Bilingual education

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Jump to: navigation, search Bilingual education involves teaching most subjects in school through two different languages in the United States, instruction occurs in English and a minority language, such as Spanish or Chinese, with varying amounts of each language used in accordance with the program model. The following are several different types of bilingual education program models:

Transitional Bilingual Education. This involves education in a child's native language, typically for no more than three years, to ensure that students do not fall behind in content areas like math, science, and social studies while they are learning English. The goal is to help students transition to mainstream, English-only classrooms as quickly as possible, and the linguistic goal of such programs is English acquisition only. The overwhelming majority of bilingual programs in the U.S. are transitional.[citation needed] Two-Way or Dual Language Bilingual Education. These programs are designed to help native and non-native English speakers become bilingual and biliterate. Ideally in such programs in a U.S. context, half of the students will be native speakers of English and half of the students will be native speakers of a minority language such as Spanish. Dual Language programs are less commonly permitted in US schools, although research indicates they are extremely effective in helping students learn English well and aiding the long-term performance of English learners in school.[1] The most effective form of Bilingual Education is a type of Dual Language program that has students study in two different ways: 1) A variety of academic subjects are taught in the students' second language, with specially trained bilingual teachers who can understand students when they ask questions in their native language, but always answer in the second language; and 2) Native language literacy classes improve students' writing and higher-order language skills in their first language. Research has shown that many of the skills learned in the native language can be transferred easily to the second language later. In this type of program, the native language classes do not teach academic subjects. The second-language classes are content-based, rather than grammar-based, so students learn all of their academic subjects in the second language.[citation needed] Late-Exit or Developmental Bilingual Education. Education is in the child's native language for an extended duration, accompanied by education in English. The goal is to develop bilingualism and biliteracy in both languages. This program is available to students whose native language is not English, and also less common than transitional programs.

Contents
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1 Examples across the world o 1.1 Andalusia o 1.2 Australia o 1.3 Canada o 1.4 European Union o 1.5 Hong Kong o 1.6 Israel o 1.7 Japan o 1.8 Middle East o 1.9 Southeast Asia o 1.10 The Netherlands o 1.11 The Philippines o 1.12 United States 1.12.1 Controversy in the United States 1.12.2 California 1.12.3 Arizona 2 See also 3 References 4 Further reading 5 External links

Examples across the world

Andalusia
This article is written like an advertisement. Please help rewrite this article from a neutral point of view. For blatant advertising that would require a fundamental rewrite to become encyclopedic, use {{db-spam}} to mark for speedy deletion. (December 2007) In Andalusia (Iberia's southernmost region), things have changed drastically concerning bilingual education since the introduction of the Plurilingualism Promotion Plan by the autonomous government. The plan was born as the realization for the Andalusian territory of the European language policies regarding the teaching and learning of languages. With special strength in the past ten years bilingual education has worked at most elementary schools. In addition to this new European scene, the Scheme for the Promotion of Plurilingualism has learned a lot from the first experimental bilingual sections set up in some schools by the Andalusian government in 1998. Following the content-based approach, French and German were used to partly teach other subjects. This successful experience, as show the international tests that the students have been given, is the starting point for a more ambitious scene, where

400 schools will be involved in the next four years, more languages, especially English, will take part, and a lot of investigation and implementation of the Integrated Curriculum of languages must be carried out. Being aware of the necessity of the Andalusian people to adapt to the new scenario, a major government plan, called strategies for the second modernization of Andalusia, was designed in 2003. The document also underlined language diversity as a source of richness and a valuable heritage of humankind which needs to be looked after. It was then clear that a scheme was needed to carry out this new language policy in our territory, especially affecting education, with clear goals, timing and funding. Therefore, the major goal of the Scheme for the Promotion of Plurilingualism is to design a new language policy for Andalusia, according to the principles of the European Council, in order to provide the citizens with the plurilingual and multicultural competence to respond to the new economic, technological and social challenges, based on an Integrated Curriculum for all languages and key stages. The scheme is to be developed through 5 major programmes and also an organisation and assessment plan. The programmes are: - Bilingual schools - Official Schools of Languages - Plurilingualism and teachers - Plurilingualism and society - Organization and assessment plan. Full version in English of the Plurilingualism Promotion Plan [5]PDF (497 KiB)

[edit] Australia
In Australia, some schools teach bilingual programs which cater for children speaking community languages other than English. Baldauf[2] explains that these programs are now beginning to benefit from more government support. Bilingual education for Indigenous students, however, has only received intermittent official backing. In the Northern Territory, for example, bilingual programs for Indigenous students were begun with Federal Government support in the early 1970s but by December 1998 the Northern Territory Government had announced its decision to shift $3 million away from the 21 bilingual programs to a Territorywide program teaching English as a second language. Within 12 months though the government had softened its position. Most bilingual programs were allowed to continue under the guise of two-way education. Then on 24 August 2005, the Minister for Employment, Education and Training announced that the government would be "revitalising bi-lingual education" at 15 Community Education Centres: Alekerange, Angurugu, Borroloola, Gapuwiyak, Gunbalunya, Kalkaringi, Lajamanu, Maningrida, Milingimbi, Ramingining, Ngkurr, Shepherdson College, Numbulwar, Yirrkala and Yuendumu. This revitalisation is conceived as part of an effort aimed at "providing effective education from pre-school through to senior secondary at each of the Territorys 15 Community Education Centres". As Harris & Devlin (1986) observe, Aboriginal bilingual education in Australia represents much more than a range of education programs. It has been a measure of non-Aboriginal commitment to either assimilation or cultural pluralism. In

2008 it again shifted with the government attempting to force the nine remaining bilingual schools to teach more in English.

