which the tangent at each point angle (a)with the radius vector can belong to
curve

other class than 9. Find the

r=Ae^

cot

a.

of the curves for which equations (1) the Cartesian subtangentis constant,

(2) the

Cartesian subnormal is constant, the Polar is (3) subtangent constant, the is constant. Polar subnormal (4)
10. Find

tangent

the Cartesian equationof the is of constant length.

curve

for which

the

176. CASE

II. Linear

Equations.
the form

of [DEF. An equation

when

P, Q,

K, R

are

functions

of

or

constants

is

lies in the fact that said to be linear. Its peculiarity differential coefficient occurs raised to a power no higherthan the first.] of the first As we are now equations discussing

order,we

are

limited for the

to present

the

case

If this be
seen

' *

throughoutby multiplied
may write it d

er

it will be

that

we

dPe
Thus
a

/Pefccv n

)="^fPdx

"

yefPdx=\Qe/Pdxdx+
between
x

relation

and

differential equation,and It is therefore constant. The called factor

"
'

the given satisfying containingan arbitrary the solution required.

y

which

of the
an

a equation factor." integrating

the left-hand member differential coefficient is perfect rendered

LINEAR

EQUATIONS.
=

217

Ex. Here
mav

1
.

Integrateyi+xy e-**
fxd~
or
-

x.

e2 is

an

and factor, integrating

the

equation

be written
d
ax " *2
-

(ye*)=xe*,
or

ye*=e*+A,
+

i.e. Ex.
2.

l+Ae

2.

Integrate

^l +
dx

-y=x2.
x

Here may

the

factor integrating

is e

Jldx =elogx=x,and
x

the

equation

be written

*JH"-+
and

xy=--+A,

x*

177.

Equations reducible
if equations,
not

to

linear

form. the linear

Many
form

immediatelyof

be immediatelyreduced may variables. One of the

most

to it

by change of
is that

the

important cases

of the

equation

Or

y-n

Putting
we

yl~n

z,

have

y-^dy=^

218

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS.

or

which

and is linear,
ze

its solution is

(l-ri)fpdx

=(1" ft) \Qe

=(1
,.,
"

,~

\fr\ Q-~n)fPdxJ

dx+A,
dx+A. A

l-n

(\-ri)fPdx
e

i.e.

We ri)

f^ (l-ri))

x-,

Ex.1,

Integrate-^ + ^=?/2.
1; ^-2^+^
=

Here

or

putting

-=0,
t7

dx and the

factor being integrating -fix*

ej*

=e-loex

we

have

^(^=-1,
dx\x)
x

i.e.

?=logi
X X

i.e.

-=Ax y

"

Ex. 2.

the equation-jf. + x sin 2y Integrate

Cv"^7

we Dividingby cos2y

have
tan

ec2y-^ + 2#
dx

y"x^.

Putting
we

tany=2,

have

^
GW?

2^=^,

and

the

factor integrating

is

"J2xdx Or e*z, giving

220

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS.

16.

Find
sum

the of the

polar
radius of the the square class whose

equation
vector

of and
vector.

the the

family polar

of

curves

for

which
as

the the

subnormal

varies

nth 17.

power Show
as

radius

that the

curves

for the

which

the

radius upon

of the

curvature

varies

of

perpendicular equation
A is

normal

belong
Jc

to
a

the

pedal
and

r2-p2=^
*

+ %*
"^

being
18.

given

constant

arbitrary.

Integrate

the

equations

CHAPTER

XIV.

EQUATIONS

OF

THE

FIRST

ORDER"

CONTINUED.

HOMOGENEOUS

EQUATIONS.
CLAIRAUT'S

ONE FORM.

LETTER

ABSENT.

178.

CASE

III

Homogeneous
in
x

Equations.
and y may

Equations

homogeneous

be

written

dx if for

(a)
obtain

In

this result

case

we

solve form

possible

-^, and

of

the

Putting
we

vxy

obtain

x^

"j"(v)"

dv

_dx
'

~"p(v)"v
and
comes

the

variables under Case

are

separated
as

and result

the

solution

thus

I., giving
log
Ax
"

r 1

222

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS.
or

(6) But
solve
we

if it be

inconvenient
"

to impracticable
p

for

-". we
dx

solve for

and
.

write

for

"-

and dx
.

have y
=

x"f"(p)

...............................

(1)

with respect to Differentiating

x,

or

dx="["'(p)dp
x
-"

this equation have x expressed as we a Integrating function of p and an arbitrary constant (2) Ax=F(p)(**y) Eliminatingp between equations(1) and (2) we obtain the solution required.
.........................

Ex.

1.

Solve

(x*+y*)ty-=xy.
dx

and

putting

y=v%,

^+v dx
dv
or x"
=
-

dx

or

og=-2
a;2

or

Ay^eW.
Ex.
2.

Suppose the equation to

x

be

dx

\dx)

'

HOMOGENEO

US

EQ

UA

TIONS.

223

Then

(p +p2)

x(l

2p),

giving

log J,#+2logp

"

-=0,
P

i.e.

and

the

jo-eliminant

between

p2+p="
x

and is the This solution eliminant

Axp*=" sought.
is

"

But

when of

it p,

is
or

elimination

algebraically impossible to if performed, the when,

the
as

perform
result
two

the
be

will

to leave manifestly unwieldy, it is customary to regard them containing p unaltered, and would equations whose jo-eliminant if found

equations

simultaneous the

be

required

solution.

EXAMPLES.
Solve the differential

equations

.=.

dx

x+y

2.

224

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS.

179. A
The

Special Case.
~ "
-

dx ax+oy+c the homogeneousform thus : Put x

"

equation

"f

^-

is readilyreduced

to

TVi

^
"

a^+ by+ (ah+

so

bk +
'

c)

dg-a'g+b''
Now choose h, k that

^e.

so

that

.1

"

r-/ oc

^"be

-"

"

,-

-^
ao
"

^
a

ca

"ca

Then This

^=
now

equation being homogeneous we may variables an(i ^ne are as separable put n~v^
shown. is 180. There cannot be chosen

before

one as

however, in which when above, viz.,

case,
a
_ ~~

h, k

b 6'

a' Now Then let

"

c''

=m a

and

dy

Tx=
n
-~

so

that

--

"

dx
_

a "*

=
-

my

+ +

/)

drj (am
dec""
and
-,
-

+ ad b)rj
mrj +
c

+ 6c

+bc (am-\-o)r)-\-ac

".

-,

n.

HOMOGENEOUS

EQUATIONS.

225

the integration beingnow separated, be at once performed. may 181. One other case is worthy of notice, viz., ax + by+ c dy dx~ "bx + b'y + c" when the coefficient of y in the numerator is equalto that of x in the denominator with the opposite sign. For then we may write the equation thus + b(ydx+x dy) (b'y + c')dy (ax+ c)dx differential equation exact an being ; the integral ax2 + 2cx + 2bxy b'y2 + 2c'y + A A. beingthe arbitrary constant. variables
_

The

"

"

Ex.l. Put

Integrate =ydx

x+y-Z k, so
that

#="+

k, y

ri+

Choose

h and

Icso

that
=

then Now then put 77=0(1,

l+v

v+1

'

"-

1)2-

where
E. I. c.

