1

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 General
A new simple, effective and inexpensive method for lightning protection of
medium voltage overhead distribution line is using long flashover arresters (LFA). A
new long flashover arrester model has been developed. It is designated as LFA-M. It
offers great number of technical and economical advantages. The important feature of
this modular long flashover arrester (LFA-M) is that it can be applied for lightning
protection of overhead distribution line against both induced over voltages and direct
lightning strokes. The induced over voltages can be counteracted by installing a single
arrester on an overhead line support (pole). For the protection of lines against direct
lightning strokes, the arresters are connected between the poles and all of the phase
conductors in parallel with the insulators.














2

CHAPTER 2

LIGHTNING

2.1 WHAT IS LIGHTNING
Lightning is an electrical discharge between cloud and the earth,
between clouds or between the charge centers of the same cloud. Lightning is a
huge spark and that take place when clouds are charged to at a high potential with
respect to earth object (e.g. overhead lines) or neighboring cloud that the dielectric
strength of the neighboring medium(air) is destroyed.

Fig 2.1 .A lightning flash during a thunderstorm.
Lightning is a massive electrostatic discharge between electrically charged
regions within clouds or between a cloud and the Earth's surface. The charged regions
within the atmosphere temporarily equalize themselves through a lightning flash
commonly referred to hits an object on the ground.
There are three primary types from a cloud to itself intra-cloud or IC from
one cloud to another cloud (CC) finally between a cloud and the ground (CG).
Although lightning is always accompanied by the sound of thunder distant lightning
may be seen but be too far away for the thunder to be heard .Lightning occurs
approximately 4050 times a second worldwide resulting in nearly 1.4 billion flashes
per year. Many factors affect the frequency, distribution, strength, and physical
properties of a "typical" lightning flash to a particular region of the world. These
factors include ground elevation, latitude, prevailing wind currents, relative humidity,
proximity to warm and cold bodies of water, etc. To a certain degree, the ratio
between IC, CC and CG lightning may also vary by season in middle latitudes.
Because human beings are terrestrial and most of their possessions are on the Earth,
where lightning can damage or destroy them, CG lightning is the most studied and
best understood of the three types, even though IC and CC are more common.
3

Lightning's unpredictability limits a complete explanation of how or why it occurs,
even after hundreds of years of scientific investigation. A typical cloud to ground
lightning flash culminates in the formation of an electrically conducting
plasma channel through the air in excess of 5 km . The actual discharge is the final
stage of a very complex process.A typical thunderstorm has three or more strikes to
the Earth per minute at its peak.

Fig 2.2 Four-second video of a lightning strike, Island in the
Sky, Canyonlands National Park, Utah, United States
Lightning primarily occurs when warm air is mixed with colder air masses
resulting in atmospheric disturbances necessary for polarizing the atmosphere. However,
it can also occur during dust storms, forest fires, tornadoes, volcanic eruptions, and even
in the cold of winter, where the lightning is known as thunders now. Hurricanes typically
generate some lightning, mainly in the rain bands as much as 160 km (100 mi) from the
center. The science of lightning is called fulminology. The fear of lightning is
called astraphobia.


2.2 Distribution of lightning
Lightning is not distributed evenly around the planet, as seen in the image
on the right. About 70% of lightning occurs over land in
the tropics where atmospheric convection is the greatest. This occurs from both the
mixture of warmer and colder air masses, as well as differences in moisture
concentrations, and it generally happens at the boundaries between them. The flow of
warm ocean currents past drier land masses, such as the Gulf Stream, partially
explains the elevated frequency of lightning in the Southeast United States. Because
the influence of small or absent land masses in the vast stretches of the world's oceans
limits the differences between these variants in the atmosphere, lightning is notably
less frequent there than over larger landforms. The North and South Poles are limited
in their coverage of thunderstorms and therefore result in areas with the least amount
of lightning. In general, cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning flashes account for only 25%
of all total lightning flashes worldwide. Since the base of a thunderstorm is usually
negatively charged, this is where most CG lightning originates. This region is typically
at the elevation where freezing occurs within the cloud. Freezing, combined with
4

