Cost Price Analysis of Sugarcane Tamil Nadu

MANAGE EXTENSION RESEARCH REVIEW
Vol. III July - December, 2002 No.2
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION MANAGEMENT

Rajendranagar, Hyderabad - 30
Editorial
It is of immense pleasure that MANAGE is successfully bringing out the journal MANAGE EXTENSION RESEARCH REVIEW for the second half of 2002. We place on record our sincere thanks to our distinguished contributors for having shown their keen interest by way of quality publications covering varied interests. We are quite optimistic that the dissemination of the quality publications shall be of immense use to all our readers. The present publication encompasses topics of varied interest such as role of women, development of agricultural extension personnel, marketing, participatory planning and impact on technology adoption etc. We solicit the cooperation, constructive criticism and suggestions, if any for further refinement in enhancing the quality of the journal. We do strongly believe that this little endeavor of MANAGE in bringing out the publication shall be of immense help to the policy makers.
A.K. Goel
Chief Editor
Views expressed in the articles are of the authors and not necessarily of the Institute. Editor
MANAGE EXTENSION RESEARCH REVIEW

Vol. III July - December, 2002 No.2
C O N T E N T S
Editorial 1. Page
Cost Price Analysis in Sugarcane : A Study in Tamil Nadu, Southern India ..... 1 J.P.Singh and K.H. Vedini Production and Marketing Scenarios of Jaggery in India with ............................ 14 Special Reference To Andhra Pradesh K.P.C.Rao and K.N.Ravi Kumar Kindling the Hidden Fire : Empowerment Through Conflict ............................ 24 Management in Organizations G. Jaya Food Grain Production in India An Analysis of Trend and ............................ 38 Seasonal Pattern During the Post-green Revolution Period K.Kareemulla and R.H.Rizvi Impact of Participatory Planning on Adoption of New Technology ................... 45 through FLD (Oil Seeds) P.K. Singh Information Revolution in Indian Agriculture Bankey Bihari and A.S. Mishra ............................ 49
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Cyclone Disaster Preparedness of Prawn Growers in Andhra Pradesh ............... 56 T. Krishna Prasad, MD.Suleman Khan and M.Veera Raghava Reddy Development Oriented Performance Appraisal System for the Agricultural Extension Personnel Souvik Ghosh and K.Vijayaragavan Developmental Priorities of Farm Women in Agribusiness Management - A Case of an Adopted Village K.B.Palem S. Neelaveni and P. Rambabu Potential Appraisal of Agricultural Extension Human Resource - A SWOT Analysis P. Punna Rao and B. Mukunda Rao ............................ 62
8.
9.
............................ 74
10.
............................ 84
11.
Alienation from Work among Entrepreneurs in Agriculture Hemchandra Gajbhiye, R.T. Katole and Jyoti Sahare Monitoring and Evaluation of Extension Activities B.S. Nadagoudar and A.T. Patil
............................ 93
12.
.......................... 100
13.
Research in Field Extension - an Approach for Sustainability......................... 109 Kella Lakshmana, I.M. Iqbal, R.Netaji Seetharaman and R.Ranga Swamy Shaham Agricultural Extension Services of Israel T.D.S.Kumar .......................... 113
14.
15.
Rational Delivery of Private Livestock Extension Services Interventions .... 121 P V K Sasidhar and B S Chandel Utilisation of Information Sources by the Tribal Farmers in .......................... 132 Rampachodavaram Agency Area : A Micro Study P.L.Manohari
16.
MANAGE Extension Research Review
COST PRICE ANALYSIS IN SUGARCANE : A STUDY IN TAMIL NADU, SOUTHERN INDIA