"=#"1

and
p

v=^~
.

x"\

226

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS.
*+*

Ex. 2.
Let

f Integrate
dx

x+y

"

.#+y=??, then
.=
..

dx

??

if] 1
"

'

and

where

?7=

EXAMPLES.
the equations : Integrate

dy
_

dx

bx+ay-b
"

1*

8 9. Show

that

particle #,

y which

moves

so

that

will

always lie upon

that

conic section. of the

10. Show

solutions
must

generalhomogeneous
families of

tion equa-

fUL
'

\"

dx)

~)

always represent

similar

curves.

11. Show

that solutions
a a

of

/(-, -j-} J
are

homogeneous in
curves

x,

\X

CLX

of y and some power the typical equationof in x, y and some

that constant, and conversely single member power of a of one

if

family of

constant,the

be homogeneous differential

228

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS.
x, i.e.the absent

Differentiate with The P

regard to

letter.

and

dx

Thus After the

is performedwe integration and this equationand 2/ "/"(p) between of the givenequation is obtained.
=

eliminate p the solution

183. y B. which

absent. the differential

Suppose y

absent from then takes the form

equation,

Since

-^
ax

fj 1J

"

this may

be written

ax

dy
dx'

and Thus

therefore if y

variable the

regardedas the independent remarks foregoing apply to this case also.

be dx
we

convenient result of the form

if (i.)

solve

for

-^-, ^

and

obtain

dx
,

a5T*S
dx
then
7 dy
=

"7-^,

and the

is integral

dx

ONE

LETTER

ABSENT.

229

But (ii.)

if this solution

for
and

dy
solve for
x

-7-

be inconvenient
a

or

we impossible

obtain
yy
/v"

result of the
Then

form

where (j)(q)

q stands

for

-j-

tiating differen-

with

regardto

y, the absent letter ,

Thus

and After
we integration and equation and x "f)(q). equationis obtained.
=

the

eliminate the

between solution of the

q

this

given
absent

The
or

student

should

note
~

that in either case,

we absent,

solve for

if possible. by preference

ax

inconvenient solve we or impossible for the remainingletter and differentiate with regard the absent letter to the absent one\ thus considering in either case the independentvariable. as
Ex.
'

But

when

this is

1.

Integratethe equation

Here

dy
and is the solution. Ex.2. Solve dx Then #=
"

\dx)
x

where

q=.

dy

230
Then

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS.
absent lettery,

with regardto the differentiating /, 1 \dq l~

and and the

# between ^-eliminant is the solution this

equation

and

the

original

equationx=q+~

required.

EXAMPLES.
Solve
1.

the
=

equations:

dy

y +

I.

5.

6.

-B

\dx)

dx

4.

(2a^ + ^2)=a2+2a^7.
dx

8.

=A+".
\dx)
dx

184. CASE

V.

Clairaut's
have

Form,

^=

Writing^9 for

-~-

we

with Differentiating

y=px+f(p) regardto x,
dp

........................

(1)

or

{x+f(p)}0,
either

....................

(2)

whence Now

-^-=0
CLOu

or

cc+//(p) 0.
=

-f

"

givesp

a,

constant.

CLAIRA

UTS

FORM.

231

is a solution of the given differential Cx-\-f(C) C. constant an equationcontaining arbitrary Again,if p be found as a function of x from the equation (3) "+/(,) 0, Thus
y
= =
........................

stillbe satisfied, and if this value of which is the same or p be substituted in equation(1), if p be eliminated between thing, equations (1)and (3) shall obtain a relation between we y and x which also satisfiesthe differential equation Now to eliminate p between

equation(2)will

y=px+f(p)}
0=

x+f(p)I
0 between

is the

same

as

to eliminate

x+f(0)J

i.e.the

same
=

the line y There are

the process of finding of the envelope Cx+f(C) for different values of 0. therefore two classes of solutions, viz. :
as

(1) The

linear

complete tive," primiconstant. an containing arbitrary

" "

called the solution,

"

(2) The

solution or envelope singular containing and constant from derivable not no arbitrary the complete primitive by putting any numerical value for the constant particular
in that solution.

The

geometrical relation between

these

two

tions solu-

is that of a familyof lines and their envelope. It is beyond the scope of this book to discuss fully the theory of singular and the student is solutions, referred to largertreatises for further information upon the

subject.

232

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS.

Ex.

Solve

y=jt

JP

By

Clairaut's rule the

is completeprimitive

and
m

the

solution or singular envelope the above

is the result of

eliminating

between

equationand

o=*--2. m2
i.e. The student the will at

y*="ax.
once
a

recognizein
and parabola,

y2- 4a#
=

equation to
the well

solution the singular in the completeprimitive

a

y=mx+"

known

equation of

tangent

to

the

parabola.
EXAMPLES.
and the complete primitive, down Write cases : solution in each of the following
"

find the

envelope

4. y" 5. y
=

(x

"

a)p

"

p^.

6.

(y"

185. The

equation y=x"P(p)+*Kp),

.....................

(i)

may and

with regard to x, by differentiating variable. then considering p as the independent have For differentiating, we
be solved

whence

"
-=
--

dp
which is the solution being linear,

["P(P)*P r .,,Ji eJ"t*P)-P=_ (P) xe"t*P)-P=_

+ tW-Pdp

.......

(2)

EXAMPLES.

233

If

now

p be eliminated

between

(2),the completeprimitive of the

will result.
Ex. We Solve have y
p
=

(1)and equations equation original

(1)

2px+p2.

(2) p^x" %p3 A giving be found from these two equationsmay The jo-eliminant now in equation (2). (1)for p, and substituting by solving equation But if it be an object to present the result in rational form, we may proceedthus : + SA 0,\ (2) 2p3+ 3p2# By equation from (1) 0. / + Ip^x-py j93
" "

..............................

"

Hen

ce

p*x Zpy
-

3A

0.

And

between by cross-multiplication

this

equationand

givingas

the eliminant
+ 3Ax)(x* +y) 4(y2
=

(xy

3 A)2.

algebraic p being process of eliminating the equations difficultor impossible, in many (1) cases and (2)are often regardedas simultaneous equations but the is the solution in question whose ""-eliminant actual elimination not performed.
186. The
EXAMPLES.
Solve the

equations:
=

1. y=
,

2. y

3. y= 4. y=

234

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS.

8.

