Nature of Electricity and Concept of Electricity

Electricity is most common form of energy. Electricity is used for various applications such as for lighting, transportation, cooking, communication, production of various goods in factories and many more. None of us know exactly what electricity is. The concept of electricity and theories behind it, can be developed by observing its different behaviors. For observing nature of electricity, it is necessary to study the structure of matters. Every substance in this universe is made up of extremely small particles known as molecules. The molecule is the smallest particle of a substance into which all the identities of that substance, are present. The molecules are made up of further smaller particles known as atoms. An atom is the smallest particle of an element that can exist. There are two types of substances. The substance whose molecules are made of similar atoms is known as element. The matter whose molecules consist of dissimilar atoms is called compound. The concept of electricity can be achieved form the atomic structures of substances.

Structure of Atom
An atom consists of one central nucleus. The nucleus is made up of positive protons and charge less neutrons. This nucleus is surrounded by numbers of orbital electrons. The electrons have negative charge of 1.602 X 10
19

Coulomb Coulomb.

and the proton in the nucleus has positive charge of + 1.602 X 10

19

Because of the opposite charge there is some attraction force between nucleus and orbital electrons. Electrons have relatively negligible mass compared to the mass of nucleus. The mass of each proton and neutrons is 1840 times of the mass of an electron. As the modulus value of each electrons and each proton are same, the number of electrons is equal to the number protons in a electrically neutral atom. An atom becomes positively charged ion when it loses electrons and similarly an atom becomes negative ion when it gains electrons. Atoms may have loosely bonded electrons in its outer most orbit. These electrons require vary small amount of energy to detach themselves from there parent atoms. These electrons are referred as free electrons which move randomly inside the substance and transferred from one atom to another. Any piece of substances which as a whole contains unequal number of electrons and protons is referred as electrically charged. When there is more number of electrons compared to its protons, the substance is said to be negatively charged and when there is more number of proton compared to electrons, the substance is said to be positively charged. The basic nature of electricity is, whenever a negatively charged body is connected to a positively charged body by means of conductor, the excess electrons

of negative body starts flowing towards the positive body to compensate the lack of electrons in that positive body.

Hopping you got the very basic concept of electricity from the above explanation. There are some materials which have plenty of free electrons at normal room temperature. Very well known examples of this type of materials are, silver, copper, aluminum, zinc etc. The movement of these free electrons can easily be directed to a particular direction if electrical potential difference is applied across the piece of these materials. Because of plenty of free electrons these materials have good electrical conductivity. These materials are referred as good conductor. The drift of electrons in a conductor in one direction is known as the electric current. Actually electrons flow from lower potential ( Ve ) to higher potential ( + Ve ) but general conventional direction of current is considered as higher potential point to lower potential point so the conventional direction of current is just opposite of the direction of flow of electrons. In non metallic materials, such as glass, mica, slate, porcelain, the outer most orbit is completed and there is almost no chance of loosing electrons from its outer most shell. Hence there is hardly any free electrons present in this type of material. Hence these materials can not conduct electricity in other words electrical conductivity of these materials is very poor. Such material are known as non conductor or electrical insulator. The nature of electricity is to flow through conductor while an electrical potential difference applied across it but not to flow through insulator even high potential difference in applied across them.

Definition of drift velocity

The definition of drift velocity can be understood by imagining the random motion of free electrons inside a conductor. The free electrons inside a conductor moves with random velocities and in random directions. When an electric field is applied across the conductor the randomly moving electrons are subjected to electrical forces along the direction of the field.

