Chapter 1: Metrology Chapter 1: Metrology

Chapter 1: Metrology
Dr.Leow PeiLing FacultyofElectricalEngineering Universiti Teknologi Malaysia ,Johor 81310UTMSkudai, Malaysia Email:leowpl@fke.utm.my Tel:07 5557170 Mobile:0167617853 Office:P19a,Level5,Room050211 innovativeentrepreneurialglobal
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Introduction
Metrology definition: 1. International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) the science of measurement, embracing both experiment and theoretical determinations at any level of uncertainty in any field of Science and Technology. 2. International Organization of Legal Metrology (OIML) Science of Measurement that concerns units, instruments & method performed by competent bodies. 3. Generally defined as Science of Measurement.
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Introduction
Metrology may be divided into 3 subfields: Scientific or fundamental metrology
concerns the establishment of measurement units, new measurement methods, th d measurement t standards t d d and d the th transfer t f of f traceability* t bilit * identification from these standards to users in society.
Applied or industrial metrology

concerns the application pp of measurement science to manufacturing, g, suitability of measurement instruments, calibration and quality control of measurements.
Legal metrology
concerns regulation of measurements and instruments for the protection of health, public safety, the environment, enabling taxation & consumers
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*Traceability-the ability to verify the history, location, or application of an item by means of recorded
Terminology
Accuracy the closeness agreement between a test result & accepted reference value Precision the closeness with a repeated set of measurements of g with the the same variable agrees average of the set of measurements Bias the difference between the expectation of the test result & an accepted reference value
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Fillupthe target accordingto thelabels
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Terminology
Calibration the process of adjusting the output or indication on a measurement instrument to agree with value of the applied standard within a specified standard, accuracy
Measurement set of operations having the object of g a value of a q quantity y determining

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Terminology
Certification process performed by a third party that confirms product, process or service to the standard (i.e ISO, HALAL etc.)
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Terminology
Metrological g confirmation a set of operations p required q to ensure that measuring equip. complied the requirement. Correction - is an action to rectify, compensates for uncorrected result of measurement. Drift a slow change of a metrological characteristic of instr.
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Terminology
Error - difference between actual behavior or measurement Measurand - defined by a particular method of measurement p and indicate what that method is (i.e erosion volumetric) ( ) Metrology science of measurement National standard standard recognized by a national decision (i.e SIRIM, EU for UK)
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Transformer Information Plate
Terminology gy
(thestudyoftermsandtheiruse)
Nominal value approximate i t value l of fi instr. t that provides a guide to its use Repeatability the closeness of agreement between successive measurements carried out under the same conditions
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Terminology gy
Reproducibility The closeness of agreement between quantity y carried out with a stated measurement of the same q change in conditions. The ability of a test or experiment to be accurately reproduced, or replicated, by someone else working independently. Result by Alice Result by Abu
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Terminology
Resolution The smallest change in a measured variable to which and instrument will respond
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Terminology gy
Stability St bilit ability bilit of f equip. i t to maintain i t i constant t t its it metrological characteristic
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Terminology gy
Traceability the completeness of the information about every step in a process chain. The ability to verify the history, location, or application of an item b means of by f documented recorded d d identification.
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Terminology
Uncertainty U t i t lack l k of f certainty, t i t range of f values l within ithi which hi h the true value of a measurand lies.
Certainty vs uncertainty
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Terminology
Inspection I ti involves i l measurement, t i investigation, ti ti t testing ti i in order to fulfilled requirement Quality relates to all characteristic that meet requirement/need Reference established quantity/entity/theory for comparison Trueness the closeness agreement between test result and reference Verification investigation that specified requirements fulfilled
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Units
of f measurement t define d fi the th definite d fi it magnitude it d of f physical quantity which adopt convention and law. Eg. Eg Unit for physical ph sical q quantity antit length is metre The International System of units (SI unit) is a form of metric sys. & divided in 3 classes base units derived units supplementary units
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Units
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Units(SI)
P i i l of Principles f th the SI system t SI stands for Systme International d dUnits Units, i.e. i e the International System of Units. SI is the abbreviation used in all languages to y indicate the system. The SI is constructed from seven base units, which are defined in physical terms. By By combining these units in accordance with simple geometrical and physical laws, we can arrive at the derived units. In principle, the SI covers all application areas, although certain units outside SI are so useful that they y are accepted p for g general use together with the SI (e.g degree, hour, day, minute) 19
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BaseUnits
Fundamental unit refers to quantity NAME Kilogram Second Meter Ampere Kelvin Mole Candela
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SYMBOL kg s m A K mol cd
QUANTITY Mass Time Length Electricalcurrent Temperature Amountofsubstance Luminous intensity