J.P.Singh* and K.H. Vedini**
Introduction
Indian sugar industry has a unique, intrinsic and symbolic relationship with the livelihood of the rural masses and contributes around 2 per cent to the national gross domestic product. It employs over 40 million cane growers and their families, constituting 7 per cent of the rural population and about 3.5 lakh skilled and unskilled labourers. As a raw material, sugarcane is transported from farms to sugar mills and hence the service sector like transportation is getting developed in addition to rural road development. Sugarcane is the basic raw material for gur making, and gur making is one of the important cottage industries that provides employment to the rural folk, particularly in harvesting, transporting by head load to crushing unit from the field, crushing and gur preparation. Thus, the sugar industry as a whole helps in uplifting the lives of the rural masses. Being the second largest agro-based industry, only next to cotton, it plays a dominant role in promoting the development of both agricultural and industrial economies of the country. To keep producing any agricultural product, including sugarcane, there must be demand for the product, there must be a well developed marketing system and the farmers inturn must have confidence in the marketing system. The growth rates in productivity in three southern states Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh are also quite encouraging. Inspite of these positive trends, farmers are agitated due to late issuance of cutting orders by the sugar mills, high transportation costs, high harvesting costs and low profit margin in supplying cane to the sugar mills. Performance of these sugar mills is also not quite encouraging particularly in effecting prompt payment to the cane growers.
* ** Director, National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management (MANAGE), Rajendranagar, Hyderabad-30 Programme Officer National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management (MANAGE), Rajendranagar, Hyderabad-30
July - December, 2002
In the present, an attempt has been made to analyze the time series of price analysis in sugarcane in Tamil Nadu state.
Objectives
The specific objectives set up for this study are as follows : (i) (ii) Estimate the cost of production and study its relation with prices, Analyze the time series data on market arrivals and prices of gur and Khandasari sugar in the selected markets of southern India,
Cost-price relationship in sugarcane To keep farm business going, the farmer must get a reasonable profit in his business in raising the crop. Hence, he must get a price for his produce, that must cover not only the cost of production but also ensure a reasonable profit. Therefore, in this chapter the firstsection deals with the cost of producing sugarcane and the second section deals with the cost-price relationship. Cost of production of sugarcane Each and every cultivation operation involves cost. Therefore, the details on the same in cultivating sugarcane is analysed and the results are presented in Table 1, below. Table 1: Operation-wise Average Cost of Cultivation of Sugarcane in Sample Farms
Sl.No Operation Planted Crop Rupees % per/ha total 37000 7.14 11375 21.96 2925 5.65 6800 13.13 7250 14.00 1375 1.93 3750 7.24 15000 28.96 52175 100.00 Ratoon Crop Rupees % per/ha total 750 1.95 500 1.30 1250 3.25 7850 20.40 7750 20.13 1650 4.28 3750 9.75 15000 38.95 38500 100
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Preparatory cultivation Seeds and sowing Manures & Manuring Fertilizer & applications After cultivation Plant protection Irrigation Harvesting Total
MANAGE Extension Research Review From the table above, it can be seen that the total cost works out to Rs.52175 per hectare. Among the operations, harvesting alone accounts for 28.95 percent of the total operational cost, followed by seeds and sowing with 21.96 percent, after-cultivation with 14.00 percent, fertilizers and application with 13.13 percent etc and the least share was for sowing and plant protection with 1.93 percent. In order to have an in depth analysis of the total cost, operational costs and fixed costs were also worked and the results are given in table 2. Table 2 : Operational, Fixed and Total cost of cultivation of Sugarcane in Sample Farms
Sl.No 1. 2. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. Costs Operational cost Value of setts Value of human labour Value of animal power Value of machine power Value of workers Value of fertilizers Value of plant protection chemials Irrigation (electricity*) change Total Interest on (1 to 8) working capital Total Variable cost Rent/equipment for land Depreciation on farm assets Interest on fixed capital Land revenue & other tasses Rupees per/ha 8750 29875 750 3875 1875 5925 1125 52175 5218 57393 10000 1300 1625 250 13175 70568 % to total 12.40 42.34 1.06 5.49 2.66 8.40 1.59 73.94 7.39 81.33 14.17 1.84 2.30 0.35 18.67 10.00
