Journal of Cleaner Production 27 (2012) 133e140

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Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

An on-line approach for energy efciency monitoring of machine tools

Shaohua Hu*, Fei Liu, Yan He, Tong Hu
The State Key Laboratory of Mechanical Transmission, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, PR China

a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history: Received 18 October 2011 Received in revised form 13 January 2012 Accepted 13 January 2012 Available online 21 January 2012 Keywords: Machine tool Monitoring Identication Energy efciency

a b s t r a c t
Machining processes cause measurable impacts on environment due to substantial amounts of energy consumption. Enhancing energy efciency of machine tools can signicantly improve the environmental performance of machining systems. For this reason, an on-line energy efciency monitoring system is necessary. Most conventional approaches monitored the energy efciency by directly measuring cutting power with torque sensors or dynamometers. In contrast, we propose a new on-line approach without using any torque sensor or dynamometer which leads to a decreased implementation cost. The energy efciency monitoring model of this approach is constructed based on an energy consumption model of machine tool. Then the entire machine-tool energy consumption can be divided into two parts, i.e. constant energy consumption and variable energy consumption. The former is measured in advance and stored in database, and the latter is derived from cutting power that can be estimated on-line according to power balance equation and additional load loss function. The additional load loss function can be identied off-line through input power and cutting power of the machine-tool spindle. Several experiments are performed on a CNC machine tool CJK6136 and the results show the effectiveness of the proposed method. Crown Copyright 2012 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Manufacturing and processing consumes substantial amounts of energy and has a measurable impact on environment (Park et al., 2009). New Zealand ministry of economic and development (Dang et al., 2007) reported the energy use in manufacturing industry amounted 184,634 petajoules and contributed to 37% of the worlds total energy consumption in 2006. Moreover, Alhourani and Saxena (2009) showed that the manufacturing sector in the United States accounted for more than 42% of its total energy consumption. Dahmus and Gutowski (2004) showed, for instance, that the specic cutting energy accounted for less than 15% of the total energy consumed by a modern automatic machine tool during machining. Meanwhile, a large number of surveys showed that the energy efciency of machine tools is generally less than 30% (Liu et al., 1995). Therefore, energy consumed by machine tool is attracting more and more attention due to their environmental impact. Efforts related to the optimization of energy consumption of machine tools have been made on three different levels. Some researches focused on machining process level. Draganescu et al.

* Corresponding author. E-mail address: hushaohua@cqu.edu.cn (S. Hu).

(2003) used experimental data and Response Surface Methodology (RSM) to establish a statistic model of machine-tool efciency and specic energy consumption in machining. The energy consumption in cutting is a function of cutting power, machine-tool efciency and the rate of material removal. In addition, it is strongly inuenced by the cutting parameters. Sarwar et al. (2009) chose Specic Cutting Energy (SCE) as the evaluation parameter of measuring the efciency of the metal cutting process, and the variation of SCE regarding different workpiece materials provided valuable information for bandsaw manufacturers and end users to estimate machinability characteristics for selected workpieces. Simultaneously, other works were carried out on machine-tool level. International Organization for standardization drafted ISO/ WD14955-1 (ISO, 2010), an assessment and design standard on energy saving for machine tools. The standard listed two informative annexes regarding environmentally relevant improvements and well tried mechanical and electrical components. Avram and Xirouchakis (2011) evaluated the use phase energy requirements of a machine-tool system by considering alternative machining strategies and system components interactions translated into variable and constant power ows with respect to various use phase regimes of a machine-tool system. Neugebauer et al. (2011) divided all activities that contribute to the increase in energy efciency of machine tools into two groups: the activities that directly increased the energy efciency on components level, and the

0959-6526/$ e see front matter Crown Copyright 2012 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2012.01.013