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DerivedUnits
Derivation/further ext./combination from unit of base unit by means of the mathematical operations of multiplication and division.
Derivedquantity Area V l Volume Speed,velocity Acceleration Angular velocity Angularacceleration Density Magneticfieldintensity, (Linearcurrentdensity) www.utm.my Derivedunit Squaremeter C bi meter Cubic t Meterpersecond Meterpersecondsquare Radian persecond Radianpersecondsquare Kilogrampercubic meter Ampere permeter Symbol m2 m3 m s 1 ms2 rads1 rads2 Kgm3 Am1
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DerivedUnits
Derivedquantity Current density Momentofforce Electricfieldstrength Permeability y Permittivity Specific p heatcapacity p y Amountofsubstance concentration luminance Derivedunit Ampere persquaremetre Newtonmetre Voltpermetre Henry yp permetre Faradper metre Joulep perkilogram g Molpercubic metre Candelapersquaremetre Symbol Am2 Nm3 Vm1 Hm1 Fm1 Jkg g1K1 molm3 cdm2
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DerivedUnits
Derivedquantity Frequency Force Pressure,stress Energy, gy work,quantity q yof heat Power,radiantflux Electriccharge,quantity ofelectricity Electric El t i potential t ti l difference,emf Electric ect ccapac capacitance ta ce Electricresistance Electric conductance SIderived unit name Hertz Newton Pascal Joule Watt Coulomb V lt Volt farad a ad ohm Siemens S Symbol Hz N Pa J W C V F W/A C/V C/ V/A A/V / Nm2 N m J/s InSI units InSIbaseunits s1 mkgs2 m1kgs2 m2kg gs2 m2kgs3 s A m2kg k s3A1 m2kg g1s4A2 m2kgs3A2 m2kg g1 s3A2
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DerivedUnits
Derivedquantity M Magnetic i fl flux Magneticinduction, magneticfluxdensity Inductance Luminousflux illuminance y(of ( a Radioactivity radionuclide) Absorbed dose,kerma, specific ifi energy Doseequivalent Pl Plane angle l Solidangle Catalyticactivity SIderived unit name W b Weber tesla Henry Lumen Lux becquerel q gray Sievert R di Radian Steradian katal Symbol Wb T H lm lx Bq q Gy Sv rad d sr kat J/kg J/kg InSI units V S Wb/m2 Wb/A Cd sr Lm/m2 InSIbaseunits m2kg k s2A1 kgs2A1 m2kgs2A2 m2m2 cd cd=cd cd m2m4 cd=m2 cd s1 m2s2 m2s2 m1m1 =1 1 m2m2 =1 s1mol
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DerivedUnits
Derivedquantity Dynamic viscosity Momentof force Surfacetension Angularvelocity Angularacceleration Heatfluxdensity Permittivity i i i Permeability Molarenergy Molarentropy,molar heatcapacity Exposure(andrays) Absorbeddoserate SIderived unitname Pascal second Newtonmetre Newton permetre Radian persecond Radianpersecond squared d Wattpersquaremetre Farad dpermetre Henrypermetre Joulepermole Joulepermolekelvin Coulomb perkilogram Graypersecond Symbol Pas Nm N/m rad/s rad/s2 w/m2 F/m / H/m J/mol J/(molK) C/kg Gy/s InSIbaseunits m1kgs1 m2kgs2 kgs2 m1m1 s1 =s1 m m1 s2 =s2 kgs3 m3kg k 1 s4A2 m kgs2A2 m2kgs2mol1 m2kgs2K1mol1 kg1s A m2 s3
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DerivedUnits
Derivedquantity Radiantintensity radiance Catalytic(activity) concentration Heatcapacity,entropy Specificheatcapacity, specificentropy Specificenergy Thermalconductivity Energydensity Electricfieldstrength g Electricchargedensity Electricfluxdensity Wattpermetrekelvin Joulepercubicmetre Voltp permetre Coulomb percubic metre Coulombpersquare metre SIderived unitname Graypersecond Wattpersteradian Katal percubicmetre Jouleperkelvin Jouleperkilogram Kelvin Symbol W/sr W/(m2 sr) kat/m3 J/K J/(kg K) J/kg W/(mK) J/m3 V/m / C/m3 C/m2 InSIbaseunits m2s3 m2m2 kgs3=kg s3 m3 s1mol m2 kgs2K1 m2 s2K1 m2 s2 mkgs3K1 m1kgs2 mkg gs2 m3 s A m2 s A
