The Emerald Research Register for this journal is available at www.emeraldinsight.

com/researchregister

The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at www.emeraldinsight.com/0954-478X.htm

RESEARCH AND CONCEPTS

Managing change: quality-oriented design of strategic change processes

Tilo Pfeifer and Robert Schmitt
Chair of Metrology and Quality Management, RWTH Aachen, Aachen, Germany, and

Managing change

297

Thorsten Voigt
Department of Metrology and Quality Management, Fraunhofer Institute for Production Technology (IPT), Aachen, Germany
Abstract
Purpose The continuous change with which companies are faced, requires an approach to implement the necessary changes to the organizations structure. Existing approaches represent sequential procedures, which do not meet the requirements to deal with the characteristics of continuous change. Furthermore, existing models for managing change only state what has to be done but do not explain how it can be done. Aims to remedy these shortcomings. Design/methodology/approach Based on existing models and on the criteria of the EFQM model, a control loop for the management of strategic change processes was developed. A quality gate concept was dened to measure the performance of the change process by measurements at the quality gates after each phase of the process. Findings The integrated methodologies and tools were validated in projects with various companies and adapted to practical needs. Research limitations/implications A crucial point for the presented procedural model is the applicability of the integrated tools. Therefore, in an actual investigation project the tools are implemented in a multimedia training module to train the handling and application of the tools. Practical implications The procedural model and the training module will enable companies and their employees to plan and implement necessary change processes autonomously. Originality/value The procedural model is the rst one to meet the requirements to deal with continuous changes, with which companies are faced. It describes the tools and methodologies to complete the phases of a change process. Keywords Quality management, Organizational development, Change management, Globalization Paper type Research paper

1. Introduction In order to remain competitive in the long term, enterprises are compelled to undertake complex changes with increasing speed, efciency and success (Lilie, 2002). An enquiry among 600 top managers of German companies indicates that the speed, frequency and intensity of changes in the business environment will continue to increase in coming years. At the same time, however, it will become increasingly difcult to foresee environmental changes. A multitude of different management concepts have been developed in recent years to help to meet the challenges posed by such rapid change in the business environment.

The TQM Magazine Vol. 17 No. 4, 2005 pp. 297-308 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 0954-478X DOI 10.1108/09544780510603152

TQM 17,4

298

The common aim of all these concepts is to supply managers with better recipes for how to deal best with impending changes and problems which arise. Whether it is reengineering, total quality management, restructuring or whatever other reorganization program, the aim is almost always to initiate or promote the required change processes in the company (Pfeifer and Bisenius, 2002). However, the implementation of strategic change as a reaction to the inuences of external changes, or in anticipation of such changes, very often fails in operational practice. In a survey commissioned by the business consultancy company Celerant Consulting, the market research institute Emnid interviewed a representative sample of board members and managing directors of German companies with more than 1,000 employees on the theme of change management. With a failure rate of up to 70 percent the implementation phase was always seen to be the most difcult phase of a change management program (Lilie, 2002). In other words, it is not so much the right strategy but the effective implementation of the right strategy which is decisive for business success. The reasons for this lack of success in implementation can be subdivided into four barriers. The management barrier reects the problem that the focus of management activities is dealing with daily business, not discussing new strategies. The vision barrier arises when visions and strategies are not communicated to the employees in a comprehensible way. In many companies, strategic objectives are not broken down by means of target denitions on the employee level, with the result that participation of those affected is not achieved. The resource barrier means that resources are not purposefully deployed for the implementation of the strategy. In strategic change, the endeavor to secure acceptance of changes by all employees as a whole usually fails. If the risk of failure is indeed at its highest in the implementation phase, then it is exactly here that the greatest potential for success in change of company strategy lies. Therefore, the developed procedural model focuses upon the preparation of the implementation phase and the identication of constraints in the implementation process.

2. Typology of strategic change processes One widespread and widely acknowledged typology of strategic change categorizes forms of organizational change according to different dimensions. A rst dimension is the intensity of change, ranging from no change required to radical renewal of the company (Fopp and Schiessl, 1999). In this context, Nadler differentiates between incremental and radical change. The second dimension is the chronological positioning of the change. Here, a difference is made between anticipative and reactive change processes. Using these two dimensions, Nadler draws up a matrix in which he positions the basic types of change of company strategy. In so-called tuning, future environmental developments are anticipated to increase company efciency. In contrast to this, adaption means the adaptation of the company to the environmental changes. What tuning and adaption have in common is that the change is evolutionary, and starts off in subsections of the company. If the whole company is restructured anticipatively through fundamental transformation, we speak of a reorientation. The alternative to this is reactive redesign, in which environmental changes are reacted to which have already taken place (Nadler, 1994).