Due to this field, the electrons do not give up their randomness of motion but they will be shifting towards higher potential. That means the electrons will drift towards higher potential along with their random motions. Thus every electron will have a net velocity towards higher potential end of the conductor and this net velocity is referred as drift velocity of electrons. Hopping you understand definition of drift velocity. The current due to this drift movement of electrons inside an electrically stressed conductor, is known as drift current. It is need less to say that every electric current flows through conductor is drift current

Drift Velocity and Mobility

There are always some free electrons inside any metal at room temperature. More scientifically, at any temperature above the absolute zero there must be at least some free electrons if the substance is conductive in nature such as metal. These free electrons inside the conductor move randomly and frequently collide with heavier atoms and change their direction of motion every time. When a steadyelectric field is applied to the conductor, the electrons start moving towards positive terminal of the applied potential difference. But this movement electrons is not through the straight way. During traveling towards positive potential the electrons conterminously collide with the atoms and bounced back in a random fashion. During collision the electrons lose some of their kinetic energy and again due to presence of electric field they are re-accelerated towards the positive potential and regain their kinetic energy. Again during further collision the electrons partly lose their kinetic energy in same manner. Thus the applied electric field can not stop the random motion of the electrons inside a conductor. Although in presence of applied electric field, the motion of the electrons is still random, but there will be over all resultant movement of electrons towards positive terminals. In other words, the applied electric field makes the electrons to drift towards positive terminal. That means the electrons get an average drift velocity If electric field intensity is increased the electrons are accelerated more rapidly towards positive potential after each collision. Consequently the electrons gain more average drift velocity towards positive potential i.e. in the direction opposite to the applied electric field. If is the drift velocity and E is the applied electric field then E = e.E Where e is referred as electron mobility.

Animation of Drift Velocity Drift Current and Electron Mobility

Electric Current and Theory of Electricity

While a potential difference is applied across a conductor, electrical charge flows through it and electrical current is the measure of the quantity of the electrical charge transferred through the conductor per unit time.
Electric Current Theory

Before understanding electric current theory we should gather knowledge of atomic structure. An atom consists of central nucleus having positively charged protons surrounded by negatively charged electrons in motion. Total number of positively charged protons is equal to negatively charged electrons in an atom. Hence net charge of an atom is zero which means an atom as a whole is electrically neutral. Each electron has negative charge of 1.602 X 10 19 Coulombs Each proton has positive charge of + 1.602 X 10 19 Coulombs Lets have a discussion on theory of electricity. Flow of electrons in a substance causes the current. The electrons revolve around the nucleus in various orbits. hence due to centripetal force, the electrons have a tendency to detach from the parent atom. But the attraction force between negative electrons and positive nucleus keep them bounded in the atomic orbit. The centripetal force increases with increase in distance of the electrons from the nucleus and attraction force between electrons and nucleus decreases with increase in distance of electrons from nucleus. Moreover the electrons in outer orbit also experience a repulsion force from other electrons in inner cells. That is why electrons in outer most orbit are most loosely bonded with nucleus.

Animated Atom

In some specific substances these outermost electrons are so loosely bonded that a very small force is sufficient to detach them from their parent atom. Atoms are electrically neutral as because the number of electrons and protons are equal in them. But due to short of electrons, these atoms become positively charged. After detaching from parent atoms these electrons move in the substances body freely in random manner. In general, the outermost electrons in a metal atom is very loosely bonded hence free electrons are hugely available in metal, which makes the metal a good conductor of electric current.

That loosely bonded electron comes out from an atom and moves here and there in the metal body. Again if any free electron finds any atom nearby where there is short of electron then the free electron may enter into that vacant shell of this atom again after sometime if any collision takes place between this electron with other free electron, it leaves this shell and again starts moving in random manner until it gets another vacant shell. As the electron or negative charge carrier moves freely here and there in a substance body and makes an atom positively charged and neutral alternatively in random manner, we can assume that positive charge carrier moves in same relative random motion. This random movement may be directed to some particular direction if external force is applied on the electrons and directed random motion of electrons causes electric current. The actual phenomenon is explained below.
Drift Velocity

Drift velocity is associated with random velocities of free charge carriers in a substance.
Definition of drift velocity

The average velocity Vd(r) of charge carriers over a differential velocity of given location r is called the drift velocity at this location

