IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 5, NO.

I , JANUARY 1990

A Simple Scheme for Unity Power-Factor Rectification for High Frequency AC Buses
VATCHE VORPERIAN,
MEMBER, IEEE, A N D

RAYMOND B. RIDLEY

Abstract-A simple scheme is proposed for off-line unity power factor rectification for high frequency ac buses (20 kHz). In this scheme, a bandpass filter of the series resonant type centered at the line frequency is inserted between the line and the full-wave rectified load. The Q = Z,,/R, formed by the load and the characteristic impedance of the tank circuit determines the power factor, the boundary between continuous and discontinuous conduction modes, the peak stresses and the transient response of the rectifier. It is shown that for Q > 2 / ~ the rectifier operates in continuous conduction mode and the output voltage is independent of the load. Also, it is shown that for Q > 2 the line current is nearly sinusoidal with less than five percent third harmonic distortion while the power factor is essentially unity. An increase in the value of Q causes an increase in the peak voltages of the tank circuit and a slower transient response of the rectifier circuit. The dc, small-signal and transient analyses of the rectifier circuit are determined and the results are in good agreement with simulation and experimental results.

INTRODUCTION HE high frequency ac bus operating at 20 kHz is a candidate for the power distribution system on the U.S. space station and the space platform. Among the many different types of loads connected to the bus are dc loads such as computers and other electronic instrumentation. The conventional full wave rectifier is the scheme currently proposed for these dc loads. Such a rectification scheme suffers from poor power factor and generates harmonic currents which are particularly problematic for a high frequency ac bus. Although active shaping of the line current can be implemented to improve the power factor [ l ] and [2], a much simpler scheme feasible at high frequencies is proposed in this paper. The circuit proposed in this paper and its dc analysis have also been discussed in [5] and [6]. The proposed circuit is shown in Fig. l(a) and the line voltage and current waveforms are shown in Fig. l(c) for a particular design case. It can be seen that in this circuit a bandpass filter of the series resonant type, whose center frequency is the same as the line frequency, has been inserted between the line and a conventional fullwave rectifier. The Q = Zo/R, of the filter determines its bandwidth, BW = u o / Q , which in turn determines the harmonic content of the line current. Hence, a narrower

i
o?
-2

, 20
Time

--40

(/,sec)

(C) Fig. 1. (a) Proposed unity power-factor rectifier circuit implemented with dc-to-dc regulated converter. (b) Circuit used for analysis given in text. (c) Input voltage and current waveforms for Q = 2 (also see Fig. 3).

Manuscript received November 28, 1988; revised September 26, 1989. The authors are with the Bradley Department of Electrical Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. Blacksburg, VA 24061. IEEE Log Number 8932855.

bandwidth results in less harmonic currents which in tum result in operation closer to unity power factor. A reduction in bandwidth, however, is accompanied by increased voltage stresses on the resonant elements and a slower transient response to load and input voltage variations. The increased voltage stress on the resonant elements is due to the increase in their impedance as Q is made larger. An explanation for the slower transient response to line and load variations as the bandwidth is reduced can be given by resorting to communication circuit theory [3] as follows. Variations in the input line voltage represent an amplitude modulated (AM) signal that is applied to a bandpass filter. Since the response of the bandpass filter to the information content of the AM signal, which resides in its envelope, is proportional to its bandwidth, a narrower bandwidth would result in a slower response in

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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS. VOL. 5 . NO. I . JANUARY 1990

the envelope of the line current and consequently in the output voltage. Likewise, load variations generate an AM current signal in the tank circuit to which the response is governed by the bandwidth as explained above. In the following sections the dc, small-signal and transient analyses are given. The dc analysis has also been given in [5] and [6], but our approach is slightly different. Simple and design-oriented results are obtained in all the cases. Almost all the necessary derivations are given in the Appendix.

DC ANALYSIS
The various steady-state voltage and current waveforms of the circuit in Fig. 1 are shoam in Fig. 2. The line voltage is given by

V,,

VP sin wof.

(1)

The normalized load Q and the characteristic impedance Zo are given by Q =L A;

z,= . J :r

RI.
The resonant frequency is set equal to the line frequency
WO =

1
~

JLOC,'

(3)
Fig. 2. Voltage and current waveforms of rectifier.