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others that indirectly increased energy efciency by optimized interaction of the components on the higher multi-component level. Santos et al. (2011) focused on the understanding of the energy efciency of different press-brake machines for bending operation, including all-hydraulic and all-electric types of pressbrake machines, and concluded that the electrical energy consumption associated with the bending operation should be modeled as a function of the driving system technology e the maximum loading capacity. In addition, energy efciency in relation to machine tools was studied on higher manufacturing system level. Herrmann and Thiede (2009) proposed a method through the simulations of process chain to improve energy efciency of manufacturing process. Lau et al. (2008) presented a method to predict energy consumption trend of manufacturing system. Furthermore, He and Liu (2010) explored a systematic methodology that incorporated energy consumption and environmental impact considerations into the production operation of machining processes and optimized energy consumption by scheduling. Vijayaraghavan and Dornfeld (2010) pointed out that, in order to decrease energy consumption, energy data has to be placed in context of the manufacturing activity. They developed a real-time energy consumption monitoring system, in which MTConnect standard, as an XML-based standard, for data exchange is selected for data collection from manufacturing equipments. Automated monitoring system can help attach contextual processing-related information to the raw data. Therefore, it is very important for reducing energy consumption in order to develop a real-time energy efciency monitoring system of machine tools. Such a system can be used to judge the real-time processing state and obtain energy efciency on time. The real-time energy-related information provides a foundation for further energy-saving measures. Different from energy monitoring system, the energy efciency monitoring system of machine tools requires the data on the machine tools cutting power. As for measuring cutting power, techniques can be grouped into two main categories: direct methods and indirect methods. The direct methods can obtain cutting power by measuring cutting torque (or cutting force) and turning speed with the use of torque sensor or dynamometer. But dynamometer is limited by high cost (around $300,000) (Jemielniak, 1999), sensor reliability in harsh cutting environment, layout constraints (space, weight, etc.) and interference with cutting performance (rigidity reduction) (Stein and Huh, 2002); The indirect methods can obtain cutting power according to the input power measured by power sensor installed. The power sensor is cost-effective (several tens U.S dollars) and is widely used in tool condition monitoring (TCM) (Kim et al., 2002; Shao et al., 2004; Xu et al., 2009) and adaptive control & monitoring (ACM) (Mannan et al., 1989). The cutting power can be directly obtained by subtracting the idle power from the total input power from the experimental data. Compared to direct method, the indirect method has a lower cost due to the absence of dynamometer usage. However, the conventional indirect methods cant provide precise energy efciency without considering additional load loss, which accounts for 15e20% of cutting power and may even be up to nearly 30% of cutting power (Hu et al., 2010). An energy efciency monitoring system is a base to improve the energy efciency, therefore, a high precision as well as cost efcient energy efciency monitoring system is necessary. The present work was motivated by the need to develop an online monitoring approach to monitor energy efciency without using torque sensors or dynamometers. The method analyzes the entire machine-tool energy consumption which is divided into constant energy and variable energy consumption, identies the operation states according to spindle input power prole and estimates cutting power through power balance equation and

additional load loss function on-line. Many experiments were conducted to verify its effectiveness. The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. Section 2 introduces the energy consumption model for machine tools and architecture of the on-line energy monitoring (OEEM) system, Section 3 presents the identication of the operation states according to spindle input power prole, Section 4 develops the procedure of cutting power estimation of machine tools and nally in Section 5, an OEEM system is developed using the proposed method, and an application on a Lathe CJK6136 is shown.

2. Approach for OEEM 2.1. Energy consumption model for machine tools Modern machine tools rely on electricity as their main power source. The most power consuming activities of a machine tool are spindle rotation and servo-driven axis motion (Mori et al., 2011). Their power usages are both highly dependent on cutting load. Other energy demands come from a hydraulic unit, cutting oil pumps, cooling devices and peripheral devices such as a controller unit. The multi-component of energy consumption leads to energy consumption complexity of machine tools. In addition to the complexity of multi-component energy consumption, the energy loss characteristic of each component is also difcult to characterize. Because of aforementioned reasons, monitoring energy efciency and energy utilization ratio is of an extremely complicated problem. Kordonowy (2003) took some statistic measures to construct a statistic energy consumption model. As an example, the power consumption of Bridgeport Torque-cut automated milling machine is represented graphically in Fig. 1. It can be seen from Fig. 1 that machine-tool energy consumption is divided into two categories: (1) the constant energy which is composed of the energy consumed in a startup process (computer fans, servos,

Variable energy machining 65.8% [4600W]

Machining 65.8%) [4600W] --Material Removal Rate:12.04 cubic cm/sec-Carousel (0.4% Spindle 9.9% [90W] [690W] Constant energy Run time Operations 20.2% [1470W]

Tool change

3.3%

[230W]

JOG(X/Y/Z)(6.6%) [460W] Unload motors(2.0% Spindle key 2.0% [140W] [140W] [140W] Constant energy Startup Process 13.2% [920W]

Coolant pump Servos 1.3%

2.0% [90W]

Computer and fans

5.9%

[410W]

Load

Fig. 1. Statistic energy consumption models for machine tools (Kordonowy, 2003).