Explanation of drift velocity

For drift velocity we have to consider a relatively small space inside which we have to examine what is the average velocity of all randomly moving particles inside that space. For calculating drift velocity at one particular location when in a space, we consider the particle movement at that location in the space and movements of other particles surround it. The average of velocities of the considered particle and those particles surrounded it in a particular direction will be the drift velocity of that location. Drift velocity of free electrons is greatly associated with current theory in a substance.
Current Density

We can derive mathematical expression for electric current from current density. Think about the movements of charge carriers in a conductor. They have the same kind of random velocities as we explained in last paragraph. So the drift velocity at any location in a conductor can be calculated. If we consider a unit volume of space in the conductor where concentration of charge carriers is n number of similar charge carriers and q is the charge of each similar charge carrier, the rate of charge transferring to a particular direction through the surface, (particular to the direction of drift velocity) of the said space is nothing but product of n, q and the drift velocity Vd of that location to the said direction. The rate of charge transferring through a surface, particular to the direction of drift velocity is known as current density of that location to the said direction.

Let us again assume a small surface area of the space is dA. If the current density of the space is J, then obviously current passing through this small surface, is J.dA. Therefore, total current through an area A is,

Explanation of electric current as a phenomenon

Current is associated with charge carried by charged particles. Electrical currentmeans the charge flows to one end from other by means of charged particles. The phenomenon of transferring charge from one place to another is referred as electric current.

Electric Current

It can be assumed that a beam of positively charged holes moving from one side to another. If that beam of holes moving from left to right, the current would be assumed, directed from left to right. As the holes are associated with atoms generally they can not move. Then what we mean by movement of positive holes ? Actually negatively charged free electrons move from right to left, which is assumed as if positive holes are moving in opposite direction of electrons movement that is from left to right. According to the general agreement the direction of current is chosen to coincide with the direction in which positive charge carriers or holes move even the actual movable carriers of charge are electrons and they move in opposite direction. So direction of conventional current flow is in opposite of electrons movement. So it can be concluded like this, if potential difference is applied across a conductor, then due to electrical field, free electrons in the conductor start moving toward positive or higher potential end of the conductor. The direction of the electric current is considered to be flowing from higher potential end to lower, as the relative motion of static positive charges is assumed to be in that direction.
Explanation of current as a physical quantity

Let us consider a conductor and assume one surface across the cross section of the conductor. By definition, electrical current is the rate of transferring electric charge through this surface in respect of time or alternatively, current across a surface is defined as the rate at which charge is transferred through this surface. Therefore, current

So, whenever we will think about current, we should always keep in mind the surface of cross section of the conductor and current is nothing but , the amount of charge is transferred through this surface for unit time. If 1 Coulomb of charge is transferred through any surface in 1 second, then current would be

Therefore the unit of electrical current is Coulomb/second which is known as Ampere after the name of Andr-Marie Ampre (20 January 1775 10 June 1836), a French physicist and mathematician. This was all about basic theory of electricity

Voltage or Electric Potential Difference

Before understanding voltage orelectric potential difference we should fist investigate how a charged particle moves in uniform electric field

Voltage Theory
Let us consider two parallel plates, which are connected to a battery. The upper plate is connected with positive terminal of a battery hence this plate is positively charged and lower plate is connected with negative terminal of the battery and hence this, lower plate is negatively charged. These plates produce an electric field between them which is proportional to surface charge density of both plates. Lets the surface charge density of the upper plate is . Then surface charge density of lower plate will be . The electric field produced by only positive plate is surface charge density divided by twice of permeability of the space between the plates i.e.

Similarly electric field produced by only negative plate is

Hence resultant electric field between the plates is

Let us now assume a positively charged particle enters into that electric field. If the particle has a charge of q Coulomb, then electrostatic force applied on that particle will be Fe = Where E is the electric field vector and it is constant for an uniform electric field. Now acceleration of the particle, q.E

Where m is the mass of the particle. Hence velocity of the particle at any instant t can be written as,

Where vo is the initial velocity of the particle at entrance into uniform electric field.