The OT2 the Find

tangent
is axis the

at

any

point
to

P the
curve.

of

curve

meets

the the

axis

Oy

in of

T,
PTto

and

proportional
Ox. Find

tangent

of

inclination

the

[OXFOKD,
of all
curves

1888.]
possess

9.

differential that the

axes sum

equation
of is of the
constant.

which

the
on

property
the

intercepts
Obtain and

made
as

by

the

tangent

coordinate the
curves

the

complete
tion solu-

primitive
the
10.

equation
in

the

tangent,

as

the

singular

question.
curves

Obtain

the the the the

axes axes

for
a

which is

the

area

of

the

triangle

bounded
11.

by
Form of

and

tangent

constant.

differential

equation
the

of

curves

for

which between

the,
the

length
coordinate

portion
is the

of

tangent
Obtain and

intercepted interpret

constant.

the

complete

primitive
12.

and

singular
the

solution. differential
;

curve

satisfies when

equation
its

y=p\x"p))

and

also

that^"=0

x=\

determine

equation.
[OXFOKD, 1889.]
of the

IS.

Find

the

complete

primitive

and

singular

solution

equation

dx Show

\
x2"s and

V^yj
y2
=

'

[OXFORD,
", the

1890.]

14.

that

by

putting

equation

is

reduced
Hence

to

one

of down

Clairaut's its the

form.

write

complete
result.

primitive

and

find

its

singular

solution.

Interpret

236 Then

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS.

yi

2/2

zj(x)+zf(x); zj(x)+^'(x)+zf"(x).
we

Thus

on

substitution

get

But

+ Pf(x)+ Qf(x) /'(*)

=

by hypothesis.Hence

an

equationwhich is linear factor is The integrating

or

for zv

is and the first integral

the second integral whence may effected. solution and the

Ex. Solve
L

be at

once

obtained

da? Here Put then makes

dx

y=x

-r^

Hence

and

the

factor integrating

is

e^

/K" 4- 3^
x

**
or

x*e

4
.

SECOND

ORDER

EQUATIONS.

237

x*

Thus

~(zlx^)=x^
a*
5

and

z1x2e*=~+A

_*

whence and the solution

z=-\e

+ A

J a?

\ "-e

is required
-=

189. CASE A. If
x

II

One

letter absent.

be

absent, let y1=p,

-

and

the

equation

"f"(y, yv y2)
= =

takes the form

and

"f"(y, Q, p, p-S-\
\

dy/

is of the first order.

B. If y be the letter

absent,let

yl =p,

*-"
and

"f"(x, yv y%) becomes

and

again is of
Solve
x

the firstorder.

Ex.1. Here

the

equationyy2+#i2=2#2.
So

is absent.

puttingy"=p

and

y2=p^?, have
we

The

factor integrating

is e^

vAy or

y2,

or

p2y2 "y* +

constant

=?/4+ a4,say.

238

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS.

Hence

or

i. e. Ex. 2. Here Solve

+ A). y* a2sinh(2#
=

l+#i2=#y2#i"
So

y is absent.

putting y-^"p^

dx
or
"

-"--"5,

pdp

1+jtr
=

i. e.
^.e.

logx

logVl+p2

+ constant.

or

ady" ^Jx*
"

a?

dx,

giving
a

oy=i?^2_"
constants. being arbitrary

and

EXAMPLES.
Solve the
1. ^2 2. 3. 4.
=

: following equations
"

1.

6.

1+3^=^2. i+y!2-^29y22=4iyi=

7.
1

_L2
2-

8a

y2+"/i-y=-e
^"/

y#2=#i3-#i-

[OXFORD, 1889.]

5. "3/2

(l+.yM
the

10. Solve

equation (1
y
=

=2/" havinggiven ~#2)^~#(^)

[OXFORD, 1890. ]

that

^
ow?

0 when

0.

11. Given

that #2 is

value

of y which

satisfies the

equation

find the

completesolution.

[L 0. S., 1894.]

REMOVAL

OF

TERM.

239

190. Term. Let

General

Linear

Equation.
more

Removal

of

us

next

consider the

equation general
of
x.

where

Q Pv P2, Puttingy vz, we

. . .

are

given functions

have

y2
whence

vz2 + n(n"

2V"
1)

+ v2z, etc.,

,
--

The coefficientof 0n_i is If then v be chosen so that

dv
v

P
"
"

or

the term

zn-i involving if be so Similarly, v equation

will have chosen

as

been
to

removed. ential differ-

the satisfy

the term containing 0W_2 The coefficient of z is

will have

been

removed.

and

if

value this

of

can

be found

or

will make

vanish,we expression
=

guessedwhich can, by writing

=

zl the
=

rj,

therefore z2 and zn rjn-i, reduce rjly etc., degree of the equationby unity. The student
and

should

notice

that

this

is expression

the

same

in

240

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS.
member
y
"

form Hence the

as

the if any

left hand solution

can

the given equation when omitted, we by writing y can, vz, reduce the degree of the equation.
=

given equation. be found or guessed of is right hand member

and then Z^
"

of the

Y\,

191.

Canonical
case

Form.

In the

of the

equation

of the

second

degree

the will

substitution has the

e~l ^dxz
above stated reduce the

by what equation to
the

been

given

sometimes

simpler form
of this

But
at

general solution present effected.

"EXACT"

equation

has

not

been

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATION.
is
an

192. and
can

When be

is

"

q.

xp-r~
^

exact

differential.

integratedwhatever by
yq,

y may

be.

For

denoting
=

\xPyqdx

etc.,

Thus

EXACT

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATION.
q =p
or

241

It will be noticed
cannot

that when be effected. the above

a

"

the integrati

By aid of quicklywhether
193.

given

may often see equation is " exact/' For

we

lemma

if all terms of the form xpyq in which p is first removed, we tell at once can frequently whether the remainder coefficient or not.
Ex.

"

q be spectio by in-

is a

differential perfect

#2

Here, by the lemma, #2y5 and

of xy. Hence
a

x?y" are

differential perfect

and obviously is coefficients, ocy^-\-y first

the differential coefficient of integral this differential equation is

obviously
=-

cos

x+A.

194. A A
more

more

General

Test.
for
an

generaltest

"exact"

differential

equation may
whatever
.

be established in the

case general

the coefficients P0,Pv have, provided they be functions of x. For upon

forms

...

Pn, V may
have

denotingdifferentiations by dashes, we integration by parts

n-

=PnBysdx

32/2
-

Pn

8^1 +

P"n

zV

I P"'n
-

etc.

Hence

upon

addition it is obvious

that if

p. i. c.

242

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS.

the

given equation
is

is

exact; and

that

tegral its first in-

Ex.