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135

coolant pump, spindle key, and unloaded motors) and that consumed in runtime operations (JOG, tool change, spindle and Carousel); (2) the variable energy which is a function of the load of machine tools. It can be referred that the machine-tool energy consumption contains constant energy consumption and variable energy consumption, the constant energy consumption is independent of machining, but the variable energy consumption is dependent on machining (Kordonowy, 2003). In other words, the variable energy consumption represents the cutting power consumption during machining process.

(2) Obtaining the variable energy consumption in a machining state. The variable energy consumption is the energy used to cut materials. It can be obtained by following steps: Firstly, the spindle power is real time measured by power sensor and is ltered by moving average lter (MA); Secondly, the operating state is identied on-line according to the spindle power; lastly, the cutting power and the variable energy consumption are estimated through power balance equation and the additional load loss function. The cutting power estimator is designed to estimate the cutting power from the input power of the spindle rather than directly measuring the cutting torque or the cutting force. (3) Exportation and visualization of the data related to energy efciency The energy efciency and power utilization ratio can be calculated from the cutting power and input power. These are dened as follows (Liu et al., 1995): the energy efciency (h) refers to the ratio of cutting power to input power; the energy utilization ratio (U) refers to the ratio of cutting energy to input energy during a certain period. Obviously, the energy efciency is a transient value, while the energy utilization ratio is a process value. They can be calculated as follows:

2.2. Architecture of OEEM system The constant energy consumption is independent of machining which can be easily obtained by measurement in advance while the variable energy consumption, represented by the cutting power, is dependent on machining and cant be obtained in real time (Kordonowy, 2003). According to the research result (Liu et al., 1995), the cutting power is mainly consumed by the spindle. Furthermore, monitoring machine-tool energy efciency can be simplied as monitoring the spindle energy consumption. When monitoring the cutting power in most conventional methods, a torque sensor or dynamometer is installed to measure the cutting torque (or cutting force). However, there are some troubles related with the usage of dynamometers, such as the cost, rigidity, wiring harness, and machining strokes (Lee et al., 1995). Therefore, this paper proposes an on-line approach monitoring energy efciency without torque sensor or dynamometer as a low cost, high precision energy efciency monitoring system. Fig. 2 shows the architecture of OEEM system which is the combination of spindle power measurement and off-line constant energy consumption measurement. As shown in Fig. 2, the monitoring system can be divided into three sub-modules: (1) Obtaining the constant energy consumption in a nonmachining state.

Pc t Pin t Prfo t Zt Pc t dt

(1)

Zt Pin t dt
0

Zt Prfo t dt
0

(2)

3. Identifying the machine tools operating state The constant power consumption (Prfo) is the power consumed by machine tools in a ready for operation (RFO) state. The RFO state, according to ISO/WD14955-1, is dened as follows: mains ON, machine control ON, peripheral units ON, machine processing unit ON HOLD, machine motion unit ON HOLD. It is noted that ON HOLD describes the situation where the unit is ON but not operating, i.e. no processing takes place, no movements are carried out. Since the Prfo is a constant that is irrelevant to machining state, it can be acquired in advance and be stored in database. 3.1. Power signal ltering In this study, input power of the spindle includes some measurement noise and uctuation of voltage and current. In order to reduce the mistakes in identifying the machine tools operating state and errors from estimating the cutting power, we utilize a kind of computationally efcient lterdthe moving average lter (Strum and Kirk, 2000) to lter the power signal.

On-line variable energy

consumption acqusition Identification On-line of machine estimation of tool operating cutting power state
Off-line identification of additional load loss coefficients

Obtaining the constant energy consumption

Power sensor

Power signal filtering

Visualization and export of data

Fig. 2. Architecture of OEEM system.