In the model for quality-oriented strategic change presented here, the focus is set in particular on sustained strategic change. Here, complete transformations primarily refer to effective realignment of a company, while, in contrast, business process reengineering focuses on the efciency of core processes. 3. Quality in strategic change processes A denition of quality equally suitable for processes, material products and services is provided by the DIN EN ISO 8402 standard:
Quality is the totality of features of a unit as regards its suitability to full specied and expected requirements.

Managing change

299

This denition is based on a feature-related relationship between the condition actually realized and the degree of quality required. Its application thus calls for a clear specication of the quality requirements. In other words, the rst task is to analyze the demands on a quality-conform design of strategic change. Based on this analysis, the corresponding quality features of such a model can then be derived. The EFQM Excellence Model has, in recent years, become a widely acknowledged instrument for company evaluation and alignment with respect to total quality management (Pfeifer, 2001). In this context, the enabler-criteria of the model describe how the elements of a company must be structured so that best possible quality can be achieved. If these fundamental ideas of the EFQM Excellence Model are applied to the design of strategic change processes, the criteria and subcriteria of the model can be used to derive the most important quality features for a quality-conform design of strategic change processes. The aim is to fulll these quality criteria in the framework of a quality-conform design of strategic change processes. To achieve this aim, methods of designing and reinforcing the implementation process must be elaborated in all its details, and combined and integrated in an appropriate way. 4. Control loop of strategic change To ensure that the envisaged quality criteria are taken into consideration, a procedural model is required for the design, implementation and reinforcement of the intended strategic changes. The use of such a procedural model should make it possible not only to anticipate and maintain control over continuous change but also to react to changes, which arise suddenly in the environment of the company. The basis for the procedural model shown in Figure 1 for the quality-oriented design of strategic change processes is an eight-stage process for implementation of strategy proposed by Kotter (1997). However, while Kotters model represents a sequential procedure, the model presented in this article describes a control loop system. No strategy remains eternally valid, and so a strategy for a change process is by no means nished on completion of its implementation. On the contrary, during phase ve, reinforcement, the company environment must be examined for factors, which might necessitate further development of the vision. The control loop would then be closed and the process would have to be repeated, starting with the adaptation of the vision. This characteristic enables the procedural model to be applied in an environment of continuous and rapid change.

TQM 17,4

300

Figure 1. Procedural model for implementing a new strategy

In addition to the detailed design of the ve main phases of strategy implementation, a kind of quality gates concept has been developed to ensure the quality of the implementation process in the interests of a quality-conform design. Here, measuring points are inserted into the course of the process after predened phases of the implementation process to allow the success achieved in the respective stages to be measured and evaluated. At the corresponding positions of the procedural model, quality features are derived for the implementation of the stages and appropriate review respecting evaluation aids are applied. 4.1 Taking a decision Key element of the rst phase is the process of strategy development. Inputs for this process are facts and gures about the ve essential elds that have inuence on a company: . clients; . competitors; . society; . laws; and . environment. Considering these boundary conditions, the management team has to create a vision of how the company and its business case will look like in about ten years. A vision links an image of the companys future with a clear message about why the employees should strive to achieve this future. In doing this, a vision pursues three important objectives of showing the right direction, motivate and coordinate (Kotter, 1997). So what are the characteristics respecting the quality features of a good and effective vision? First of all, a good vision should describe a plausible and imaginable image of the future. During the development of a vision, the ideas and long-term interests of the companys employees, customers, investors and other interested parties must be taken into consideration. An effective vision should not take longer than ve