Is the

+ 1 2x?y2 + SG^2^ + 24#?/ equationcfiyz

=

sin

exact

Applying
and Thus the
-

the test,we

have

PQ'" 24^ P3 P2'+ PI equationis exact ; and its

-

72^ + 72^ first

24^

0,

is integral

or

This

again will
is satisfied.

be

differential perfect

if

which

Hence
-

second
=
-

will integral sin

x

be

(8#3 43%
or

-f ^4yx

+ Ax

+ +

B, J?,
that the

4^73y+^4y1= sin^+^^
"

which

again be tested. may is third and final integral ^

=

But

it is

now

obvious

cos.*?+
IB

EXAMPLES.
1. Show

that

the

equation

exact, and
2. Solve + ^7/3 3. Write

solve it the

completely.
.

equation
%i
first

6^/2 +
down

+ sin

x(y* %i) +
~

cos

X33/2 !/}
-

sin

of integrals

the

equations :" following

'(a) (b) (c)

4. Show
an

that

if the

integratingfactor

equation P2y + P^y^ + P0"y2 //, will satisfy the //,,then

=

F admits

of

differential

equation

244

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS.

Hence

n equation(1) containing arbitrary and therefore is the solution most general to constants, be expected. No more solution has been found. general The portion f(x) is termed the Particular Integral the n arbitrary and the remaining (P.I.), partcontaining constants,which is the solution when the right-hand member of the equation is replaced by zero, is called the Complementary Function (C.F.).If these two partscan be found the whole solution can be at once a

is

solution of

written

down

as

their

sum.

196. Two There

are

remarkable
two
cases

Cases.
these solutions
can

in which obtained. readily generally

be all

(1) When
constants.

the the

Pv P2, quantities
takes equation
Jn-l

...,

Pn

are

(2) When
ri

the form
r7n-2n/
'

2+-'-+^=

F"

av a2, ..., an beingconstants and V any function of x. is readily The solution of the second case reducible, as will be shown, to the solution of an equation coming under the firsthead.

EQUATION

WITH

CONSTANT

COEFFICIENTS
FUNCTION.

"

MENTARY COMPLE-

197. Let us therefore firstdetermine such an equation as

+ a22/n-2+... + 2/n+^i2/u-i the coefficients being constants attention

the solution of

^n2/

0,

.........

(1)
of the

; i.e.for the

we present

confine
"

our

to

the
"

determination

ComplementaryFunction

in the first case.

COMPLEMENTAR

FUNCTION.

245

As

trial solution
mn

put y Aemx, and we have a1mn-1+ a2raw-2+...+an 0

=
=
.......

(2)

Let the roots of this

be equation
...,

774, m2, ms,

mn,

then all different, (forthe present) supposed

are

and all solutions,

y
=

therefore also
......

+...+A (3) nem*x, A^x + A2e^x+ A3em*x is a solution containing constants n arbitrary Av A2, to be expected. An, and is the most general A3,
...,

198. Two If two

=

Roots
roots

Equal. equation (2)

become

equal,say the of first the solution (3)become two terms mx m2, be regardedas a and since A^ + A^ may (A!+ J.2)e"11*,
constant, there single unity in the number (3) is no longer the expected.
Let
Put
us

of

is of

apparent diminution by arbitrary constants,so that most general solution to be

an

examine

this

more
=

closely.

Then
=

m1+A. ^x + A 2e(TOi+*X"
97i2 r

h?x2 +
...

~~\

Alem^x-\-A2(^x\ l+hx+-^(Al+ A2)^x A2

we

AJi

I. xem^x+Azhem^~^
+
. ..

rhy?

~\

A^ and and quantities,

terms

Now

are

two

independentarbitrary
express them in

may

therefore

quantities independentarbitrary by two relations chosen at our pleasure. First we will choose A2 so largethat ultimately small may be written "2, A2h when h is indefinitely finite constant. an arbitrary

of two

other

246

DIFFERENTIAL

EQ

UA

TIONS.

will choose A1 so large and of opposite we Secondly, signto A2 that A^+A2 may be regardedas an arbitrary finite constant Bv Then the terms

vanish with h since Aji has been considered ultimately is confinite and the expression in square brackets vergent and Thus be
contains

as

factor.
=

A^^+A^e11^ may, when m2 mv and therefore ultimately by B1emiX+B2xemiX" replaced in the whole of arbitrary constants the number
therefore
case.

the terms

solution remains we n, and the generalsolution in this 199. Three

have

obtained

Equal Roots.
the become
case

Consider

next

equation(2) have already been terms, Alem"+A#m*x+A2f?ri*x, by (Bi+B^e^+Atf"**.

=
=

three of the roots of The equal,viz.,m1 m2 m3. when

placed re-

Let
Then

ms

mx + h
/

fcZftZ
1 + kx +
we

A^x

AjPtifc A^x(
=

-^-

+...)"

Thus

for A+Aw

+ Ae'W

have

and

we

may

so

choose

AB,52,and Bv

that

Ov C2,03 being any

constants, whatever arbitrary

COMPLEMENTARY

FUNCTION.

247 But

may

be, providedit be
finite

not

absolute

zero.

AJc2

series within being chosen a the square brackets beingconvergent, it is clear that when k is indefinitely diminished, the ultimately,
and quantity, the

form limiting

of this

is expression

200. In
a

Several similar

Roots
manner

Equal.
it will be

obvious

that

if p

roots of the

equation(2)become
m^ m2 loss of
= =
. . .

viz., equal,
=

mp,

there
we

will be no substitute the

for the

in our solution if generality expression + KjxP *)"*", (%!+ K^x + Kfl?+ portionof the complementary corresponding
-

function, viz.,

A^x
More

+...+ Apew*"x. A2em*x

201. Generalization. if generally,

be the

ential complementaryfunction of any linear differequationwith or without constant coefficients, what is to replace this expression to re-tain the so as when generality mx m2 ?
=

Let Then

m2

and the terms

become + A2"p(m2) Al"f"(m1) h2

Now
two

putting A^A^ Bly AJi "2) finite constants,the remainingterms arbitrary

= =

248

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS.
in

when we ultimately disappear approachthe limit diminished. which h is indefinitely Thus Al"f)(ml)+ be replaced J.20(m2) by may

number the same (n) of arbitrary retaining constants An B1952,A2, A^ in the complementary function as it originally possessed. And as in Art. 200 we proceedto show that if may viz. ^i1 m2= p roots become equal, =mp, the terms + 420(m2)+ +Ap"j"(mp) J.10(ra1) be replaced by may thus
...,
=
... " . .

when The

the

of generality

the solution will be retained.

results of Arts. 198, 199, 200 are of course ticular parof this, emix. the form of "p(/m^) cases being

202. When

Imaginary Roots.
a

root of

of (2) equation

Art. 197 is imaginary, real

it is to be remembered that for equationswith coefficients imaginaryroots occur in pairs. for instance, we Suppose, have

where Then

\/

"

1.

the terms

A^+A^e"**
may

or a

A^
thus
:
"

be thrown

into

real form

( Al +

bx bx)+ A2eax(cos bx bx + ( A1 ^2"6a*sin A2)eaxeos

1

sin

"

sin

bx)

sm

bx,

COMPLEMENTARY

FUNCTION.

249

where

the two

A^+ A2 and Let B^ p

=
=

constants Bl and B2 replace arbitrary (Al A2)irespectively. then cos a, B% p sin a,

"

JB*

"22

and
=

tan

ijgF.

