ANSWER -1

ANSWER 2 God, these last few weeks have been a struggle. Things have a way of arriving unannounced. But, there is an upside to this inner and outer struggle. It has made me look deeper into myself as a teacher and ask, As a teacher, who am I? Heres my answer. If I am merely a classroom manager, I accept the status quo of a host of I am. On the other hand, if I see myself as a classroom leader, I dispute the validity of the status quo and refuse to become like or submit to the system with a host of challenging and often annoying You can become and You are better than that and You can do it. I dont clutch this is how it has always been done so tightly that I cant embrace newness. As a teacher, I am a discriminating iconoclast. I have a selective irreverence. I am restlessness with the paralyzing I cant, discontent with the atrophying I am not, unsatisfied with the halting Its too hard. My refusals to accept those fearfully disguised nos, my beliefs in yeses, as Thomas Edison might have said, are the necessities for getting out of the ruts of complacency, certainty, resignation, sedentariness, and stasisand even despair. And, if youre worrying about critics, about what they will think, well, they just prove youre doing something worthwhile. I mean, damn! Rumi said, Observe the wonders as they occur around you. Not to be filled with joy in that classroom is one of the great sins in academia. In that classroom before us are potentials so many and so great we and they cant imagine them. This is a place overflowing with possibilities. This is a place heaped with opportunities. This is the future! To know all that, to understand that, to be understood, my teachers eyes, mind, and especially heart, have to be like parachu tes, for they function properly only when they are open. And, when they are openopen to all without exception and without conditionthey offer faith, hope, support, encouragement, and love. I know when I am open, I am assured that Ill never grow old; I may die of old age, but Ill die young; and, my teaching will never get old. We have to open our inner tap and let that faith, belief, hope, and love flow vibrantly out from us. To succeed, we first have to believe in each student in each student; we have to help each studenteach studentbelieve. No teacher has the right to give up on any student. Ill repeat that: no teacher has the right to give up on any student. Wasnt it Buddha who said, If we could see the miracle in single flower clearly, our whole life would change? What if we saw such a miracle in a so-called average student? What if we saw an angel walking before each student, proclaiming, Make way! Make way! Make way for someone created in the image of God? A strong positive belief in a student will create more miracles than any wonder technology, publication, or grant. That understanding has to be lived, not merely spoken. St. Francis of Assisi was right, its no use preaching unless our walking is our preaching. After all, reputations are not built on what you say you should do or what youre going to do. If we fail to embrace the opportunity, we lose the prize; we lose the student. We have to focus on that place, on the classroom, not just on the lab and archive and publishing house. Why? Well, What the mind of man creates, said Edison, his character controls. Because thats the prize: to do whatever it takeswhatever it takesto help each student open her or his eyes, mind, and heart so she or he can see where she or he will be, not where they have been or are; that there are no short cuts to any meaningful place; to help them see just how noble and sacred and valuable they are whatever their GPA, their gender, their religion, their race, their ethnicity, their sexual preference, their whatever; to help them see that living a life of integrity is the greatest lesson to learn; to help them to understand that the whole of existence is change and process, that life is change and process, and each of us is change and process; but, also understand that while achievement is not certain, failure is not final. As I have said so often, we have to help them learn that they are human becomings, not just human beings. The most important thing I, as a teacher, can do in a classroom, then, is to do something that will outlast and go beyond both me, the physical confines of the classroom, the restrictions of the class subject, and time limits of the term. And, that is to show that belief is more powerful than interest; that all in life is an experiment; that all in life is choice; that while you seldom get to choose how you die; you always choose how to live; that there is no guarantee and absolute security; that there is no perfection; that there is only opportunity and possibility; and that with self-confidence, self-esteem, self-respect, commitment, dedication, perseverance, and sweat supposedly average people can do the work of supposedly superior people. CHALLENGE IS ONE OF THE KEY COMPONENTS OF EFFECTIVE

curriculum and instruction. Brain research indicates that learning takes place when students abilities and interests are stimulated by the ppropriate level of challenge (Caine & Caine, 1991). This often leads to problems for gifted students: If the content and tasks that have been deemed suitable for their grade level are too easy, they will not be engaged, and as a result, they will not be learning. Brain research provides a physical explanation for students failure to learn. When tasks are not sufficiently challenging, the brain does not release enough of the chemicals needed for learning: dopamine, noradrenalin, serotonin, and other neurochemicals (Schultz, Dayan, & Montague, 1997, cited in Tomlinson & Kalbfleich, 1998). Evidence about high-ability students experiences in school indicates that, typically, they are not being challenged and their learning needs are not being met. Mathematics and science curricula, as they are traditionally taught, are often inappropriate for gifted students because they are highly repetitive and provide little depth (Johnson, Boyce, & Van Tassel-Baska, 1995; Johnson & Sher, 1997). In fact, at the elementary level, a national study found that an average of 35 to 50 percent of the regular curriculum could be eliminated for gifted students (Reis & Purcell, 1993)

The National Research Center on the Gifted and Talented has conducted extensive research about the instruction that gifted students receive in the regular classroom. In the Classroom Practices Survey, in which Researchers gathered data from a sample of 7,000 educators, teachers reported making only minor modifications, if any, for the gifted students in their classrooms (Archambault et al., 1993). The teachers who did report making adjustments usually did so by assigning more advanced reading materials, providing enrichment worksheets, or asking students to complete extra reports. In the Classroom Practices Observation Study, researchers found that in 84 percent of classroom activities, gifted students received no differentiation of any kind (Westberg, Archambault, Dobyns, & Slavin, 1993). In spite of the available strategies, it appears that teachers are finding it difficult to meet the needs of gifted learners. There are several possible reasons for this, all of them equally valid and powerful. To begin, schools are organized around the idea that students who are the same age will also have the same level of readiness and ability. In addition, teachers have seldom received training in how to differentiate instruction. They often rely on familiar methods rather than choosing strategies based on the needs of the gifted students (Starko & Schack, 1989). Teachers are beginning to receive more training as mainstreaming becomes more prevalent and schools begin to acknowledge students diver sity, but the tradition of one-size-fits-all instruction is pervasive and strong Ability Grouping Ability grouping is a complex and often divisive issue in education. It is difficult to deal with such a complicated subject in the limited space this publication allows. However, as teachers strive to implement collaborative learning strategies and to meet the needs of diverse learners, an overview of the various arguments and research about ability grouping seems essential. Before delving into the issue, it is important to define the differences between tracking and ability grouping. Tracking is the practice of sorting students into different classes based on their grades , test scores, and perceived abilities. Ability grouping refers to groups organized by the teacher within heterogeneous classrooms.