The rectifier operating in continuous conduction mode ( Q 1 2 / a ) is analyzed for the following dc characteristics. In continuous conduction mode each pair of diodes conducts for the entire half-cycle. If Q is made less than 2 / a , then the diodes conduct only during the mid portion of the half-cycle.

Rectijication Ratio
The rectification ratio is defined as the ratio of the average output voltage to the peak line voltage which for operation near unity power factor is given by
a

Eficiency The rectifier voltage drops, the parasitic resistances of the tank and the output filter capacitor contribute to a reduction in the efficiency which is given by 1 n = . (6) ' 1+2-+--+(;-J: V, a 2 ro
\ ,

vo

8 RL

2VD

Line Current For Q 2 2 the line current essentially consists of the fundamental which is approximately in phase with the input voltage and is given by zi, = z(') sin wot (7) where (8) "2 where Z , is the output current. For the range of 2 / a IQ I2 the effect of the third harmonic becomes noticeable as shown in Fig. 3 and is discussed in the Appendix. A more accurate expression of the peak inductor current valid in the range Q > 2 /a is given by
1"'
=

diode voltage drop parasitic resistance of the tank circuit esr of the output filter capacitor. The above expression can be approximated as
MR

=! ! 4

(5)

because the effect of the parasitic elements is usually very small at high voltages and low currents.

(9)
which for Q I 2 approaches I,( a / 2 )

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VORPERIAN A N D RIDLEY: UNITY POWER-FACTOR RECTIFICATION FOR HIGH FREQUENCY AC

79

2n

[ p ' ' )

40

Fig. 3. Line current as function of load parameter Q Fig. 4. Power factor in continuous conduction mode.

Capacitor Voltage The capacitor voltage is shown in Fig. 2(c) and its peak value is given by

Inductor Voltage The inductor voltage is shown in Fig. 4(d) and its peak value is given by

Output Voltage Ripple The percent output ripple voltage is approximately given by

where Fo = wo/2a is the resonant frequency and

TL

2fl

4 1 1
(IlVC)

(b)

= RLCf.

(13)

Fig. 5 . (a) Simulated resonant capacitor voltage. (b) Simulated output ripple voltage.

Power Factor Analysis For continuous conduction mode ( Q 2 2 / a ) the power factor is given by
1

TABLE 1
PREDICTION SIMULATION 3.18 A 3.27 A 3.1 A 1538 V 490 V 5.42 V

Q
10

(14)

1+-

a4Q 2
vc#.,.i

3.2 A 3.36 A 3.66 A

2 21. 2 2

A plot of the power factor as a function of Q for continuous conduction mode is shown in Fig. 4.
Boundary Between Discontinuous and Continuous Conduction Modes In order for the rectifier to operate in continuous conduction mode for a given load RL, the characteristic impedance should be chosen such that

c:,

vr,, ,,
~

1535 V 489 V 5.31 V

[4] using the following circuit parameters:

RL

2393

Cf = 2pF

Q
Comparison of Simulation and Predicted Results A 1-kW rectifier operating from a 440-V, 20-kHz ac bus was simulated using the simulation program Cosmir

-, 2, 10.
T

The results of the simulation are shown in Figs. 3 and 5. The predictions and simulations are in good agreement as shown in Table I.

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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 5 . NO. I . J A N U A R Y 1990

SMALL-SIGNAL ANALYSIS The only relevant small-signal response is the output impedance from which the transient load and line responses can be calculated. Also, the output impedance is important in the design of a regulated dc load which may be connected to the output of the rectifier.
Output Impedance The impedance 2; looking into the full-wave bridge shown in Fig. l(b) is the equivalent lowpass version of the narrow-band impedance Z N B looking into the tank circuit scaled by an appropriate constant. An explanation is given here by resorting to communication circuit theory [3] while the derivation is given in the Appendix. A modulation in the average rectified current i, ( t ) causes a modulation in the envelope of the line current which in turn behaves as an AM signal passing through the narrow-band tank circuit. Since the envelope of the line current is given approximately by the peaks in the line current, the information in the envelope is related to the information in the average rectified current by a simple scaling constant given by (9). Now, the information in this AM current is only affected by the behavior of the tank impedance in the vicinity of wo. Hence, the impedance 2; seen by i, ( t ) must behave in the vicinity of w 2: 0, or in the base-band region, similar to the way ZNBbehaves around w = wo as shown in Fig. 6 . This impedance is nothing more than the down-shifted version of ZNB scaled by a constant and is given by
2; = (r,,

Fig. 6. (a) The narrowband impedance ZNB. Output lowpass impedance Z:, as shown in Fig. l ( b ) .