[edit] Canada
Main article: Bilingualism in Canada In Canada, education is under provincial jurisdiction. However, the federal government has been a strong supporter of establishing Canada as a bilingual country and has helped pioneer the French immersion programs in the public education systems throughout Canada. In French immersion students with no previous French language training, usually beginning in Kindergarten or grade 1, do all of their school work in French. Regular English programs provide Core French in later grades, usually in grade 4. Depending on provincial jurisdiction, some provinces also offer an Extended French program that begins in grade 5 which offers relatively more courses in French. In this case the student takes French immersion until grade nine but may continue throughout their highschool education. There are also some private schools and preschools that do immersion programs in other languages.

[edit] European Union

Near most of the various European Union institution sites, European Schools have been created to allow staff to have their children receive their education in their mother tongue, and at the same time to foster European spirit by (among other things) teaching at least two other European languages. Basic instruction is given in the eleven official languages of the European Union: Danish, Dutch, English, Finnish, French, German, Greek, Italian, Portuguese, Spanish and Swedish. In the expansion of the Union with 10 countries in 2004 and two more in 2007, the new official languages of the EU are added. The pupil's mother tongue (L I) therefore remains his/her first language throughout the School. Consequently, each school comprises several language sections. The curricula and syllabuses (except in the case of mother tongue) are the same in all sections. In the Schools where the creation of a separate language section cannot be justified based on the number of students, teaching of the mother tongue and possibly mathematics is provided. To foster the unity of the School and encourage genuine multicultural education, there is a strong emphasis on the learning, understanding and use of foreign languages. This is developed in a variety of ways: The study of a first foreign language (English, French, or German, known as L II) is compulsory throughout the school, from first year primary up to the Baccalaureate. In secondary school, some classes will be taught in L II.

All pupils must study a second foreign language (L III), starting in the second year of secondary school. Any language available in the School may be chosen. Pupils may choose to study a third foreign language (L IV) from the fourth year of secondary school. Language classes are composed of mixed nationalities and taught by a native speaker. A weekly "European Hour" in the primary school brings together children from all sections for cultural and artistic activities and games. In the secondary school, classes in art, music and sport are always composed of mixed nationalities. From the third year of secondary school, history and geography are studied in the pupil's first foreign language, also called the "working language" (English, French, or German). Economics, which may be taken as an option from the fourth year of the secondary school, is also studied in a working language. From the third year, therefore, all social science subjects are taught to groups of mixed nationalities.[3]

[edit] Hong Kong

In Hong Kong where both English and Chinese are official, both languages are taught in school and are mandatory subjects. Either English or Chinese is used as the medium of instruction for other subjects.

[edit] Israel
Hand in Hand: Center for Jewish Arab Education in Israel runs four Hebrew-Arabic bilingual schools, and the Neve Shalom peace village also hosts a local school which conducts classes in both Hebrew and Arabic. Normally students are taught in one language or the other, with most Arab Israelis learning Hebrew as their second language.

[edit] Japan
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(March 2007)

In Japan, the need for bilingualism (mostly Japanese and English) has been pointed out, and there are some scholars who advocate teaching children subjects such as mathematics using English rather than Japanese. As part of this proposal, subjects such as history, however, would be taught solely in Japanese.

[edit] Middle East

Schools in the Middle East follow the Dual or Triple Language Program. The Triple Language Program is most commonly found in Lebanon. History, grammar, literature and the arabic language are taught in the native language (Arabic). Math and Science are taught in English. In Lebanon, however, the Sciences and Math are taught in either French or English, but it mostly depends on the school's administration or the grade level. It is not uncommon in the Middle East where you could find a French-only school or an English-only school. Most Arab countries have required mastery in Arabic and English, and some require three. Armenians and other non-Arab minorities are polyglots, especially in Lebanon. Many Armenians can speak 4 languages. Most Arabs are bilingual or trilingual[citation needed]. There is a sizable minority of illiterate Arabs but most of these people are bilingual or trilingual but because of vast differences in proper Arabic and colloquial Arabic, many Arabs are unable to differentiate between the two, which is also very common in Western nations too.