In a review of research on gifted students in the regular classroom, Johnsen and Ryser (1996) describe five overall areas for differentiation: modifying content, allowing for student preferences, altering the pace of instruction, creating a flexible classroom environment, and using specific instructional strategies. The bulk of the research concentrates on instructional strategies that have been linked to improved student achievement and have been shown to increase critical thinking,

problem-solving abilities, and creativity. The following have been established as effective strategies (Johnson & Ryser, 1996): Posing open-ended questions that require higher-level thinking Modeling thinking strategies, such as decisionmaking and evaluation Accepting ideas and suggestions from students and expanding on them Facilitating original and independent problems and solutions Helping students identify rules, principles, and relationships Taking time to explain the nature of errors

ANSWER 3
Development of teachers profession is one of the significant aspects that cannot be ignored when discussing the future of ed ucation. Expectations on education are high and rethinking of teachers continuous professional development is needed. Opportunities brought about by social net working tools are enabling teachers to network and collaborate with other teachers from anywhere, at any time, which offers new aspects to teachers in-service training as a lifelong learning opportunity. This section first enlists key issues for the future of education and then shortly introduces five scenarios for teachers pr ofession in 2025. Prospective scenario building can be seen as a strategic planning method to help make flexible long-term plans. It's a process of analysing possible future events by considering alternative possible outcomes (scenarios). This section offers five scenarios that take place in 2025, but first elaborates on a number of important concepts related to the future requirements for schools, teachers and technology. This section is based on the paper Trends and Challenges for Teacher Networking, elaborated by the Institute for Prospective Technological Studies (IPTS).

1. Key issues for the future of education

The role of teachers The important role of teachers as major stakeholders in shaping the future of learning is also highlighted in various studies. As learning becomes more personalised, the one-size-fits-all teaching method is becoming more and more outdated (Redecker, et al., 2011). Teachers will be prepared to design learning experiences which reflect the growing importance attributed to innovation and creativity in our societies (Cachia, et al., 2010; Johnson, et al., 2011). They also must be prepared to adapt their teaching practices to a rapidly changing global society. A call for action designed for the redefinition of teacher education highlights that teachers should become able to enable students to maximise the potential of their formal and informal learning. Teachers should also be ready to facilitate learning in multiple modalities: embracing a greater diversity of spaces, times, resources, media and methods for learning, as well as 21st century environments which are synchronous and asynchronous, face-to-face and virtual, local and global (Caroll & Resta, 2010). The role of teachers will evolve and it becomes closer to that of mentors (Redecker, et al., 2011). The emergence of open content has resulted in a vast array of education material posted online to be shared for free. Openness, sharing and collaboration is having a profound shift on the way students study and learn (Johnson, et al., 2011) and on the way teachers teach and learn. Teachers will need to work as effective members of learning teams, made up of novice and accomplished educators, students and subject matter experts which will turn schools into hubs of networked learning ecology (Caroll & Resta, 2010). Caroll & Resta propose the use of simulations as a method of training prospective teachers to encounter and respond to difficult situations in collaboration with colleagues. Teacher Training In 2003, Gilroy predicted that by 2010 teacher education staff in universities will have retired without being replaced as initial teacher training will become a thing of the past. In 2011, teacher training is still a major aspect of education. Teacher training has been recognised as key element in the Lisbon agenda for the creation of an effective "knowledge triangle" which consists of education, research and innovation (Council of the European Union, 2010). In a recent study on creativity and innovation in school, teacher training has been highlighted as a major area where more effort and improvement should be addressed in educational policies (Cachia, et al., 2010). Teacher training must go beyond the present paradigm of teacher preparation (Caroll & Resta, 2010). Prospective teachers need to experience a wide array of learning environments: observe how students learn in non-school environments, how learning take place in formal and informal contexts, how students engage in socially networked informal learning and how they collaborate between themselves (Caroll & Resta, 2010). Unfortunately, as argued by Caroll and Resta, diverse policy contexts and a lack of shared vision among stakeholders are limiting the reinvention of teacher education. The role of schools The role of schools as the major source of knowledge transmission has for a long period of time been taken for granted. Schools became so important in our societies that political intervention has made school attendance obligatory in countries in the West. However, recent developments of education suggest that as education can take place anywhere, the role of schools continues to evolve. The traditional link of learning with specific spaces, such as classrooms, is becoming de-linked as time and place constraints for connectivity are abolished (Miller, et al., 2008). Increasingly, information is stored outside school servers and acceptance and adoption of cloud-based applications and services is changing the way information is conceptualised in education (Johnson, et al., 2011). These changes have led to the discussion on de-institutionalisation of schooling in different future scenarios, as learning is taking place inside school, outside school, at home and online. For instance, in one scenario explored by Williams (2005), the development of learning networks and powerful ICT solutions are created as alternatives to the public school sector which is no longer able to deliver learning tailored to individual needs. However, schools remain an important institution in other future scenarios, as they are seen as instrumental in maintaining social capital (OECD, 2001). In more recent studies, it has been argued that schools need to be repositioned within the emerging learning landscape, both in terms of new formats and strategies for learning, as well as offering relevant, effective and relevant learning experiences (Redecker, et al., 2011). Schools have to be situated within the context of the future labour market requirements, so as to be flexible in responding to individual's learners needs. According to Redecker, et al. (2011), the role of schools shall be to guide students in selecting learning opportunities which best fit their lifestyle; to monitor progress; and to manage assessment, certification and accreditation mechanism. Controlling of costs from schools will also bring about the development of new models to serve students, such as providing open content through the network (Johnson, et al., 2011). Re-skilling Literature on the future of learning has also brought to the limelight the issue of re-skilling. The future of education will be influenced by a need for new skills which are "generic, transversal and cross-cutting", through which learners will be able to benefit as part of their lifelong learning path (Redecker, et al., 2011). This study underlines a major shift from knowledge to competencies, namely: problem-solving, reflection, creativity, critical thinking, learning to learn, risk-taking, collaboration and entrepreneurship. In addition to these competencies, in a world where information is everywhere, mentoring and preparing students to be able to assess credibility of information and make sense of it should be high on the education agenda (Johnson, et al., 2011). It has also been argued that learning will become more active and hence, there should be more skills focusing on learning by doing and through interaction and collaboration with others (Ala-Mutka, et al., 2010). These changes also mean that teachers will need to be able to re-skill their competencies, so as to keep updated with changes and be able to respondent to fast changing working environment. In parallel, school policies need to better align learning objectives with societal needs mainly because in the future European societies will be more intercultural and students need to be become better active citizens.