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S. Hu et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 27 (2012) 133e140

^ t P in

8 X 1 t 1 > > Pin k; > > <t

k0

L (3) t >L

> L1 > 1 X > > : Pin t k; L

k0

3.2. Relationship between spindle power prole and operating state of machine tools A complete machining process typically contains three operating states: startup process, idle process, and machining process. Fig. 3 shows the input power prole of a spindle in the cutting process, which is composed of a rough turning process and a face cutting process when the spindle speed remains constant. As a matter of fact, from Fig. 3 the spindle power prole essentially represents different operating states including the starting phase, the idle phase when cutting tool approaches and releases, and machining phase (turning, milling, etc). Therefore, we can identify the corresponding operating state according to the power prole of a spindle. The idle power, cutting power, and additional load loss are dened as follows: Idle power Pu(t): the spindle system runs in a stable state at a certain speed before the cutting process. The power consumed during this period is called idle power. Cutting power Pc(t): The power of spindle system consumed to cut the workpiece material in the cutting state. Additional load loss Pa(t): The additional power loss generated by the load of the spindle system. This part of energy consumption only exists in the cutting state. It is noted that for a more concise expression the symbol of power P(t) is subsequently written as P without loss of meaning. 3.3. Identication of machine tools operating state The cutting state should be determined prior to estimating cutting power since it only exists in the cutting state. Three operating states are described as follows, namely the startup state, idle state and cutting state.  The startup state of spindle The ltered real-time input power is arranged into a buffer array M[n] (the array is reset when spindle is turned off). Then
P

the real-time power is designed to compare with a constant which is usually few greater than the zero drift value (usually about several tens watts). If there are more than two values in the array greater than the constant, then the spindle is considered as being in the startup state. The operating state ag is set as STATE_FLAG01 (00: spindle stops; 01: spindle starts up; 10: spindle runs with no load; 11: spindle runs for cutting).  The idle state of spindle The idle state of spindle is dened as a stable state between the startup state and the cutting state of spindle. There are three steps to identify the idle state of spindle: (a) examine if machine tools have started up, go to the next step if yes; (b) if the machine tool has started up, check if the array M[n] is steady, otherwise return to step (a). It is noted that the steady refers to the condition that differs between all values in the array M[n] and average value of them are both within 5% of the average value; (c) If the buffer array M[n] is steady, set the machine tools operating state status ag as STATE_FLAG10, and the current input power value is considered as the idle power of spindle Pu.  The cutting state of spindle After the idle state of spindle is determined, the cutting state can be judged by whether the input power exceeds the idle ^ Pu =Pu ! C . (C is power within a certain range, which is P in a constant usually around 5% and changes with the uctuation of idle power). If so, then machine tools are in the cutting state. Set the machine tools status ag as STATE_FLAG11. 4. Estimating the cutting power On-line cutting power estimation is the key process in monitoring energy efciency. The key technologies involved in the estimation of the cutting power according to the spindle input power are discussed within this section. 4.1. Power balance equation of spindle system The spindle system generally contains motor drive, motor and mechanical transmission. Although the energy consumption of each component in spindle system is complex, Liu et al. (1995) indicate the total power ow of the spindle system into three parts, namely idle power, cutting power, and additional load loss (Fig. 4). As seen from Fig. 4, the input power of spindle system can be divided into idle power, cutting power, and additional load loss.

Pc

Pu Pa

Startup

Idle

Cutting ( bar turning)

t Idle Cutting( face turning) Stop

Fig. 3. Relationship between spindle power prole and operating state of machine tools.

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137

Pc Pin

Pu

Pa
Fig. 5. Verication experiment on a CNC lathe CJK6136.

Fig. 4. Spindle power ow of machine tools in stable state.

Pin Pu Pc Pa

(4)

Table 1 Technical parameters of the spindle. Motor type Motor pole pairs Rated motor power (kW) Rated motor slip Speed range of the spindle (rpm) Induction motor 2 5.5 5% 45e2100

The additional load loss is the electrical loss and mechanical loss in the motor and the mechanical transmission system generated by the cutting load. Measuring the additional load loss is not only a complicated task but also be inaccurate. Liu et al. (1995) studied that the ratio of additional load loss to cutting power, called as additional load loss coefcient, is a constant between 0.15 and 0.25. Afterward, Hu et al. (2010) pointed out in the latest research that the additional load loss is a quadratic function in terms of cutting power, which can be expressed as:
2 Pa a0 Pc a1 Pc