[edit] Southeast Asia

Since the mid-1990s bilingual approaches to schooling and higher education have become popular in parts of South-east Asia, especially in Thailand and Malaysia where different models have been applied, from L2 immersion (content taught in a non-native language) to parallel immersion, where core subjects are taught in both the mother-tongue and a second language (usually English). Malaysian government policy mandates the phased introduction of English immersion for Math, Science and IT. The Sarasas model, pioneered by the Sarasas schools affiliation in Thailand, is an exemplar of parallel immersion. And the EISP (English for Integrated Studies Project) model at Sunthonphu Pittaya Secondary School, Rayong, Thailand, is an exemplar of the use of English for integrated study in Math, Science and IT, taught by nonnative English speaking Thai teachers. This project is under the auspices of the International Study Program of Burapha University . The difficulties and disputes characteristic of the US experience have not been replicated in these Asian countries, though they are not without controversy. Generally, it can be said that there is widespread acknowledgement of the need to improve English competence in the population, and bilingual approaches, where language is taught through subject content, are seen to be the most effective means of attaining this. The most significant limiting factors are the shortage of teachers linguistically competent to teach in a second language and the costs involved in use of expatriate native speakers for this purpose.

[edit] The Netherlands

In the Netherlands, there are around 100 bilingual schools. In these schools, some subjects are taught in English, some in Dutch. Most schools are TVWO (Bilingual Preparatory Scientific Education), but there is THAVO (Bilingual Higher General Secondary Education), too. The following subjects are taught in English: Arts, Chemistry, Physics, Biology, Geography, Economics, Physical Education, Drama, English, Mathematics, History and Religious Studies.

[edit] The Philippines

Having two official languages, the Philippine constitution provides a clear guideline for the use of both English and Filipino in classrooms. Presently, the Department of Education is already implementing a rule wherein subjects like English and the Sciences (including Maths) are taught in English, while History and Civics are being taught in Filipino.

[edit] United States

Bilingual education in the U.S. focuses on English language learners. According to the U.S. Department of Education website, a bilingual education program is an educational program for limited English proficient students.[citation needed] The term "limited English proficiency" remains in use by the federal government, but has fallen out of favor elsewhere for its negative connotations, so the term "English language learner" (or ELL) is now preferred in schools and educational research. An English language learner is a student who comes from a home where a language other than English is spoken, and who needs language support services in order to succeed in school. In the 50 states of the United States, proponents of the practice argue that it will not only help to keep non-English-speaking children from falling behind their peers in math, science, and social studies while they master English, but such programs teach English better than English-only programs. For many students, the process of learning literacy and a new language simultaneously is simply an overwhelming task, so bilingual programs began as a way to help such students develop native language literacy first - research by Cummins,[4] a central researcher in the field, shows that skills such as literacy developed in a first language will transfer to English. Opponents of bilingual education argue that it delays students' mastery of English, thereby retarding the learning of other subjects as well. In California, where at least one-third of students are enrolled in bilingual classes,[5] there has been considerable politicking for and against bilingual education. The first American bilingual education occurred in Arizona in the 1960s; the children would be taught in their native language while learning English.[5] In 1968 the U.S., with Title VII of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, or, informally, the Bilingual Education Act, Congress first mandated bilingual education in order to give immigrants access to education in their first language. The Act was amended in 1988. Federal spending on bilingual education jumped from $7.5 million in 1968 to $150 million by 1979.[5] A 1974 U.S. Supreme Court ruling, Lau v. Nichols gave further momentum to bilingual education.[5] Here, the Court held that San Francisco schools violated minority language students' rights when they educated students in the same classes as other students[5] without special provisions.[6] Taken together, the Bilingual Education Act and the Lau v. Nichols ruling mandated that schools needed to at least provide some type of services to support English language learners, though

neither specified what type of educational program needed to be provided. As such, both bilingual and English-only programs flourished after the law's passage and the court ruling.[5] Most recently, however, the Bilingual Education Act was terminated in 2001 by new federal education policy, with the passage of No Child Left Behind by the U.S. Congress. This law offers no support for native language learning, but rather emphasized accountability in English only, and mandates that all students, including ELLs, are tested yearly in English. The majority of U.S. high school students in the United States are required to take at least one to two years of a second language. The vast majority of these classes are either French or Spanish. In a large number of schools this is taught in a manner known as FLES, in which students learn about the second language in a manner similar to other subjects such as Math or Science. Some schools use an additional method known as FLEX in which the "nature of the language" and culture are also taught. High school education almost never uses "immersion" techniques. [edit] Controversy in the United States There has been much debate over bilingual education in recent times. Proponents of bilingual education claim that it is not only easier for students to learn English if they are literate in their first language, but that such students will learn English better and become bilingual and biliterate.[6] Proponents further claim that effective bilingual programs strive to achieve proficiency in both English and the students' home language. Dual language or Two-Way bilingual programs are one such approach, whereby half of the students speak English and half are considered English language learners (ELLs). The teacher instructs in English and in the ELLs' home language. The dual purpose of this type of classroom is to teach the children a new language and culture, and language diversity in such classrooms is seen as a resource. Programs in English only eradicate the native languages immigrants bring to this country, while dual language bilingual programs serve to maintain such languages in an "additive" context, where a new language is added without the first being lost. One paper states that two-way developmental bilingual education programs in elementary school have the most success in language minority students' long term academic achievement. These students will maintain their gains in academic performance in secondary level academic classes. [7] Another study shows the positive results of a two-way bilingual education program.[8] Some people make the mistake that once a student can converse in English (Basic interpersonal communication skills - BICS), they will naturally perform well academically (cognitive academic language proficiency - CALP) in English. It has been postulated that BICS and CALP are two different sets of skills.[9] Opponents of bilingual education claim that students with other primary languages besides Spanish are placed in Spanish classes rather than taught in their native languages[5] and that many bilingual education programs fail to teach students English.[5] Critics of bilingual education have claimed that studies supporting bilingual education tend to have poor methodologies and that there is little empirical support in favor of it. And often, the "supporting research" is decades old. Results of more recent studies refute earlier claims and instead encourage simultaneous bilingualism.[citation needed]