So, position of the particle at any instant t can be written as,

Where po is the initial position of the particle at entrance into uniform electric field

This is a function of parabola hence it can be predicted from the function that the motion of charged particle in an uniform electric field is projectile motion in parabolic path.

Electrical Potential Difference and Definition of Voltage

We can use electric field vector to characterize electric field in a space. By observing the movement of charge particles inside an electric field one can predict the exact characteristics of that field. If field is strong enough the deflection of charged particle in parabolic path will be more sharp and if the field is weak, deflection is less. But it is not the practical way of measuring the intensity of an electric field. Another physical quantity is there which is much easier to measure and also used to characterize an electric field and this quantity is known as electric potential difference.

Electrical potential V(t) of a position in the electrical field is such that, electric potential energy required to place a particle of charge q at that position would be the product of charge of the particle q and the potential of that position V(t). That is potential energy U(t) = q.V(t). The SI unit of electrical potential is Volt after name of Italian physicist Alessandro Volta (1745 1827). Voltmeter is used to measure the potential differencebetween two points. There is a misconception about potential and voltage. Many of us think that both are same. But voltage is not exactly potential it is the measure of electric potential difference of tow points.
Electrical Potential and Electrical Field vector

Electrical Potential and Electrical Field vector both characterize the same thing that is space of electrical field. Since both electric potential and electrical field vector describe an electric field, they are related. dV = E.ds where dV is the potential difference between tow points separated by a distance ds and electrical field vector is E.
Definition of potential difference or voltage

After going through the above portion of voltage theory we can now establish a definition of potential difference, definition of voltage in few words. Which says " Voltage is the difference in electric potential energy per unit charge between two points. Voltage is the work

to be done, upon an unit charge to move between two points , against a static electric field. A voltage which is a measure of electric potential difference is the cause of current to flow in a closed circuit."

Bohr Model of Atomic Structure

Most basic unit of any matter is molecule. Molecule is the smallest particle of a matter. A molecule consists of two or more same or different atoms. Some of us may have misconception that an atom is the smallest particle of an element. Atom is not the smallest physical particle in a matter. The smallest particle of an element does not remain in atomic form it remains in molecular form. All the properties of a matter persist in its molecules not in atoms. But when two or more same or different atoms are combined they form the smallest unit of a matter that is molecule. The properties of a molecule depend upon its atomic structure. The properties mean all kind of physical, chemical and electrical properties. So study the basic structure of atom is very important for analyzing different properties of a matter. As per Bohr model of atomic structure, the mass of an atom and its positive charge are concentrated in a tiny nucleus, while negatively charged electrons revolve around the nucleus in elliptical orbits. The central nucleus contains positively charged protons and neutral neutrons. Hence an atom mainly consists of electrons, protons and neutrons. The table below shows the mass and electric charge of electrons, protons and neutrons. Particle Electron Proton Neutron Mass 9.109 X 10 31 kg 1.672 X 10 27 kg 1.675 X 10 27 kg Charge 1.602 X 10 19 Coulomb + 1.602 X 10 19 Coulomb 0

From above table it is found that a proton is 1840 times heavier than an electron. The absolute value of electric charge of a proton and of an electron are same. So there must be same number of protons and electrons in an electrically neutral atom. The orbits along which the electrons revolve are also known as shells or energy levels. In atomic structure the successive shells are named as K, L, M, N, O, P, and Q as per increasing distance outwards from the nucleus.

Each shell or energy level has maximum number of electrons for stability. This maximum number of electron in a shell can be given by the formula 2n 2 where n is the shell number in sequential order outward from the nucleus. As per this formula the maximum number of electron in first inner shell from nucleus is 2X12 = 2 , the maximum number of electron in second inner shell from nucleus is 2X2 2 = 8 , the maximum number of electron in third inner shell from nucleus is 2X3 2 = 18 , and so on. These values are only applicable for inner shell or energy level of an Bohr model of atomic structure. For outer most shell of an atom the above rule is not applicable. After fulfilling the maximum numbers of electrons in different inner shells, the rest electrons would be in outer most shell of atom.