Total fixed costs (B) Total cost of cultivation * Free electricity for agriculture in Tamil Nadu State
It can be noted from the table above, that the total cost included, variable costs and fixed costs, and it works out to Rs. 70568 per ha. The variable cost was Rs.57393 accounting for 81.33 percent of the total cost, while the fixed cost worked out to Rs.13,175 accounting for 18.67 percent in the total cost. Among the inputs, human labour alone accounts for 42.34 percent, followed by seeds (setts) with 12.40 percent, fertilizers with 8.40 percent and the least percentage of 1.06 is for animal power.
July - December, 2002 3
Table3 : Operational cost, Fixed cost and Total cost of Cultivation of Ratoon Sugarcane Crop
Sl.No.
Costs
Rupees per ha 38500 3850 42350 13175 55525
% Total 69.34 6.93 76.27 23.73 100.00
1. 2. 3. 4.
Operation wise total cost Interest on operation cost (on item 1) @ 10% Total operational cost (1+2) Total fixed cost Total cost of production / cultivation per Ha
As can be noted from the table, the total cost of production per hectare of ratoon crops works out to Rs.55525. In comparison with that of sugarcane planted crop, the total cost of cultivation for ratoon crop is considerably lower.
Gross Return
Returns from sugarcane is important because sugarcane is a commercial crop, that is grown by the farmers for the high profit it fetches. Therefore, an attempt has been made to work out the gross return and net profit per hectare of sugarcane. The results are given in the Table 4 below : Table 4 :Average Gross Income, Net Income per Hectareof Sugarcane in Sample Farms
Sl. No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Particulars Gross return/ hectare 100 tonnes of cane @ Rs. 770 per tonne Direct / operational cost per hectare Net income while operational cost alone is considered of (1-2) Total cost of production per hectare Profit per hectare (1-4) Price of one tonne of cane Cost production per quintal Profit / tonne of cane Rupees Planted Crop 77,000 52176 24825 70568 6432 770 706 64 Ratoon Crop 77,000 42350 34650 55525 21475 770 555 215
MANAGE Extension Research Review From the table above, it can be seen that the gross income per hectare of cane works out to Rs.77,000 while operational cost was Rs.52176, and the net profit per hectare works out to Rs.24825. On the other hand when total cost of production of Rs.70568 is considered, the net profit per hectare is Rs.6432. When compared with that of the main crop, the net income and profit per hectare in ratoon crop were markedly higher. Similarly the cost of production per tonne of ratoon sugarcane crop was Rs.555, while it was Rs.706 in planted crop. Above the cost and return analysis of sugarcane planted vs ratoon crop showed that the latter yielded more net-returns to the farmers due to less cost involved in ratoon crop.
Cost-price relationship
The cost of production works out to Rs.706 per tonne and the price received is Rs.770, leaving a net profit of Rs.64 per tonne, which works out to 9.07 percent. The benefit-cost ratio is also 1.091 ie., for every rupee spent on sugarcane production there will be a profit of just nine paise (ie., 9 percent). Table 5: The Cost price - Relationship in Sugarcane Cultivation for the Period 1981-2000
Sl.No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. Year 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 Cost of production price in Rs/qtl 10.60 11.40 10.60 14.00 15.10 13.40 15.00 15.30 16.20 16.60 24.40 30.90 31.70 33.60 34.60 34.50 50.00 57.50 77.00 Procurement price Rs/qtl 13.00 13.00 13.50 14.00 16.50 17.00 18.50 19.50 23.00 23.00 26.00 31.00 45.00 52.50 56.00 59.90 60.00 68.80 77.00 Percent of profit in procurement price 18.461 12.31 21.46 8.48 21.18 18.92 21.54 29.57 27.83 6.15 0.32 29.56 36.00 40.25 42.40 16.67 16.42 9.09
Such a low profit (9 percent) in cultivating sugarcane is not encouraging the farmer in continuing the crop in the farm business. Compared to this, the profit in industrial activities is more than 20 percent. Even this nine percent margin is subject to high risk due to the vagaries of monsoons and attack of diseases like rust and red-rot. Probably these might be the reasons why farmers demand higher price for their cane supplied to the sugar factories. An attempt was also made to compare the cost with prices and the margin obtained over a period of time. The results are presented in Table 5. It can be inferred from the table above, that during the 20 years period considered, the profit was zero in 1984 and 0.32 per cent in 1992 and it was the maximum at 42.40 percent in 1996. Thus, the profitability was highly varying, and it was a measure of risk in sugarcane cultivation. In the most recent years (after 1997), the profit was less than 20 percent. These results again reinforce the claim of farmers for remunerative prices to sugarcane.
Time series price analysis in sugarcane