The controversy over bilingual education is often enmeshed in a larger political and cultural context. Opponents of bilingual education are sometimes accused of racism and xenophobia. This is especially so in the case of such groups as English First, which is a conservative organization that promotes the stance that English should be the official language of the United States. In Milwaukee, Wisconsin and other cities, Minister of education of the Young Lords, Tony Baez and others held marches and other activities to promote bilingual education. Proponents of bilingual education are frequently accused of practicing identity politics, to the detriment of children and of immigrants. [edit] California California is the state with the highest number of English Learners (ELs) in the nation. One out of three students is an EL in California.[5] In June 1998, Proposition 227 was passed by 61% of the California electorate. This proposition mandates that ELs be placed in structured English immersion for a period "not normally to exceed one year", then be transferred to mainstream classrooms taught "overwhelmingly in English."[10] This proposition also gave parents the possibility to request alternative programs for their children, however, the availability of waivers and information to parents have been a challenge in the implementation of this proposition.[11] In 2000, the California Department of Education contracted with the American Institutes for Research (AIR) and WestEd to conduct a five-year evaluation of the effects of Proposition 227.[12] The study methodology focused on "A combination of student achievement analysis, phone interviews, case study site visits, and written surveys was used to examine such questions as how the proposition was implemented, which EL services are most and least effective, and what unintended consequences resulted from Proposition 227s implementation." The authors caution about the limitations in the statewide data. California does not have the capacity to link student academic progress over time across years, however, using student-level linked data over time from the Los Angeles Unified School District, and complementing that analysis with surveys, site visits and interviews, the study found "no conclusive evidence favoring one instructional program over another". Students who remained in bilingual education have similar academic growth trajectories when compared with students that switched to English Immersion.[7] [edit] Arizona California was followed by Arizona in the passage of similar legislation, Arizona Proposition 203, which ended several programs previously available to ESL students. Arizona was the first state to provide bilingual education in the 1960s.[5] The Arizona law is even more restrictive, particularly under the implementation of Superintendent of Public Instruction Tom Horne.[citation
needed]

[edit] See also

Bilingualism in Canada Bilingual Education Act

Lau v. Nichols English language learning and teaching National Association for Bilingual Education EISP English for Integrated Studies in Thailand Multilingual Education Secondary Level English Proficiency test Young Lords origins

[edit] References
1. ^ (Center for Applied Linguistics, 2005; Thomas & Collier, 1997; Lindholm-Leary, 2000) 2. ^ (2005) 3. ^ "European Schools Principles and objectives"[1] 4. ^ (1997) 5. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Frum, David (2000). How We Got Here: The '70s. New York, New York: Basic Books. pp. 270-271. ISBN 0465041957. 6. ^ (see Krashen, 2002; August & Hakuta, 1997; Crawford, 2000; Cummins, 2000) 7. ^ Collier, Virginia P. (Fall 1995). "Acquiring a Second Language for School". Directions in Language & Education - National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education 1 (4). http://www.ncela.gwu.edu/pubs/directions/04.htm. Retrieved on 2008-03-13. "To assure cognitive and academic success in a second language, a student's first language system, oral and written, must be developed to a high cognitive level at least through the elementary-school years.". 8. ^ National Center for Research on Cultural Diversity and Second Language Learning (03 1999). "Two-Way Bilingual Education Programs in Practice: A National and Local Perspective". Center for Applied Linguistics. http://www.cal.org/resources/Digest/ed379915.html. Retrieved on 2008-03-14. "Twoway programs provide both sets of students with ample exposure to the two languages, allowing them to progress academically in both languages and gain an appreciation of another culture.". 9. ^ Carrasquillo, Angela L; Rodriguez, Vivian (1996). Language Minority Students in the Mainstream Classroom. Bristol, PA: Multilingual Matters Ltd.. pp. 202. ISBN 1-85359297-8. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nf pb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED392281&ERICExtSearch_SearchType _0=no&accno=ED392281. 10. ^ [2] 11. ^ Parrish et al., (2002). "Proposition 227 and Instruction of English Learners in California: Evaluation Update"[3], 12. ^ [4] [show]
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Education by subject (Portal)