Then

bx "2sin p cos(bx a). We may thus further replace bx by CLeaa!cos(6aj jB^cos bx + B2eaxsin constants. where C^ and 02 are arbitrary

^cos

fr#+

"

203. For

Repeated Imaginary

Roots.

repeatedimaginary roots we may proceedas that when before,for it has been shown 7772 ??i1, by (J^+J?^***, and Alem^x+A^x may be replaced if m4 by m3, A^X+A^X may be replaced
= =

If then mx

m2

+ ib and

m3

"

m4

"

6,we

may

replace by
that is

by
-

sin te] bx + (Bl- B3)i + 53)cos eax[(Bl 60?+ (B2 "4)^ sin 6 + xeax[(B2 + ^4)cos and therefore by 6^+ (72sin 6x+ (74sin +cceaaj((73cos e^CC^cos 6aj) that is by 6aj+ ^ + cc(73)cos tf*(Ci which is the same or thingby

Any

of the last three

which

forms

contain thus

four

constants constants

replacethe Av A2, A^ A^ and

four original

arbitrary arbitrary
the

retain intact

250

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS.

constants (n) of arbitrary requisite proper number to make the whole solution the most generalto be be extended expected. And this rule may obviously to the case when of the imaginaryroots any number
are

equal.
204. Ex.
Here
our

1.

Solve

the

equation^dx2 is y=Aemxy and

dx
we

trial solution

obtain

whose

roots

are

1 and
"

2.

Accordingly y
and
is the

A^e*and

are A2e2x

both

solutions, particular

y=A1e*+A2e2x
solution containing constants. two arbitrary general Solve

Ex.2.

-*V-a?y=0.
aOC
"

Here the auxiliary equation is w2 and the generalsolution is

a2

0 with

roots

m"

"a,

or

as

it may

be written y
=

(if desired)
ax .Z^cosh

^sinh

ax

by replacing Al by
Ex.3. Here Hence Solve

Bi+B*
2

and

A2 by

B^~B
2

the auxiliary equationis m2-f-a2=0 the general solution is y

=

with

roots

m"

+ai.

AjCosax

^t2si

or, which

is its

equivalent,
y
=

Bl
+

Ex.4

Solve

?-4|
ax?
ax

5-2y
ax

or

(D- l)2("-2)y 0,
=

where

stands

for

"

ax

252

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS.

3-

4-

5.

6.

S-9 S~3 g=y. g=y.

11. 12.

9.

10.

("-

THE 205. of such

PARTICULAR

INTEGRAL.

function Having considered the complementary V where F(D) stands for an as F(D)y equation
=

av
we a

a2,

...,

an

beingconstants,and Fany
our

function of

of x,

next most

turn

attention

to the mode

and particular integral,

and We

propose useful of the processes write the above

1

obtaining to givethe ordinary adopted.

2/
=

may

equation as
an

where (or [/(D)]F),

^7^

is such

operatorthat

206. "Z""

satisfies

the

fundamental

laws

of

Algebra.
It is shown
in

the

Differential

Calculus

that

the

operatorD

satisfies (denoting -y- j Distributive Law of

viz. Algebra,

(1) The (2) The

Commutative

Law
=

as

far

as

stants, regards con-

i.e.

D(cu)

c(Du}.

PARTICULAR

INTEGRAL.

253

(3) The
m

Index

Law, i.e.

integers. beingpositive Thus the symbol D satisfiesall the elementaryrules the with of algebraical of combination quantities with regard to that it is not commutative exception
n

and

variables. It therefore has a identity analogue. Thus

follows

algebraical symbolicaloperative corresponding binomial theorem since by the

that any
'

rational

7? l

(T)

"""

\ JL
.

~Li
2i

we

have

by

an

analogoustheorem
further

may

be inferred without

which operators proof

for

JL

"

"

207.

Operationf(D)eax.
a

It has been if r be

proved in the positive integer,

define the

Differential Calculus that

Let

us

D~r operation DrD~ru

=

to be such that

u.

and we shall an integration, represents D~lu no constants arbitrary suppose that in the operation added (forour is to obtain a are objectnow and not the most general particular integral integral). Now since Dra~reax eax DrD-reax,it follows that
= =

Then

D~l

D~reax

a-reax.
=

Hence it is clear that Dneax aneax values of n positive or negative.

for all

integral

254

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS.

208. Let

pansion f(z) be any function of z capableof exof z, positive in integral or negative powers ^Arzr say, Ar beinga constant,independentof z).

Then

The

result of the

be obtained
Ex. 1.

f(D)eax operation may D by a. by replaci'ng

"

therefore

Obtain the value of

"

"

-e

Obviously by

the rule this is

"*

or

g.

E,

2,

Obtain

the value

of

By

the rule this is

e3a/'=-^-e

EXAMPLES.
1. Perform

the

indicated by operations

'

3.

Apply

Art. 208

to show

that

m^7 /(Z)2)sin mx /(Z)2)cos

=/(
=/(

"

"

m2)si m2)c

209. Next

Operation f(D)eaxX.
let y
=

eaxY,where

Fis

any

function

of

x.

PARTICULAR

INTEGRAL.

255

Then
we

since

Dreax

areax,

have
yn
=

by

Leibnitz's Theorem
-

1D Y+ nC2D2Y+...+Dn F+ n(71an edx(an the Binomial Theorem

F),
(Art,

which, by analogy with 206), may be written

Dneax Y=
n

F, + a)n eax(D

beinga positive integer.

Now let
we

X
may

so

that

write

Then

from

above

DneaxY=eax(D+a)nY
or

Dneax(D+ a)
therefore
in all

nX

eaxX,

and

D
cases

Hence

for DneaxX

values integral
=

of

or positive

negative
+ a)nX. eax(D shall have
=

210. As

in Art. 208

we

f(D)eaxX

eax may That is, the left of the by D + a.

side to transferred from the right D operator f(D) provided we replace

be

Ex. 2.

"

"

"

e2xsinx

e2x~
D
*

sin

x"

"

e~xsin x.

D2

"

4D + 4

256

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS.

EXAMPLES.
1. Perform
1

the

operations
o

1
'

1
h

(D
2. Show

If*

(D-I)*6

X'

D-l

that

211. We
and

Operation/(7"2)
have D2
sn wwu cos
=

m2) y

sin
mx,
cos

therefore

Hence,
a^

as

before,Arts.
j;/ r"9\

208
/v
"

and
o\

210, it will follow

sin
mx. cos

sin

)
'

mx cos

f( m2)
y
=

Ex.

eaxsin bx dx f

Z)-1eaxsin 6^7

6^ (Art.210) + a)~1sin eax(D

"

f"x/ X/^iSJlll

7)Wri

hv

f'Arf 91^ xxi li, Zi L 1

sin ".#

"

cos

bx

-_

62) ea*(a?+

tan-1- Y ^sin^.r
-

EXAMPLES.
1. Find

2.

of integrals si eaxcosbx, e^sin2^,e^sin3^, the operations Perform

by

this method

the

-sin
3. Obtain

2^,

-_

_"I L_cos,r,

sin 2^7. and

by

means

of the

cosine the results of the

values of the sine exponential mx. /(/")cos mx, /(Z")sin operations

PARTICULAR

INTEGRAL.