To understand and analyse the nature of inter-temporal behaviour in prices, time series data on prices are necessary. An annual or yearly price observation has three components: Trend (T), cyclical (C) and irregular (I) ie., Pt = T+C+I (additive model) Pt = T x C x I (multiplicative model) Where Pt is an observation on price for period t. the method of separating the effect of each component is also termed as decomposition of time series.
Trend or secular price movements

The tendency of prices to move up or down over a long period of time (in excess of 10 years) is termed as trend or secular price movement. A trend in prices is usually established on the basis of at least 10 to 15 years data. The trend is not concerned with the movement in prices from one year to another, but for a large number of years, say 10 or more.
6 July - December, 2002
Cyclical fluctuations
A cycle is defined as a regularly occurring phenomenon. When this phenomenon occurs in movement of prices, it is termed as a price cycle i.e., cyclical fluctuations refer to the swings around a trend line. Regularly occurring upswings and downswings or oscillations in prices are termed as cyclical fluctuations in prices.
Irregular price fluctuations

Irregular and episodic price movements represent that part of the behaviour of prices which is not systematic. A particular price movement may not recur in the future. No generalization can be made about such price fluctuations because of the diversity in their nature and irregularity of the cause and effect relationships in their occurrences. They may be of shorter or longer duration. Table 6 :Time Series Analysis Prices of Sugarcane Jaggery Powder in Kavundappadi Regulated Market.
Sl. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6. 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 Year 1978-79 1979-80 1980-81 1981-82 1982-83 1983-84 1984-85 1985-86 1986-87 1987-88 1988-89 1989-90 1990-91 1991-92 1992-93 1993-94 1994-95 1995-96 1996-97 1997-98 1998-99 1999-00 2000-01 Price (Rs/Q+1) 109 198 301 212 148 289 298 279 321 399 336 462 506 428 559 925 724 615 897 1208 858 827 847 Trend 73.25 113.01 152.77 192.53 232.29 272.05 311.81 351.57 391.33 431.09 470.85 510.61 550.37 590.13 629.89 669.65 709.41 749.17 788.93 828.69 868.45 908.21 947.97 C+I (2-3) 35.75 84.99 148.23 19.47 -84.29 16.95 -13.81 -72.57 -70.33 -32.09 -134.85 -48.61 -44.37 -162.13 -70.89 255.35 14.59 -134.17 108.07 379.31 -10.45 -81.21 -100.97 C (1:@:wt. MA of 4) 354 401 103 -132 -64 -83 -229 -245 -269 -350 -276 -299 -440 -49 454 150 -146 461 856 277 -274 I (4-5) -269 -252.7 -83.41 47.87 81.15 69.43 156.71 174.99 237.27 215.55 227.83 255.11 277.39 -22.33 -199.1 -135.8 11.51 -353.2 -476.9 -287.7 192.63 -
From Table 6, it can be seen that the prices have followed an upward trend over the years at the rate of Rs. 40/qtl for a year. The cyclical variations isolated would not reveal a definite pattern of cycle although implied the presence of cycles in the price movement. The irregular movement is also not small. (Fig 1)
1800 1600 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0
1978-79 1979-80 1980-81 1981-82 1982-83 1983-84 1984-85 1985-86 1986-87 1987-88 1988-89 1989-90 1990-91 1991-92 1992-93 1993-94 1994-95 1995-96 1996-97 1997-98 1998-99 1999-00 2000-01
Irregular Cyclical Trend
Fig.1 : Trend in Prices of Sugarcane Jaggery Power in Kavundappadi Regulated Market
Here, the trend pattern prevailed as the one in the jaggary regulated market. A definite upward trend to the tune of Rs.40/qtl per year could be seen in the price movements. Table 7 : Jaggery Powder Price at Chithode Market
Year 1990-91 1991-92 1992-93 1993-94 1994-95 1995-96 1996-97 1997-98 1998-99 1999-00 2000-01 8 Price (Rs/Q+1) 470 440 550 900 800 596 826 1144 870 798 838 Trend 532.64 575.78 618.92 662.06 705.20 748.34 791.48 834.62 877.76 920.90 964.04 C+I -63 -136 -69 238 94.8 -152 34.5 309 -7.8 -123 -126 C -403 -35.7 501.8 275.2 -175 226.1 645.5 171 -380 I 267.34 -33.24 -263.82 -180.4 23.02 -191.56 -336.14 -178.72 256.7 -
MANAGE Extension Research Review The presence of cycles could be identified better if there are more number of years of data rather than 10 years. The irregular fluctuation was large here also. Table 8 :Jaggery Wholesale Price in Tamil Nadu State