collisions between ice and water, appears to be a critical part of the initial charge
development and separation process. During wind-driven collisions, ice crystals tend
to develop a positive charge, while a heavier, slushy mixture of ice and water
(called graupel) develops a negative charge. Updrafts within a storm cloud separate
the lighter ice crystals from the heavier graupel, causing the top region of the cloud to
accumulate a positive space charge while the lower level accumulates a negative space
charge. Because the concentrated charge within the cloud must exceed the insulating
properties of air and this increases proportionally to the distance between the earth and
the ground, the proportion of CG strikes (versus cloud-to-cloud (CC) or in-cloud (IC)
discharges) becomes greater when the cloud is closer to the ground. In the tropics,
where the freezing level is generally higher in the atmosphere, only 10% of lightning
flashes are CG. At the latitude of Norway (around 60 North latitude), where the
freezing elevation is lower, 50% of lightning is CG.
Lightning is usually produced by cumulonimbus clouds whose bottoms are
56 km above the ground and that are themselves up to 15 km (9.3 mi) in height. On
Earth, the place where lightning occurs most often is near the small village of Kifuka
in the mountains of the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, where
the elevation is around 975 m (3,200 ft). On average, this region receives 158
lightning strikes per 1 square kilometer (0.39 sq mi) per year. Other lightning hotspots
include Catatumb lightning inVenezuela, Singapore,Teresina in northern Brazil,and
"Lightning Alley" in central flourdia.


2.3 Establishing conditions necessary for lightning
In order for an electrostatic discharge to occur, two things are necessary: 1)
a sufficiently high electric potential between two regions of space must exist; and 2) a
high-resistance medium must obstruct the free, unimpeded equalization of the
opposite charges. It is well understood the thunderstorm is able to separate and
aggregate charges in certain regions of the cloud, however the exact processes by
which this occurs are not fully understood .The atmosphere provides the electrical
insulation, or barrier, that prevents free equalization between charged regions of
opposite polarity. This is overcome by "lightning", a complex process referred to as
the lightning "flash".

2.4 Establishing the electric field in CG lightning
As a thundercloud moves over the surface of the Earth, an equal electric charge,
but of opposite polarity, is induced on the Earth's surface underneath the cloud. The
induced positive surface charge, when measured against a fixed point, will be small as
the thundercloud approaches, increasing as the center of the storm arrives and dropping
as the thundercloud passes. The referential value of the induced surface charge could be
roughly represented as a bell curve. The oppositely charged regions create an electric
5

field within the air between them. This electric field varies in relation to the strength of
the surface charge on the base of the thundercloud the greater the accumulated charge,
the higher the electrical field.

As a thundercloud moves over the surface of the Earth, an equal electric charge,
but of opposite polarity, is induced on the Earth's surface underneath the cloud. The
induced positive surface charge, when measured against a fixed point, will be small as
the thundercloud approaches, increasing as the center of the storm arrives and dropping
as the thundercloud passes. The referential value of the induced surface charge could be
roughly represented as a bell curve. The oppositely charged regions create an electric
field within the air between them. This electric field varies in relation to the strength of
the surface charge on the base of the thundercloud the greater the accumulated charge,
the higher the electrical field.


Fig 2.3 View of lightning from an airplane flying above a system.


2.5 Upward streamers


Fig 2.4 A lightning flash terminates & discharge occur on a tree while an un- attached
streamer is visible on the earth surface projection to the left.
6

When a stepped leader approaches the ground, the presence of opposite
charges on the ground enhances the strength of the electric field. The electric field is
strongest on grounded objects whose tops are closest to the base of the thundercloud,
such as trees and tall buildings. If the electric field is strong enough, a positively
charged ionic channel, called a positive or upward streamer, can develop from these
points. This was first theorized by Heinz Kasemir. As negatively charged leaders
approach, increasing the localized electric field strength, grounded objects already
experiencing corona discharge exceed a threshold and form upward streamers.