257

212. Let

Operation
us

next

consider the

operation

in of expansion F(z)is a function of z capable integral positive powers of z. then if no odd in powers of Z), Let F(D) be arranged the result may be written down occur by the powers rule of Art. 211. foregoing

where

Thus
""

^ sin S1T1 2#

sin %x"
"

"
~

"

sin 2#.

L-4

+ 16-64

51
occur we

But and
the

if both
as

even

and
:
"

odd

powers
the
even

may

proceed

follows powers

the odd

Group and together,

powers together then we may write

operation
sm mx
= ./T^ox
.

/TV,V

sin

mx

^
"

mx m2)sin

"

mx(

"

mx m2)cos

Upon
we

may

that in practice it will be seen examination write m2 for Z)2 immediatelyafter the step
"

writingimmediately
1
"

"\

"

f)~7
R

sin

mx"

E. I. C.

258

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS.

or'

r-y^
"

mi

"

"

SYT^ fjsrS
"

in/

"

"

J-'Xv

in

4^0 sin

ma;, etc.

Ex.

1.

Obtain

the value

of

"

"

"

="

sin 2#.

Thisis
sin D

2#, 2^,

"sin

J.O
or

^
Ex.
2.

cos

2^

"

^
"

sin 2^7.

Obtain

the value

of

-^e2*cos
^p. cos x

This

expression

e2*-^
" "

each [replacing

Z"2 by

"

1]
e2*
____

"

"(cos
4

"

sin

x).

EXAMPLES.
1. Perform
:-

the

operationsindicated
Z"3

in

the

pressions followingex-

-e*sin

260

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS.

EXAMPLES.
Perform the

operations
2)

CD+l)(Z"
2-

3.

J?

COsh

37

COS

07.

214. In

Cases

of

Failure.
methods of
to

applying the above Particular Integral, cases

met

of
are

failure illustrate
cases.

obtaining a frequently
course

with.
to

We be

propose

the

of

procedure
215.
The To Ex.

adopted
the

in such

1.

Solve

equation

(^L-y=ex.
dx
'

Complementary
obtain the

Function

is Ae*.
we

Particular

Integral

have

If

we

apply

Art.

208, the

result

becomes

i^i
We
may

or

""-

evade

this

and difficulty Art.

210

obtain
we

the

result

of

the

operation by applying

when

have

which

particular integral required. another of substituting method, however, Instead,

is the

let

us

examine

the

operation

"

-"

more

carefully.
of #,
we

Writing

x(\ +

h)

instead

have

263
CASES
OF

FAILURE.

Of may

this be

expressionthe portionLtex//ibecomes taken with the complementary function Aex

may

infinite,
; and

we arbitrary

regard A
A

as

new

constan arbitrary

/i

for

we

may

suppose

to contain

infinite negatively

por

to cancel

The The

the term I/A. xe* is the Particular term

desired. Integral vanish when h is decre;

remainingterms indefinitely.
The whole solution

contain h and is

Ex.2.

Solve

the

equation

^ Ct/X
is

The

complementary function
y
=

clearly
cos

A sin Zx + B

2#.

The and Art.

integralconsists particular
sin 2#. In this second
oo
,

of two

parts "i
we

"

e*

part, if
so

apply the

ri

211, we
now

get

2HL",i.e.
the

and

fail.

We This

consider

when limit,

Q, of

--

"

sin2.i'(l-

expression
1
=

_1
i_(i+A)a
1
9A

4
1

^X JT2^U

COS

"^IX "*" COS

^^ S^n

^^J?)

1 sin 2.2?
"
"

1
-x cos

fi

"

2.27 + powers

r of A

(a

term

which

may
x
-

be included
^

in the

complemvanish
v

function)
Thus the whole

c^s +

(terms which

solution

of the. differential

equation
JOS

g
"

"

260
3.

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS.

:.

Solve

'ere the

equation (D2+ 3D)(D -l)2y e* + complementary function

=

the

e~x + sin

4- x1.

is

plainly
parts,viz.,
=

consists integral particular

1
1
x_

of four
"?

*_ JL
'I?''

iy*6 ~(D-I*'

4~4

(a part going into

+"
ex +

the

complementary function)
vanish with

(termswhich

h)].

,^-PP,

10

1
-

3-Z)
sin x=
"/

6 + 2Z)
=

2(9
-

(3 sin

cos

^)/20.

jjinally

open

44

ie

the whole
=

solution

is

+ (A3 Al + A2e~3x

e2x
+

3 sin
~~

"

cos

.3?
.

5#2
,

44

+'+""l"

ILL

USTRA

TIVE

EXAMPLES.

263

Ex. The

4.

Solve is

the

equation"^-?/ ^sin^.
=

C.F.

To find the which

P.I.

we

have

."-a

is the coefficient of

in
1

"?". in

#*,

l.
" "*"

plX

rp

-4^-6/^Tr.
l
**

'

~^l-^D..\^

Thus and y
=

the

P.I.

is solution is

COSJP
_

3^ gin ^
8

the whole A

^inh ^

^2coshx

A3sm

x+A

4cos

c^s^' ^
-

sin

^p.

EXAMPLES.
1. Obtain

the Particular sina7'

indicated by Integrals

0)

7TTT

(5" /n (6)
_

w^ovn-Q-x*'# (sinh

+ sin

^?).
+ cosh

nT-T8*1111*'

(7) /na

^/

^o,(^
COS
-

6^).

COS
o

264
Solve the

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS.

2.

differential

equations

(3)
Cfc#

+y

(4) (D*-l)(D*-l)y=xe*. (6) (ZP-3D2-3D (7) OD3-%=#sin.". (9) (Z"2

(10) (^"+

(5) (Z)I)y
=

e-x

(8) (Z"2

216.
A

The

Operator

""-.
CvQC

transformation

which

renders

peculiarservice

in

reducing an

equation of

the class

where the

Av A2,

...,

are

coefficients

are

constants, to a form constants, arises from

x
=

in which

all

putting

et.

In

this

case

-TT

and e*,

therefore

at

x~ax

-^at
x-j-

It is obvious d -ji have

are

therefore Let

that D

the

operators
d for -j-.

and
we

dx

equivalent.

stand

Then

dx\
n nf\n
_

-*-

)X

Z.

" "

(x
\

__

11

-I-1 ]X
/

.
~

1
___

dxn

dx

dxn~l

EXAMPLES.

265

Now

putting11

in succession

2, 3, 4, ...,

we

have

etc.
,

Hence

generally

or

the order of the operations reversing D(D-l\D-Z)...(D=

Ex.