Formal and informal learning Another observable trend in terms of how education will evolve is the shift between formal and informal learning. It has been recognised that education mechanisms will have to be developed to better identify and assess informal skills (Redecker, et al., 2011). With the emergence of innovative technologies, individual learners are becoming more and more empowered. Learning is no longer confined to the classroom. While digital media literacy is on the increase, as an alternative to the lack of formal training, as yet, we are far from seeing digital media literacy as the norm (Johnson, et al., 2011). Discourse on the future of learning is also grounded on the idea that learning should be a continuous activity and not only bounded to education institutions. Lifelong learning should span from pre-school to post-retirement. A major component of learning takes place at the work place, in non-formal contexts and during leisure time. The trends and challenges listed above demonstrate that some major changes are taking place in education. Predictions on the future of education challenge current settings and propose various horizontal changes that need to take place in order to enhance education. In the next sections, consultations with teachers are presented, as a way of understanding how teachers perceive and view currents trends and challenges and what they believe should be done. Increasing development of new technologies Various studies demonstrate that a major driver influencing the future of education is the increasing development of new technologies and their appropriation in everyday life in most Western societies. It is difficult to think on the future of learning environments without ICT, at the forefront or at the background (Ala-Mutka, et al., 2010). Portable applications (such as laptops and mobile phones) and new communication applications (such as collaborative and social networking sites) are empowering users to access information from anywhere at any time. Technological applications are not only facilitating access, but have also amplified diversity of resources, they allow users to connect through online content and they have become models of collaboration (Ala-Mutka, 2009). In the future, learning is expected to be supported by flexible and dynamic virtual environments and by a range of tools which facilitate learning within and outside school (Redecker, et al., 2011). Findings from the same study also show that teachers envisage a shift in education to complex digital competencies juxtaposed with new communication skills, such as 24-7 online connection and management of different online identities. Another aspect discussed widely in relation to the future of learning is personalisation of learning (Johnson, et al., 2011; Miller, Shapiro, & Hilding-Hamann, 2008; Redecker, et al., 2011). Learners will be able to choose their own learning paths encompassing different types of content (such as mobile, videos, social media tools etc). Johnson, et al. (2011) also predict that learning analytics which refers to a group of tools which will allow teachers to monitor student engagement, performance and progress will also be part of the future of learning. Within such context, attainment of digital competences, that is, the competence to efficiently, confidently and critically use the technologies of the future in an efficient and targeted way becomes a priority (Ala-Mutka, et al., 2010).

2. Scenarios on teachers' collaboration networks in 2025

Although we cannot be certain of how the future will look like, the use of fictional future scenarios will provide some ideas of how the future of teacher collaboration networks in 2025 could look like. The departure point of these scenarios is the development and expansion of eTwinning (www.etwinning.net), a community of schools in Europe with more than 155.000 participants. Five futuristic scenarios have been developed by the Tellent partner organisation the Institute for Prospective Technological Studies (IPTS). These short scenarios are based on various issues and dimensions identified during an expert workshop on the future of teacher collaboration networks which took place in June 2011 at IPTS and on research carried out by the same institute on the future of learning (http://is.jrc.ec.europa.eu/pages/EAP/ForCiel.html). The Tellnet project has conducted two rounds of validation workshops on the scenarios. The feedback will be incorporated in the next version and the final scenarios are expected to be out in Spring 2012. First workshop took place with the conference Twinning: leading 21st centry schools where school heads of all over Europe participated. The second workshop took place in conjunction with European Schoolnet's Policy Innovation Committee, where close to 30 education authorities from Europe participated. The scenarios are the following and can be downloaded in this document (pdf): Scenario 1: eNet: European Education Network Scenario 2: MyNetwork Scenario 3: Intelligent Agents Scenario 4: Diversified Teaching Career Scenario 5: Offline Networking

Answer 4
According to a recent estimate of the International Labour Organisation (ILO), more than 120 million children between the ages of 5-14 are employed as full time labourers around the world. A good number of such children labour in the most hazardous and dangerous industries. In India itself, it is estimated that there are at least 44 million child labourers in the age group of 5-14. More than eighty percent of child labourers in India are employed in the agricultural and non-formal sectors and many are bonded labourers. Most of them are either illiterate or dropped out of school after two or three years. What is child labour? Child labour is not child work. Child work can be beneficial and can enhance a childs physical, mental, spiritual, moral or social development without interfering with schooling, recreation and rest. Helping parents in their household activities and business after school in their free time also contributes positively to the development of the child. When such work is truly part of the socialisation process and a means of transmitting skills from parents to child, it is not child labour. Through such work children can increase their status as family members and citizens and gain confidence and selfesteem. Child labour, however, is the opposite of child work. Child labour hampers the normal physical, intellectual, emotional and moral development of a child. Children who are in the growing process can permanently distort or disable their bodies when they carry heavy loads or are forced to adopt unnatural positions at work for long hours. Children are less resistant to diseases and suffer more readily from chemical hazards and radiation than adults. UNICEF classifies the hazards of child labour into three categories, namely (i) physical; (ii) cognitive; (iii) emotional, social and moral:

I. Physical hazards There are jobs that are hazardous in themselves and affect child labourers immediately. They affect the overall health, coordination, strength, vision and hearing of children. Working in mines, quarries, construction sites, and carrying heavy loads are some of the activities that put children directly at risk physically. Jobs in the glass and brassware industry in India, where children are exposed to high temperatures while rotating the wheel furnace and use heavy and sharp tools, are clearly physically hazardous to them. II. Cognitive hazards Education helps a child to develop cognitively, emotionally and socially, and needless to say, education is often gravely reduced by child labour. Cognitive development includes literacy, numeracy and the acquisition of knowledge necessary to normal life. Work may take so much of a childs time that it becomes impossible for them to attend school; even if they do attend, they may be too tired to be attentive and follow the lessons. III. Emotional, social and moral hazards There are jobs that may jeopardise a childs psychological and social growth more than physical growth. For example, a domestic job can involve relatively light work. However, long hours of work, and the physical, psychological and sexual abuse to which the child domestic labourers are exposed make the work hazardous. The Extent and General Pattern of Child Labour and its Hazards in India Researchers give a range of incidence of child labour in India from about 14 million to about 100 million. Some studies show every fourth child in the age group of 5-15 is employed. It is estimated that over 20% of the countrys GNP is contributed by child labour. The figures released by the non governmental agencies are much higher than those of the State. UNICEF cites figures from various resources that put child labour in India at between seventy-five to ninety million. For some observers, the exact number of child labourers in India could be as high as 150 million. In brief, India is the largest producer of child labour and illiteracy on this earth. According to at least one study, a quarter of the worlds total number of child labourers are in India and every third household in that country has a child at work. Children in India are employed in almost all the activities of the non-formal sector. However, most of them are employed in the agricultural sector or in jobs closely related to agriculture, as is the pattern in many developing countries. A unique factor in India is that a significant number of these children are bonded labourers. Slave labour or bonded labour is one of the worst forms of labour not only for children but also for adults. In India, bonded labour has been illegal since 1976 when Parliament enacted the Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act. However, the practice is still widespread. Children or adults are bonded in order to pay off debts that they or members of their families have incurred. They toil all their lives and endure physical attacks that often amount to torture. The areas or industries in which child labour is widely relevant are the Agricultural sector, Street work, Glass factories, Match factories, Carpet industry, Brass industry, Lock industry. Child Labour Laws The Indian constitution categorically states that child labor is a wrong practice, and standards should be set by law to eliminate it. The child labor act of 1986 implemented by the government of India makes child labor illegal in many regions and sets the minimum age of employment at fourteen years. There are many loop holes in this law in terms of affectivity. First is that it does not make child labor completely illegal and does not meet the guidelines set by ILO concerning the minimum age for employment, which is fifteen years. Moreover the policies which are set to reduce incidences of child labor are difficult to implement and enforce. The government and other agencies responsible for the enforcement of these laws are not doing their job. Without proper enforcement all policies and laws concerning child labor prove useless. Moreover certain sectors like agriculture and domestic work are not included in the exemption of child labor. Conclusion Often, child labour is considered to be a "necessary evil" in poor countries such as India for the maintenance of the family. In that context, some consider it virtuous to give a job to a child. In fact, some academics and activists campaign not for the reduction of child labour but only for a reduction in the exploitation of children. However, the question has to be asked whether it is justifiable to allow children from poor families to undergo physical, cognitive, emotional and moral hazards because they must help their families. The closest example is the children working in LIBA Canteen and Loyola mess. Although this might not be illegal under child labour act but is illegal under the Right to

Education Act which states Every child between the ages of 6 to 14 years has the right to free and compulsory education. I remember that two years ago when I was in Delhi, this law was used by government authorities to stop children being used in Dabas as cleaners and waiters. Although nobody had bothered to make a call to the authorities about these illegal activities in Loyola campus I expect some day someone will take the initiative.