2.6 TYPES OF LIGHTNING STROKES
There are two main ways in which the lightning may strike the
power system . They are:

2.6.1. DIRECT STROKE

In the direct stroke, the lightning discharge (i.e. current path) is directly from the
cloud to the subject equipment e.g. an overhead line. From the line, the current path may
be over the insulators down the pole to the ground. The over voltages set up due to the
stroke may be large enough to flash over this path directly to the ground. The direct
strokes can be of two types:
(i) Stroke A and (ii) stroke B.
(i) In stroke A:
The lightning discharge is from the cloud to the subject equipment i.e. an over- head
line in this case as shown in Fig 3.1 .The cloud will induce a charge of opposite sign on
the tall object eg. an overhead line in this case. When the potential between the clouds
exceeds the breakdown value of air, the lightning discharge occurs between the cloud
and the line.



Fig 2.5 Lightning from cloud

7

(ii) In stroke B:
The lightning discharge occurs on the overhead line as a result of stroIj4 between
the clouds as shown in Fig. 3.2. There are three clouds P, Q and R having positive,
negative and positive charges respectively. The charge on the cloud Q is bound by the
cloud R. If the cloud P shifts too near the cloud Q then lightning discharge will occur
between them and charges on both these clouds disappear quickly.

2.6.2 INDIRECT STROKE

Indirect strokes result from the electrostatically induced charges on the
conductors due to the presence of charged clouds. This is illustrated in fig 2.6. A
positively cloud is above the line and induces a negative charge on the line by
electrostatic induction. This negative charge will be only on that portion of the line right
under the cloud and the portions of the line away from it will be positively charged as
shown in Fig 2.6. The induced positive charge leaks slowly to earth via the insulators.
When the cloud discharges to earth or to another cloud, the negative charge on the wire
is isolated as it cannot flow quickly to earth over the insulators. The result is that a
negative charges rush along the line is both directions in the form of travelling waves.
Majority of surges in transmission lines are caused by indirect lightning strokes.


Fig 2.6 Charge on conductor due to charged cloud





8

CHAPTER 3
LFA
3.1THE LFA PRINCIPLE

When a lightning surge gets to an insulator, the insulator may flashover
depending on the overvoltage value and insulation level of the line. Probability of
power arc flow depends on many parameters: nominal voltage of the line Unom,
length of the flashover path L, moment at which lightning stroke occurred, lightning
current magnitude, line parameters, etc.
It was found that the main factor, which determines the probability of PAF, is the
mean gradient of operational voltage along the flashover path.
E = Uph/L
L = length of flashover,
The probability of PAF sharply decreases with a decrease in E. An analysis of
available data on spark over discharge transition to PAF concluded that for E=7 to 10
kV/m probability of PAF is practically zero. The flashover length, L is greater for
lines with wooden structures rather than steel or concrete structures, because wooden
Cross-arm increases the flashover path. As a result probability of PAF for wooden
structures is sufficiently lower than for steel or concrete supports. From the short
analysis presented above, it is clear that it is possible to improve the protection against
lightning by increasing the length of lightning flashover path. The suggested LFA
accomplishes this principle. The LFA's length may be several times greater than that
of an insulator . Due to a special inner structure the LFA impulse flashover voltage is
lower than that of the insulator and when subjected to lightning overvoltage the LFA
will flashover before the insulator.
9

3.2 DESIGN OF LFA-M

Fig 3.1 Design of LFA

An LFA-M arrester consists of two cables like pieces. Each cable piece
has a semi conductive core of resistance R. The cable pieces are arranged so as to
form three flashover modules 1,2,3 as shown in figure1.Semiconductive core of upper
piece, whose resistance is R ,applies the high potential U to the surface of the lower
piece at its middle. Similiarly, the semi conductive core of the lower piece of the same
rsistance R applies the low potential 0 to the surfaces of the upper piece, also at its
center. Therefore the total voltage U is applied to each flashover module at the same
moment, and all three modules are assured conditions for simultaneous initiation of
creeping discharges developing in to a single long flashover channel.