Atomic Structure

Lets consider one copper atom, where number of electrons is 29. As per this rule the number of electrons in the first, second, third shells that is in K, L and M shell is 2, 8, and 18. The remaining 1 [29 (2 + 8 + 18) = 1] electron will be in outer most shell i.e. fourth of N shell of the atom. Every energy level or shell in basic structure of atom can further be sub divided into different sub-shells or orbitals. The number of sub shells or orbitals in an energy level is equal to main shell its is denoted denoting as 1 (n = number. 1). That means the energy level nearest to the nucleus will have one orbital or sub shell as that The next nearer shell from nucleus will have two sub shells or orbitals as this is denoted as 2

(n

2)

Similarly third (n = 3) nearer shell from nucleus will have three orbitals and so on. The orbitals are denoted with s, p, d, f,.. Among the orbitals of one single shell the first orbital is denoted as s, second orbital is denoted as p, the third one is denoted as d and so on. So first shell will have one s orbital and is denoted as 1s The second shell will have one s and one p orbital and they are denoted as 2s & 2p respectively The third shell will have one s, one p and one d orbital and they are denoted as 3s, 3p & 3d respectively and so on Here we have another thing to remember that s orbital has one sub orbital and every sub orbital can contains maximum two electrons. The p orbital has 3 sub orbitals and d orbital has 5 sub orbitals. That means p orbital can contain maximum 6(3X2) electrons and d orbital can contain total 10(5X2) electrons. The lower energy sub orbitals are first filled up then next higher orbital is filled. There would not be any chance of filling up any higher orbitals or sub orbitals, before filling is completed in its lower orbitals. If we go through the examples below it will be clear to us Atomic structure of aluminium having 13 electrons

3p

3s

2p

2s

1s

Atomic structure of copper having 29 electrons

3d

4s

3p

3s

2p

2s

1s

Here it can be noticed that 3d orbital is in higher energy level than 4s Atomic structure of silver having 47 electrons

4d

5s

4p

3d

4s

3p

3s

2p

2s

1s

Here it can be noticed that 3d orbital is in higher energy level than 4s similarly 4d orbital is in higher energy level than 5s similarly

Electrical Conductivity of Metal Semiconductor and Insulator

Electrical conductivity is a basic property of material. Due to this property one material can conduct electricity. Some materials are good conductor of electricity that meanselectric current can pass through them very easily; again some materials do not allow electric current to flow through them. The material through which current passes easily, called good conductor of electricity in other words, theelectrical conductivity of these materials is high. On the other hand the materials do not allow the electrical current to flow through them are called electrical insulators. There are some materials whose electrical conductivity is not as high as conductor and also not as poor as insulator, they have an intermediate conductivity and these type of materials are known as semiconductors. In an atom, electrons revolve in the orbits around the nucleus. The electrons are revolving in different orbits. Some orbits are closer to the nucleus some are away from the nucleus. The electrons closer to the nucleus posses lower energy than those farther from nucleus. This phenomenon can be compared to a mass m, which possessing increasing potential energy as its distance above the earth is increased. If a mass is lifted from earth surface, its potential energy increases with increase in height of lifting. Similarly in atom, if the distance between electrons and nucleus increases, the potential energy of the electrons is increased. Thus it can be said that the position occupied by an electron in an atom signifies a certain energy level of that electron. Again due to opposite charges in electron and nucleus, there will be an attraction force between them. Naturally this attraction force becomes weaker as the distance between nucleus and electrons increase. Hence the electrons min the outer most orbit of an atom experiences least attraction force. So the outermost atom can easily be detached from the parent atom.

Lets explain the details with band theory When a number of atoms are brought together, the electrons of one atom experience forces of other atoms. This effect is most pronounced in outer most orbits. Due to this force, the energy levels, which were sharply defined in an isolated atom, are now broadened into energy bands. Due to this phenomenon generally two bands result, namely valance band and conduction band.