ANSWER 5
AQUATIC EXOTICS
Slide
1. Title slide
AQUATIC EXOTICS

Script
Aquatic exotics are causing serious ecological and economic damage to our nation damage that could be happening right in your own backyard. During this presentation youll learn about the problems these invasive fish, aquatic invertebrates, and aquatic plants are causing. You'll also learn what you can do to prevent their spread and limit their impacts. The invasion of aquatic exotic species has been likened to biological pollution, which in turn is similar to chemical pollution. Both cause huge amounts of damage, require treatment, and can spread beyond the initial point of release, like the Exxon Valdez oil spill in 1989. Unlike chemical pollution, though, biological pollution is forever. In one of his speeches, former Senator John Glenn illustrated the comparison, Picture a pollution spill in the waters of your region that simply wont go away. Government and industry teams work to disperse it with chemicals and mechanical barriers, but as soon as the treatments stop, the pollution resurges. Worse yet, the spill spreads and concentrates in connecting waterways and is further seeded by unintentional transport overland. Municipalities, manufacturers, and agriculture experience degraded water supplies and higher operating costs. Shell-fisheries and fin-fisheries permanently decline. This scenario sounds like a nightmare, yet it closely approximates the result of unintentional release of nonindigenous species, or biological pollution into U.S. waters.

2.

Exxon Valdez oil spill

3.

Quote from OTA report

This problem of biological pollution is happening on

a global scale. This was highlighted in a 1993 report to the U.S. Congress by the Office of Technology Assessment, or OTA. The OTA predicted that By the end of the 21st Century, biological invasions will become one of the most prominent ecological issues on Earth. 4. OTA report contd According to that report, 4,500 aquatic and terrestrial species of foreign origin have established free-living U.S. populations. More than 205 species arrived since 1980, and 59 of these are expected to cause economic or environmental damage. Another, more recent report by researchers at Cornell University estimates that control costs for invasive terrestrial and aquatic species exceed 138 billion dollars annually. 5. Infestations are increasing Not only have we been invaded by thousands of species, there is evidence that the infestation rate is increasing. The OTA report shows that the rate of fish introductions has dramatically increased since 1950, while the rate of introductions of mollusks or clams began increasing earlier, in the 1920s. Few of these invaders found their way to North America on their own. Instead, they were introduced either purposefully or accidentally by people through a number of pathways. Our challenge is to interrupt the pathways of introduction. These pathways include: commercial shipping and barge traffic, researchers, aquaculture, public stocking, wild bait harvest, recreational boats and personal watercraft, live bait use by anglers, the nursery trade, aquascaping, aquarium releases, and the pet trade. Some exotic species in the Great Lakes that arrived through these pathways include purple loosestrife, zebra and quagga mussels, water fleas, Eurasian ruffe, round goby, alewife; chinook, coho, pink and Atlantic salmon; and rainbow and brown trout. In fact, over the last two centuries, more than 139 exotic species have been introduced into the Great Lakes through these pathways. Of the 139 exotics, 77 are from Eurasia, 18 are from the Atlantic Ocean, 12 are from Asia, 7 are from the Mississippi River basin, another 7 are from the Pacific and southern U.S., and there were 18 whose origin could not be documented.

6.

Interrupt the pathways

7.

Great Lakes exotics

8.

Where did they come from?

9.

How did they get here?

How did these species get here? The largest portion of these was introduced by ships, followed by unintentional releases, multiple releases, unknown sources, deliberate releases, canals and diversions, and railroads and highways. What kinds of species have been introduced? Wetland plants rank first, followed by invertebrates, fish, algae, and fish pathogens. And, since this research was published, the Great Lakes have witnessed more introductions bringing the total number to over 160 species. This Far Side cartoon by Gary Larson helps emphasize a point about "biological pollution." It says: Well shucks! Ive lost again. Talk about your alien species luck! But, biological invaders are not just lucky. Often, they have attributes that give them a competitive advantage over our native species. They are usually aggressive and prolific species that mature quickly. They frequently leave behind diseases, parasites, predators, competitors, and other factors that keep the populations in their native ranges in check. Because theyre kept in check, these species usually are not a problem in their native habitat. In their new habitat, introduced species can be characterized as being good, bad, or ugly. Some species either have no impact or are considered to be beneficial. Those are the good. The bad species have a definite negative impact in their new habitat. And, ugly species are those that may have a significant negative impact in the future, but arent yet a definite problem. First, well start with the good those species that have been introduced and are beneficial in some ways. Pheasants are exotic species, but provide hunting or bird watching enjoyment. In the Great Lakes, most of the trout and salmon species are also introduced, but support charter and recreational fishing. Other exotics, like honeybees, provide benefits to agriculture. It is sometimes difficult to distinguish between a "good" and a "bad" exotic species because many exotics have both positive and negative effects. Without question, however, many are bad. We

10.

What are they?

11.

Why do exotics cause problems?

12.

The good, the bad, the ugly

13.

The good

know that they have a definite negative impact. 14. The bad: zebra & quagga mussels The poster child for bad aquatic exotic species is the zebra mussel. Zebra mussels and their cousins, quagga mussels, change the way we use our lakes and rivers. In many systems, they have had costly and devastating impacts. Zebra mussels are small, bivalve mollusks bivalve meaning that there are two halves to its shell. Theyre prolific creatures. A mature female can produce from 30 thousand to 1.6 million eggs per year. During spawning, the water can be so thick with zebra mussel larvae, called veligers, that there could be more than 100 in a coffee cup scoop of water. These veligers are about the diameter of a human hair, and drift on water currents. Two to four weeks after hatching, the freeswimming larvae settle and attach to any solid object, including each other. If they attach to movable objects, such as a boat, they can be spread to other waterways. Zebra mussels attach to surfaces by secreting sticky fibers, called byssal threads. A single, tiny zebra mussel poses no threat.. but they are rarely found as scattered individuals. Given the right conditions, they can appear by the billions and form thick carpets that can cover lake and river bottoms. 19. Impacts of zebra mussels (shells on beach) The impacts of zebra mussels are varied. One type of impact results from their feeding. Adults feed by drawing water into their bodies, and then filtering and consuming the suspended particles that are in that water. Each adult mussel filters about one liter of water per day. Based on zebra mussel densities in the western basin of Lake Erie, experts calculate that zebra mussels filter all of the water in the basin once every three days. Zebra mussel filtering may improve water clarity and make the water nicer to look at, but it alters plant and animal communities. For example, in lakes Erie and St. Clair, rooted aquatic plants have become established in areas where they have been absent for a long time. In other areas, aquatic plants have grown more densely than usual, and

15.