minutes to explain to any employee. Only a vision developed and formulated in this way can be accepted and realized on a broad basis. Following the St Gallen Management Concept, strategic targets have to be dened according to the created vision. These strategic aims describe how the companys strengths will be conserved and augmented in the future (Bleicher, 1995). The next step is to derive operative aims. The operative targets are the link between the strategic aims and the projects and tasks in daily business. Crucial for the success of strategy development is the commitment of all members of the management team. If aspects of the strategy remain unsettled or critical aspects are solved in a win-lose situation, this will almost securely cause the failure of the strategy implementation. The criteria for passing the rst quality gate are a commonly supported strategy, consisting of a vision according to the characteristics mentioned above, strategic and operative aims as well as projects/tasks to fulll these targets. In the post-merger integration of quality management at DaimlerChrysler AG, a top-management commitment was achieved at the highest level. At a strategy forum in 1998, both CEOs dened quality as the strategic value driver of DaimlerChrysler AG. This top-management commitment resulted in the issue of concrete instructions to the management of the quality organizations at Daimler-Benz and at Chrysler to develop a vision and a strategy for the quality management of DaimlerChrysler AG. The management of the quality organizations at Daimler-Benz and at Chrysler developed the vision of an Integrated World Class Quality Management. To this end, both internal and external benchmarks were to be performed with leading companies in the eld of quality management. 4.2 Preparing change 4.2.1 Creating feeling for urgency. Creating a feeling for the urgency of change is crucial in order to get the required cooperation of employees and managers. If the need for change is not understood, it will be difcult to put a group together which has enough power and credibility to initiate the required change program (Kotter, 1997). The greatest obstacle to creating a feeling for the urgency of the situation is the overbearingness and self-satisfaction, which so often prevails in companies. Basically, the following aspects can help to make the urgency of change patently clear (Kobi, 1996): . showing the attractiveness of the change; . confronting employees with clear expectations; . showing that it can be done; and . creating a positive attitude to the change. The aspects listed above can be understood as quality features of the second stage of the process. Consequently, the quality of how the urgency of change is created in a company can be evaluated by means of the quality features previously described. This involves assessment of the degree to which a quality feature is taken into consideration, on the one hand, and, on the other, measurement of the success of implementation of the feature. For example, the feature Showing the attractiveness of the change may, in the view of the management, have been given adequate attention during the design of the strategic change. However, in a staff survey 80 percent of the employees express considerable doubts and fears about the change process. In other

Managing change

301

TQM 17,4

words, the quality feature was given due attention, but was not successfully implemented. 4.2.2 Forming leadership coalitions.
Leadership is a question of lighting up a re inside people, not under them (A. Meyer, ABB)

302

Signicant transformations are often associated with one particular personality who is clearly prominent in the minds of all employees. However, even the mightiest CEO cannot develop the right vision and implement it throughout the enterprise on his own. A strong leadership coalition is indispensable. For this reason, the formation of such a leadership coalition is always an essential component in preparation for the development and subsequent implementation of a strategy. The quality features authority, expertise, credibility and leadership can be applied for the selection of suitable members for this coalition (Kotter, 1997). The integration of strong leadership gures is of particular importance. A combination of good managers to control the change process and strong leadership gures to push the process forward is decisive for the success of a leadership coalition. The appropriate size of a leadership coalition depends on the size of the company and on how far-reaching the envisaged change is. It is often the case that a coalition of change starts off with just one or two persons and then grows in larger companies to encompass 20-50 persons (Kotter, 1997). 4.2.3 Communicating vision and strategy. The true power of a vision is only completely unleashed when all the people in the company have a common understanding of their goals and their course. This consensus on a desirable future supports motivation for and coordination of the actions required to achieve the necessary changes. For this reason, communication of vision and strategy is of crucial importance. Studies show, however, that in any company there is twice as much s discussion about the weather than about new strategies. Management communique are often incomplete or misunderstandable. In other words, the necessary quality of communication is missing (Schleiken and Winkelhoder, 1997). The key elements respecting quality features of effective communication of vision and strategy are simplicity, use of metaphors and multipliers, repetition, exemplary function and explanation of apparent inconsistencies. At the second quality gate the question poses itself: how can the success respective to the quality of the preparatory phase be measured and evaluated? In the case of DaimlerChrysler, a transformator was used, a special instrument for measuring acceptance and credibility. The transformator works in the following way. On completion of the preparatory phase, employees and management are questioned independently of each other about their experiences in the preparatory phase. For example, the employees are asked to what extent they are satised with how a feeling for the urgency of the change was communicated to them respecting to what extent they have understood the urgency of the change. In contrast to this, a kind of self-assessment is performed by the management. Any discrepancy between the evaluation of the management and that of the employees indicates a decit in this stage of the change process. Remedial action must be taken here before the implementation stage can be initiated. To render the acceptance of the employees for subsequent stages of the process of change measurable, they can also be asked about their personal expectations with respect to the further course of the change process. It becomes clear