[edit] Further reading

Baldauf, R.B. (2005). Coordinating government and community support for community language teaching in Australia: Overview with special attention to New South Wales. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism,8 (2&3): 132144 Carter, Steven. (November 2004). Oui! Theyre only 3. Oregon Live.com Crawford, J. (2004). Educating English Learners: Language Diversity in the Classroom (5th edition). Los Angeles: Bilingual Educational Services (BES). Cummins, J. & Genzuk, M. (1991). Analysis of Final Report: Longitudinal Study of Structured English Immersion Strategy, Early Exit and Late-Exit Transitional Bilingual Education Programs for Language-Minority Children. USC Center for Multilingual, Multicultural Research [8]. Dean, Bartholomew (Ed.) (2004) Indigenous Education and the Prospects for Cultural Survival, Cultural Survival Quarterly,(27)4. del Mazo, Pilar (2006) "The Multicultural Schoolbus: Is Bilingual Education Driving Our Children, and Our Nation, Towards Failure?" [2006 Education Law Consortium]. The article is available at: http://www.educationlawconsortium.org/forum/2006/papers/delMazo2006_1.pdf Dutcher, N., in collaboration with Tucker, G.R. (1994). The use of first and second languages in education: A review of educational experience. Washington, DC: World Bank, East Asia and the Pacific Region, Country Department III. Gao, Helen. (November 2004). Fight over bilingual education continues. The San Diego Union-Tribune. Gonzalez, A. (1998). Teaching in two or more languages in the Philippine context. In J. Cenoz & F. Genesee (Eds.),Beyond bilingualism: Multilingualism and multilingual education (pp. 192-205). Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters. Grimes, B.F. (1992). Ethnologue: Languages of the world Dallas, TX: Summer Institute of Linguistics. Hakuta, K. (1986).Mirror of language: The debate on bilingualism. New York: Basic Books. Harris, S.G. & Devlin, B.C. (1996). "Bilingual programs involving Aboriginal languages in Australia". In Jim Cummins and David Corso (Eds.), Encyclopedia of language and education, vol 5, pp. 114. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Kalist, David E. (2005). "Registered Nurses and the Value of Bilingualism." Industrial & Labor Relations Review, 59(1): 101118.(http://digitalcommons.ilr.cornell.edu/ilrreview/vol59/iss1/6/) Kloss, Heinz (1977, reprinted 1998). The American Bilingual Tradition. (Language in Education; 88) McHenry, IL: Center for Applied Linguistics and Delta Systems. ISBN 1887744-02-9 Krashen, S.D. (1999). Bilingual Education: Arguments for and (Bogus) Arguments Against [sic] University of Southern California professor's article is available online at [9]PDF (201 KiB)

Parrish, T.; Perez, M; Merickel, A.; and Linquanti, R.(2006). "Effects of the Implementation of Proposition 227 on the Education of English Learners, K-12, Findings from a Five-Year Evaluation: Final Report." Washington, DC: AIR and San Francisco: WestEd. The complete report is available free at http://www.WestEd.org/cs/we/view/rs/804. An abbreviated, more accessible summary of the findings is available at http://www.WestEd.org/cs/we/view/rs/825 Summer Institute of Linguistics. (1995). A survey of vernacular education programming at the provincial level within Papua New Guinea. Ukarumpa, Papua New Guinea: Author. Swain, M. (1996). Discovering successful second language teaching strategies and practices: From program evaluation to classroom experimentation." Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 17," 89-104.

[edit] External links

U.S. Department of Education Office of English Language Acquisition National Clearinghouse for English Language Acquisition National Association for Bilingual Education Twisted Tongues: The Failure of Bilingual Education Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages Center for Multilingual, Multicultural Research Language Policy Website Keep Your Language Alive How to promote bilingualism of your children, talking to them in your own language. The Forum for Across the Curriculum Teaching Website set up to support content and language integrated learning and bilingual education. "Plurilingualism prmotion plan in Andalusia". Regional Ministry of Education. http://www.juntadeandalucia.es/averroes/plurilinguismo/planing.pdf.

Bilingual Education in the 21st Century: A Global Perspective (Paperback)

by Ofelia Garca (Author)

Synopsis
"Bilingual Education in the 21st Century" examines languages and bilingualism as individual and societal phenomena, presents program types, variables, and policies in bilingual education, and concludes by looking at practices, especially pedagogies and assessments. This thoughtprovoking work is an ideal textbook for future teachers as well as providing a fresh view of the subject for school administrators and policy makers. This work provides an overview of bilingual education theories and practices throughout the world. It extends traditional conceptions of bilingualism and bilingual education to include global and local concerns in the 21st century.This work questions assumptions regarding language, bilingualism and bilingual education, and proposes a new theoretical framework and alternative views of teaching and assessment practices. It reviews international bilingual education policies, with separate chapters dedicated to US and EU language policy in education. It gives reasons why bilingual education is good for all children throughout the world, and presents cases of how this is being carried out.

http://www.amazon.co.uk/gp/reader/1405119942/ref=sib_dp_pt#reader-link

http://www.southwarkpct.nhs.uk/keepyourlanguagealive

http://www.blen-education.org.uk/

Bilingual Minds Emotional Experience, Expression and Representation

Edited by Aneta Pavlenko (Temple University)

Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 4th Edition

Colin Baker (University of Wales
Bangor)

A Parents' and Teachers' Guide to Bilingualism 3rd Edition

Colin Baker (University of Wales Bangor)

Ask A Linguist FAQ Bilingual and Multilingual Children

Question: Can my new baby learn two or more languages at home? Similar questions: Can my toddler learn a second language at home before starting school? My spouse speaks language X and I speak language Y, can we teach our children both languages? My infant is a year old and has not learned to talk, why not? Will I confuse my child if I mix languages?