Valance Band
The outermost orbital of an atom, where electrons are so tightly bounded that, they can not be removed as free electron

Conduction Band
This is the highest energy level or orbital in outer most shell, in which electrons are free enough to move.

Band Gap
There is one energy gap separates these two bands, the valance band and conduction band. This gap is called forbidden energy gap.

Electrical Conductivity of Metal

In metals, the atoms are so tightly packed that electrons of one atom experience sufficiently significant force of other closed atoms. That result, the valance band and conduction band in metals come very closer to each other may even overlap. Consequently, by receiving very small amount of energy from external heat or electrical energy source, the electrons readily ascend to higher levels in the metal. Such electrons are known as free electrons. These free electrons are responsible for current flows through a metal. When external electric source is connected to a piece of metal, these free electrons starts flowing towards higher potential terminal of the source, causing current to flow in the metal. So metal is good electrical conductor. In metal density of free electrons in conduction band is much higher than other materials, hence metal is referred as very electrical conductor. In other words electrical

conductivity

of

metal is

very

good.

Electrical Conductivity of Semiconductor

In semiconductor the valance band and conduction band are separated by a forbidden gap of sufficient width. At low temperature, no electron possesses sufficient energy to occupy the conduction band and thus no movement of charge is possible. But at room temperature it is possible for some electrons to give sufficient energy and make the transitions in conduction band. The density of electrons in conduction band at room temperature is not as high as in metals, thus can not conduct electrical current as good as metal. The electrical conductivity of semiconductor is not as high as metal but also not as poor as electrical insulator. That is why, this type of material is called semiconductor.

Electrical Conductivity of Insulator

Practically electrical conductivity of an electrical insulator is nil. The atoms in the insulator molecules are electrically stable enough. The outer most shell of these atoms are completely filled with electrons. In such material where forbidden gap is very large and as a result the energy required by the electron to cross over to the conduction band is practically large. Insulators do not conduct electricity easily. That means the electrical conductivity of insulator is very poor. The examples of these three basic types of materials are given below in a tabular form

Working Principle of Three Phase Induction Motor

An electrical motor is such an electromechanical device which converts electrical energy into a mechanical energy. In case of three phase AC operation, most widely used motor is Three phase induction motor as this type of motor does not require any starting device or we can say they are self starting induction motor. For better understanding the principle of three phase induction motor, the basic constructional feature of this motor must be known to us. This Motor consists of two major parts: Stator: Stator of three phase induction motor is made up of numbers of slots to construct a 3 phase winding circuit which is connected to 3 phase AC source. The three phase windings are arranged in such a manner in the slots that they produce a rotating magnetic field after AC is given to them. Rotor: Rotor of three phase induction motor consists of cylindrical laminated core with parallel slots that can carry conductors. Conductors are heavy copper or aluminum bars which fits in each slots & they are short circuited by the end rings. The slots are not exactly made parallel to the axis of the shaft but are slotted a little skewed because this arrangement reduces magnetic humming noise & can avoid stalling of motor.

Working of Three Phase Induction Motor

Production Of Rotating Magnetic field

The stator of the motor consists of overlapping windings offset by an electrical angle of 120. When the primary winding or the stator is connected to a 3 phase AC source, it establishes a rotating magnetic field which rotates at the synchronous speed. Secrets behind the rotation: According to Faradays law an emf induced in any circuit is due to the rate of change of magnetic flux linkage through the circuit. As the rotor windings in an induction motor are either closed through an external resistance or directly shorted by end ring, and cut the stator rotating magnetic field, an emf is induced in the rotor copper bar and due to this emf a current flows through the rotor conductor. Here the relative velocity between the rotating flux and static rotor conductor is the cause of electric current generation; hence as per Lenzs law the rotor will rotate in the same direction to reduce the cause i.e. the relative velocity.