Solve

the differential

equation

Putting x
or

the equation becomes c?,

-

D(D -l)(D- 2)y+ 2D(D

3%

3#

(
(D
=
-

i.e.

giving y

Ae* + B

cos

-"

~+;rIog
EXAMPLES.
Solve the differential
1.
s
2

equations

dx
a?

2.

x-

+ --^

-^ + (^

+ x [log ^-]2

sin

log^

sin q

loga?.

3.

cfc1
4. "i

3^++2/=^
ote2 rfa?
'

dx?
5.

dx*

dx

CHAPTER

XVII.

ORTHOGONAL

TEAJECTOEIES.

MISCELLANEOUS

EQUATIONS.
ORTHOGONAL TRAJECTORY.

217. Cartesians. of a equationf(x,y, a) 0 is representative The to family of curves. problem we now propose is that of finding the equation of another investigate of which each each member cuts family of curves in of the former family at rightangles. And member such a problem as this it has been alreadypointedout The
=

that

it is necessary

to

treat

all members

of the

first

that so familycollectively, a ought not to appear in

It has
may

been

shown

be eliminated

constant particularizing the equation of the family. in Art. 17 1, that the quantitya between the equations

the

*dx

'dy dx

Let this eliminant

be

This

is the

differential

equation of

the

first

family.

268

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS.

Here

x+yJL=a,
cLx

and, eliminating #,

.v2+y2 2x( x -\-y" ),

=

Hence

the

new

differential

equationmust

be

or

^2+ 2^-^2
ay is
a

o,

...........................

(3)
become the be

homogeneous equation, and the variables by the assumptiony vx. separable as However, this being the same equation (2) with that x and y are interchanged, must its integral
which
=

ception ex-

another

set of

each circles,

of which

touches

the

#-axis

at

the

origin.
Ex.
2.

Find

the

of trajectory orthogonal
2

the

curves n\

--

being the parameter

of the

family.

and

A must

be eliminated

between

these
=

two

equations.

(2)gives

+ A) 0, + A)+yyl(a? x(b*

so

that

a2 + A

and Thus the differential

equationof

the

family is

(at-b^yy
or

x*-y*+xyyi-

=a2-52
................

(3)

ORTHOGONAL

TRAJECTORY.

269

Hence familv

changing y^
of

into

"

the
,

differential

equation

of the

#1 is trajectories
2

(4)
the
same

But

this

being
:

the

same

as

equation (3) must y2

i
a

have

primitive,viz.

^
*

_-.
~

i.e.a set of conic sections confocal Ex. 3. cardioides Here Find the
cos

with

the former

set.

of orthogonal trajectories

the
a.

family

of

r=a(l"

0) for

different

values

of

^
r^
dr
l~
= =

and, eliminating a,
Hence for the

sm

2 must

we trajectories familyof orthogonal

have

1 dr

"

or

log

"

log

cos

"

+
2t

constant,

or

r=b(l+cosO),
coaxial cardioides whose cusps

another

family of direction. opposite

point in

the

EXAMPLES.
1. Find

the

of the family of parabolas orthogonal trajectories of

a.

#2

4cM? for different values

2.

Show

that

the a2 b2

of orthogonal trajectories

the
m

family

of
.

similar

for different values of ellipses-04-^,=m2 the of orthogonal trajectories

a.

is s?

=Ayb

3. Find
r
=

the

equiangular spirals
confocal and coaxial

ae^cota' for different values of

4. Find
"

the
=1

of the orthogonal trajectories

-f cos

parabolas

9 for different values

of

a.

270
5. Show

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS.
of
curves

that

the families

are

orthogonal.
6. Show
r

that
=

the
"

curves cos

sin2a

a(cos 0
that

a)
=

and

sinh2/? a(coshft
=
"

cos

0)

are

orthogonal.
7. Show

if f(x+iy)

iv

the

curves

form

orthogonalsystems.
that for any cosh
x x

8. Prove

constant
cosec

value
p cot y
x
=

of /z the
constant constant

family of

curves

"

cut at

family /z coth rightangles.

the

"

cosech

cos

[LONDON, 1890.]

SOME

IMPORTANT

DYNAMICAL

EQUATIONS.

220.

The

equation
of
a

general form of the equation of motion the action of a central force. under particle
is the

Multiplying by

2-^and
dO

we integrating

have

which

we

may

write

as

and

the solution

is therefore

effected.

221.

Equations

of the form

SOME

SPECIAL

FORMS.

271
with
stant con-

have The

alreadybeen
coefficients. solution may
sin

discussed however

as

beinglinear

be conducted
to be
an

thus

:
"

Multiplyby
factor.

n9, which

will be found

integrating

Integrating,
sin

nO^. d6
-

nu

cos

nO=

sin n"dff f*f(ff)

+ A.

Jo
an

nO is cos Similarly, first integral is

cos

factor integrating

and

the

ing correspond-

n(" +
d\j du

nu

sin nO=

f'f(ff) nO'dO'+B.
cos

J
o

-^L Eliminating
nu
=

ef(0') sin n(0

0

O')d0f + Bsmn6-A

cos

n6.

222. The
mass

equationof
some

motion form

of

body

of

changing

often takes

such

as

d! dt
^

and

for this

will equation"f"(x)-rr

be found

to be

an

factor. integrating

leads at

once

to

j^x)"l"(x)dxA, i{""(^' J2=

+

1
J

^Xto

and

the variables

are

separated.

272

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS.

FURTHER 223.
one or

ILLUSTRATIVE

EXAMPLES.

Many equations may

be solved forms

other of the known artifices. special

Ex. Let
1.

by reducingto discussed by already

^=f(ax+by).
'

ax

ax+by=z.
=

Then
dx

dx

Thus
dx

dz

or

x+A=l

d*..
J
a

bf(z)

Ex.2. dx\ Put

rpi

y+a

dx xy=z.

Then

y+^^=-y-,
.

dy

dz dx

dx

dz
Z or
=

, X-j- +-5-

dx

dz

dx which is of Clairaut's

form, and

the

is completeprimitive
.

Ex.3. Let

Solve

e^

dx)
6^ =

\dx
77,
ex
=

s-

Then,

since this

equation may
dx

he

arrangedas \e*dx

ILL

USTRA

Tl VE

SOL

UTIONS.

273

we

may

write it as

?7

which written

being of

Clairaut's form

the

completeprimitive may

be

or

Ex.

4.

--

in occurring (an. equation Put Then the

Solid
=

Geometry).

,v=*Js equationbecomes

and

"Jt.

ds

giving

t=

ds
as

which

is of Clairaut's form

and t-sG

has the BC
~

completeprimitive

1+2(7'

and

solution singular

the four

lines straight

9"J-Jy
Ex. 5, Solve the

equation
dx

E. I. C.

274
Let

DIFFERENTIAL
the transformation be such

EQUATIONS.
that

then

is known

by

direct

as integration

function

of

t.

dy
Now dx

d^dL_
*
'

and dx*

Thus and the

f (^ax^yJ^axd4 }dx* dt* dx dt

.

givenequationthus

reduces

to

whose and is

solution is y=A sin qt + B when the value of t in terms have dx

cos

"^,
x

of

is

the substituted,

solution

complete. we [Ifa be positive

1
"

,.
"

-[=.