Answer provided by Deborah D.K. Ruuskanen, Professor of English Linguistics, University of Vaasa, Finland. Mother of three bilingual children. Yes. It is entirely possible to teach an infant two or even three languages, and four is not unheard of. In Europe, a great many toddlers learn four languages with little or no difficulty. The main requirements for this learning are: the parents speak only their mother-tongue to the child; the child has some reason to learn the languages (motivation); and there is reinforcement of some kind for these languages, preferably outside the home. If the language of the environment is a third language, then the child will easily learn the third language once they start playing with neighbourhood children. There appears to be a 'window' of learning language that 'opens' at about the age of ten months. Infants can hear much earlier, of course, and there is some evidence that they can even hear in the womb. It is clear that they will begin to imitate the 'noises' they hear, and when there is a reaction from their caregivers, they begin to associate meanings with the sounds. Over the next two years, infants acquire language at an astonishing rate. By the age of three, they have acquired basic syntax (sentence structure), basic grammar (the 'rules' of the language), and a large vocabulary of basic words necessary to their physical and emotional survival. Their motivation to talk with their caregivers is high: asking for something usually results in being given the thing they need. Similarly, when the infant begins to play outside, with other children, then the motivation to talk to these children is high, and the infant will try to learn the language of play. Later on, at school, the language of the school will be important, too. THE IMPORTANT THING TO REMEMBER IS THAT EACH CHILD IS AN INDIVIDUAL, and that each child will learn when they are ready to learn. If you think your child is 'late' learning to talk, be sure you have ruled out all possible physical causes, including possible deafness, and then just wait. Especially if there is more than one language in the baby's home environment, then the baby will be learning first to process and separate the different languages, before talking begins. This 'separating the languages process' is why it is important that each parent speaks only their mother-tongue to the baby. They can speak a third language among themselves if they want the baby to hear and become familiar with that language as well, but it is important that the baby hears native-speaker sounds if you want the baby to make native-speaker sounds. There is considerable debate among linguists as to when the 'language learning window' closes, if it closes at all. However, there does seem to be an 'optimal' age for language learning, when the child's mind

is still open and flexible, and not cluttered with all sorts of other learning, not to mention the society's views on which languages are 'prestige' languages, and which ones are regarded by the society as of little or no importance. The latter affects motivation: children will be admired for speaking a 'prestige' language, and teased and bullied for speaking a 'non-prestige' language. When the mind is being taught many many other things than language, there is less 'processing space' left for language learning. At the moment, the 'optimal' time for learning a second language appears to be 'at the same time as the first language', i.e. in the home beginning at birth to three years (providing the parents speak these two languages as their mother tongue). The next best time for learning a second, third, and even a fourth language, appears to be between the ages of two to seven years. A third period for learning a second language is from about ten to thirteen years of age, this is in cases when the second language is not the language of either the parents or the environment. This is the reason behind the push to introduce 'foreign' language learning into the curriculum of elementary schools, in the grade when the child is about teneleven years old. Parents who want their children to learn their mother-tongue must realise that it will take work, beyond simply speaking their mother-tongue all the time to the child. Especially if the spouse speaks another language, which is the language of the environment, the parent speaking the 'minority' language will have to be sure that there is sufficient input for the child to learn and reinforce what has been learned. This means things like reading out loud (this should go on until the child learns to read on their own, and for a few years afterwards until the child says stop), singing to them and teaching them songs and nursery rhymes, showing video films in the parent's language (radio is not as good as there are no visual clues), and having other adults or children talk to the child in this language (grandparents are invaluable here). Taking the child to visit in a country where the parent's language is the language of the environment is also a good idea, if it is practical: sending the child to spend time with grandparents at about the age of eleven or twelve is also a good idea, for many reasons. This is probably a good place to remind parents that a multilingual environment is also a multicultural environment, and that it is very difficult if not impossible to separate language from culture. Without a context (culture) for the language, the child will have difficulty making sense of the meanings underlying the words. Parents should make sure the child has a firm grounding in the parents' own languages before trying to teach a third language. This should if possible include learning to read and write in at least one of those two languages. Some countries in Europe offer children in the early grades of elementary school the possibility to learn to read and write in their 'home' language: parents should check if this is possible in their local schools. Parents who want to teach their child to read at home should remember that linguists think it is impossible to teach a child to read before they have learned to talk: first the child learns a system of sounds that have meaning, and how to put these 'meaning' sounds together in a larger system; then the child learns a system of symbols (letters or ideograms) that have the same meanings as the sounds and/or combinations of sounds. A phonetic system of learning to read is preferred by many linguists, for languages that have alphabets. Teach the child the sounds of the letters first, then teach 'sounding out' the words from the letters. Simply reading aloud to a child while holding the child in your lap and putting your fingers under the big letters in a picture book, or under the words in a storybook, is one method of teaching a young child to read. It is rare that a child learns to read under the age of four. Writing can be taught at the same time as reading, or after the child has learned to read: begin with making separate letters, and the first written word taught is usually the child's own name. Problems will arise when the child starts playing with neighbourhood children who do not speak the language the parent is trying to teach them. This is the stage when a lot of parents give up. The child does