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SupplementaryUnits
Unit that is outside of SI but accepted
Quantity Time Unit Minute,hour, Minute hour day Symbol Min h, Min, h d ValueinSIunits 1min=60s 1h=60min=3600s 1day=24h=1440min= 86400s 1 =(/180)rad 1=(1/60) 1 (1/60)=(/10800)rad 1=(1/60)(/648000)rad 1gon =(/200)rad ; 400gon =360 1l=1dm3 =103 m3 1t=103kg 1bar=105Pa
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Planeangle
Degree,minute, second,grad
gon
Volume Mass Pressureinair,fluid
litre Metrictonne bar
l,L t bar
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Prefix
SI Prefix (for decimal multiple or submultiple - exponent
10n 1024 1021 1018 015 10 1012 109 106 103 102 101 Prefix yotta zetta exa peta pe a tera giga mega kilo h t hecto deca Sym y Y Z E P T G M k h da Shortscale septillion sextillion Q i tilli Quintillion Quadrillion Quad o Trillion Billion Long gscale Quadrillion Trilliard (thousand trillion) T illi Trillion Billiard a d( (thousand ousa d billion) Billion Milliard(thousand million) Milli Million Thousand H d d Hundred Ten Decimalequivalent q 1000000 000 000 000 000 000 000 1000000 000 000 000 000 000 1000000 000 000 000 000 1000000 000 000 000 1000000 000 000 1000000 000 1000000 1000 100
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Prefix
SI Prefix (for decimal multiple or submultiple)
10n 100 101 102 103 106 109 1012 1015 1018 1021 1024 Prefix none Deci centi milli micro nano pico temto atto zapto yocto Sym none d c m n p f a z y Billionth Trillionth Quadrilliont Quintillionth Sextillionth septillionth Shortscale Longscale one tenth hundredth thousandth millionth Milliardth Billionth Billiardth Trillionth trilliardth quadrillionth Decimalequivalent 1 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.000001 0.000 000001 0.000000000 001 0.000 000000 000 001 0.000000000 000 000 001 0.000000000 000 000 000 001 0.000000000 000 000 000 000 0001
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Dimension
parameter or measurement used to describe some relevant characteristic of an object. dimensions is describing the size or spatial characteristic of an object: length, width, and height physical y also for other p parameters such as the mass g of an object j and electric charge
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3-Dimension 3 Dimension of gear system
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Dimension
Dimension of Physical Quantities Uses symbol M (mass), L (length), T (time) known as mech. unit Q (e unit, (e charge), charge) I - or A (current) A A derived unit of physical quantity Example Example 1; - Dimension of physical quantity SPEED is L/T (or in units m/s, , km/h, , mph) p ) QUANTITY SPEED
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UNIT m/s
DIMENSION L/T
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Dimensionofaphysicalquantityisthetotalof allunitsattachedtoit. it
Forexample,speedisgivenasdistancextime; metres/second(m/s)MKSand centimetres/second(cm/s)inCGSsystem. Dimensionofmeasurementofspeed, [ ]=[L]/[T] [v]
Dimension
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Dimension
Dimension of Physical y Quantities Example 2; Velocity = length/time [v] = [L]/[T] = [LT-1] Acceleration = velocity/time [a] = [v]/[T] = [LT-1]/[T1] = [LT-2] Force = mass acceleration 2] = [MLT-2 2] [F] = [M] [LT-2
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Dimension