Fig. 7. Average equivalent circuit of proposed rectifier circuit.

+ s2L0) 7T2 8
lr2

= r,

+ sL,

(16)

where

r, = - ro, L, = - Lo. (17) 8 4 The equivalent average circuit model of the rectifier circuit can now be obtained as shown in Fig. 7 from which all the small-signal and transient responses can be obtained. In this model, the line voltage and any perturbations in its peak value are accounted for by their corresponding average rectified value Vp~ / 4 The . response of the output voltage to perturbations in the load and line can be easily determined from this circuit. Also, the response of the envelope of the line current can be determined from this circuit by studying the response in the average rectified current i, ( t ) and scaling it by a constant factor of approximately 7r/2 as given by (9). Hence, all the necessary responses of the rectifier can be determined from the circuit in Fig. 7 as will be discussed in the next section. The output impedance 2, is given by
2 0 = (re + SL,) II(rc, + l/SCf)l( RL

7T2

I ,c,:r -92
log 0,

Fig. 8. Output impedance of rectifier circuit as shown in Fig. l ( b ) .

where

wf

(21 WfLO 7T2 re + RL

(22
A bode plot of the output impedance is shown in Fig. 8. TRANSIENT ANALYSIS In this section the rectifier in Fig. l(b) is analyzed for transient load and line responses using the average equivalent circuit model of Fig. 7. The only purpose of this section is to prove the validity of the average circuit

(18)

which gives 2 0 = repL

s/szi

)(
W f

1+-+,

s2.$

s/sz2) s2

( 19)

Wf

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VORPERIAN A N D RIDLEY: UNITY POWER-FACTOR RECTIFICATION FOR HIGH FREQUENCY AC

81

model. Hence, it suffices to consider the rectifier with a simple resistive load rather than a regulated power supply. Furthermore, for simplicity we shall assume

The envelope of the line current is now given by

[ (1

envelope =

? 2 ! (1

+ -) 9a2Q
8

i,(t).

(30)

rc,

ro = 0.

Transient Response of the Output Voltage to a Step Line Change

Assume that the rectifier is operating in steady state with an input line voltage of VPl sin mot and that at t = 0 the line is stepped by an amount AV, where

Since the input current consists mostly of the fundamental we can write

Transient Response of the Output Voltage to a Step Load Change

Assume that the rectifier is operating in steady state with an input line voltage of V,, sin wOtand that at t = 0 the load is stepped by an amount ARL:

AV,

V,2 - V,l.

(24)

The response of the output voltage can be determined from Fig. 7 by supplying the initial conditions Vc,(0) = V,, a / 4 and i, ( 0 ) = V,, a/4R1,. Hence, the output voltage is given by
ZIO

(t)
(Vpl$;

t <0

The response of the output voltage to this step load change can be determined from the average equivalent circuit in AR, Fig. 7 by setting the load at its new value of RL and by supplying the initial conditions Vc,(0) = V p a / 4 and i, ( 0 ) = V,, a/4R,. The output voltage is then given by

(
where

t>O
(25)

Transient Response of the Line Current to a Step Line Change

The response of the average rectified current i, ( t ) to a step line change is obtained from Fig. 7 and is given by

Transient Response of the Line Current to a Step Load Change

The response of the average rectified current for a step load change can be determined in a similar manner as

[%;

t<O

[g

t<O

\cos ( w f 4 / l - E2t + e ) e where cos

r $

(35)
=

where cos

2 ~ d i - 7 .

(29)

(36) The envelope of the line current is now given by (30) in which i , ( t ) is given by (35).

q.

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82

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 5, NO. I , JANUARY 1990

m

.m

"

am

c-

(ccr.)

Fig. 9. Simulated response of output voltage to step line change for three different values of Q.