Split slide of adult and veliger mussels.

16.

Zebra mussel colony

17.

Zebra mussel byssal threads

18.

Zebra mussel colony

20.

Impacts of zebra mussels (weed growth)

have extended into deeper waters because of increased light penetration. Aquatic plants now choke many marinas, boat basins, and harbors in the Great Lakes. Also, scientists believe that through their feeding, zebra mussels are disrupting the food web, leading to the decline of sport and commercial fisheries. 21. Impacts of zebra mussels (fouled recreational boat and clogged water pipe) Zebra mussels can also impact boaters and shore land property owners. They can attach to boat hulls, clog boat engine cooling systems, and clog water intakes. Scraping off the zebra mussels from an encrusted hull can damage the boats paint or gel coat. By growing in an engine cooling system, they can block water flow, which can cause the engine to overheat. If you own shoreline property and draw water from an infested lake or river, they can also clog your pumps and hoses, making them inoperative. In much the same way, zebra mussels also affect industries and municipalities that draw water from the Great Lakes. These entities have several effective ways to control zebra mussels, but controlling zebra mussels is costly. In fact, these costs may already be adding to your monthly utility bills. For example, from 1989 to 1994, zebra mussel control costs for industries and municipalities around the Great Lakes were an estimated 120 million dollars. An individual, medium-size city can spend 360,000 dollars annually. A nuclear power plant can spend up to 2 million dollars annually. 23. Impacts of zebra mussels (mother and child at beach) And, because of the densities theyre able to achieve, zebra mussels can cause a clean, sandy beach to turn into a beach littered with piles of decaying flesh and sharp shells, which can restrict swimming and wading. Zebra mussels can spread relatively easily. They can spread as microscopic larvae in containers of surface water. They can also spread as adults on boat hulls and aquatic plants that become entangled on recreational boat motors and trailers. Given this, its remarkable that they havent spread any farther than they have. In fact, as of June 2001, they had only spread to inland lakes in ten states.

22.

Impacts of zebra mussels (electrical power plant)

24.

Split slide: zebra mussel windrows on beach and man on beach Zebra mussel distribution

25.

Most of these are within a short distance of the Great Lakes. 26. Quagga mussel distribution The cousin of the zebra mussel, the quagga mussel is also spreading. While they seem to prefer colder, deeper areas of lakes Erie, Ontario, and Michigan, they have also spread to the Ohio and Mississippi rivers. Theyre even out-competing zebra mussels in the Erie Canal and in shallow areas of the Great Lakes. Identification and early detection are important to preventing the spread of all of the exotics that well talk about. For zebra and quagga mussels, newly settled individuals feel like fine sandpaper on smooth surfaces, such as a boat hull. As they grow, they look like coarse grains of pepper. During the next stage, they begin to take on their characteristic brown to black striping. 28. Zebra mussel in hand Zebra mussels cause serious ecological and economic damage to areas they infest. Industries and municipalities have effective control methods to keep zebra mussels from clogging pipes, but those methods cost us all a lot of money. Since there is no method to control zebra mussels in natural aquatic ecosystems, preventing their spread is critical. Another bad invader is the rusty crayfish, an aggressive species that can replace native crayfish. It also competes for food with juvenile game and forage fish, raids fish nests for eggs, and has nearly eradicated aquatic plants in some northern lakes. This loss of plants results in a loss of fish habitat and possibly greater shoreline erosion. Where did they come from? The native range of the rusty crayfish encompasses the Ohio River basin. Currently, they are found in all of the Great Lakes states, and have spread to inland lakes in the Midwest, New England, Tennessee, and New Mexico. How have they spread? Rusty crayfish most likely spread by: anglers using live rusty crayfish as bait,

27.

ID and early detection (finger pointing to small zebra mussel)

29.

Rusty crayfish

30.

Rusty crayfish U.S. distribution

31.

Rusty crayfish spread

commercial harvesters, ballast water, and biological supply houses, which provide live specimens for study by teachers and students. Their life history facilitates their spread. Like most crayfish, mating typically occurs in the fall and the female stores the sperm until she releases the eggs in the spring. Therefore, one female rusty can populate a whole new area by herself males need not be present. 32. Rusty crayfish identification Distinguishing a rusty crayfish from native species can be difficult. Adult rusty crayfish can be much larger than our native crayfish up to eight inches long from claw to tail. The main distinguishing characteristic is the rust-colored spots on its shell or carapace. They look as if they have been picked-up by someone with rust-colored paint on their thumb and forefinger. Also, their large claws are grayishgreen to red-brown with black tips. These characteristics only apply to mature adult males. Juveniles are difficult to distinguish from native species, so identifications should always be confirmed. Because they are similar to native crayfish in terms of biology and life history, there is no known environmentally friendly method of control for rusty crayfish. Therefore, preventing their spread is again critical. Another bad invader is this small, strange-looking, bottom fish called the round goby. It also came into the Great Lakes in ballast water and is now considered a nuisance by anglers. A round goby can spawn up to 6 times per year and produce 500 to 5,200 eggs per spawning period. It is a very aggressive fish and can feed during both day and night. Because of these characteristics, it can out-compete native, bottom-dwelling species, such as the mottled sculpin, for food and spawning sites. These attributes also allow them to quickly dominate local fisheries. In addition to their impacts on bottom-dwelling forage fish, round gobies could possibly impact lake trout and sturgeon by feeding on their eggs. This could spell additional trouble for revitalization of

33.

Two rusty crayfish

34.

Round goby

35.

Round goby impacts (mottled sculpin)

36.

Round goby impacts (lake trout)

these fisheries throughout the Great Lakes. 37. Confirmed round goby sightings First found in the St. Clair River in 1990, the round goby quickly spread to parts of all of the Great Lakes via inter-lake and intra-lake ballast water discharge. No inland lakes are infested, but two Michigan rivers have gobies, which were probably introduced by anglers using the goby as bait. Theyve also spread downstream into the Chicago Waterways en route to the Mississippi River. Round gobies are easy to identify. There is no other fish in the Great Lakes whose pelvic fins are fused except its cousin the tubenose goby, which is also an exotic. This fin basically looks like someone took half of a clam shell and stuck it to the fishs belly. Gobies can use this disc like a suction cup to anchor to the bottom of rivers and streams. 39. Eurasian watermilfoil (lake choked with milfoil) The last bad invader that well address is Eurasian watermilfoil. Eurasian watermilfoil is a highly invasive, submerged, aquatic plant that forms dense mats. It replaces native plants, and degrades food, shelter, and nesting sites for fish. Dense mats, as shown here, can clog waterways and limit swimming and boating. The main way that Eurasian watermilfoil spreads is by fragmentation. A two-inch long fragment can be carried in water currents to another location, and begin a new infestation. While it can spread naturally in connected waters, Eurasian watermilfoil is primarily spread when it becomes entangled on powerboats, sailboats, and personal watercraft that are then launched in other waterways. Where did it come from and where is it now? As its name implies, Eurasian watermilfoil is native to Europe and Asia. It first appeared on the East Coast and subsequently spread throughout the continental U.S., except for Maine. Historically, natural resource management agencies have controlled Eurasian watermilfoil by using herbicides and mechanical harvesting, both of which harm native plants, are expensive, and are time consuming.

