A Scalable, Reconfigurable and Efficient Data Center Power Distribution Architecture

A Scalable, Reconfigurable,
and Efficient Data Center

Power Distribution
Architecture

By Neil Rasmussen
White Paper #129

Executive Summary
Significant improvements in efficiency, power density, power monitoring, and
reconfigurability have been achieved in data center power distribution. The past techniques
of massive transformer-based power distribution units feeding under-floor hardwired
circuits via rigid or flexible conduit are shown to be obsolete. This paper explains some the
newer approaches to power distribution including modular power distribution and overhead
power busway, and shows their advantages when compared to the legacy approach.

2009 American Power Conversion. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be used, reproduced, photocopied, transmitted, or
stored in any retrieval system of any nature, without the written permission of the copyright owner. www.apc.com WP129 Rev 0

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Introduction
Most existing data centers utilize the same power distribution architecture that was developed for data
centers approximately 40 years ago. This system is illustrated in Figure 1.

Figure 1 Wiring of a traditional data center power distribution system

Underfloor power
conduits for
branch circuits
Power
Distribution
Unit
IT equipment
cabinets

In the traditional system, the main data center power is distributed to power distribution units (typically rated
from 50KW to 500KW). The power distribution units may contain large power transformers to convert
voltage or provide power conditioning. The power distribution units in turn distribute a quantity of branch
circuits (typically rated from 1.5KW to 15KW) to the IT equipment. Each IT enclosure uses one or more
branch circuits. The wiring to the IT enclosures is usually required to be in flexible or rigid conduit, typically
located beneath the raised floor, as illustrated in Figure 2.


3
Figure 2 Underfloor power distribution in hard pipes

Since the introduction of this system, there have been dramatic changes in how power is utilized in data
centers that have challenged this architecture, specifically driven by increasing power density, the increasing
number of separate IT devices within the data center, and the need to add and remove IT devices on a
continuous basis.

This paper explains why the evolution of the data center has made the historical power distribution
architecture obsolete, and describes a more effective power distribution system that can be implemented
today. The improved system allows IT racks and even whole PDUs to be installed or changed without any
new wiring, distributes power overhead, supports racks up to 30kW with a single flexible power feed,
improves electrical efficiency, reduces copper consumption, is instrumented for power at the branch circuit,
and has a standard capacity management system.

Background
When the traditional power distribution system was created, data centers consisted of a small number of
large IT devices that were rarely changed except during the scheduled downtime of a major IT upgrade.
The low power density of these facilities required a low volume of underfloor air, and typically less than one
branch circuit for every 3 square meters of computer room. The modern data center has different
characteristics which have challenged the traditional power distribution architecture:
Instead of a few large IT devices, data centers may contain thousands of plug-in devices with
separate power cords, requiring many more power receptacles
IT devices within a rack enclosure are changed often within the lifetime of the data center,
changing the power requirements or receptacle requirements at a rack location

4
Due to changing power requirements, new power circuits must frequently be added to a live
data center without disturbing nearby existing IT loads
The per-rack power density has increased greatly, often requiring multiple branch circuits per
cabinet
The number of power feeds has clogged the underfloor air plenum with conduits, blocking the
airflow and making changes very difficult
The number of IT devices that may be connected to a branch circuit breaker is often much
greater than one, making it difficult to size branch circuits or determine impending overload
conditions
Dual power path systems are commonly implemented, requiring assurance that no circuit is
loaded above 50%, yet there is typically no mechanism to monitor or plan this

Although these issues are widely recognized, and there are a variety of products available to solve these
problems, most data centers built today still use traditional methods and the result is that even newly built
data centers suffer from the following unfavorable conditions:

Data center operators are forced to make circuit changes on energized wiring (hot work)
Data center operators cannot tell what branch circuits are near overload, or what circuits
might overload in case of the loss of a power path
Underfloor cooling plenums are blocked with cables, preventing the high volume air required
by modern IT equipment
Data center operators discover that the PDU units are taking up a significant fraction of the
floor space and the floor load weight capacity
Large transformer based PDU units cannot be fully utilized because they run out of branch
circuits
Large transformer based PDU units generate waste heat that must be cooled, decreasing
data center efficiency

A few photographs of wiring conditions in actual operating data centers illustrate some of the above
difficulties and are shown in Figure 3.