Tests have been shown that, as the line conductor is stressed by lightning
over voltage impulse, flash over channel develop at different rates.Modules1 and 3
flashover first, followed by module 2 ,and thus, forming a rather long flashover
channel along the LFA. Due to long flashover path, a flashover does not give rise to a
power arc as the arc extinguishes when the power frequency current crosses zero. This
assures uninterrupted power supply of a LFA protected over head line.



10

3.3 FLASHOVER PERFORMANCES

The flashover performance of modular long flashover arresters of two
different flashover lengths and the voltage-time characteristics of LFA loop arresters,
as well as those of the most common Russian insulators ShF 10-G and ShF 20-G with
lengths 17 and 23 cm respectively were studied. The 50% flashover voltages of these
units are 130 and 160 KV when stressed by 1.2/50 lightning impulses of negative
polarity. therefore these units will be referred hereafter as INS 130 and INS
160,respectively.
The voltage-time characteristics of the arresters and insulators can be approximated by
the expression
U=a t
b

Where U=flashover voltage in kilovolt.
t=time to crest in microseconds.
a,b are empirical coefficients whose values are given in the

Table 1.Empirical coefficient values
test object impulse polarity A b
insulator ins130 + 190 -0.352
insulator ins 130 - 185 -0.285
insulator ins160 + 243 -0.407
insulator ins160 - 280 -0.28
LFA-M,L=1m +,- 109 -0.784
LFA-M,L =2 m +,- 173 -1.05
LFA-M,L=0.8m + 159 -0.5
LFA-M,L =0.8m - 107 -1.64

11

3.4 PROTECTION AGAINST DIRECT LIGHTING STROKES

The physical phenomena associated with a direct lighting stroke on an
unprotected power line causing line tripping. The general pattern is as follows. For an
overhead line in delta configuration shown in fig, the top center face is the most
vulnerable. For a lightning stoke on a phase conductor, the lighting current
propagates both ways from the stroke point overcoming the surge impedance Z
s
of the
line. A fairly high voltage drop develops at the points where the lines equivalent
resistance equals half of the surge impedance Z
s
/2; this point is the closest to insulator
unit of the lightning struck phase conductor. The voltage causes the insulator to
flashover. A heavy impulse current flows through the flashover channel, the pole, and
the pole footing resistance resulting into a large sharp voltage rise at the cross-arm..
Due to electromagnetic coupling between phases, the potential of the healthy outer
phases also increases and it can be assessed from the conductor coupling factor. This
voltage, however, is not as high as that for the lightning struck-conductor. Thus, the
insulators of the healthy phases are stressed and flashed over by a voltage equal to the
potential difference between the cross arm and the phase conductor. Phase to phase
lightning flashover is also highly probable to occur resulting to a power arc
accompanied by heavy short circuit currents, which causes immediate line tripping.

3.5 PROTECTION USING LFA-M

It follows from the previously described sequence of events that direct
lightning stroke causes flashover of all the insulators on the affected pole. Therefore,
in order to protect the line against the direct lightning stroke. LFAs should be mounted
on the pole in parallel with each line insulator. A delta arrangement of conductors
maximizes direct lightning strokes on the top (center) phase, which acts as shielding
wire for the bottom (outer) phases. The shielding failure of the outer phases is reduced
and it is given by the following equation.
P
fail
= exp
|
|
.
|

\
|
9
40
ho

h
o=
the pole height in meters. It follows from the previously described sequence of
events that direct lightning stroke causes flashover of all the insulators on the affected
pole. Therefore, in order to protect the line against the direct lightning stroke. LFAs
should be mounted on the pole in parallel with each line insulator. A delta
arrangement of conductors maximizes direct lightning strokes on the top (center)
phase, which acts as shielding wire for the bottom (outer) phases. The shielding failure
of the outer phases is reduced and it is given by the following equation.
12

P
fail
= exp
|
|
.
|

\
|
9
40
ho



Where, =protection angle between the top and bottom phases in degrees
h
o=
the pole height in meters.