Sl.No 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. Year 1978-79 1979-80 1980-81 1981-82 1982-83 1983-84 1984-85 1985-86 1986-87 1987-88 1988-89 1989-90 1990-91 1991-92 1992-93 1993-94 1994-95 1995-96 1996-97 Ws price (Rs 1 Q+1) 123.69 233.79 194.11 147.5 151.37 265.47 265.75 270.00 276.53 321.08 292.77 377.20 325.28 343.33 416.63 746.06 752.00 789 829.02 Trend 53.74 89.44 125.14 160.84 196.54 232.24 267.94 303.64 339.34 375.04 410.74 446.44 482.14 517.84 553.54 589.24 624.94 660.04 696.34 C +I 69.95 144.35 68.97 -13.34 -45.17 33.23 -2.19 -33.64 -62.81 -53.96 -117.97 -69.24 -156.86 -174.51 -136.91 156.82 127.06 128.36 132.68 C 427.62 268.95 -2.88 -70.45 19.1 -4.79 -132.28 -213.22 -288.7 -359.14 -413.31 -557.47 -642.79 -291.51 303.79 539.30 516.46 I -199.98 -283.27 -199.98 -10.46 25.28 14.13 2.6 98.64 150.41 234.74 344.74 400.61 468.28 154.60 -146.97 -412.24 -338.1 -
Fig 2 : Trend in jaggery wholesale prices in Tamil Nadu State
The jaggery whole sale price in Tamil nadu also showed an upward trend in their price movements over the years. An increase of Rs. 40 to 45 per year could be seen in the trend. It was not showing a clear cyclical pattern as to how many years of cycle prevailed in the price movement. The irregular component shows very wide variation among the years, revealing price risks in the jaggery wholesale market (Fig 2). Table 9: Statutory Minimum Price for Sugarcane Announced by the Government of India
Year 1978-79 1979.80 1980-81 1981-82 182-83 1983-84 1984-85 1985-86 1986-87 1987-88 1988-89 1989-90 1990-91 1991-92 1992-93 1993-94 1994-95 1995-96 1996-97 1997-98 1998-99 1999-2000 2000-2001 SMP (Rs/ Q+1) 10 12.5 13 13 13 13.5 14 16.5 17 18.5 19 22 23 26 31 34.5 39.1 42.5 45.9 48.45 52.70 55 58 Trend 3.22 5.45 7.68 9.91 12.14 14.37 16.60 18.83 21.06 23.29 25.52 27.75 29.98 32.21 34.44 36.67 38.90 41.13 43.36 45.59 47.82 50.05 58.28 C+I 6.78 7.05 5.32 3.09 0.86 -0.87 -2.6 -2.33 -4.06 -4.79 -6.52 -5.75 -6.98 -6.21 -3.44 -2.17 0.2 1.37 2.54 2.86 4.88 4.95 5.72 C 26.2 20.78 12.36 3.94 -3.94 -8.40 -11.30 -15.20 -20.2 -23.6 -25 -25.9 -22.8 -15.3 -7.58-0.40 5.48 9.31 13.14 17.57 20.50 I -19.15 -15.46 -9.27 -3.08 -3.08 5.80 8.99 11.18 15.37 17.06 19.25 18.94 16.63 11.82 5.41 0.60 -4.11 -6.77 -10.28 -12.69 -15.55 -
There existed trend in the SM price of sugarcane announced by the government. The price increased by about Rs.2/- per year over the period. The cyclical pattern showed the operation of cycles of about five to six years in the price movement over the years. The irregular variation ranged from ( - ) to ( + ) 19.25 and it
MANAGE Extension Research Review was small compared to trend (Fig 3). This result was expected because the SMP was policy determined and much analysis was involved in determining it. Table 10 : Tamil Nadu State Advised Prices for Sugarcane
Year 1978-79 1979-80 1980-81 1981-82 1982-83 1983-84 1984-85 1985-86 1986-87 1987-88 1988-89 1989-90 1990-91 1991-92 1992-93 1993-94 1994-95 1995-96 1996-97
80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
1978-79 1979-80 1980-81 1981-82 1982-83 1983-84 1984-85 1985-86 1986-87 1987-88 1988-89 1989-90 1990-91 1991-92 1992-93 1993-94 1994-95 1995-96 1996-97 1997-98 1998-99 1999-00 2000-01
SAP (Rs/Q+1) 16 17.5 16.5 15.5 15.5 16 18.5 19.5 20 27.18 28.06 34.12 36.25 37.35 46.58 55.59 63.37 71.88 77.52
Trend 3.49 6.80 10.11 13.42 16.73 20.04 23.35 26.66 29.97 33.28 36.59 39.90 43.21 46.52 49.83 53.14 56.45 59.76 63.07
C+I 12.5 10.7 6.39 2.08 -1.2 -4 -4.9 -7.2 -10 -6.1 -8.5 -5.8 -7 -9.2 -3.3 2.45 6.92 12.10 14.50
C 40.3 25.6 9.32 -4.42 -14.20 -20.90 -29.1 -33.2 -30.7 -28.9 -27.1 -28.9 -28.6 -13.2 8.57 28.4 45.6 Irregular Cyclical Trend
I -29.6 -19.2 -7.24 3.19 10.1 16.1 22 23.2 24.6 20.4 21.3 21.9 19.4 9.97 -6.12 -21.5 -33.5 -
Fig .3 : Trend in statutory minimum price for sugarcane announced by the government of India
11
The Tamil Nadu state advised prices of sugarcane showed an upward trend of increase in prices over years of about Rs.3 each year. But in the cyclical pattern there was no definite number of years of cycle prevailing although changes in the prices could be seen. The irregular component showed some impact on the price movement.
Seasonal price index