Thus from the working principle of three phase induction motor it may observed that the rotor speed should not reach the synchronous speed produced by the stator. If the speeds equals, there would be no such relative velocity, so no emf induction in the rotor, & no current would be flowing, and therefore no torque would be generated. Consequently the rotor can not reach at the synchronous speed. The difference between the stator (synchronous speed) and rotor speeds is called the slip. The rotation of the magnetic field in an induction motor has the advantage that no electrical connections need to be made to the rotor. Thus the Three Phase Induction Motor is: Self-starting.

Less armature reaction and brush sparking because of the absence of commutators and brushes Easier to maintain. that Robust may in cause sparks. construction. Economical.

Working or Operating Principle of DC Motor

A DC Motor in simple words is a device that converts direct current(electrical energy) into mechanical energy. Its of vital importance for the industry today, and is equally important for engineers to look into the working principle of DC motor in details that has been discussed in this article. In order to understand the operating principle of dc motor we need to first look into its constructional feature.

The very basicconstruction of a dc motor contains a current carrying armature which is connected to the supply end through commutator segments and brushes and placed within the north south poles of a permanent or an electro-magnet as shown in the diagram below. Now to go into the details of the operating Principle of dc motor its important that we have a clear understanding of Flemings left hand rule to determine the direction of force acting on the armature conductors of dc motor.

Flemings left hand rule says that if we extend the index finge r, middle finger and thumb of our left hand in such a way that the current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field (represented by the index finger) is perpendicular to the direction of current (represented by the middle finger), then the conductor experiences a force in the direction (represented by the thumb) mutually perpendicular to both the direction of field and the current in the conductor. For clear understanding the principle of DC motor we have to determine the magnitude of the force, by considering the diagram below. We know that when an infinitely small charge dq is made to flow at a velocity v under the influence of an electric field E, and a magnetic field B, then the Lorentz Force dF experienced by the charge is given by:-

dF For i.e. or Where or or or dF F = its dF dL

= the operation dF the = is dF I dL = cross dq the

dq(E of = product (dL/dt) length = X IL B X of X of dc

+ motor, dq dq B the (dq/dt) v

v considering v and

X E X magnetic [v = field =

B) 0 B B. dL/dt] q. B = dq/dt] Sin

conductor dL [Since, B

carrying X current = I ILB

charge

or F = BIL Sin From the 1st diagram we can see that the construction of a dc motor is such that the direction of electric current through the armature conductor at all instance is perpendicular to the field. Hence the force acts on the armature conductor in the direction perpendicular to the both uniform i.e. field and current = is constant. 90

So if we take the current in the left hand side of the armature conductor to be I, and current at right hand side of the armature conductor to be I, because they are flowing in the opposite direction with respect to each other. Then the force on the left hand side armature conductor, Fl = BIL Sin90 = BIL Similarly force on the right hand side conductor Fr = B( I)L.Sin90 = BIL

we can see that at that position the force on either side is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction. And since the two conductors are separated by some distance w = width of the armature turn, the two opposite forces produces a rotational force or a torque that results in the rotation of the armature conductor.

Now lets examine the expression of torque when the armature turn crate an angle of with its initial position. The Torque or or = torque force, tangential = BIL produced to the direction is of armature = w given rotation X by distance. Fcos.w cos

Where is the angle between the plane of the armature turn and the plane of reference or the initial position of the armature which is here along the direction of magnetic field. The presence of the term cos in the torque equation very well signifies that unlike force the torque at all position is not the same. It in fact varies with the variation of the angle . To explain the variation of torque and the principle behind rotation of the motor let us do a stepwise analysis.

Step

1:

Initially considering the armature is in its starting point or reference position where the angle = = BIL w cos0 = 0. BILw

Since = 0, the term cos = 1, or the maximum value, hence torque at this position is maximum given by = BILw. This high starting torque helps in overcoming the initial inertia of rest of the armature and sets it into rotation.