4.3. On-line estimation of cutting power The additional load loss coefcients make the estimation of cutting power possible. Based on Eq. (8), the cutting power is estimated by,

(5) ^ ^ c 1 a0 P (6)

From Eqs. (4) and (5), we can obtain

Pin Pu 1 a0 Pc

2 a1 Pc

q _ ^0 2 4a ^1 P in Pu 1 a ^1 2a

(9)

It can be seen from Eq. (6) that the additional load loss Pa and the cutting power Pc can be estimated if all of the input power Pin, the idle power Pu and the additional load loss coefcient a0 and a1 are known. In reality, the input power and the idle power can be measured easily. The additional load loss coefcients a0 and a1, can be identied using the following method. 4.2. Off-line identication of additional load loss coefcients Firstly the idle power Pu at a certain speed and the cutting power with some specially designed cutting parameters are measured. Furthermore, in accordance of Eq. (6), the additional load loss coefcients a0 and a1 can be obtained using the experimental data by the least square method (LSM).

5. Experimental study 5.1. Experiment devices The experiment was performed on a CNC lathe CJK6136 (Chongqing No.2 machine tool works Co., Ltd, China) (Fig. 5). The related technical parameters of spindle system are shown in Table 1. A power sensor EDA9033A (Shandong Lichuang Technology Co., Ltd, China) was installed to measure the input power of spindle system and a torque sensor TQ201 (Beijing Beetech Co., Ltd, China) was temporarily installed to verify experiment results. Moreover, the torque sensor TQ201 can simultaneously measure of spindle speed by its built-in Hall switch. Therefore, the real-time cutting power could be obtained by multiplying the cutting torque and spindle speed. The sampling periods of the power sensor and the torque sensor were set as 50 ms. The length of moving average lter was set as 5. 5.2. Experiments for identifying additional load loss function

An q Y n ;
_

nfni ; i 1; 2; .; mg

(7)

1 T q A T n An An Y n ;

nfni ; i 1; 2; .; mg

(8)

where,

In order to identify the additional load loss function, we performed a large number of cutting experiments on the CNC lathe CJK6136. The spindle speed was varied in seven steps (S 100; 200;
Table 2 Experimental conditions and machining parameters. Tool type Workpiece material Tool material Tool handler size Spindle speed Feed speed Cutting depth Lubricant 60 external turning tool C45E4 P10 18 18 150 mm 400 rpm, 800 rpm 0.153 mm/rev, 0.198 mm/rev, 0.243 mm/rev 1 mm, 1.5 mm, 2.5 mm None

6 6 Pc2 An 6 6/ 4 Pcl ^ ^0 q 1 a

Pc1

2 Pc1

7 2 7 Pc2 7; q 1 a0 a1 T ; /7 5 2 Pc l 3 2 Pin;1 Pn;u 7 6P in;2 Pn;u 7 ^1 T ; Yn 6 a 7 6 5 4 / Pin;l Pn;u

138 Table 3 Estimated results of cutting power. Test No. Cutting parameters (s, f, ap)

S. Hu et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 27 (2012) 133e140

Estimated power (W) Pin Pu 420 420 420 500 500 500 Pc 390 595 940 795 1170 1880 Pa 77 121 205 165 270 420

Measured cutting power (W) Pmes 400 577 955 780 1205 1920

Estimated errora (%) Proposed method 2.50 3.11 1.57 1.92 2.90 2.08 Conventional method 16.75 24.09 19.90 23.08 19.50 19.79

1 2 3 4 5 6
a

(400, (400, (400, (800, (800, (800,

0.153, 0.198, 0.243, 0.153, 0.198, 0.243,

2) 2) 2) 2) 2) 2)

887 1136 1565 1460 1940 2800

Error (Pc Pmes)/Pmes * 100%.