Dimensional Consistency Dimensions and units must be handled consistently in any algebraic g calculation. Two q quantities must have the same dimensions and units.
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CGSUnitSystem y
CGS (centimeter-gram-second) is a physical unit (similar to mech mech. Units) to include electric variants; Electromagnetic unit mass, length, time & permeability () Electrostatic unit mass, length, time & permittivity ()
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DimensionEqua. q E.S.UDim.
E.S.U Electrostatic unit
Electrostatic units (cgs-esu) are defined in a way that simplifies the description of interactions between static electric charges; there are no corresponding magnetic units in this system. system
a) Charge - Based on Coulombs law, the force between two charges, g Q1 and Q2 is F = Q1Q2/d2 where d = distance between two charge Q1 and Q2. [MLT-2] = [Q2] / [.L2] -2] [.L2] )1/2 Dimension for charge, g [ [Q] ] = ([MLT ([ [Q] = ([M1/2L3/2T-1] [1/2] ) = 1/(4 0) ; 0 = 8.85418781710 8 8541878171012 Fm F m1 Coulomb constant = 8.9875 109 Nm2 C-2 innovativeentrepreneurialglobal www.utm.my
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E.S.U E S U Electrostatic unit b) Current [I] = [Q]/[T] = [1/2M1/2L3/2T-1]/[T] [I] = [1/2M1/2L3/2T-2] c) ) e.m.f. ( (electromotive force) ) or potential p difference [E] = [W]/[Q] [E] = [ML2T-2]/[1/2M1/2L3/2T-1] [E] = [-1/2M1/2L1/2T-1] W = work (Joule)
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E.S.U E S U Electrostatic unit d) Capacitance, C C =Q/E [C] [ ] = [Q] [ ] / [E] [ ] = [1/2M1/2L3/2T-1] / [-1/2M1/2L1/2T-1] [C] = [L] e) Resistance, R [R] = [E]/ [ I ] [R] = [-1/2M1/2L1/2T-1] / [1/2M1/2L3/2T-2] [R] = [-1L-1T]
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f) Inductance, L
E dI dt E [ 1 / 2 M 1 / 2 L1 / 2 T 1 ][ T ] [L]= = = 1 L1T 2 1/ 2 1/ 2 3/ 2 2 [ I ] /[ T ] [ M L T ] L=
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DimensionEqua. q E.M.UDim.
E.M.U Electromagnetic unit Electromagnetic units (cgs (cgs-emu) emu) are defined especially for the description of phenomena associated with moving electric charges i charges, i.e., e electric currents and magnetic poles poles. a) Pole strength
Force = F = [ MLT [m ] =
2
m 1m 2 d 2
[m 2 ] ]= [ ][ L2 ] MLT
2
L2 = [ M 1 / 2 L3 / 2 T 1 1 / 2 ]
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b) Magnetic force, H
[F ] [ MLT 2 ] = [H ] = [ m ] [ 1 / 2 M 1 / 2 L3 / 2 T
1
= [ 1 / 2 M
1/ 2
L1 / 2 T
c) ) Current
H = 2 I r
1/ 2
d) ) Charge g
Charge = current time [ Q ] = [ I ][ T ] [ Q ] = [ 1 / 2 M [ Q ] = [ 1 / 2 M
1/ 2 1/ 2
[ 1 / 2 M
L 1 / 2 T
1/ 2
]=
[I ] [L]
1
L1 / 2 T L1 / 2 ]
] [T ]
[ I ] = [ 1 / 2 M
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L1 / 2 T
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E.M.U E M U Electromagnetic unit e) Potential voltage / Potential difference Potential voltage = work/charge
[W ] [ ML 2 T 2 ] [E ] = = = [ 1/ 2 M 1 / 2 1/ 2 1/ 2 [Q ] [ M L ]
1/ 2
L3 / 2 T
f) Capacitance, C
[C ] = [Q ] [E ]
[ 1 / 2 M 1 / 2 L1 / 2 ] 1 1 2 [C ] = = [ L T ] 1/ 2 1/ 2 3 / 2 2 [ M L T ]
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g) Resistance, R [E ] [R] = [I ]
[ 1 / 2 M 1 / 2 L3 / 2 T 2 ] [R] = = [ LT 1 / 2 1/ 2 1/ 2 1 [ M L T ]
1
h) Inductance, L E L= dI / dt [E ] [ E ] /[ T ] = [L] = [ I ] /[ T ] [I ]
[ 1 / 2 M 1 / 2 L3 / 2 T 2 ][ T ] [L] = = [L ] 1 / 2 1/ 2 1/ 2 1 [ M L T ]
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a) Charge [Q] =[-1/2M1/2L1/2]