Fig. 10. Predicted response of output voltage to step line change (25) as obtained from the average equivalent circuit model of Fig. 7.

Comparison of Predicted and Simulated Results A 1 kW rectifier operating from a 440 V , 20 kHz ac bus was simulated on the simulation program Cosmir [4] for transient analysis. The simulated response of the output voltage for three different values Q for a 20 percent step increase in the line voltage are shown in Fig. 9 while the predicted response using (25) are shown in Fig. 10. The predicted response of the input line current using (3 1) and the simulated response are shown in Fig. 11. The results in both cases are in very good agreement. The circuit parameters used in this simulation were RL
=

constant, T ~ also , dictates the response time through the term e --f'27L. The simulated response of the output voltage to a 20 percent increase in the load for Q = 2 is shown in Fig. 12(a) while the predicted response using (33) is shown in Fig. 12(b). The simulated response of the line current is shown in Fig. 13(a) while the predicted response using (35) is shown in Fig. 13(b). The predicted and simulated responses are in very good agreement. The circuit parameters in this case were

u i n ( t )= 622 sin wot

Q = 2

239 Q

C ' = 2pF RL
= =

C f = 2pF
Q
=

-, 2, 10
a

239 Q ; 192 Q ;

t t

<0 >0

uin(t) =

622 sin wot; 746 sin wot;

<0 t > 0.

AR,

-47 Q .

Comparison of Predicted and Experimental Result

An experimental circuit was built using an RF power amplifier (with an internal impedance of 25 Q ) for the ac

As explained earlier, the response for higher Q can be seen to be slower. It should be clear that the output time

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VORPERIAN AND RIDLEY: UNITY POWER-FACTOR RECTIFICATIONFOR H I G H FREQUENCY AC

83

,Q=2 I

0-

(src.)

O m

(b) Fig. 11. (a) Simulated response of line current to step line change and (b) predicted response using (31). Envelope of current waveform is obtained from average equivalent circuit model of Fig. 7 .

ca2

(SCC.)

Dca.

(b) Fig. 13. (a) Simulated response of line current to step load change. (b) Predicted response of line current to step load change using (35). Envelope of current waveform is obtained from equivalent circuit of Fig. 7.

41
0 -

(SCC.)

0 -

(a)
W !

Fig. 14. Experimental circuit. Power source is RF amplifier with internal impedance of 25 0 operating at 17 kHz and amplitude of 36 V .

O=Z

10

Impedance (dB)

Phase (Degree)

power source as shown in Fig. 14. The experimental waveforms are shown in Fig. 15. The output impedance of the average equivalent circuit model shown in Figs. 7 and 8 has been experimentally verified and the results are shown in Fig. 16. As mentioned earlier this circuit is one of the fundamental analytical results presented in this paper and its validity has been experimentally verified. The low-frequency asymptote is high because Of the large impedance ( 25 1 ' of the RF power amplifier.

5
0

-5

- 140

-10
-15

-20 100

1000

10000

100000

Fig 16 Experimental and predicted results of output impedance of average equivalent circuit (Fig 7) of rectifier

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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS. VOL. 5. NO I . JANUARY 1990

CONCLUSION A simple rectifier circuit which operates at unity power factor is proposed for use with high frequency ac buses. Because this rectifier uses only passive elements it provides the cleanest possible almost-sinusoidal input currents. Active power factor correction circuits, which are used at 60 Hz or 50 Hz, are more complex and introduce some switching noise on the line. Hence, the more suitable candidate circuit for unity power rectification for high frequency ac buses is the rectifier proposed in this paper. APPENDIX In this Appendix, the derivation of many of the equations appearing in the text is given.

Fig. 17. Resonant rectifier circuit shown excited by two voltage sources.

Fig. 18. Input voltage, line current, and bridge voltage have same zerocrossings.