5
Figure 3 Wiring congestion in actual data centers

The power distribution architecture described in the next section addresses all of the problems described
above.

An optimized power distribution system
An ideal power distribution system would have the following attributes:

New circuits can be added or changed on a live system safely
No underfloor cables needed
All circuits monitored for power
All breaker status remotely monitored
IT zones and associated power distribution can be deployed over time
All power levels supported using only a single cable to the IT enclosure
Receptacle types can be changed at the IT enclosure by IT personnel
Capacity and redundancy are managed on every circuit
No excess copper is installed that is not needed
High efficiency

Power distribution systems have been evolving in response to the needs of the modern data center, and
various improvements have been introduced to the power distribution system over time, most notably:
Branch circuit power metering
Overhead cable tray with flexible power cords

6
Overhead fixed busway with removable power taps
High power, pluggable rack power distribution units
Transformerless Power Distribution Units
Power capacity management software

The power distribution system shown in Figure 4 includes all of these elements in an architecture that is
ideally suited for the modern high density data center.

Figure 4 Illustration of a modular power distribution system

Suspended
cable tray for
branch circuits
to IT enclosures
Half-rack 250kW
modular PDU
IT equipment
cabinets
Main power
busway spans
IT rows
250kW
pluggable
busway power
tap
From UPS
Typical 3-phase
receptacle


7
Description of the system
The distribution system has two steps. For larger data centers the main critical bus power from the UPS is
distributed to IT rows using one or more overhead busways as shown at the top of Figure 4. The busways
are installed up front and traverse the entire planned IT rack layout. When a group of racks is to be
installed, a low-footprint modular PDU is installed at the same time and plugged into the overhead busway.
The connection to the busway is also shown in Figure 4.
Figure 5 Example of a 250kW modular PDU with small footprint.
Shown with 24 branch circuit modules installed

Branch
circuits exit
from top
Lockable
door
Energy and
status display
One of 24
branch circuit
modules
Rolls into
position

Instead of traditional circuit breaker panels with raw wire terminations, the modular PDU has a backplane
into which pre-terminated shock-safe circuit breaker modules are installed. This arrangement allows the
face of the PDU to be much narrower, and eliminates on-site termination of wires.

The modular PDU initially has no branch circuit modules installed. The power circuits from the modular PDU
to the IT racks are flexible cable that are plugged into the front of the modular PDU on site to meet the
requirements of each specific rack as needed. The branch circuit cables to the IT enclosures are pre-
terminated with breaker modules that plug into the shock-safe backplane of the modular PDU. An example
of a branch circuit module is shown in Figure 6.


8
Figure 6 Branch circuit module that plugs into the modular power distribution unit

Integral energy
and status
monitoring
Connection to
IT enclosure
3 phase
circuit breaker
Shock-safe plug-in
connector on back

For equipment that requires a dedicated branch circuit, such as most blade servers, a single cable from the
PDU carries one, two, or three branch circuits that plug directly into the blade server, with no additional rack
PDU (i.e. power strip) required. For mixed equipment in the rack, an assortment of rack PDUs are available
that provide various receptacle and current ratings and can be interchanged. A typical rack PDU is shown in
Figure 7; the connector shown in this figure plugs into the mating connectors shown in the previous Figure
6.

Figure 7 Example of a 12kW 3-phase rack outlet strip designed for vertical mounting
in the rear of an IT enclosure

In this system, a PDU for a new row of IT enclosures, along with all of the associated branch circuit wiring
and rack outlet strips, can be installed in an hour, without any wire cutting or terminations.