MKSUnitSystem y
MKS unit for length, meter (m), 1 m = 100 cm = 100 C.G.S. CGS l length th unit it MKS unit for mass, kilogram (kg) 1 kg = 1000 g = 1000 C.G.S. C G S mass unit MKS unit for time, second (s) 1 s = 1 C.G.S. time unit MKS unit for charge, kilogram (kg) 1 kg = 1000 g = 1000 C.G.S. mass unit 1/2M1/2L1/2] MKS unit for charge/CGS unit for charge = [-1/2
10 7 1
1 / 2
1000 1
1/ 2
100 1
1/ 2
= 1 10 1
MKS charge unit = 10-1 C.G.S. C G S e.m. e m unit charge MKS charge unit = practical charge unit = 1 coulomb
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b) C Current t [I] = [-1/2M1/2L1/2T-1]
MKSUnitSystem y
MKS unit for current/ C.G.S. unit for current

10 7 1
1 / 2
1000 1
1/ 2
100 1
1/ 2
1 1
= 1 10 1
MKS current unit = 10-1 C.G.S. current unit = 1 A c) Emf [E] = [1/2M1/2L3/2T-2] MKS unit for emf / C.G.S. unit got e.m.f =
10 7 1
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1/2
1000 1
1/2
100 1
3/2
1 1
= 1 10 8
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MKS emf unit = 108 C.G.S. Emf unit = 1 G volt