38.

Round goby identification

40.

Eurasian watermilfoil (fragments)

41.

Eurasian watermilfoil (on boat motor)

42.

Eurasian watermilfoil: U. S. distribution

43.

Optimistic news

However, there is some optimistic news for the future. Research has shown that a North American species of weevil feeds on Eurasian watermilfoil stems. Their feeding can cause the stems to droop and fall to the lake bottom. While it is unlikely that the weevils will eradicate infestations, under certain conditions, the weevils have reduced the canopy formed by Eurasian watermilfoil. This improves the opportunities for both native plant diversity and recreation. 44. Spiny waterflea Now, moving from the bad to the ugly again, those species that havent yet had a definite impact, but might in the future. There is an invasive species thats even smaller than the zebra mussel called the spiny water flea, Bythotrephes cederstroemi, or BC. BC is a type of zooplankton, which are tiny animals that live suspended in the water of lakes and rivers. BC is a predator that grows only to about three-eighths of an inch long. This invader can impact fisheries by eating smaller zooplankton, which are important food resources for juvenile and forage fish. In southern Lake Michigan and inland lakes in Ontario, scientists partially blame the spiny water flea for a decline in and sometimes localized extirpation of small, native zooplankton. Spiny water fleas seem to prefer larger lakes with open waters that stratify. This allows them to stay near the thermocline during the day, avoiding sunlight and predation. 45. Spread of BC into the Great Lakes BC was first found in Lake Huron in 1984. Within the next three years it had spread to all of the Great Lakes. It has since spread to more than thirty inland lakes in Minnesota, Michigan, and southern Ontario, most likely by boaters and anglers. Boaters and anglers can transport BC, but can also be the first to discover new infestations. Thats because BC can easily get caught on fishing lines and downrigger cables. This picture shows 40 to 50 female spiny waterfleass entangled on a downrigger cable.

46.

Spiny waterfleas on downrigger cable

47.

Fishhook water flea: Cercopagis pengoi

The spiny water flea has an invasive cousin called the fishhook water flea or Cercopagis pengoi. The fishhook water flea is slightly longer, about a half-inch long, and has a spiny tail that meets the body at a 90 degree angle. It also has a characteristic corkscrew or fishhook bend near the end of its tail, which gives it its name. This invader was first found in Lake Ontario in 1998. It quickly spread east to west across the lake, and has since spread to Lake Michigan and several Finger Lakes in New York. Because the fishhook water flea is a relatively new invader, we dont yet know what ecosystem impacts it will have. Its suspected that it also will reduce numbers of native zooplankton. Its already become a nuisance to anglers by fouling downrigger cables and fishing lines, and clogging fishing reels.

48.

Eurasian ruffe

Lake Superior was ground zero for the North American invasion of the Eurasian ruffe. This spiny fish first arrived in Duluth-Superior Harbor in the mid-1980s via ballast. By 1991, ruffe had become the most abundant fish in the harbor. Despite efforts to manage it by stocking predatory fish, the ruffe infestation grew to over six million by 1996, and remains high today. Concurrent decreases in forage fish and yellow perch in Duluth-Superior Harbor raised concerns over the infestations impacts on native fish. Because ruffe can spawn two to three times per season, mature rapidly, and feed during the day and at night, they have the ability to compete with and displace our native fish. One native fish of particular concern is yellow perch. Researchers have demonstrated that yellow perch grow more slowly in the presence of ruffe, and that their diets overlap significantly. Elsewhere in Lake Superior, however, downward trends in yellow perch and shiner populations in the absence of ruffe suggest that native fish in Duluth-Superior Harbor might have problems that are not due to ruffe alone.

49.

Eurasian ruffe in hand

50.

Eurasian ruffe impacts

51.

Ruffe: predicted distribution

Ruffe may have a significant impact on native fishes if it spreads to other, more productive waters like Lake Erie or inland lakes and rivers. The National

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration predicted that a moderate-level, Great Lakes-wide infestation would have an estimated 105 million dollar annual impact on the fisheries. 52. Confirmed ruffe sightings Currently, ruffe have spread north to three harbors along the north shore and all along the south shore of Lake Superior to just past Ontonagon, Michigan. In 1995, they were also found in Lake Huron at Alpena, Michigan, which was probably a ballast water introduction from the Duluth-Superior Harbor. The good news is that ruffe have not spread significantly since then, and there are no inland lakes or rivers with confirmed sightings. Much of the success in preventing new infestations of ruffe is due to public awareness. Anglers know that ruffe are bad, and are not using or transporting them to inland waters as bait. This is doubly good since it is illegal to use ruffe as bait in all Great Lakes states, Ontario, and Quebec. 53. White perch in hand Another ugly fish is the white perch. White perch are native to brackish waters along the Atlantic coast. They were first found in Lake Erie in 1953, and since then have become the second most abundant species in the western basin of the lake. Now found in all of the Great Lakes, white perch feed mainly on zooplankton, large invertebrates, and small fish. They tend to prefer shallow areas, such as river mouths, bays, reefs, and nearshore areas. White perch are easily confused with white bass, which are native to some of the Great Lakes. The white bass is distinguished by the dark, horizontal stripes on its back and sides. White perch are commonly caught by anglers and are harvested commercially from Lake Erie. Possibly transported with drum and shiners, white perch now infest several inland watersheds in Ohio. In some areas of the Great Lakes, white perch can grow up to ten inches long. However, where populations are high, they are commonly stunted and mostly undesirable to anglers. In polluted areas, white perch exceed allowable PCB tissue residues, and thus are prohibited from sale for human consumption. The threespine stickleback is a bug-eyed exotic

54.

White perch and white bass

55.

White perch painting

56.