through this whether sufcient employee condence and acceptance has been achieved to justify taking the next step of the change process. 4.2.4 Planning rst successes. So-called rst successes make a substantial contribution to the motivation of those employees who are involved in and affected by the change, since they indicate that the chosen strategy describes the right way and that it is worth keeping on with the implementation of the strategy. First successes, however, do not come of their own accord. As a kind of pilot change project they must be planned into the course of the change process as a whole and organized accordingly (Schuh, 1999). Basically, rst successes must be clear and evident for all employees, i.e. they must not leave room for criticism. The successes must always relate to concrete implementation measures respective to transformation objectives in order to maintain their connection to vision and strategy. To ensure that rst successes can be secured on completion of the third stage of the procedural model, their planning must already be initiated in the preparatory stage.

Managing change

303

4.3 Designing changes In principle, every new strategy strives for satised customers and employees in order to secure the long-term economic success of the company. To achieve this, cooperation between management and employees must be designed according to the aspects: awareness, desire, knowledge and ability (Pfeifer, 2001). For this reason, the human being is at the center of attention in the third phase. After having had the vision successfully communicated to them in the preceding phase, the employees must now be motivated, empowered and legitimized to implement the strategy. The most effective framework for this is a coordinated process of target denition. 4.3.1 Identify constraints for implementation. Many change programs fail during the implementation phase due to unexpectedly arising problems (Lilie, 2002). The identication of these problems, which can be dened as constraints in the implementation process, is therefore the key to a successful implementation. One powerful tool for identifying the constraints and elaborate measures to elevate these constraints is the theory of constraints (TOC) by E. Goldratt (Dettmer, 1997). The measures, resulting from the application of the logical trees of TOC, are an essential input for the process of target denition shown below. 4.3.2 Target denitions motivating, qualifying and legitimizing employees. The effective support of many people is indispensable for the successful implementation of signicant business transformations. But if employees feel relatively powerless and have no freedom, they cannot make the required contribution to the change process (Doppler and Lauterburg, 2002). How can employees be motivated, qualied and legitimized? The precondition for effective empowerment is the consistent breaking down respective operationalization of strategic aims. This operationalization of strategy is the principle value of a system of target denitions. Furthermore, all the qualication measures and resources, which the employees will need for the implementation of the strategy, can be included in these target denitions and thus be guaranteed to the employees. And, in addition, a coordinated system of target denitions is the essential basis for efcient controlling during implementation of the strategy. Input for the process of target denition are both the operative aims and projects/tasks of the strategy development process which

TQM 17,4

304

was introduced in phase one as well as the measures and tasks to elevate the constraints of the implementation process. A procedure for setting target denitions is presented here with the example of a strategic change program in the development department at BMW AG. The aim of the change program was to introduce a product data management system (PDMS) for the product development process. Here, the Herculean task consisted in replacing the approximately 400 stand-alone systems of the EDP landscape with a uniform database, the PDMS. The pre-programmed conicts here were, for example, resistance by system users and owners whose systems were to be replaced as a consequence of the introduction of the PDMS. The objective was to create the preconditions with approximately 400 participating employees for the introduction of the PDMS and to design the new processes and implement them in the PDMS. In a three-level target denition process, task lists for individual specialist teams were derived from the strategic aims (Figure 2). If necessary, horizontal target denitions within a level were also to be made. Here, a top-down-bottom-up procedure was preferred over a purely top-down approach. This ensured that targets were not dened on the highest level, between the board and the program management, which the operative level would not be able to achieve. In the course of the target denition process, two aspects turned out to be of particular signicance. If there is too little formalism, work results and deadlines are formulated too vaguely, which makes a subsequent sustainment of these results practically impossible. For this reason, in the case in question, standardized change-program project contracts were used which, in addition to results and corresponding milestones, also included measurands of success as well as the necessary resources and requirements for successful fullment of the tasks. These project contracts had to be coordinated with and signed by customers and suppliers. Furthermore, not only the signature of all program partners but also their genuine commitment had to be secured. This was to happen during the coordination rounds of the iterative top-down-bottom-up procedure. In the case in question, the target denition process took about eight weeks to complete. 4.3.3 Securing rst successes. The main aim of rst successes is to verify the credibility of vision and strategy through visible results. Here, the task of management is to plan and consolidate rst successes in order to be in a stronger success position for the further change process. First successes justify to a substantial degree the