Small zones or very high density
In some cases there may be one or more zones within a data center where only a small number of branch
circuits is needed. This can occur when there is a cluster of very high density racks, or when a small group
of racks is isolated by room shape or other constraints. In these situations the full 24-branch circuit
capability of the standard modular distribution system is not needed.


9
In these cases, the architecture includes a smaller version of the modular power distribution unit that can

Figure 8 A small modular PDU that mounts directly into an IT enclosure that can provide power

maller data centers
optimized for larger data centers with a large number of rows of IT racks, which
or smaller data centers when the number of PDUs is restricted to one or two, the flexibility of deploying
re
further simplification is also possible in smaller data centers, where the modular PDU may be directly
a
r
directly mount into an IT rack, consuming zero floor footprint and supporting up to 6 branch circuits. This
PDU includes all of the status and energy monitoring capability of the larger floor standing unit in a 5U rack
mount version.

to 6 IT enclosures (door closed and door open views)

S
The system in Figure 4 is
may be deployed over time. The overhead busway is much easier to install than high-power wiring and
allows PDUs to be added or changed. For smaller data centers of 300kW or less, a simplified approach
using the same components and same principles can be used.

F
PDUs in phases is often unnecessary, and it may be cost effective to directly wire the modular PDU (Figu
5) to the critical bus with traditional conduit and wire. In this case the overhead busway is omitted. For very
small data centers or data centers with irregular floor layouts the small modular PDU described in the
previous section and illustrated in Figure 8 above may be appropriate.

A
integrated with the UPS system into a compact arrangement that can be located in the IT room and
integrated into a IT enclosure lineup. In this case the main bus wiring is eliminated and the need for
separate power room is eliminated. This convenient and popular approach for data centers of 200kW o
below is illustrated in Figure 9.


10
Figure 9 Modular power distribution unit integrated with a UPS for smaller data centers
etrofit / upgrade applications
involve the upgrade of an existing data center, with common projects

s a data center evolves, modular PDUs can operate alongside existing traditional PDUs. In these retrofit
ne of the most important and overlooked benefits of the modular PDUs in the upgrade of a traditional data

al
ower and status monitoring
stem there can be hundreds of circuit breakers that can be overloaded.

Modular 120kW UPS
Modular UPS
Battery System
Modular Power
Distribution Unit

R
A large number of data center projects
being the addition of capacity or installation of a high-density zone. The modular distribution system is
particularly well suited to these types of retrofit projects, because installation is much less disruptive than
installing a traditional PDU. There is a long list of challenges when installing a new traditional PDU in an
existing data center, most of which are addressed by the design of the modular distribution system.

A
applications where traditional PDUs are often placed based on historical constraints, the overhead busway
component of the architecture is not used, and traditional pipe and wire is used to connect each PDU to the
main bus.

O
center is the fact that the installation adds no additional underfloor airflow blockages since the cables are run
in overhead cable tray. This is often crucial in existing data centers where the floors are not deep and
underfloor airflow is already a limiting factor in the cooling performance and even in the overall electric
efficiency of the data center.

P
In a data center power distribution sy
This optimized distribution system uses higher capacity rack power feeds and uses 20-40% fewer breakers
than a typical system, but there are still many circuits, which exist at 4 levels:


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UPS main bus
put
cuit

the modular power distribution system, there is built-in current and energy monitoring on every circuit at
h
oltage configuration
in this paper is global and suitable for all data center operating voltages.
ly
ica. The
ers,
or data centers in North America, the 415/240V AC system has a number of important advantages, as

PDU in
Branch cir
Outlet
In
all levels of the hierarchy (outlet-level monitoring is optional in some configurations). In addition, the branc
circuit breakers in the PDU are monitored for status. All of the monitoring communicates via SNMP open
standards protocol. Capacity management software is used to monitor every circuit in the system and
enforce safety margins, verify redundancy, and identify available capacity.

V
The architecture described
However, in North America there are two operating voltage configuration options. The most electrical
efficient IT operating voltage for North America is 415/240V AC 3-phase power. This is the same
distribution system used in Europe and most of the world, but is not commonly used in North Amer
second option in North America is to use the traditional 208/120V AC 3-phase power common in North
American buildings. This option requires more copper and PDU units with large integral power transform
and is less efficient and more costly.