The seasonal price index was worked out considering the 12 monthly prices for 25 years from 1976-77 to 2000-2001 for jaggery sugar. The results revealed that the indices during the months were ranging from a minimum of 93.24 in the month of February to a maximum of 95.52 in the month of May. On the other hand the price indices were ranging from the minimum of 101.32 in the month of June to the maximum of 106.68 in the month of October. Thus in general, the price indices were below 100 during the months of January through May and were above 100 during the months of June through December. This might be due to the coincidence of harvestingprocessing-marketing season with the former months and the off-seasons with the latter months (Fig 4).
Fig.4 : Seasonal Index of jaggery powder prices.
12
Integration among spatially separated markets

The extent to which prices in spatially separated market move together or are related to transport costs reflects the degree of integration. Price correlation; one of the indicators of pricing efficiency was the extent of the inter relationship in price movements between selected markets. Uma Lele defined the interrelationship between price movements in two markets as market integration. The degree of correlation between prices in various markets was taken as an index of the extent to which the two markets are integrated. A higher degree of the correlation coefficient indicates a greater degree of integration atleast in terms of pricing of the product between market centers and vice versa. Price correlation coefficient of 0.09 or more was a high degree of inter-market price relationship because, in such case 81percent or more variation in the prices in one market is associated with that in another market, and the remaining 19 percent variation may be assumed to stem from transportation, information and other bottlenecks. So the two jaggery powder markets ie., the regulated market at Kavundappadi and the Chithodu market were highly integrated and had a high degree of inter-market price relationship with a correlation coefficient of 0.98.
13
PRODUCTION AND MARKETING SCENARIOS OF JAGGERY IN INDIA WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO ANDHRA PRADESH
K.P.C.Rao* and K.N.Ravi Kumar**
Introduction
India is a founder member of General Agreement of Tariff and Trade (GATT), established in 1948 along with 22 other nations. World Trade Organization (WTO) was established on 1 st January,1995 with 110 membership nations including India. The present membership strength is 144 and 30 other nations are actively considering membership. The 8th Round Summit of GATT at Uruguay (1986-91) finalized the draft, Agreement on Agriculture (AoA), which became effective from 1st July, 1995. Many expressed concerns and apprehensions fearing adverse impact of World Trade Agreement (WTA) signed by India. The present day ill of agriculture and crashing prices are being attributed to WTA. This is mainly due to the fact that the implications and consequences of WTA are not fully understood by many. No doubt, there are both advantages and disadvantages due to WTA. But, the WTA provides great opportunities for marketing the produce and products globally for the member countries. The main aim of WTA on agriculture was to encourage fair trade in agriculture by removing trade distortions resulting from differential levels of input subsidies, price and market support, export subsidy and other kinds of trade distorting support. This facility can, however, not be exploited by developing countries, because developed and developing countries do not have the same level field for operations. So, in this context, it is thought appropriate to study the implications of WTA on Indian agriculture with reference to major agricultural
* Principal Scientist, Village Level Studies, International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Pattancheru, Hyderabad ** Scientist, Department of Agricultural Economics, Acharya N.G. Ranga Agricultural University (ANGRAU), Rajendranagar, Hyderabad - 30
14
MANAGE Extension Research Review commodities. Since, jaggery is one of the major commodities exported from India and Andhra Pradesh state, the same is considered for this in-depth study. Methodology Sugarcane is one of the most important cash crops cultivated in India. India ranks second in the world next to Brazil both in area and production of sugarcane. But, in term of yield, India stood at 5th place among major producers in the world. During 1998, it was grown in an area of 39.60 lakh ha with a total production of 2650 lakh M.T.(cane). It is also estimated that about 30% of the cane produced in India, is being used in the manufacturing of jaggery. Andhra Pradesh state ranks 5 th in production of sugarcane in the country. In the year 1998-99, it was grown in an area of 0.21 m.ha. The total production of sugarcane in the state was 16.68 m.tonnes. About 60% of the cane produced in the state is being converted into jaggery in the state. For studying the growth rates of area, production and productivity of sugarcane both at All-India level and Andhra Pradesh level and similarly for the production of jaggery and Khandsari at all-India level, the requisite information was collected from FAO, Year Book,1999, CMIE Reports, Indian Agriculture, 1999 and Agriculture Statistics at a Glance-2000. The export competitiveness of jagery in the present study has been assessed by working out Nominal Protection Coefficient (NPC). It is the ration between domestic price to the border price. Symbolically, NPC=pd/pb Where, NPC=Nominal Protection Coefficient pd=Domestic price of a commodity. pb=Border price of a commodity
In working out the export competitiveness of jaggery at all-India level, it is the exportable hypothesis which is relevant, was taken into consideration. Under this hypothesis, the jaggery is deemed to be competitive at Mumbai and Chennai ports. For Andhra Pradesh state, the exports competitiveness was studied taking into consideration the cost of production ratios between Andhra Pradesh and All-India level. The data regarding export prices, domestic prices and cost of production of jaggery was collected from different sources like Indian
Agriculture 1999, Agricultural Situation in India Monthly Journal of Government of India and Commission for Agricultural Costs and Report, 2000. The internal transportation costs of jaggery upto the selected ports, Mumbai and Chennai were collected from Container Corporation of India, Hyderabad. For studying the marketing scenario of jaggery in India, Anakapalle regulated market in Andhra Pradesh was selected purposively, as it ranks next to Muzaffarnagar market in Uttar Pradesh. At market level, the market structure and price spread for jaggery were studied to assess the degree of market competitiveness and marketing efficiency respectively. For studying these aspects in detail, 60 farmers, 30 commission agents, 30 local exporters, 30 local wholesalers and 30 retailers were selected.
Results and Discussion : World Scenario

