HIGH YIELD FACTS

MUSCLE TISSUE

Roles of contractile proteins head portion of the myosin molecule in striated muscle Binding sites for actin Hydrolyses ATP tropomyosin, troponin C : regulatory proteins that inhibit acto-myosin interaction during resting periods. Excitation-contracion coupling Mechanism that translate muscle action potential into the generation of tension For striated muscle, occurs in the triad For skeletal muscle, involves the increase in intracellular free Ca2 + through release of sarcoplasmic Ca stores following the mechanical interaction of dihydropiridine and ryanodine receptors. For cardiac muscle, involves the increase in intracellular free Ca2+ through release of sarcoplasmic Ca2+ stores following the activation of Calcium release channels by Ca+.that enters from voltage-dependent Ca channels. For smooth muscle, involves the increase of intracellular free Ca through release of sarcoplasmic Ca stores when IP3 levels increase in response to the activation of Gprotein coupled receptors and the opening of Voltage gated Ca channels. Endplate potential properties Is not an action potential Is generated only at the endplate Is an electrotonic potential- it decays with time and distance. Usually is a depolarization (+90 mV) of the membrane potential produced by the opening of the nicotinic acethylcholine receptor which is a non-selective ligand gated cation channel. Motor unit concept Small motor unit have lower threshold, are activated first and generate less force because they contain less number of fibers.fibers belong to the Type I (slow fibers) that are resistance to fatigue

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

Systemic circulation: Begins in the aorta and ends with the upper and lower vena cava Is a high pressure system Left heart is its pump. Distributing vessels carry oxygenated blood Irrigate several tissues which are arranged in parallel Arterial pressure range is 120-80 mm Hg Pulmonary circulation: Begins in the pulmonary artery and end in the pulmonary veins Is a low pressure system Arterial pressure range is 8-25 mm Hg Right heart is its pump. Distributing vessels carry deoxygenated blood Irrigate exclusively the lung tissue Velocity of flow vs Area: Are inversely related. Highest velocity of blood is at the aorta, slowest velocity at the capillary exchange area Velocity times area = flow

CARDIAC Inward vs outward currents: ELECTROPHYSIOLOGY Inward current represent an ion current which depolarizes the membrane, like that established upon the opening of fast Na channel, slow Ca channels. Outward current represents an ion current which hyperpolaireze the membrane, like that established upon the opening of inward rectifier and delayed rectifier K+ channels. Equilibrium potentials: Membrane potential at which an ion concentration gradient is balanced and therefore there is no net ion flux. Fast action potentials; Observed in working muscle fibers (atria and ventricles) and conducting Purkinje fibers Due to the opening and closure of Na+, Ca++ and K+ channels. Phase 0 is produced by the opening of voltage-dependent Na channels

 Resting potential of fibers generating this type of action potential is near to EK+ The duration of this action potential is prolonged by the opening of Ca channels in phase 2 Phase 3 of this action potential is due to the opening of delayed rectifier K+ channels. Amplitude is greater than that generated by slow action potential. Slow action potentials: Observed in nodal tissue (SA and AV nodes). Does not contain a phase 2 Phase 3 is due to the opening of delayed rectifier K+ channels. Is a low amplitude action potential Resting potential of fibers generating this type of action potential is less negative. Phase 4 is not stable, it exhibit a diastolic depolarization. Refractory period Time during the generation of an action potential in which the cell is unresponsive (inexcitable) to generate another action potential. Is due to the inactivation of channels that open to initiate membrane depolarization, for fast action potential, because the Na channels inactivates at less polarized membrane potential. Cardiac muscle cells exhibit long refractiory periods because their action potentials are of long duration (300 ms). Action Potential Conduction velocity: Is a function of the amplitude of the action potential and the value of the resting potential. The larger the amplitude of the action potential and the more negative is the resting membrane potential, the larger the amount of local currents and therefore the conduction velovity. AV node is the cardiac tissue with the slowest conduction velocity (0.01 m/s) Purkinje fibers is the cardiac tissue with the fastest conduction (4 m/s) ECG PR interval Prolongs in 1st degree AV block

QT interval Correlates with the duration of ventricular action potential Indiferent electrode : Is used in unipolar leads: chest (pre-cordial) V1-V6, augmented limb aVr, aVl, aVf Formed by a combination of limb electodes which are not connected to the positive terminal of the galvanometer. Register a voltage = 0 Einthoven Law: Lead I Lead II + Lead III = 0 Mean electrical axis : orientation of the mean vector of depolarization. Normal range 30 to 110 calculated form two standandar leads CARDIAC CYCLE Pressure-Volume loop: Represents the changes in pressure and volume during a cardiac cycle. Area of the loop (pressure x volume) represents stroke work. Heart sounds Ventricular volumes CARDIAC MECHANICS Atria contract ahead of ventricles due to the fact that action potential spread from the SA node were is generated slows down upon reaching the AV node. Frank Starling Law of the heart Relationship between preload and stroke volume (or cardiac output) Length-tension relationship applied to the heart Force of ejection is proportional to the length of muscle during diastole. Starling curve is shifted up and to the left by an increase in contractility (positive inotropic influence) or a decrease in afterload. Starling curve is shifted down and to the right by a decrease in contractility or after an increase in afterload Mechanisms for modulating force

 Length tension relationship- More preload (end-diastolic volue) inducees more contractile force. Contractility : Agents which increase intracellular calcium availability will produce more contractile force