""~j= sinh^Wa)
If
a

t.

be

we negative

have dx

,=dt"

V-a

are

differential Solve the simultaneous Ex. 6. linear with constant coefficients)

equations(which

276
whence

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS.
D2 + 9 and

these in turn by operating upon eliminate y and obtain we subtracting,

+ 16)(D2 + 9)+ [(D2
or

by

3D

and

15

Z)2" 0,
= =

+ 40Z)2 + (Z"4

1 44"

0,

i.e. whence
x
=

+ 36)^=0, (D*+ 4)(D'2

A sin

~2t +

cos

2" + C sin 6" + D

cos

6*.

the Differentiating the second

to eliminate

three times first equation and subtracting have differential coefficients of y, we

dt whence viz.
:
"

*"

we

obtain

the

value

of y

without

any

new

constants,

y=-%B

sin 2t + 2 A

cos

2t + i"D

sin 6"

^-

EXAMPLES.
Solve
i.

the

equations

2. 2^-(i-*)y"=**. 'cte

3.

4.

5.

(1-

2 8. Obtain
:
"

cosy the

the

integralsof

following differential

tions equa-

9y

25

cos

[I.C. S, 1804.]

EXAMPLES.

277

9.

Integrate

the

simultaneous

system

4=0.
_

10. inclination
to

Find

the of the

form

of
current

the

curve

in
to

which the the which

the #-axis

tangent
is

of

the

tangent
of for

proportional

the
11.

product
Find cube the of

of form the

the

coordinates of the of

point.
the of the
curvature

curve

varies
to

as

the

cosine

the

inclination

tangent

the

12.

Show of

that
curvature

in
on

the the

curve

for is

which of
constant

the

projection

of

the

radius

7/-axis

length

(l)Soclogtan(?+|),
(2)
y
oc

log

sec
~.

ANSWEES.

CHAPTER

I.

PAGE

12.

1.

Area

e6-ea.

3.

Area=ia2tan

0,

4.

Vol.^.
5

2.

Vol.

=-(e*b-e2n).

Vol.

-a3tan2"9.

5.

Vol.=f7ra3.

6.

(a)
Vol.

=|

Vol.

1
TT

VoL

1
=

(8)

JL25

Vol.

=JL
t)

7,

"7Tfia3.

8.

Mass

of

half

the

spheroid

J?r/xa262.

ANSWERS.

279

CHAPTER PAGE 17.

II.

2.

^Y.

6. 1.

10.

6 -sin a). (sin

3.

?^1.
Ioge|.

7.

x/2-1.

4.

8.

|.
PAGE
23.

"2
X

"'

*'

ft C"

r!00

Ht;

r!000

"

r!001

loo' Tooo' Tool'

_c.o
10'

_^
100'

_^
98

PAGE

25.

"

, 2J

2.

logx,

~j

log^ +#,

PAGE

26.

2.
3.

logtan"1^,logsin'1^, log(log^).

280

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

PAGE

28.

9
"

log2J
""

4+

aT

log3'
_?

log 6

+I

logo2'
4.

log tan

^,

log sin

cosec

^.

5.

sin-1*,1 tan-,

l86^! an-^,

7.
8.

-log^

sin x\ e*), log(log

CHAPTER PAGE
1. 32.

III.

sine*, sin#n, sin(log^).

3.

asin^+-tan-1^4,
4

-a

cose*

+6

log cosh
8.

#.

4.

J_ tan-x-JL-.
V2
_-,

6.

~.

sin-V^-

^2
"

V*

'

PAGE
/-

41.
g

-1?,

"

-H-.-fJain-1*,

2.

cosh^+l),

si

ANSWERS.

281

3.

-Vl=F, x/^,

4.

+1)4, i(^2

6.

-^2,| sinh-1^ I siii-1^-2\/r^-iWl

2\/l +

#2 +

7.

xyJ\^3?,4 cosh-12

^"?x/5?^
2

8.

^logtan^,

-logtana"r+", ^logtan(-+.A
CL

\4

/
\

),J logtan

13.

Iog[log{log(loga7)}], log(log^), log{log(log,^)},

CHAPTER
PAGE

IV. 47.

^7

sinh

"

cosh #,

x (2+ #2)sinh

"

Zx cosh 2^
,

x.

sm

2"r

CQS

in 3a? + 9 sin
3. 2a? J(sin 2^

+ cos a?)

3^ + 27

cos^].

cos

2^),
sin 4.f
~""

sin 6^7
~""^~~
_

/cos 2^7

cos
~~

4^
_

cos
~~

6^7

282

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

5.

--^sin^-tan-^),
2
v

^sin^

tan-a4).
of n, -p-q-r.

6.

^2(a2

^2)~sin^-tan-1-,
\
ct /

for the values q + r-p,

p + q-r, 7T2
I.

r+p-q,

7T,

_,

A 7T2-4.

9.

sin-1*?+
339

x/f^;2

(1 ^2).
-

PAGE

51. + 2)cosh 3(^2 x, 2^72 + 24)sinh x. + 1 5(^4

-

+ (rf

20^"3+ 1 20#)cosh x

6)sin x,
_

84\V
-

2/
-

\ 2

2^ J{2(2^3 3^)sin
-

(2^4
-

6^2 +

3)cos

5?r4+ 607T2

240, 265e-720.
52.

PAGE
1.

(a) (m2+ (6)

4
/

where #=sin#. l)~^rnecos(^-cot-1m),

+

gsmg
\

cos^-sn-g,
3 3
/

where ^74
"
" -"

A-

Si .tT3 3^7
"

(c)^

tan

log cos
"

x.

(e)

tan

_i

lx

"
"

"

(d) ^tan"1^ (a) x

"

Jlog(l+^2).

(/)

sec"1^

cosli"1^.

\/l" ^sin"1^.
+

+ cos0)-sin"9-logtan (b) 6"(sec(9

where

sin(9.

(c)
2

where cos (c?) (sin"/" "^" "/"),

"
"

^=

284

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

CHAPTEK PAGE
58.

V.

2.

"

3. 4. 5.

+ 4# \ log(^'2

+ 2). 5) taii"1^
-

-log(3-.r). #-2log(#2 +
-

2.r +

2)+ 3tan-1(."
11

6. 2#

+ 6^7 + 10)+ f log(#2

tan-1^ H- 3).

PAGE

62.

^ (iii.)
-

ct

"

x (ix.)

7 a^T
-

giZ^

+etc. log(^ q.)

-

e
1

(^Tiy

+ 8

(^-l)2 8(^-l)

16

j B

27

I_L.-?-JL_. l0a^"^ + g^-l+