not want to be 'different' from their playmates, and speaking a 'foreign' language certainly makes you different. If the parent refuses to answer the child, or to give them what they want until they ask for it in the parent's 'own' language, the process of learning the language will continue. Some parents make an agreement to talk to the child in the language of the playmates when the playmates are around, and the 'home' language when only family is 'home': personally I think this does not work well. The problems will increase when the child starts kindergarten. The parent must keep speaking only their 'own' language with the child, or the child will lose the language. At this point, the question of putting the child in a 'foreign' language school comes up. This is a hard decision to make, especially if the child is already 'different' because their mother or father is a 'foreigner', because taking a child away from neighbourhood playmates and putting then in a different school will make them even more different, and more likely to be teased and bullied by the neighbourhood children. Having said that, putting a child in a 'foreign' language school will certainly ensure that they learn that language. For example, a child living in Sweden, whose father speaks only Portuguese to them, and whose mother speaks only Finnish to them, and who is put in an English school, will learn Swedish, Portuguese, Finnish, and English. However, if this child grows up and goes to university in England, and has little or no contact with Finnish relatives, then the Finnish will almost certainly be lost. Languages need to be spoken, or they will be lost. Teaching a child a language that is not the mother-tongue of either parent is usually not a good idea. Unless the parents are completely bilingual themselves, that is, they speak two languages as native languages, then the sounds that are produced for the child to imitate will be tinged with a strong 'foreign accent'. Similarly, unless the parent speaks the non-native language exceptionally well, then the child will learn the mistakes that parent makes in that language. Finally, and perhaps more important, teaching a third language that the parent does not know well will confuse the child unnecessarily. Wait until the baby has mastered the native languages of both parents well enough to be able to have long, meaningful conversations (about five years old) and has begun to play with other children, before deciding about introducing a language that the parents do not speak well. Remember that the child will learn the language of the environment and the school even without input from the parents. Trying to teach the child an artificial language, such as Klingon or Elvish, for example, can be done only if both parents speak it well enough to converse in it daily where the child can hear them. Again, this must be considered a 'third' language, and teaching it is best done only after the child has learned the parents' languages well. Children who do not use this 'artificial' language in their teen years will almost certainly lose it, since as said above, languages need to be spoken or they will be lost.

For those of you who want more information on this subject, a list of books with a comment or two on their content is presented below. This is by no means an exhaustive list, just those books I have read.

A Parents' and Teachers' Guide to Bilingualism, by Colin Baker. 2nd Edition, 2000. ISBN: 1853594555 Probably the most useful of all the books on this list. The style is that of a FAQ sheet, i.e. questions people have actually asked, followed by Colin Baker's answers. Written in clear, straightforward, plain English. Includes identity problems multilingual children might have, language 'mixing' (you speak one language, the child speaks another, and you converse this way), the influence of the Internet on bilingualism, benefits for children who have a second language that is not as strong as their first language,