F
explained in APC White Paper #128, Increasing Data Center Efficiency by Using Improved High-Density
Power Distribution. It is the recommended voltage choice. However, the recommended power distribution
system described in this paper can also be implemented in a traditional North American 208/120V AC
voltage configuration.

Comparison with the traditional power distribution system
ss the many significant shortcomings The power distribution system described has been developed to addre
of the traditional approach. The advantages of the new system are summarized in Table 1.


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Table 1 Comparison of traditional power distribution with modular power distribution
(best performance highlighted in blue)

Issue Traditional distribution Modular distribution
Adding branch
circuits
New conduits must be installed, breakers sized and
installed, and wires pulled and terminated. If system
is live, electrician may need to work on live exposed
electrical wiring. If circuit has power monitoring,
new sensors and/or programming is typically
required
Plug-in, pre-made branch circuits. Can be
installed in an energized system without
exposure to live electrical wiring. Power
monitoring included in each branch circuit and
automatically configures when plugged in
Removing branch
circuits
If system is live, electrician may need to work on
exposed electrical wiring. Conduit needs to be
extracted from complex network of underfloor wiring.
If circuit has power monitoring, programming may
need to be changed
Branch circuit is unplugged from PDU, and
may be re-used in another location
Ability to remove
or change a rack
cabinet
Branch circuit may need to be mechanically and/or
electrically disconnected from the rack
Branch circuit unplugs at the rack, rack can
be rolled out
Simplified
planning
Typically the number and location of PDUs must be
established early in the design, often before the final
power density is known. In a raised floor
installation, special underfloor mounting supports
must be engineered
The number and location of PDUs do not
need to be established up front. PDUs can
be added later without special preparation
Reliability
Many wiring terminations are made in the field,
resulting in loose connections and other defects.
Mistakes during hot work can dislodge wires and trip
breakers, disrupting other IT loads
Wiring terminations are pre-made in a
controlled factory environment, improving
reliability. Risk of interfering with other
circuits during adds and changes is
eliminated
Minimal floor
footprint
Transformer-based PDUs consume approximately
2.5 m
2
for every 100kW of IT load, or approximately
7% of computer room space
Consumes approximately 0.7 m
2
for every
100kW of IT load, or approximately 2% of
computer room space
Safety
Adding, removing, inspecting, and handheld current
monitoring of branch circuits exposes operator to
live electrical wiring
Shock-safe plug-in installation of branch
circuits. No field wiring required
Airflow
interference
Masses of cabling entering PDU from underfloor
cause interference with underfloor airflow. Floor
openings for wire create large bypass air paths that
reduce air conditioner efficiency and capacity
No underfloor cabling. No floor air leakage
caused by extra openings in the floor
Simplified
engineering
Complex tradeoffs between row length, density,
ampacity, and cost must be made in each
installation in order to optimally locate the PDUs
Select from standard reference designs to
meet requirements. Many decisions can be
deferred to later phases
Up-front cost
PDUs are typically installed up front. Installation
labor is significant. Built-out cost is incurred in the
initial build
Most of the power distribution cost is incurred
only when and if needed
Efficiency
Higher losses due to longer cable lengths. In North
America 208/120V AC nearly 10 times the amount
of losses compared to 415/240V AC system
Shorter cable lengths results in slightly lower
losses


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Alternative power distribution approaches
The power distribution architecture described in this paper is not the only approach to solving the problems
of the traditional distribution system. There are two other variations that have been described in the
literature and have been used in real data centers; they are busway to the rack, and DC power distribution.
These two alternatives are briefly described and compared with the system described in this paper.

Busway to the rack
Until the architecture described in this paper was introduced in 2008, using overhead busway to the rack
was the best alternative approach to delivering power to IT enclosures. In the busway to the rack system,
the IT enclosures directly connect into the overhead busway via breaker boxes as shown in Figure 10.