Fig 3.2 Protection using lfa
For example, for h
o =
10 m and = 30
0
, the probability of a lightning
stroke on the outer phases can be as slow as 0.001. An LFA mounted on the top
phase must flash over before the top phase insulator. It is stressed by fairly steep
over voltage impulses associated with direct lightning strokes on a conductor.
Therefore, this arrester should be relatively short. After a top phase LFA flashes
over, lightning current will flow, through the affected conductor and through the
pole to the ground. Thus, the voltage on the cross arm increases at a much slower
rate than it does on the lightning struck conductor before the flashover of the top
phase LFA . On the other hand, the potential of the adjacent phases also increases
due to electromagnetic coupling between conductors but at much slower rate than
than applied to the top phase insulator consequently, an outer phase arrester
operates under much easier coordination conditions than a top phase arrester. With
one orboth outer phase arresters activated, a two or three phase lightning flashover
is initiated. To prevent transition of an impulse flash over to a PAF, the total flashover
path L must be long. It can be calculated from the formula.
L= Ul/E
cr

13

Where U
l
is the maximum operating line voltage E
cr
is the critical gradient of the
power frequency voltage that rules out PAF.

3.6 CRITICAL GRADIENT AND LENGTH OF LFA-M


Fig 3.3 characteristic between critical gradient & fault current

Some results of published experimental studies on the critical gradient are
shown in fig3.3. As seen in fig 3.3. the critical gradient depends greatly on the line
fault current. As the fault current increases from 20 300A, the critical gradient drops
abruptly from 20 7kV/m. The rate of decrease of the critical gradient slows down for
larger fault currents. Over the 1000-10000A fault current range, the critical gradient
decreases from 5-4kV/m. Phase-to-phase faults on a pole can give rise to fault current
in order of a few kilo ampers. Therefore the critical gradient can be assumed to be
4kV/m. for a 10kV power line operating at maximum voltage (20% higher than
nominal), the total flash over length is equal to L=12/4=3m. With 1-m flash over
length of the top center phase LFA, the length of the LFA protecting an outer phase
must be 2m.


14

3.7. PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF DIRECT LIGHTNING
STROKE PROTECTION


The direct lightning performance of the modular arresters was carried out
using the equivalent circuits of fig .The arresters are connected between the pole and
all of the phase conductors in parallel with the insulators. The arresters are assumed to
be variable resistors whose resistance changes step wise from infinity to zero, in steps
of , R , R/2, 0.

Fig 3.4 Performance analysis of direct lightning stroke protection

where L
A o
is the length of one cable piece of phase A arrester, LFA
A
,
and R
l
is the per-unit- length resistance of the cable. As tests have shown, module 3 of
phase a arrester will usually flash over after module 1. At this instant t
2
, the resistance
R
AO
of the second cable piece gets connected in parallel with the resistance of first
piece and the total equivalent resistance of the arrester becomes R
A
=R
AO
/2. When the
central part of the arrester flashes over at instant t
3
, the arrester sparks over through a
single spark channel of very low resistance. Since the resistance of the flash over
15

channel is low compared to other resistance affecting lightning over voltages (surge
impedance of the conductor and of the lightning channel, etc.) It was assumed to be
equal to zero. Therefore, starting from instant t
3
the arrester resistance R
A
is zero a
lightning stroke on the phase A include voltages on the outer phases B & C . However,
as shown by calculations, until arrester LFA
A
flashes over, none of the modules of
phase B arrester, LFA
B
, flash over. In other words , in time interval t
3
< t s t
4
when
LFA
A
flashes over completely, none of the LFA
B
s modules are affected. The effect of
the power frequency voltage of a 10-kV line on discharge process on the arrester
surface is negligible. Since phases B and C and their arresters operate under identical
conditions, it is practical to combine them in an overvoltage analysis. Phase B and C
arresters are represented by a variable resistance R
B
/2 while the surge impedance of
phases B and C on both sides of their arresters are represented by resistance Z
S
/4
where Z
S
is the line conductor surge impedance. The pole inductance is replaced by
the concentrated inductance is the per-unit-length inductance of the pole and h
pole
is
the pole height.



