Figure 2. Operationalization of strategy

short-term costs incurred through change and thus reinforce the seriousness of the implementation measures. Employees are made aware that the sacrices are paying off. First successes give the proponents of the change an opportunity to pause briey and reect on and celebrate the results achieved so far. After much effort and hard work, positive feedback increases morale and motivation. First successes neutralize cynics and self-centered opponents (Kotter, 1997). The example of the company P3 GmbH illustrates the planning and consolidation of successes over a complete change process. In mid-1999, the managers of P3 GmbH made the decision to enter into the telecommunications advisory business. The starting shot was the P3 study Brand Name Quality in Telecommunications, in which telecommunications market providers are evaluated in the same way as the J.D. Power study evaluates the automotive market. In the study, the brand name quality of network operators and service providers is compared as seen by the customers. A rst success was achieved through the production of the study results. The results of the study were systematically published in major German newspapers in order to wake an interest in the market and at the same time to demonstrate P3s competence. Success has proven the young business P3 right. Several projects are currently running with network operators in the eld of telecommunications. Market participants have taken the bait. The provisional climax of the change process was the foundation of the company P3 Solution GmbH, which devotes itself especially to the telecommunications market. In this way, telecommunications has been established as a eld of business at P3. Simultaneously, the planned successes in the change process also served as break-off criteria if not achieved and thus as an instrument for monitoring project progress. If the target denition process is settled up, and if employees are convinced of the correctness of the strategy and have all the required resources and qualications for its implementation, then one has successfully passed quality gate 3. An evaluation of the commitment of the participants, their motivation and their capacity to act must be performed at quality gate 3, also through a staff survey. 4.4 Implementing changes In the fourth phase of the procedural model, the detailed implementation of the strategy takes place. A signicant characteristic of enduring strategic change processes is the change period. The complete implementation of a new vision and strategy can take as long as several years. In such long-running change processes, a tool for controlling and steering of the change process is indispensable. Although the implementation process has to be planned and controlled, it is important to understand that the planning of the implementation and the implementation itself cannot be separated strictly. A change process is dynamic and this dynamic always requires adaptations in planning. Therefore the management should be willing and exible to adapt even the target denitions, made in the earlier stage of the change process, if changed boundary conditions require this step. An excellent basis for controlling is provided by the target denitions made in the preceding phase. In the already-mentioned example of BMW AG, monthly status reporting is performed along the target denition pyramid, thus yielding a uniform status report on contents, deadlines and risks in the program. This information, condensed and processed on a program information display panel, provides an instrument for steering and early warnings for the program management.

Managing change

305

TQM 17,4

306

4.5 Reinforcing changes Phase ve of the procedural model stretches over several years after completion of implementation of the strategy. The task here is, on the one hand, to ensure that the changes are anchored in company culture. On the other hand, regular checks must be made as to whether the vision still maintains its validity. Factors in the environment of the company may make a further development of the vision necessary. The control loop would then be closed and the process would have to be repeated, starting with the further development of the vision. Another task in the phase of reinforcing changes is to gather and consolidate experience and knowledge gained from the strategy implementation phase. Knowledge of how the employees dealt with the change makes it possible to react more quickly and more exibly to pressure to change in future situations. The model presented here for quality-conform design already contains, in several places, approaches for the anchoring of changes in company culture. The whole model is based on the inclusion and participation of those affected by the change. It is only through this participation and involvement, and the acceptance, which this nurtures, that people align values and norms within the company according to the new vision and strategy. A further aspect here is the systematic planning and consolidation of successes. Clear and plausible explanations must be given of how successes relate to the change program (Kotter, 1997). The example of the change program at BMW AG will be used to demonstrate how anchoring of change in company culture can be achieved (Figure 3). During the implementation phase with a duration of about three years, a process team was given the task of designing and implementing the new processes in the PDMS. After completion of strategy implementation, these employees returned to their respective departments as so-called process-tutors. Their task there is to ensure that the new processes are actually put into practice, and to give their colleagues the benet of the experience and knowledge they gained from the implementation phase of the strategy. Various models for the design of change processes place the stage of cultural change at the very start of all efforts towards strategic reorientation. But culture cannot be