300; 500; 600; 700 and 900 rpm), cutting depth in ve steps (ap 0.5; 1; 1.5; 2 and 2.5 mm) while six distinct feed rates (f 0.1; 0.153; 0.198; 0.241; 0.26 and 0.286 mm/rev) were applied. The experiment procedure was described in detail by Hu et al. (2010). The additional load loss function of CNC lathe CJK6136 was iden2 0:1807P . tied as: Pa 4 105 Pc c 5.3. Experiments for estimating cutting power Verication experiments were carried out by turning a cylindrical bar material (made of C45E4 steel, 60 mm in length, and 59 mm in diameter). Six sets of cutting experiments were designed to verify the effectiveness of the above-mentioned estimation algorithm and the detailed cutting parameters are shown in Table 2. The experimental results, from Table 3, demonstrate that the estimation error of cutting power by using the proposed method is within 5% while that by conventional method is usually above 10% and even up to 24.09%. Additionally, Table 3 shows that the conventional method give a bit higher estimated cutting power, and which is because the additional load loss has been taken into account with the cutting power. Imprecise energy efciency information may prevent one from taking measures to improve energy efciency. 6. OEEM system and its application 6.1. Function of OEEM system Based on the proposed approach, an on-line energy efciency monitoring (OEEM) software was developed with following functions:

(1) Displaying the real-time input power and energy efciency; (2) Displaying the energy utilization ratio and machine-tool utilization of this shift and a last shift; (3) Storing the energy consumption and machine-tool utilization of every shift. The above-mentioned machine-tool utilization was dened as the ratio of running time to total time of each shift. This modular software can make the energy consumption and machine-tool utilization available in real time. An application of the OEEM system on a lathe was shown. From Fig. 6, the total input power and the energy efciency of the CNC lathe CJK6136 were 1270 W and 9.4%. At the same time, the nish machining of a batch of shafts on the CNC lathe CJK6136 and the energy utilization ratio is quite low (0.3%), which is much lower than the former energy utilization ratio (8.25%) of rough machining. In addition, the machine tools operation ratios are very low, which are 1.75% and 36.45% for this shift and a last shift. Furthermore, this modular software can offer energy efciency and some other useful energy efciency-related information (such as tare-power, RFO time, and idle time) of machine tools. 6.2. Cost and energy-saving analysis The OEEM system only requires a power sensor to measure input power of spindle system. In this study, one power sensor EDA9033A is chosen which costs only 55 U.S. dollars, which is very lower compared to the high cost of one dynamometer. With above-mentioned information given by the OEEM system, some scenarios to improve the energy efciency are included but not limited to:

Fig. 6. Application of OEEM system on a CNC lathe.

S. Hu et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 27 (2012) 133e140 Table 4 Energy efciency comparison under different cutting parameters. Test No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 (S/rpm, ap/mm, f/mm/rev) (400, (400, (400, (800, (800, (800, 0.153, 0.198, 0.243, 0.153, 0.198, 0.243, 2) 2) 2) 2) 2) 2) Prfo/W 630 630 630 630 630 630 Pin/W 887 1136 1565 1460 1940 2800 Pc/W 390 595 940 795 1170 1880