DC Analysis Assume that the rectifier is operating in continuous conduction mode. The input circuit of the rectifier can be represented by the circuit in Fig. 17 where the square voltage source, V,( r ) , represents the voltage across the full-wave bridge on the input side. The time relation between the input current, the input voltage and the bridge voltage is shown in Fig. 18. An important feature of the waveforms in Fig. 18 is that all three waveforms become positive and negative together in time phase. This can be easily shown by noting that the fundamental component of the bridge voltage, V04/7r sin war, must be equal to as well as in phase with the input voltage, V,, sin w o t , because the impedance of the resonant branch at the frequency of the fundamental is zero. (Recall that the line frequency, the resonant frequency and the fundamental frequency are all the same.) Since V e ( t ) and its fundamental are in time phase, it follows that V, ( t )and consequently the line current must be in time phase with the input voltage. The ideal rectification ratio is obtained by equating the input voltage to the fundamental of V, ( r )

where

where I , is the average output current. The input current can now be written taking into account all the harmonics as

i i n ( t )= I " ) sin (war -

$1 + C I(') cos nuor;

n = 3,5,7..*
where I ( ' ) and II/ of the fundamental are determined as follows. Since at the beginning of the positive excursion of the input voltage the input current must always be zero, it follows from the above

This result is independent of the load RL. The rectification where we have made use of the following ratio in the presence of parasitic elements as given by (4) will be derived after the input current has been determined. The input current i j , l ( r ) and its harmonic contents for continuous conduction mode (ccm) are determined next. From Fig. 3 it can be seen that in ccm the worst shape of the input current occurs for values of Q approaching 2 / ~ . When the input is equated to the output power another equation in I ( ' )and II/ is obtained Furthermore, it can be seen that the most dominant harV P P monic is the third harmonic which we proceed to deterp. = cos $ = Po,, = V J , mine as follows (note that the waveform has half-wave In 2 symmetry.) The circuit which corresponds to the nth harwhich gives monic can be obtained from Fig. 17 and is shown in Fig. 19 where the bridge voltage V s ( t ) has been replaced by p I, = ;cos 2 $. (39) its nth harmonic. We have from Fig. 19:
~

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VORPERIAN AND RIDLEY: UNITY POWER-FACTOR RECTIFICATION FOR HIGH FREQUENCY AC

85

the effect of the parasitic elements and the diode voltage on the rectification ratio and the efficiency are derived as follows:
Fig. 19. Equivalent circuit from which harmonics in the current are determined.

Solving (38) and (39) we get tan rl, =

L
~

where I:( ( a 2 / 8 ) - 1 ) is the rms current in the output filter capacitor. The efficiency follows:
1
11=

a2Q

+ 2 - + -- + v, 8 RL
VD

a 2 ro

;(

I)?

The output power can be written as

+MR=VL

It is clear then that the fundamental in continuous conduction mode ( Q 1 2 / a ) is essentially given by

Substitution of (40) in the above yields the expression of the rectification ratio given in (4)of the text

The ratio of the third harmonic to the fundamental is given by

p =?sin$

P3'

m'

The capacitive part of the output ripple voltage is determined by referring to Fig. 19:

From this last equation it can be seen that in continuous conduction mode the third harmonic is suppressed very quickly as Q is increased. Hence, for Q = 2 the third harmonic is about five percent of the fundamental. The power factor can now be calculated using the following:

Cf-

d VC, dt

IP sin

W0t

I,

-+

AVc,

where
WO

which after some algebra yields (14) in the text:

Carrying out the integration and adding the component of the ripple due to the equivalent series resistance (ESR) we get (12) of the text. The peak capacitor voltage is determined by realizing that the average current which takes the capacitor from its negative peak to its positive peak is the same as the output current so that we have

The peak inductor current given in (9) in the text for the range of 2 / a 5 Q 5 2 is obtained empirically by simply adding the fundamental and the third harmonic peaks. A rigorous derivation of the peak inductor current in the presence of all the harmonics is rather tedious. With the assumption that the input current consists mostly of the fundamental,
a . i i n ( t ) = I,, sin coot = I, - sin w o t ,

" 2 * from which (10) of the text follows:

co2vco~d, = I

=I

a
-

*O

The inductor voltage and its peak follow immediately from the waveforms in Fig. 2 by subtracting Vc,,(t) from vi"( t ) - V,( t ) . Note that the jump of 2V, induced in the primary circuit by the switching of the full-wave bridge appears entirely across the inductor.