language strategies to use with adopted children, employment and bilingualism, etc. You might want to actually buy this one if you can find it. The Bilingual Family: A Handbook for Parents, by Edith Harding and Philip Riley. Cambridge University Press, 1986. ISBN: 0521311942 (still in print) This is primarily a book for parents who are trying to decide whether or not to bring up their children as bilingual, and there is not much concrete advice on how to do this. In that sense, the book is definitely not a 'handbook'. The book presents the stories (case histories) of sixteen bilingual families (Indo-European languages), with the different ways they handled the problem of bilingualism. There is also a chapter on linguistic theory regarding bilingualism. As a university lecturer, I have to say this book reads like a university lecture, but if you are still debating on whether or not to raise your (unborn?) children as bilinguals, you'd probably benefit from reading it. Encyclopedia of Bilingualism and Bilingual Education, edited by Colin Baker and Sylvia Prys Jones. 1998 ISBN: 1853593621 Lots and lots and lots and lots of fascinating data. A very expensive reference book you should try to get your local library to buy. A good book to raise awareness about the diversity of language in the world. Points out, for example, that nearly two-thirds of all the inhabitants of the world are bilingual. Four sections: individual bilingualism; languages in society; languages in contact; and bilingual education. Growing Up with Two Languages: A Practical Guide, by Una Cunningham-Andersson and Staffan Andersson. 1999 ISBN: 041521257X Case history of Swedish-English family living in Sweden, where English is a prestige language understood by large numbers of Swedes. Not much use for parents who speak a minority language in a country where they are not going to get outside reinforcement for that language, although it does emphasise being consistent in sticking to the family's system of who speaks what language to whom in which situation. Includes a list of internet resources which may be out of date already. Raising Multilingual Children: Foreign Language Acquisition and Children, by Tracey TokuhamaEspinosa. ISBN: 0897897501 Written by a bilingual (English-Spanish) who has taught in international schools in Japan, Ecuador and France, and who gives workshops on raising multilingual children to schools and families in Switzerland and France. She evaluates some of the research in linguistics and education, and reinterprets the findings in her own way. The best part of the book is the case studies, and a list of ten 'key-factors' (most of them given above in the 'Answer' part of this entry) for raising children to be multilingual. Strong emphasis on parents and teachers finding their own answers for their own situations. Includes a description of various stages in a child's linguistic development, with indicators to help you identify the stage your child is in. The Care and Education of Young Bilinguals: An Introduction for Professionals, by Colin Baker and Anne Sienkewicz. ISBN: 1853594652 Primarily for teachers with bilingual children in their classrooms, or teachers of foreign language to young children. Parents interested in the schooling their children receive might want to read it.

If you are really interested in the debate about bilingual education (particularly in the USA), you might also be interested in the following titles:

Language, Power, and Pedagogy: Bilingual Children in the Crossfire: Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 23. by Jim Cummins. April 2001. ISBN: 1853594733 At War with Diversity: US Language Policy in an Age of Anxiety : Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 25. by James Crawford. May 2001 The entire Bilingual Education and Bilingualism series of publications contains lots of interesting studies. Under Attack: The Case Against Bilingual Education, by Stephen D. Krashen. 1996 ISBN: 0965280829 Krashen replies to the critics and discusses: Does the research show that bilingual education doesn't work? (No.) Is English in trouble in the USA? (No.) Are most parents and teachers against bilingual education? (No.) Will bilingual education work for languages other than Spanish? (A most emphatic Yes.) Is bilingual education actually good for English? (Yes!) Can bilingual education be improved? (Yes!) Lots of good stuff if you have to argue for bilingual education in your school system. See also Condemned Without a Trial: Bogus Arguments against Bilingual Education, by Stephen F. Krashen. 1999. ISBN: 0325001294. One Child, Two Languages: A Guide for Preschool Educators of Children Learning English As a Second Language, by Patton O. Taboors. 1997 ISBN: 155766272X Mirror of Language: The Debate on Bilingualism, by Kenji Hakuta. 1987 (still in print) ISBN: 0465046371 Educating Second Language Children: The Whole Child, the Whole Curriculum, the Whole Community, edited by Fred Genesee 1994 (still in print) ISBN: 0521457971 Goes beyond teaching methodology to look at - as the title says the school, the family, and the community, in a discussion of academic and social success of children who speak a minority language.

Those of you interested in the process of acquiring a second language, and research into bilingualism, might find the following of interest:

Language Processing in Bilingual Children, edited by Ellen Bialystok.1991 ISBN: 0521379180 Essays in linguistics, psychology, and education, on how bilingual children cope with two language systems. Includes thoughts on how to develop educational curriculums when the school has a lot of bilingual children. In Other Words: The Science and Psychology of Second-Language Acquisition, by Ellen Bialystok, Kenji Hakuta. 1995 ISBN: 0465032818

In addition to research into second language acquisition, also presents thoughts of sociological issues of cultural diversity and multilingualism. Lots of interesting information on how concepts of mind and self and culture affect language learning. Also points out that the globalisation of the world means that no country (including the USA) can afford a policy of monolingualism (English Only). Some discussions of what policy could be adopted to make societies stronger through taken advantage of their linguistic diversity. Interesting, but not much advice on raising multilingual children. One Mind, Two Languages, edited by Janet Nicol. 2000 ISBN: 0631220984 Modern research in language processing, in persons (mostly adults) who speak more than one language. Includes research on ASL signers. Linguistic and psycholinguistic research. Probably only of interest to persons actually doing research in linguistics, psycholinguistics, applied linguistics, language teaching, cognitive science, and/or psychology. Input, Interaction, and the Second Language Learner, by Susan M. Gass. 1997 (still in print) ISBN: 0805822097

There is also an International Journal of Bilingualism, and several online discussion groups for parents of bilingual children, as well as closed email lists you can get on by going through the chat groups.

One Child, Two Languages: A Guide for Preschool Educators of Children Learning English as a Second Language (Paperback)

Language Processing in Bilingual Children (Hardcover)

by Ellen Bialystok (Editor)

In Other Words: Science and Psychology of Secondlanguage Acquisition (Paperback) by Ellen Bialystok (Author), Kenji Hakuta (Author) "IN TOKYO, an American businessman on a three-year stint in Japan tries to use his Berlitz-bred Japanese to ask directions for his next appointment ..." (more)