Step

2:

Once the armature is set in motion, t he angle between the actual position of the armature and its reference initial position goes on increasing in the path of its rotation until it becomes 90 from its initial position. Consequently the term cos decreases and also the value of torque. The torque in this case is given by = BILwcos which is less than BIL w when is greater than 0

Step

3:

In the path of the rotation of the armature a point is reached where the actual position of the rotor is exactly perpendicular to its initial positio n, i.e. = 90, and as a result the term cos = 0. The torque acting on the conductor at this position is given by.

= BILwcos90 = 0

i.e. virtually no rotating torque acts on the armature at this instance. But still the armature does not come to a standstill, this is because of the fact that the operation of dc motor has been engineered in such a way that the inertia of motion at this point is just enough to overcome this point of null torque. Once the rotor crosses over this position the angle between the actual position of the armature and the initial plane again decreases and torque starts acting on it again.

What is transformer ? Definition & Working Principle of Transformer

Electrical Power Transformer is a static device which transforms electrical energy from one circuit to another without any direct electrical connection and with the help of mutual induction between to windings. It transforms power from one circuit to another without changing its frequency but may be in different voltage level.

This is very short and simple definition of transformer, as we will go through this portion of tutorial related to Electrical Power Transformer, we will understand more clearly and deeply "what is Transformer ?" and basic theory of transformer.

Working Principle of transformer

The working principle of transformer is very simple. It depends upon Faradays law of electromagnetic induction . Actually mutual induction between two or more winding is responsible for transformation action in an electrical transformer.
Faradays laws of Electromagnetic Induction

According

to

these Faradays

law,

"Rate of change of flux linkage with respect to time is directly proportional to the induced EMF in a conductor or coil".
Basic Theory of Transformer

Say you have one winding which is supplied by an alternating electrical source. The alternating current through the winding produces a continually changing flux or alternating flux surrounds the winding. If any other winding is brought nearer to the previous one, obviously some portion of this flux will link with the second. As this flux is continually changing in its amplitude and direction, there must be a change in flux linkage in the second winding or coil. According to Faradays law of electromagnetic induction, there must be an EMF induced in the second. If the circuit of the latter winding is closed, there must be an electric current flows through it. This is the simplest form of electrical power transformer and this is most basic of working principle of transformer. For better understanding we are trying to repeat the above explanation in more brief here. Whenever we apply alternating current to an electric coil, there will be an alternating flux surrounding that coil. Now if we bring another coil near by this first one, there will be an

alternating flux linkage with that second coil. As the flux is alternating, there will be obviously a rate of change of flux linkage with respect to time in the second coil. Naturally emf will be induced in it as per Faradays law of electromagnetic induction. This is the most basic concept of theory of transformer The winding which takes electrical power from the source, is generally known as Primary Winding of transformer. Here in our above example it is first winding. The winding which gives the desired output voltage due to mutual induction in the transformer, is commonly known as Secondary Winding of Transformer. Here in our example it is second winding

The above mentioned form of transformer is theoretically possible but not practically, because in open air very tiny portion of the flux of the first winding will link with second so the electric current flows through the closed circuit of latter, will be so small that it may be difficult to measure. The rate of change of flux linkage depends upon the amount of linked flux, with the second winding. So it desired to be linked almost all flux of primary winding, to the secondary winding. This is effectively and efficiently done by placing one low reluctance path common to both the winding. This low reluctance path is core of transformer, through which maximum number of flux produced by the primary is passed through and linked with the secondary winding. This is most basic theory of transformer.
Main constructional parts of transformer

So three main parts of a transformer are, 1. Primary Winding of transformer which produces magnetic flux when it is connected to electrical source.

2. Magnetic Core of transformer the magnetic flux produced by the primary winding, will pass through this low reluctance path linked with secondary winding and creates a closed magnetic circuit.

3. Secondary Winding of transformer the flux, produced by primary winding, passes through the core, will link with the secondary winding. This winding is also wound on the same core and gives the desired output of the transformer.