16

CHAPTER 4
PROTECTION
4.1 FLOW CHART OF LIGHTNING OVERVOLTAGE
PROTECTION

First, the line parameters are entered, including the arrangement and radius of the
conductors, the pole height, the grounding resistance, etc. Next, the insulators and
arresters voltage-time characteristics (VTCs) are entered in an analytical form. Finally,
the overvoltage calculations are performed for a given lightning current steepness in
order to determine the lightning protection performance. The calculation is carried out
for a linear increase of the lightning current, that is
I
1
=I
l
1
t

Where I
l
1
t
is the lightning current steepness and it is the time
Time is incremented in equal steps At. The equivalent EMF e is calculated as follows
e = I
1
Z
1

where Z
1
is the surge impedance of the lightning channel .
The next step is to calculate flashover voltages for the individual discharge
components or modules. Initially the equivalent resistance of phase A and B arresters
respectively is infinitely large.


The channel lengths in the LFA
A
s modules are compared to the modules
lengths. If the channel length is greater or equal to the module length, a flashover is
assumed to have occurred for that particular module and the equivalent arrester
resistance abruptly becomes equal to the resistance of the respective semi conductive
cable section. Furthermore, the arresters and insulators are checked for flashover
based on their voltage-time characteristics. Flashover of insulator Ins
A
indicates
lightning protection failure. At this point, the calculation is stopped and the output is
printed, including the steepness of the lightning current at which the insulator flashed
over. If insulator Ins
A
does not flashover, the calculation restarts at a new time step of
where t
i
and t
i+1
are the instants of iterations i and i+1, respectively. After a module of
the LFA
A
flashes over across resistance R
A
, the pole reactance X
pole
and R
g
get
involved, and the voltage and the rate of voltage rise on Ins
A
, LFA
A
, Ins
B
, and LFA
B

are calculated. The rate of channel propagation on arrester modules is determined, and
the modules are checked for flashovers. In case of a flashover, the respective
resistance R
A
and/or R
B
is changed. Finally, the calculation is checked for completion.
If both the LFA
A
and LFA
B
arresters flashed over the lightning protection system
performed successfully: If a flashover occurred on at least one of the insulators Ins
A
or
17

Ins
B
. The lightning protection failed. Both results put an end to the calculation, and
printout is produced. If only a partial flashover of the arrester occurred.

4.2 VOLTAGE-TIME CHARATERISTICS OF ARRESTERS
AND INSULATORS

Fig 4.1 Voltage & time characteristic

Fig. 4.1gives typical voltage versus time curves for phase A and B
insulators and arresters. It is seen from Fig. 9.1 that until module 1 of the LFA
A

arrester flashes over (t s t
1
) the rate of rise for phase A voltage is quite high. When
module 1 flashes over at instant t
1
, the voltage first drops abruptly but insignificantly
and then it starts increasing but at a slower rate in the t
1
< t s t
2
interval. When module
3 flashers over at instant t
2
, the voltage drops abruptly again and then, over the t
2
< t s
t
3
interval. It keeps increasing at a still slower rate until time t
3.
At t
3
. Phase A voltage
curve crosses the VTC curve of the LFA
A
arrester and the second (middle) module of
the LFA
A
flashes over. (i.e., the arrester is now fully flashed over and the voltage
drops on both the insulator and phase A arrester). At instant t
3
an opposite polarity
surge takes rise on insulator Ins
B
and arrester LFA
B
of phase B. After the LFA
A
fully
flashed over, the lightning current travels through the pole and its footing. Thus, the
18

voltage on phase B rises at a much slower rate than on phase A before the LFA
A

flashed over. The pattern of voltage rise on the LFA
B
is similar to that on the LFA
A

but features a slower rate of rise. At instants t
4
, t
5
, and t
6
the first, third, and second
modules of arrester LFA
B
flash over, respectively, changing the resistance of the
arrester. Fig.9.1 shows that the VTC of insulators and arresters cross at relatively
small times to crests tcr