India ranks second in the world next to Brazil (Table 1) both in area and production of sugarcane. These two countries taken together accounted for 45.80 per cent area and 48.17 per cent production respectively in the year 1998. China, Mexico, Thailand and Australia are the other major producers of sugarcane in the world. Among these, Australia marked the highest yield with 1003.52 q/ ha followed by Mexico (795.04 q/ha), China (713.17 q/ha) and Brazil (684.36 q/ha). India ranks 5th in yield rankings among major producers in the world and its yield level is lower than average yield of cane in the world. Table 1: Major producers of sugarcane in the world (1998) Countries India Brazil China Mexico Thailand Australia Cuba WORLD Area (000 ha) 4944 3960 1201 615 930 409 1100 19438 Production (000) MT 338348 265000 85666 48895 46025 41044 35000 1252266 Yield (kg/ha) 68436 66919 71317 79504 49489 100352 31818 64423
Source: FAO Year Book (1998)
16
Domestic Scenario
Sugarcane occupied 2.15 per cent of gross cropped area in the year 1996-97. Among different states in the country, Uttar Pradesh accounted for the largest shares in acreage and production of sugarcane (Table 2). Its share in total area and production of cane stood at 48.3 per cent and 39.3 per cent respectively during 1998-99. Maharashtra occupies second place in area and production after Uttar Pradesh with 13.0 per cent and 15.9 per cent shares respectively. These two states are followed by Tamil Nadu (15.8 per cent), Karnataka (9.6 per cent) and Andhra Pradesh (5.6 per cent) in sugarcane production and these five states collectively account for 86.31 per cent of total sugarcane production in the country in the year 1998-99. Table 2: State-wise area, production and yield of sugarcane in India State Uttar Pradesh Maharashtra Tamil Nadu Karnataka Andhra Pradesh Gujarat Haryana Bihar ALL-INDIA Area(m.ha) 1.97 0.53 0.35 0.31 0.21 0.20 0.13 0.11 4.08 Production (m.tonnes) 116.30 47.15 46.67 28.45 16.68 13.57 6.88 5.23 295.73 Yield(kg/ha) 59019 88998 134156 91199 78038 69110 55040 48547 72560
Source : Agricultural Statistics at a Glance-2000.
The state of Tamil Nadu ranked first in yield among all the states in the country, where the yield is found to be 1341.56 q/ha. Tamil Nadu was followed by Karnataka and Maharashtra which ranked second and third in yield rankings during the same period with yield levels 911.99 q/ha and 889.98 q/ha respectively. The yield levels in these three states are higher by 184.89 per cent, 125.68 per cent and 122.65 per cent as compared to the National average (725.60 q/ha). Growth rates in area, production and yield of sugarcane for the country and for the state of Andhra Pradesh were worked out during several periods and the results are presented through table 3. It is clear from the table that, during the aggregate period 1949-50 to 1998-99, the area, production and yield of sugarcane at All-India level
showed positive growth rates. However, the growth rate of area under sugarcane showed declining trend during the selected two sub-periods(1949-50 to 1964-65 and 1967-68 to 1998-99). The growth rate of production during the sub-period 1949-50 to 1964-65 is 4.26 per cent per annum, but it was decreased to 3.14 per cent during 1967-68 to 1998-99. This is mainly due to decline in the growth rate of area during the sub-period 1967-68 to 1998-99. But, a little increase in the growth rate in yield during the same sub-period, slightly compensated the production growth rate. In Andhra Pradesh state, the area and yield of sugarcane are showing positive growth rates (1.53 per cent and 3.13 per cent respectively) for the past three decades (1970-71 to 1998-99). During the same period, the production of sugarcane is declining at a rate of 0.02 per cent per annum. During the subperiod 1970-71 to 1984-85, both area and yield of sugarcane showed positive growth rates (0.85 and 0.55 per cent respectively) and with a low magnitude. But, production showed declining trend at the rate of 0.31 per cent per annum. However, this trend was totally improved during the sub-period, 1985-86 to 1998-99 as both area and yield of sugarcane showed higher positive growth rates (3.62 and 11.70 per cent respectively) due to the introduction of high yielding and short duration varieties of sugarcane. Hence, during the same period, the production of sugarcane showed positive growth rate (0.93 per cent) when compared to -0.31 per cent during 1970-71 to 1984-85. Table 3: Growth rates (%) of area, production and yield of sugarcane during different periods Period 1. All-India 1949-50 to 1964-65 1967-68 to 1998-99 1949-50 to 1998-99 2. Andhra Pradesh 1970-71 to 1984-85 1985-86 to 1998-99 1970-71 to 1998-99
Source: 1. 2.
Area 3.28 1.83 0.85 3.62 1.53
Yield 0.95 1.36 3.08 0.55 11.70 3.13
Production 4.26 3.14 1.22 -0.31 0.93 -0.02
All-India data were collected from Agricultural Statistics at a Glance-2000. Andhra Pradesh data (1955 to 1993) were collected from CMIE Report (Agriculture-2000)
18
Jaggery Production and Trade

At present, nearly 30 per cent of the sugarcane produced in the country in a normal year (a year in which the production of sugarcane matches consumption) goes into the production of jaggery. Muzaffarnagar in Uttar Pradesh is considered as Asias largest jaggery market. The other main markets in the country are Anakapalle (40 kms from Visakhapatnam district) in Andhra Pradesh, Mandya in Karnataka, Salem in Tamil Nadu, Hapur in Uttar Pradesh, Patna in Bihar and Mumbai and Kolhapur in Maharashtra. The details of output of jaggery and khandsari from 1982-83 to 1997-98 was shown in table 4. It is clear from the table that the output of jaggery and khandsari reached a peak during 1993-94 and 1996-97 due to bumper harvest of sugarcane crop and was lowest during 1986-87 and -1995-96 as the crop was adversely affected by bad weather and pest attack. For other years, the jaggery and kandsari production is concentrated between 80 lalh.MT to 98 lakh.MT. The growth rate worked out for the production of jaggery and khandsari during this reference period is only 0.79 per cent (non-significant) and this indicates the production of jaggery and khandsari is more or less stagnated.
Destination-wise Exports of jaggery from India