Threespine stickleback

fish that is causing concern over its rapid spread and potential impacts. Its natural range includes Hudson Bay, the Atlantic coast, and Lake Ontario. Since 1980, it has spread to lakes Superior, Michigan, and Huron, probably through ballast water discharge, and water diversions and canals. While we know something about its spread, little is known about its potential impacts. 57. Threespine and fourspine sticklebacks There is concern, though, that the threespine stickleback and its exotic cousin, the fourspine stickleback, may compete with native sticklebacks because their diets overlap. These fish are easy to identify there are three or four spines on the dorsal fin. Basically they look like bug-eyed fish with a bad haircut. Our native sticklebacks have five or more spines on their dorsal fins. 58. Purple loosestrife In contrast to these ugly invaders, there is a beautiful one called purple loosestrife. Purple loosestrife is an invasive, perennial plant from Europe. It has spread across North American wetlands, lakeshores, roadside ditches, and other moist areas. But while its beautiful, its also devastating. In habitats that it invades, it forms dense stands and crowds out native plants. This reduces food, shelter, and nesting opportunities for wildlife, which leads to an overall decrease in biodiversity. 59. Purple loosestrife U. S. distribution Purple loosestife first arrived on the East Coast in the 1800s via solid ballast soil and settlers who brought the seeds to plant in their gardens. It has since invaded nearly the entire continental U.S. Each plant can produce over two million seeds per year that spread by wind and water currents. In addition, its seeds are often distributed in wild seed mixtures, and the plant is often used in flower gardens. This occurs despite the fact that many states have made it illegal to plant or propagate purple loosestrife. Traditional methods of control include hand pulling, spot treatment with herbicides, burning, mowing, and public education aimed at prevention. However, many states are adopting a new management technique. 60. Picture of beetle: good This technique involves five species of European

news

insects that have undergone rigorous experimentation by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, and are approved for release. The most commonly used is a weevil, called Galerucella, which feeds on the plants leaves and growing shoots. Feeding by the weevil defoliates the plant, reduces or eliminates flowering, and in many cases ultimately kills the plant. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service predicts that Galerucella releases could reduce purple loosestrife in North America by 80 to 90% over the next 15 to 20 years. Like the Eurasian watermilfoil weevil, the release of this biocontrol agent is not intended to eradicate purple loosestrife. Instead, it is intended to reduce purple loosestrife to manageable levels that will allow native plants to re-colonize and thrive again.

61.

We can make a difference! (cartoon)

Despite all this doom and gloom about invasive species impacting our lives and our natural resources, people can and are working to prevent their spread. Research has shown that boaters and anglers have contributed to the spread of aquatic exotic species. But, the good news is that education can help reduce the risk for spread. A survey conducted by Minnesota Sea Grant in 1994 shows that most boaters across Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Ohio understand that preventing the spread of aquatic exotics is important. Part of the purpose of this survey was to 1) find out how to best reach boaters with the most effective message, and 2) determine whether they are taking action based on this knowledge.

62.

Three state exotic species boater survey

63.

Sources for exotics information

Here is where boaters said they get their information on exotics. All of them overwhelmingly said newspapers and TV usually 80% or better. People also ranked signs at boat launches highly, second only to newspapers and TV. Magazines also ranked high. The boaters were asked, How effective are each of the following to get you to take steps to prevent the spread of aquatic exotics? Boaters responded that signs at boat accesses, information in fishing and boating booklets, brochures and pamphlets, and

64.

How effective are the following?

education inspections were very effective. Ranking lowest were laws and road checks. It was obvious that folks dont like them. However, they have been shown to be effective tools in some states. 65. What influence you most? They were next asked, What influences boaters most? Keeping them out of MY lake or river, signs at boat accesses, a sense of personal responsibility, and preventing damage were all very influential. These responses indicate that boaters and anglers are open to education, and that that these feelings should be tapped into for future educational campaigns. 66. Why didnt you take precautions? If they didnt take action to prevent the spread of aquatic exotics, they were asked Why not? Most responded that they didnt boat in infested waters, or that they didnt know what to do. So, boater education is key. The best outlets for aquatic exotics information is TV, radio, newspapers, public service announcements, water access signs, fact sheets, cards, regulations booklets, watercraft inspections, regulations prohibiting spread, and billboards.

67.

What works?

68.

Survey conclusions

Overall boater education changes behavior, boaters believe it is important to prevent the spread of aquatic exotics, prime information outlets are the media, access signs, brochures, fishing and boating pamphlets, and, educational efforts must continue.

69.

Education works

Education works. Nationally, the rate of inland lake zebra mussel infestations is slowing, and the infestations are limited to inland lakes in just ten states. They have not spread as far as they easily

could have. In some states, where Eurasian watermilfoil public prevention is stressed, the infestation rate has dramatically slowed. Also, Eurasian ruffe have been in Lake Superior since 1986, yet there are no inland lake infestations. Likewise, the round goby has been in the Great Lakes for over a decade, but has not spread to many inland waterways. 70. Prevent the spread Recreational water users and shoreline property owners can prevent the spread of aquatic exotics. Know how to identify exotics and which waters are infested. Know the laws concerning prohibited exotics. And, learn the five simple steps to prevent the spread of aquatic exotic species. Follow these steps before launching and before leaving any water access: 1. Remove aquatic plants and animals from your boat, motor, and trailer. 2. Drain lake or river water from bait bucket, live wells, and bilge. 3. Dispose of unwanted live bait on shore or in the trash. 4. Rinse boat and equipment with high pressure or 104 degree Fahrenheit water, especially if moored for more than a day. 5. Or, dry all equipment for at least 5 days under good drying conditions By taking a few moments to do these easy steps, you will help protect your property and our valuable water resources. 72. Several boats on water This presentation highlighted a few of the least wanted aquatic exotic species that have made the Great Lakes and some inland waters their home. There are many other invaders on our doorstep. Your help is vital to keeping them out of our water resources. Report any suspicious sightings of aquatic plants or animals to your state Sea Grant program, natural resources management agency, or the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Each year, reports from the public provide valuable information concerning spread of aquatic exotic species. Whether it is the Great Lakes or any other waters,

71.

Prevent the spread contd

the establishment of each aquatic exotic species causes ripple effects across the food web. These effects can be felt by everyone from industry, to the every day boater, to the tax payer. And rarely, if ever, is it possible to eradicate an aquatic exotic infestation from a natural ecosystem. That's why prevention is so important. Aquatic exotics are a major problem in and threat to our water resources. Thus, they deserve our earnest attention. 73. Credits

ANSWER6
Technologies and Media for Distance Education
Mohammed Ali Habash EMC 598 Arizona State University Summer 1998 Chapter 5 is titled "Technologies and Media". In this chapter, Moore and Kearsley discussed the various technologies and delivery media available for distance education. Different media types are used to deliver information. Each medium and each technology has its own strengths and weaknesses. Many factors control these media technologies. How a medium is used is more important than what particular technologies are selected. The use of the medium is part of the design of the distance education program itself. The following World Wide Web sites are resources that may provide a better understanding of the different perspectives of the distance education learner: Print medium: Print is the most common medium used in distance education. Forms of print are textbooks, manuals, course notes, and study guides. Print materials are relatively inexpensive to develop or distribute (Moore, p78). Print is used in some form by almost all distance education courses, regardless of what other media they employ. http://www.utexas.edu/cc/cit/de/deprimer/technology.html#printmedia This site describes the meaning of print media. It lists the advantages and disadvantages of this medium. Print media is used here in an "asynchronous way" by the learner. The site defines "asynchronous medium" as "Communication characterized by time-independence. That is, the sender and receiver do not communicate at the same time." Audio- and Videocassettes materials is generally expensive and involves specialized skills (recording, editing, directing). Some distance learning provide what's called "video-based instruction". In such program, video tapes are the main medium of delivery of information to the learner. The site below provides a