For a line using INS160 insulators and phase A LEFs with a
flashover length La= 1m. the critical time is tcr.t = t3

=0.3 s. The average span length
Ispan

of a 10-kV line is usually about 70m. The travel time of a reflected wave from
the nearest pole to the lightning-struck pole is given by Ttr = (Ispan+Ispan)/vs
=(70+70)/300 = 0.5 s.

Where Vs = 300m/s is the speed of propagation of an electromagnetic
surge along the line. Thus, Ttr is larger than Tcra

and a voltage surge reflected from
the nearest pole comes to the lightning struck pole only after the arrester has operated
or the insulator flashed over. Therefore, the nearest pole is not to be taken into account
in the coordination analysis of the LFA
A
. For a line using phase B arresters with a
flashover length lb = 2 m the critical time is T
cbr
= t
6
~ 0.8 s (i.e., a voltage surge
reflected from the nearest pole will be able to reach the lightning struck pole and
lower the voltage applied to insulator Ins
B
and arrester LFA
B
). The above calculation
does not take into account the effect of near-by poise: thus, the calculated lightning
performance of LFA-protected overhead lines can be regarded to have a certain
margin. Fig. 7 puts in evidence a lightning protection hazard of steep lightning over
voltages. The voltage rate of rise U is proportional to steepness of the lightning
current. This is the reason why the calculation takes into account the critical values of
the lightning current steepness

at which the insulator flashes over for a given set of
parameters.

4.3 EFFICIENCY OF LFA-M

Fig4.2 Shows the critical lightning steepness. It can be clearly seen that as
the grounding resistance increases, the critical lightning current steepness Il,cr

decreases.

Fig. 4.2 Critical lightning current steepness
19

The number of lightning outages n
o
caused by direct lightning strokes
(DLS) on conductors of an unprotected line can be estimated by the following
equation n
0
=N
DLS
P( I
l
)P
arc
(1-P
rc
).Where N
dls
is the number of direct lightning stroke
on a line P (I
l
) is the probability of lightning current likely to cause flashovers of the
line insulation. P
arc
is the probability of a power are caused by an impulse flashover an
insulator and P
rc
is the probability of successful line breakers enclosures.
It is shown that the steepness and not the magnitude of lightning current I
L
l

I
l
is the
important factor in the performance if a LFA protected line thus(1) can be written in
the following form.
n= N
DLS
p( I
l
cr)P
arc
(1-P
rc
).
Where n is the number of lightning outages on an LFA protected line caused by direct
lightning strokes on the phase conductors and P (I
lcr
) is probability of a lightning
current with steepness greater or equal to I
lcr.
The efficiency of LFA lightning
protection against direct lightning strokes can be expressed as the ratio of the number
of lightning outages n
0
for unprotected line to n for lines protected by LFA.

K =
n
n
1
0
0
=
( )
I cr l
p
1
,
1

Where k is the outage reduction factor of lightning outages caused by direct lightning
strokes.