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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 5, NO. I . JANUARY 1990

To determine the boundary between the continuous and discontinuous conduction modes, consider the instant, t = O f , when the input voltage is about to turn positive. If the converter has entered dcm, then it is clear that the inductor voltage is zero and conduction does not begin until the sum of input voltage and the peak capacitor voltage is equal to the output voltage (in order to forward bias the bridge). At the boundary between dcm and ccm the peak capacitor voltage is equal to the output voltage so that the critical value of Q is given by

where we have used (41) for the peak capacitor voltage.

Derivation of Zh and the Average Circuit Model

The impedance ZNB shown in Figs. l(b) and 19 is simply given by
- w'/w$ 1 +jwcOrO

Fig. 20. Spectral representation of interaction of narrowband and low-pass filters with modulated signals it,, and i,.

Zdjw)

which in the vicinity of w = w0 behaves as

Z N B ( j w ) = r0 + j 2 L , ( o WO);

w0

This is the impedance seen by the information in the amplitude-modulated current or simply the perturbation in the line current. We know that the information in an AM signal is up-shifted in frequency by w0 and that it is carried by the envelope of the AM signal which has exactly the same shape as the base-band or the information signal. Hence, the impedance seen by the information, or the envelope of the line current, [iin]envelope, must be nothing more than the down-shifted version of ZNB by wo which is simply given

significant harmonics, the information is up-shifted in frequency by wo, 3w0, etc. Since we are only interested in the information in the vicinity of wo we consider the modulation in the fundamental of V, ( t ) given by

uL') ( t ) = 4 ( V, + o , ( t ) ) sin woz

-

where

op(t)=4 o,(t). n

(47)

ZLp(jw)

ZNB(j(w

+ WO))

r0 +jw2L0.

(42)

This is the equivalent lowpass version of ZNB.Let us write the modulated line current as

A comparison of (46) and (43) reveals that ZLp( s ) is simPlY

iin(t>= ( I , + [ 4 n I e n v , ( t ) sin ) mot

(43)
Substitution of (47) and (45) in (48) gives

that can be written in terms of the modulation in the average rectified current as

i i n ( t )=

n (I, 2

+ L r ( t ) ) sin wOt

(44)
which is (16) in the text. A spectral representation of the derivation given above is shown in Fig. 20. The average output circuit of Fig. 8 follows where the hats in the perturbation quantities have been dropped.

so that the modulation in the envelope and the average rectified current are related by
T A

[4nIenv(t) =2i r ( t ) .

(45 1

Now an amplitude modulation of the line current is accompanied by an amplitude modulation in the bridge voltage VB( t ) . Since VB( t ) , unlike the line current, has many

REFERENCES
[ I ] M . J . Kocher and R . L. Steigerwald, "An ac to dc converter with high quality input waveforms," in Proc. IEEE 1982 PESC, pp. 63-75.

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VORPERIAN AND RIDLEY: UNITY POWER-FACTOR RECTIFICATION FOR HIGH FREQUENCY AC [2] M. F . Schlecht and B. A. Miwa, Active power factor correction for switching power supplies, in IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. PE2 no. 4, pp. 273-281, Oct. 1987. [3] K . K . Clark and D. T. Hess, Communicarion Circuirs: Analysis and Design. Chapter 3 , New York: Addison-Wesley. This book of course does not discuss the rectifier circuit shown here but the analysis given there for the response of narrowhead filters to AM signals can be extended to the rectifier circuit. [4] Chung-jen Hsiao, Circuit-oriented switchmode integration routine for switching converters, Masters thesis, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Sept. 1987. [SI S. Freeland, I. A unified analysis of resonant converters with resonant switches. 11. Input current shaping for single-phase ac-dc power converters, Ph.D. dissertation, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, Oct. 20, 1987. [6] S. Freeland, Input current shaped ac-to-dc converters, NASA Report, NASA-CR-176787, May 1986.

87

Vatchk Vorpkrian (S77-M77-S80-S80M83) received the Ph.D. degree from the California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, in 1984. He worked for Digital Equipment Corporation from 1977 to 1979. Presently, he is an Assistant Professor at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg. He has taught power electronics courses in the industry and has published 15 papers in the area of modeling and analysis of resonant and PWM converters.

Raymond B. Ridley. For a photograph and biography please see page 39 of this issue.

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