Figure 10 - Busway to the rack showing power taps attached to an overhead power bus

Bus tap
breaker box
Overhead
power bus
Track
IT enclosures

The busway is pre-installed over all IT equipment rows. This solves a number of the problems with
traditional distribution, making changes easier and removing underfloor cabling. Busway was the first
alternative to traditional distribution that achieved a flexible, reconfigurable distribution system. While
busway to the rack remains a viable alternative to traditional approaches, there are a number of practical
disadvantages of busway to the rack that are overcome by the new modular PDU architecture described in
this paper. Busway to the Rack is compared to modular distribution in Table 2.


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Table 2 Comparison of busway to the rack with modular power distribution to IT enclosures
(best performance highlighted in blue)

Issue Busway to the rack Modular distribution
Ability to handle
mixed and changing
power density
Busway must be sized in advance to the
maximum density and capacity otherwise adding
an additional busway in the future is disruptive
and impractical
Power density is adjustable to suit the current
configuration by adding or swapping branch
circuits. Easier to install additional PDUs for
extra capacity
Ability to handle
specialized room
layouts
Busway must be installed in advance over all
expected enclosure locations
Flexible cable easily adapts to room
obstructions, specialized IT cabinets, and
constrained IT equipment floor plans
Safe & secure
access to circuit
breakers
Breakers are mounted on the overhead busway,
requiring ladder access. This is not permitted due
to local codes in many cases. Chain or other
actuators may be required
All branch protectors behind a lockable door
in one easily accessible location
Minimal floor
footprint
Zero floor footprint
Consumes approximately 0.7 sq M for every
100kW of IT load, or approximately 2% of
computer room space
Standardized global
solution
Regulations for busway vary geographically,
requiring different physical configurations or
current ratings or data communications in
different locations
Standard architecture meets all international
regulations and has a global standard for
monitoring
Energy monitoring
of each rack branch
circuit
Busway systems typically only monitor the total
power in the bus using optional equipment, and
rely on Rack PDUs to report individual rack power
PDU supports auto-discovery for new branch
circuits installed and has a single
communication port for all branch circuits
Monitors power for each IT enclosure, even if
the enclosure does not use a rack PDU, such
as blade servers
Simplified
engineering
Complex tradeoffs between row length, density,
busway ampacity, and cost must be made in each
installation, even in different rows within the data
center, in order to optimize the result and ensure
the busway is not overloaded
Select from standard reference designs to
meet requirements. Many decisions can be
deferred to later phases
Minimal copper use
Busway copper must be oversized to maximum
power density
Branch circuit copper is only deployed when
needed and at the capacity needed
Standard length final
distribution cable
The busway is always the same distance from the
IT enclosure so all cable drops are the same
length, simplifying spares inventory
The distance from the PDU and the IT
enclosure vary, requiring different length
cables. Long cables can be cut and re-
terminated by the user, but this is less
convenient
Can be used in
situations where
overhead mounting
is impractical
Busway cannot be installed underfloor in many
locations due to regulations
Power distribution cable trays can be
suspended from overhead, mounted to the
tops of the IT racks, or installed underfloor
Minimal up-front
cost
Most of the busway cost is incurred in the initial
build
Most of the power distribution cost is incurred
only when and if needed
Efficiency
Busway sized in advance for maximum capacity
(i.e. the greatest amount of copper) resulting in
slightly lower losses. Efficiency payback over 50
years given high cost of copper
Copper sized more closely to actual load
resulting in slightly more losses


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While busway to the rack is a dramatic improvement over the traditional approach, and the architecture of
this paper uses busway to distribute bulk power in the data center, Table 2 shows that the modular power
distribution system has some advantages over busway for the final distribution to the IT enclosure. Busway
for the final distribution has the advantage of zero footprint, but the modular distribution system is more
scalable and adaptable to changing density, is standardized globally, and requires less up front planning and
engineering.