definition for video-based instruction and lists a success story about a man who completed a degree in clinical calculations by video tapes. http://www-test.asdl.peachnet.edu/dlearn/dl_videobased.html Radio and Television Radio and television broadcasting has been used for educational purposes for many years (Moore, 85). There are different types of broadcast: public, cable, and satellite. Some of the advantages of radio and television broadcasting is that they Audio- and videotapes have come to play an increasingly important role as media for distance education. These technologies are convenient and cost-effective. Most people have VCRs in their homes, and videotapes are easy and inexpensive to distribute. These media can be used to present the views of experts, which would increase the credibility of and interest in the materials. Materials that cannot be communicated by print could be communicated this way. Video is a powerful medium in terms of capturing attention, and conveying a lot of information quickly. Producing audio- or videotape helps keeping students in track, and get people in the community involved, and may recruit new learners to the institute. Broadcast may be provided to learners through cable television network or satellite broadcast. Those channels can provide good quality broadcast and dedicated channels for educational purposes. The site below defines television broadcast as "one-way asynchronous communication medium". An important disadvantage of television broadcast that this site lists is that broadcast delivery encourages passive viewing rather than active participation. Students lack control over the medium and are unable to stop the flow of information to ask questions and enhance understanding. http://www.uzevakfi.org.tr/tec.html Teleconferencing Moore and Kearsley define teleconferencing in terms of describing "the interaction of students and instructors via some form of telecommunications technology. There are four different types of teleconferencing.: audio, audiographics, video, and computer." http://www-distlearn.pp.asu.edu/dlt_info/text/dlt_info/tele-text.html This site above introduces the teleconferencing technologies used in the Distance Education Technology Department at Arizona State University. Teleconferencing is provided using a variety of communication technologies such as satellite, microwave, and Instructional Television Fixed Service(ITFS). Services include producing, hosting, or broadcasting satellite downlinks, uplinks, or 2-way teleconferences to a number of locations. In this system, teleconferences are typically scheduled in one of four studio classrooms located on the main campus and or at ASU West. Seating is available for 36-62 participants. The studio classrooms have 3-camera production capability, an audio distribution system connecting remote locations and the studio on campus, and A-V equipment such as slide projectors, an overhead graphics camera and pad suitable for showing visual aids, 3/4" or SVHS videotape recorders, computers etc. Computers can interface with the TV system for showing graphics or other visual aids and the Internet. Audioconferencing is most common and least expensive form of teleconferencing. Supported with audio samples, the site below lists the different formats of audioconferencing, beside providing

advantages and disadvantages of this technology. A fact given here is that the basis for audio conferencing is always the telephone. http://www.utexas.edu/cc/cit/de/deprimer/tech-audio.html Audiographic teleconferencing systems involve the use of computer or facsimile technology to transmit visuals to support the audio. Some computer systems allow the transmission of graphics, programs, and data, where each site sees anything on the instructor computer screen, besides hearing the audio. Audigraphic systems are good for classes that involve a lot of illustration, such as equations, or computer applications. Videoconferencing can be transmitted via satellite, cable, or standard telephone lines. It requires compressing the videos and several equipment. Videoconferencing allows learners and instructors to interact face-to-face. The site below is a site for a class that is being taught by videoconferencing. The site answers questions about videoconferencing technology, why, when, and how to use it. Using high-quality compressed video and audio technology, this videoconference/distance education classroom is networked with all the University of California and California State campuses. This videoconference/distance education classroom is also capable of connecting with other sites across the state, the nation and the world. http://media.ucsc.edu/VideoConf/distedinfo.html Computer Conferencing allows students and instructors to interact via a computer network. This interaction can be through e-mail messages, file transfer, chat rooms, real audio and video, and others. With the fast progress in computer technology, computer conferencing is taking its place in educational technology. Computer conferencing provides good quality, easy to use, and costefficient way of interaction. Computer-Based Instruction According to Moore, Computer-Based Instruction (CBI) refers to instructional programs that the student uses alone on a personal computer. The program is usually provided on CD-ROM, in multimedia format (graphics, text, sound, and video). Even though CD-ROM-based instruction provides effective presentations and cost-effective medium, it is not commonly used in distance education programs, since it does not provide dynamic content and needed interaction between the learner and the instructor. The site below has a slide show about using computer technology in distance education. It divides computer-based instruction into Multimedia-based (like CD-ROM) and Internet-based (like email and WWW). http://www.cs.uwyo.edu/~rex/virtualu/sld003.htm One-way and Two-way asynchronous communication http://www.uzevakfi.org.tr/tec.html These terms were given to a collection of media used in distance education by the Distance Education Foundation in Turkey. One-way communication includes broadcast, videotapes, and multimedia. Two-way communication includes teleconferencing, satellite broadcast, and Cable television. The site provides technical definitions of these technologies, besides brief definitions of communication tools like Telnet, e-mail, DVD. Web-Based Conferencing

While many on-line resources mention this medium, Moore and Kearsley does not. An example of web-based conferencing is CU-SeeMe, the best-known web-based conferencing tool. It is a new tool that replaces long-distance phone calls over the web and escapes long distance charges. The educational applications for this technology seems limited, and with the bandwidth limitations of the World Wide Web it is not a promising technology. The site below provides a definition, advantages and disadvantages of this technology. http://www.utexas.edu/cc/cit/de/deprimer/tech-web.html Web-Based Instruction: With the fast growth of the Internet, and the fast progress of communication, the world wide web is a new promising medium for distance learning. With the enormous number of resources available online, and the increasing number of people who have access to the Internet, web-based instruction is considered one of the fastest media for teaching and learning. The world wide web provides a cost-effective, technology rich, and interactive medium. Even though she did not introduce webbased instruction as a medium for distance learning, Shirley Alexander discusses the relationship between the evolution of educational technology and teaching and learning on the world wide web, in a paper presented in Australia Web 97 conference. The paper is available on the site below, and it provides a deep look at the history of technology development and the rise of the world wide web as an instructional medium. http://elmo.scu.edu.au/sponsored/ausweb/ausweb95/papers/education2/alexander/ Media Selection Issues There is a large number of technologies available for the delivery of distance education course. Selecting the medium is an important part of the efficiency of that course. Each medium has its own strengths and weaknesses, and these should be matched to the nature of the learning setting. The medium selection process should be undertaken for each course and each program, since they all have different requirements depending on the objectives, learners, and learning environment. The site below sets the criteria for selecting media for distance education. It divides media into three categories: print-based, Audio-visual or technology based, and human interaction. Through using technologies classification diagram by Eijkelenburg, Heeren & Vermeulen, 1992*. This site provides criteria for selecting the appropriate media for the distance education course. This site is also rich with information about different media and technologies, besides information about distance learning theories and modules. http://www.pit.ktu.lt/HP/coper/kiev.new/cit/ap_ch4/act25.htm * This diagram can be found at http://www.pit.ktu.lt/HP/coper/kiev.new/cit/ap_ch4/act25.htm