139

Acknowledgments
h/%
25.7 33.6 42.8 38.0 45.5 54.8

The authors gratefully thank all the anonymous reviewers for their helpful suggestions on the quality improvement of our paper and acknowledge nancial support from National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 51075416), Doctoral Fund of Ministry of Education of China (No. 20100191120004), Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities of China under grant CDJZR10110013, and Five-second National Science and Technology Support Program of China (No. 2011BAF11B10). Nomenclature a0, a1 ^1 ^0 , a a ap f l(!2) additional load loss coefcients estimated values of a0, a1 depth of cut (mm) feed rate (mm/rev) number of times of performing cutting experiments at a given spindle speed L(5e10) length of moving average lter m(!3) number of spindle speeds chosen in the cutting experiment Pa(t), Pa additional power loss of machine tools at timing t (W) Pc(t), Pc cutting power of machine tools at timing t (W) Pu(t), Pu tare-power of machine tools at timing t (W) Pin(t), Pin input power of machine tools at timing t (W) ^c estimated cutting power (W) P ^ ltered spindle input power (W) P in input power of machine tools in the RFO state (W) Prfo(t) Pci (1 i l) measured cutting power at the lth experiment at a given spindle speed (W) measured idle power of spindle at the given speed of n Pn,u (W) Pin,l (1 i l) measured input power at the lth experiment at a given spindle speed (W) S spindle speed (rpm) U energy utilization ratio q additional load loss coefcients vector _ q estimated value of q h energy efciency References
Alhourani, F., Saxena, U., 2009. Factors affecting the implementation rates of energy and productivity recommendations in small and medium sized companies. Journal of Manufacturing Systems 28 (1), 41e45. Avram, O.I., Xirouchakis, P., 2011. Evaluating the use phase energy requirements of a machine tool system. Journal of Cleaner Production 19 (6e7), 699e711. Dahmus, J.B., Gutowski, T.G., 2004. An environmental analysis of machining. ASME Conference Proceedings, 643e652. Dang, H., Tamayo, J., Wilkinson, D., 2007. New Zealand Energy in Brief. New Zealand Ministry of Economic Development, Wellington, New Zealand. Draganescu, F., Gheorghe, M., Doicin, C.V., 2003. Models of machine tool efciency and specic consumed energy. Journal of Materials Processing Technology 141 (1), 9e15. He, Y., Liu, F., 2010. Methods for integrating energy consumption and environmental impact considerations into the production operation of machining processes. Chinese Journal of Mechanical Engineering 23 (4), 428e435. Herrmann, C., Thiede, S., 2009. Process chain simulation to foster energy efciency in manufacturing. CIRP Journal of Manufacturing Science and Technology 1 (4), 221e229. Hu, S.H., Liu, F., He, Y., Peng, B., 2010. Characteristics of additional load losses of spindle system of machine tools. Journal of Advanced Mechanical Design, Systems and Manufacturing 4 (7), 1221e1233. ISO, 2010. ISO/WD 14955-1 Environmental Evaluation of Machine Tools e Part 1: Energy-saving Design Methodology for Machine Tools. International Organization for standardization, Geneva, Switzerland. Jemielniak, K., 1999. Commercial tool condition monitoring systems. International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology 15 (10), 711e721. Kim, H.Y., Ahn, J.H., Kim, S.H., Takata, S., 2002. Real-time drill wear estimation based on spindle motor power. Journal of Materials Processing Technology 124 (3), 267e273.

 Improving energy consumption by task scheduling. If many machine tools with different tare powers are available for one task, the energy consumption can be optimized by task scheduling (He and Liu, 2010).  Reducing RFO and idle periods. The energy consumption can be reduced by shortening non-machining time (RFO and idle periods) (Li et al., 2011).  Setting the optimized cutting parameters. Optimized cutting parameters can lead to a shorter cycle time and in turn reduce the total power consumption (Mori et al., 2011; Rajemi et al., 2010; Shao et al., 2004). As an example, energy-saving analysis is taken using several experiments of different cutting parameters. Six rough bar turning experiments (material of C45E4 steel, 60 mm in length, and 59 mm in diameter) are conducted, and the result shows that the energy efciency was improved by changing cutting parameters. Table 4 shows that the condition at a spindle speed of S 400 rpm, cutting depth of ap 0.153, and feed rate of f 2 mm/rev, has the least energy efciency h 25.7%; moreover, the depth of cut was changed to two cases when the spindle speed and feed rate are invariable: ap 0.198 mm (condition #2) and 0.243 mm (condition #3). Thus, the energy efciency is improved to 33.6% and 42.8%, respectively. Similar result can be obtained when the spindle speed is 800rpm. Furthermore, the condition at the spindle speed of S 800 rpm, cutting depth of ap 0.243, and feed rate of f 2 mm/ rev, has the highest energy efciency h 54.8%. Comparing condition #6 to condition #1, the energy efciency can be improved by 29.1%. In engineering practice, cutting parameters tend to be conservative for the safety of machine tools and tools; therefore, energy efciency has large improvement potential using the real-time energy efciency information.

7. Conclusions This paper proposes an on-line approach to monitor the energy efciency of machine tools and develops an OEEM system. The OEEM system can accurately acquire energy efciency and some other useful energy efciency-related information of machine tools (such as tare-power, RFO time, and idle time). On the basis of this information, one can enhance the energy efciency by two ways. The rst way is to take some management measures, such as task scheduling, to reduce RFO and idle time; the second way is to take some technical measures for optimizing cutting parameters to shorten cutting time. Though an application example of OEEM system on a CNC lathe is given, it can be extended easily to other kinds of machine tools. One limitation of this method is the requirement of cutting experiment for the identication of additional load loss function, which needs well-designed cutting parameters and vast materials. The future works will focus on investigating a method to identify the additional load loss function without cutting experiments.

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