In general, for distribution to the rack, busway is best suited for very large facilities with an open floor plan
with a very well defined IT equipment layout. The modular distribution system has the greatest advantage
when locations are not precisely defined in advance, the room is constrained in shape or has obstructions,
or the power density is expected to vary significantly through the room. Either of these approaches is vastly
superior to the traditional underfloor conduit system, and a summary of key factors to consider in the
selection between the approaches is provided in Table 3.

Table 3 Factors to consider when choosing between busway
and modular distribution to the IT enclosure

Factors suggesting busway to the rack Factors suggesting modular distribution
No floor space, even 5% of the space or less, can be used
by the power distribution system
The IT enclosure layout is not well defined in advance
The layout is not a simple rectangle with defined rows.
The room will have zones of different density
Busway to the rack may not be the preferred
choice when:
Modular distribution may not be the best
choice when:
The locations of future IT enclosures are poorly defined
The power densities of future zones are not well known in
advance
Overhead mounting is impractical due to ceiling
construction or other constraints
A global standard solution is required
No IT floor space, even 5% of the space or less, can be
devoted to the power distribution system

DC power distribution
DC power distribution has been proposed as an alternative to AC power distribution for data centers. There
are actually 4 different DC approaches that have been described in the literature, using different DC voltage
levels and wiring diagrams. The primary reason cited for moving to DC is improved electrical efficiency.

A number of studies have claimed substantial expected efficiency advantages for a DC power system, from
10% to 40%. However, these studies assume very low efficiency for AC power systems. Since these
studies first came out, newer high efficiency AC power distribution architectures have become widely

16
available with demonstrated efficiencies comparable with the hypothetical efficiency of DC systems. A
quantitative analysis comparing AC vs DC power efficiency can be found in The Green Grid White Paper
#16, Quantitative Efficiency Analysis of Power Distribution Configurations for Data Centers and APC White
Paper #127, A Quantitative Comparison of High-Efficiency AC vs DC Power Distribution for Data Centers.
These papers show that the best AC power distribution systems are nearly as efficient as DC, removing a
key incentive to change the industry.

The most important problem with DC power distribution is the lack of availability of compatible IT devices.
While some IT devices are available with a 48V DC input option, this is the least efficient DC distribution
voltage and consumes large amounts of copper wiring.

If DC were to ever become a standard distribution system for data centers, most of the same issues of
circuit distribution and monitoring to the racks would remain. The fundamental approaches of busway and
modular distribution could still be used, but new connector systems would need to be developed and the
devices might need to become larger to comprehend the increased safety clearances required for high
voltage DC.

The cost of transitioning the industry to DC would be very large and the lack of any significant cost or
efficiency gains has removed the incentive to make this change. Therefore the industry is expected to
remain AC based, although DC will be used as a distribution system within proprietary IT equipment
including blade server chassis or racks, and within containerized servers.

Conclusion
This paper has described the significant limitations of the traditional power distribution architecture with
underfloor conduit. Two alternative power distribution systems have been described, busway to the rack
and modular distribution, both of which are major improvements over the traditional approach in terms of
scalability, efficiency, reconfigurability, manageability, and power density. The modular power distribution
system is shown to be particularly advantageous in practical data centers where layout is not precisely
defined in advance, in retrofit applications, and in cases where the room layout includes unusual shaped
floor plan or obstructions.


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About the author
Neil Rasmussen is the Senior VP of Innovation for APC- the IT Business Unit of Schneider Electric. He
establishes the technology direction for the worlds largest R&D budget devoted to power, cooling, and rack
infrastructure for critical networks. Neil is currently working to advance the science of high-efficiency, high-
density, scalable data center infrastructure solutions and is the principal architect of the APC InfraStruXure
system.

Prior to founding APC in 1981, Neil received his Bachelors and Masters degrees from MIT in electrical
engineering where he did his thesis on the analysis of a 200MW power supply for a tokamak fusion reactor.
From 1979 to 1981, he worked at MIT Lincoln Laboratories on flywheel energy storage systems and solar
electric power systems.


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