MKSUnitSystem y
d) Resistance, R 1] [R] =[LT-1 MKS unit for resistance / C.G.S. C G S unit for resistance
10 7 1 100 1 1 1
1
= 1 10 9
MKS resistance unit= 109 C.G.S. resistance unit = 10 G e) Inductance, L [L] = [L] MKS unit for inductance / C.G.S. unit for inductance 10 7 100 9 1 1 = 1 10 MKS inductance unit = 109 C.G.S. inductance unit = 10 GH
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MKSUnitSystem y
f) Capacitance, C [C] = [-1L-1T2] MKS unit for capacitance / C.G.S. unit for capacitance =
10 7 100 1 9 1 1 1 = 1 10 MKS capacitance unit = 10-9 C.G.S. capacitance unit = 10 nF

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PracticalUnit
Unit representing physical quantities
No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Quantity Charge C Current t Voltage R it Resistance Inductance Capacitance Power Energy Practical Unit Coulumb A Ampere Volt Oh Ohm Henry Farad Watt Joule Symbol Q I E R L C P W Noofe.m.C.G.S. unitin onepractical lunit 101 101 108 109 109 109 1 Watt=107 energy/sec 1 Joule=107 erg 1kWh=3.6 103 erg E=Ldl/dt Q = C E E =IR Definition Q =It
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MKSUnitSystem y
Example While solving for Hay Bridge resistance it was found that
2 R1 R 2 R 3 C 1 2 Rx = 2 1 + 2 C 1 R 22
In E.M.U dimension, R, R1, R2, R3 = [LT-1] C = [-1L-1T2] =[T-1]
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MKSUnitSystem y
Example (cont.) analyse the equation using dimensional analysis
2 R1 R 2 R 3 C 1 2 Rx = 2 1 + 2 C 1 R 22
[ LT
1
] =
[T
1 2
] [[ LT 1 + [T
] [ LT 1 ] [ LT 1 ] [ 1 L 1T 2 ] 2 1 2 ] [ 1 L 1T 2 ] 2 [ LT 1 ] 2
1
[ T 2 ][[ LT 1 ] 3 [ 2 L 2 T 4 ] = 1 + [T 2 ][ 2 L 2 T 4 ][ 2 L 2 T 2 ] = [ LT 1 ] 1+1
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Traceability
Atraceabilitychain,isanunbrokenchainofcomparisons whichallhavestateduncertainties.Thisensuresthata easu e e result esu o orthe evalue a ueo ofas standard a da dis srelated e a edto o measurement referencesatthehigherlevels,endingattheprimary standard. Anendusermayobtaintraceabilitytothehighest internationalleveleitherdirectlyfromaNationalMetrology Instituteorfromsecondarycalibrationlaboratory. Asaresultofvariousmutualrecognitionarrangements, arrangements traceabilitymaybebeobtainedfromlaboratoriesoutsidethe users user sowncountry.
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TheTraceabilityChain
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Traceability Calibration
Traceability y is a characteristic of a calibration or a measurement. A basic tool in ensuring the traceability of a measurement is the calibration of a measuring instrument or reference material. material Calibration determines the performance characteristics of an instrument or reference material. It is achieved by means of a direct comparison against measurement standards d d or certified ifi d reference f materials.A i l calibration certificate is issued and in most cases, a sticker is attached to the calibration instrument.
Threemainreasonsforhavinganinstrumentcalibrated: 1 To 1. T ensurereadings di from f the th i instrument t tareconsistent i t twith ithother th measurements. 2. Todeterminetheaccuracyoftheinstrumentreadings. 3. Toestablishthereliabilityoftheinstrumenti.e.thatitcanbetrusted.
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Traceability
NationalMetrologyInstitutes ANationalMetrolog MetrologyInstit Institute, te NMIisaninstit institute tedesignated bynationaldecisiontodevelopandmaintainnational measurementstandardsforoneormorequantities quantities. Somecountriesoperateacentralisedmetrologyorganisation with ithoneNMI NMI.Th TheNMImayd devolve l th themaintenance i t of f specificstandardstocertainlaboratorieswithoutthesehaving thestatusofaNMI NMI.Othercountriesoperateadecentralised organisationwithamultiplicityofinstitutes,allhavingthe statusofaNMI NMI.
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Traceability
TheRoleofMetrologicalInstitutions Theworldeconomyandthequalityofoureverydaylifedependon reliable measurementsandtestswhicharetrusted andaccepted internationallyandwhichdonotformabarriertotrade. Inadditiontothoseregulationsrequiringlegallyverified i instruments ,manyregulated l dareasrequiremeasurementsand d testingtoassesscompliance,eitherwiththeregulationsor mandateddocumentarystandardse.g. e g aviation, aviation carsafetytesting, testing environmentalandpollutioncontrolandthesafetyofchildrens toys.Dataquality,measurementsandtestingareanimportantpart ofmanyregulations.
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Traceability
NationalMetrologyInstitutesandotherorganisationsprovide advice d and dguidance d onmeasurementissuestothe h users. Regulatoryguidetobestmeasurement,practiseMeasurementmay berequiredatanystageduringtheregulatoryprocess. Goodregulationsrequireanappropriateapproachto measurement/testingwhen Establishing bl h the h rationale l f forl legislation l Writingtheregulationandestablishingthetechnicallimits undertakingmarketsurveillance
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Traceability
Accreditedlaboratories Accreditationisathirdpartyrecognitionofalaboratorystechnical competence,qualitysystemandimpartiality.Publicaswellasprivate laboratoriescanbeaccredited.Accreditationisvoluntary,butanumberof international,Europeanandnationalauthoritiesassurethequalityoftesting andcalibrationlaboratorieswithintheirareaofcompetencebyrequiring accreditationbyanaccreditationbody. Insomecountries,forexample,accreditationisrequiredforlaboratories workinginthefoodsectororforthecalibrationofweightsusedinretail stores.Accreditationisgrantedonthebasisoflaboratoryassessmentand regularsurveillance. Accreditationgenerallybasedonregionalandinternationalstandards standards,e e.g. g ISO/IEC17025Generalrequirementsforthecompetenceoftestingand calibrationlaboratories,andtechnicalspecificationsandguidelinesrelevant f th for thei individual di id ll laboratory. b t
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Traceability
Designatednationallaboratories DesignatedlaboratoriesinmostcountriesarenominatedbytheNMIin accordancewiththemetrologicalplanofactionforthedifferentsubject fieldsandinaccordancewiththemetrologicalpolicyofthecountry Therefore,accreditationbodieshaveinternationallyandregionallyagreed multilaterial agreementsofeachotherssystemsandofcertificatedand testreportsissuedbytheorganisationsaccredited.
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Chapter 1: Metrology Chapter 1: Metrology

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Chapter 1: Metrology Chapter 1: Metrology

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Chapter 1: Metrology

Applied or industrial metrology

Fillupthe target accordingto thelabels

Measurement set of operations having the object of g a value of a q quantity y determining

QUANTITY Mass Time Length Electricalcurrent Temperature Amountofsubstance Luminous intensity

Volume Mass Pressureinair,fluid

litre Metrictonne bar

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a) Charge [Q] =[-1/2M1/2L1/2]

b) C Current t [I] = [-1/2M1/2L1/2T-1]

MKS unit for current/ C.G.S. unit for current

MKS emf unit = 108 C.G.S. Emf unit = 1 G volt

10 7 100 1 9 1 1 1 = 1 10 MKS capacitance unit = 10-9 C.G.S. capacitance unit = 10 nF

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