20

CHAPTER 5
REDUCTION FACTOR
5.1. GROUNDING RESISTANCE


Figure 4.2 shows the outage reduction factor of a line protected by LFA
10-M arresters (IA=1M; LB=LC=2M) versus the grounding resistance for the INS 160
and INS 130 insulators. A line with LFA arresters and INS 160 insulators is shown to
have a good lightning protection performance for direct lightning strokes. For
grounding resistance R
g
= 10O. LFA 10-M arresters assure a 200-fold decrease of
lightning outages, virtually ruling them out. As the grounding resistance increases the
outage reduction factor k decreases faster up to R
g
= 50O and then more slowly . for
R
g
= 50 O. K is approximately equal to 20 and for Rg = 80 O, k= 10. Thus, the
number of outages caused by direct lightning strokes can be lowered with the use of
LFA arresters by an order of magnitude or more even for high values of grounding
resistance.In the case of INS 160 insulators, it is important to coordinate the
performance of phase B arrester and insulator because the voltage rate of rise, and
thus, the lightning protection efficiency at direct lightning strokes depends heavily on
the grounding resistance. With the INS130 insulators the number of lightning outages
is lowered by a factor of five, the outage reduction factor K
DLS
being practically
independent of the grounding resistance. In the case, it is essential to coordinate the
arrestors and the insulators on the lightning struck phase A.


As indicated before, the coordination of arrester LFA
A
is not depend on
the grounding. Resistance because the pole does not
get involved in the path of the lightning current until the insulator or the arrestors
have flashed over. It was shown by the calculation that a 1-m- long arrestors. LFA
A
is
coordinate with an INS130 insulators at much lower values if the lightning current
steepness than with an INS160 unit. It was also shown that, after the LFA
a
arrestors
has successfully operated the voltage rate of rise on phase B insulator and its arrestor
becomes low and this facilities successful operation of the LFA
b
arrestor, at least, over
the 10 to 100-O grounding range. It should also be remembered that even large
lightning currents do not present any hazards to these arrestors because the discharge
develops in the air and not inside the device. Therefore this new lightning protection
system is thought to feature simple design, low cost and high reliability.

21

CHAPTER 6
FUTURE
6.1. FUTURE EXPANSION OF LFA

The LFA-M described here consists of three flashover modules. We
can increases the flashover modules. If the number of flashover modules increases
by increasing the cable pieces this LFA-M can be used for lightning protection
of very high voltage lines. When the modules increases the total arrester
stressing is distributed these modules also. Then it can withstand very high over
voltages.









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CHAPTER 7
7.1. CONCLUSIONS


A long flashover arrestor (LFA) comprising three flashover modules using
the creeping discharge effect was presented in this report. Its resistors assure
application of the total arrestor-stressing voltage simultaneously to all the modules.
The voltage-time characteristics of this modular arrestor assure reliable protection of
medium voltage overhead lines against both induced over voltages and direct lightning
strokes.
To protect a line against induced over voltages; a single arrestor must be mounted on a
pole.
The conditions for the efficient protection of a medium voltage (e.g. 10-kv) overhead
line against direct lightning strokes, are as follows:
i. Delta phase configuration of phase conductor
ii. Mounting of LFA-M arresters on all poles in parallel with each insulators ;
iii. A relatively short flashover path (for example, 1 m for a 10-kv line) for the top
phase LFA-M arrester
iv. A longer flashover path (for example 2 m for a 10-kv line) for the bottom phase
LFA-M arresters











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REFERENCES

1).IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY VOL.18,NO 3,JULY 2003

2) .PRINCIPLES OF POWER SYSTEM BY V.K. MEHTA
ROHIT MEHTA

3). www.ieee.org
4) http://ws9. Iee.usp.br/sipdax/paper six /session 05/5.6 pdf
5) www.seminars.com









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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT


I express my sincere gratitude to Asst. prof. Mr. Manoj Khuswha Prof. &
Head, Department of Electrical. VCE College of Engineering, Bijnor for his
cooperation and encouragement. I would also like to thank my seminar guide Prof Mr.
R.S Pal (Lecturer, Department of EEE), Asst. Prof. Mr. Lokesh. ( Department of
EEE) for their invaluable advice and wholehearted cooperation without which this
seminar would not have seen the light of day.Gracious gratitude to all the faculty of the
department of EEE & friends for their valuable advice and encouragement.













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