Figure 3. Anchoring the change in the company culture

manipulated and changed just like that. This is only possible when new patterns of behavior and new processes resulting from change have already clearly proven their worth to employees over a longer period of time, when the employees have recognized the relationship between the new course of action and the improvement in performance. Accordingly, a cultural change can only take place at the earliest after consolidation of rst successes. New approaches normally only manifest themselves in a company culture when they work and are evidently better than long-standing methods. However, the better one knows the prevailing culture, the more effectively potentially new values and norms can already be worked into the phases feeling for the urgency of change, forming a leadership coalition as well as in communication with and empowerment of the employees. 5. Summary and outlook Implementing organizational change, be it as a reaction to inuences due to external changes or in anticipation of such changes, very often fails in operational practice. About 70 percent of all strategic reorientations fail in the implementation phase. Our answer to this problem of failure in the implementation phase is the application of methods of quality management for the decision, preparation, design, implementation and reinforcement of strategic change programs. Based on existing approaches to change management and on the EFQM Excellence Model, a procedural model was elaborated for the step-by-step realization of the new strategy. The individual stages of the ve named phases were explained in detail and illustrated by means of practical examples. All of the stages in the procedural model put the focus on the employee. Involvement of employees affected by the change allows the maximum potential to be exploited in a change program. The crucial instrument in the change process is therefore a coordinated system of target denitions, which must be implemented in phase three, the phase of designing the change process. Using a target denition system, the strategy can be broken down to the employee level, and employees can be guaranteed all the resources and qualication measures they will need. Inputs for the target denition are the results of the strategy development process and the measures for elevating constraints of implementation. The results of the target denition system itself is the essential basis for controlling during the implementation phase. The model described here represents a guideline for the implementation of strategic change processes. In operational practice, the model serves as a framework for action, whereby the methods and aids outlined here must be adapted and applied specically to the particular company and situation. A set of tools supports the employees in charge of carrying out the change process and enables the company to carry out the strategy implementation without external support.
References Bleicher, K. (1995), Das Konzept Integriertes Management, Campus Verlag, Frankfurt, pp. 68-77. Dettmer, H.W. (1997), Goldratts Theory of Constraints, ASQ Quality Press, Milwaukee, WI. Doppler, K. and Lauterburg, C. (2002), Change Management. Den Unternehmenswandel Gestalten, Campus Verlag, Frankfurt. Fopp, L. and Schiessl, J-C. (1999), Business Change Als Neue Management-Disziplin, Campus Verlag, Frankfurt.

Managing change

307

TQM 17,4

308

Kobi, J-M. (1996), Management des Wandels: Die Weichen und Harten Bausteine Erfolgreicher nderung, Haupt, Stuttgart. Vera sseldorf. hrung Leading Change, ECON, Du Kotter, J.P. (1997), Chaos, Wandel, Fu t und Zuverla ssigkeit, Vol. 47 No. 1, Lilie, F. (2002), Umsetzung von change management, Qualita p. 14. Nadler, D.A. (1994), Organisations-Architektur, Campus Verlag, Frankfurt. nchen. tsmanagement: Strategien-Methoden-Techniken, Carl Hanser, Mu Pfeifer, T. (2001), Qualita nderungen zum erfolg fu hren, in Aachener Pfeifer, T. and Bisenius, A. (2002), Vera Werkzeugmaschinen Kolloquium (AWK) (Ed.), Wettbewerbsfaktor Produktionstechnik, Shaker, Aachen, p. 43. Schleiken, T. and Winkelhoder, G. (1997), Unternehmenswandel mit Projektmanagement: Konzepte und Erfahrungen zur praktischen Umsetzung in Unternehmen, Lexika/Krick Fachmedien nchen. GmbH & Co., Mu Schuh, G. (1999), Change Management Von der Strategie zur Umsetzung, Shaker, Aachen, p. 17. Further reading Weisog, D. (1996), Unternehmenssteuerung in Unruhiger, Chaotischer Zeit: Change-Management, Haupt, Stuttgart.