The study on the destination-wise exports of jaggery from India reveals the concentration of exports in a few countries. The direction of jaggery exports Table 4: Production of jaggery and khandsari in india (Lakh.M.T.) Year 1982-83 1983-84 1984-85 1985-86 1986-87 1987-88 1988-89 1989-90 Production 86.65 95.41 91.05 82.48 79.25 83.00 93.91 85.73 Year 1990-91 1991-92 1992-93 1993-94 1994-95 1885-96 1996-97 1997-98 Production 90.73 89.67 92.00 105.18 96.00 74.09 108.07 98.57
Compound Growth Rate (%) : 0.79

Raw Data Source: Indian Agriculture, 1999
19
during the last four years(1994-95 to 1997-98) is presented in table 5. The figures reveal that, continuos exports were made to Canada, Malaysia, Singapore, UAE, UK and USA. For Sri Lanka and France, eventhough the exports were irregular, the quantum of exports are higher. On the whole, the large share of total exports were made to Malaysia (1994-95), France and Malaysia (1995-96), Malaysia and Sri Lanka (1996-97) and France, Pakistan and Portugal (1997-98) when compared to other countries. Malaysia is the chief importer of jaggery from India, as the exports are regular and at significant proportion during the reference period. It is interesting to note that, eventhough, Pakistan and Portugal do not appear as chief importers of jaggery from 1994-95 to 1996-97, they occupied first and second places in importing the largest share of jaggery exports from India in 1997-98. In recent years, there has been a quantum jump in the exports of jaggery from India, due to its wider acceptance in terms of quality. Table 5: Country-wise exports of jaggery from India (M.tonnes)
Country 1994-95 % 1.53 48.67 1.42 1.97 7.03 2.88 2.67 1995-96 Quantity 161 10,500 4972 235 20 528 595 177 31677 % 0.51 33.14 15.69 0.74 0.06 1.67 1.88 0.56 1996-97 Quantity 197 6948 290 13328 460 140 377 23505 % 0.84 29.56 1.23 56.70 1.96 0.59 1.60 1997-98 Quantity 227 10,032 1468 21196 10500 79 528 547 395 45767 % 0.49 21.92 3.21 46.31 22.94 0.17 1.15 1.19 0.86 Quantity Canada 130 France Malaysia 4134 Pakistan Portugal Singapore 121 Sri Lanka 167 UAE 597 UK 245 USA 227 Total 8493
Source: Indian Agriculture, 1999
Export Competitiveness of jaggery

NPCs have been worked out to determine the export competitiveness of jaggery in the selected countries and the results are presented in table 6. In order to find the export competitiveness of jaggery, exportable hypothesis, that is more relevant is taken into consideration. Under this hypothesis, jaggery is deemed
MANAGE Extension Research Review to be competitive with the selected countries at Mumbai and Chennai ports.The table reveals that, jaggery is an efficient exportable commodity from India, as the average NPCs (1994-95 to 1997-98) worked out are less than unity for UAE and UK countries. It is moderately competitive in these countries as the value of NPC falls between 0.75 to 1.00. However, it is less competitive in Malaysia and Singapore as the average NPCs (1994-95 to 1997-98) worked out are more than unity. Even though, the quantum of exports to the selected countries is increasing over the period, the increase in cost of production of sugarcane and jaggery is hampering its competitiveness in the international market. Countries like Peru, Egypt and Zambia are exporting jaggery at a very low price in the international market, thereby, adversely affecting Indias trade in the international export market. Similar results were obtained from Andhra Pradesh state, where the export competitiveness was studied for jaggery, by taking into consideration cost of production ratios. Table 6: Export Competitiveness (NPCs) of jaggery in the selected countries
Year Malaysian UAE UK Singapore India AP * 1.43 1.69 1.47 1.56 1.14 1.30 0.80 0.84 1.21 1.35 into consideration India AP * India AP * India AP * 1994-95 1.46 1.73 0.76 0.90 0.80 0.95 1995-96 1.55 1.64 0.70 0.74 0.79 0.83 1996-97 1.22 1.39 0.66 0.75 0.78 0.89 1997-98 1.12 1.17 0.73 0.77 0.71 0.75 Average 1.34 1.48 0.71 0.79 0.77 0.86 Note: * indicates Export competitiveness from Andhra Pradesh taking cost of production ratios
Market structure for jaggery in Anakapalle market

Gini ratios were worked out for studying the market structure of jaggery, as it clearly explains the extent of inequality in the distribution of volume of business in the market. The market is considered to be more competitive as the value of Gini coefficient approaches zero and vice versa when it takes a value closer to one. The results of the analysis presented through table 7 reveals that, there exists a moderate degree of competitiveness for jaggery in Anakapalle market, as the value of Gini coefficient is only 0.48 and this market can be classified as slightly concentrated oligopoly based on Bains classification. Hence, suitable steps should be taken to promote the competitiveness of jaggery in Anakapalle market.
Price spread for jaggery in Anakapalle market The details of price spread of jaggery in Anakapalle market are presented in Table 8. The following are the marketing channels identified for jaggery. 1. 2. Farmer - Import Commission Agent - Exporter - Local wholesaler Retailer - Consumer Farmer - Import Commission Agent - Local wholesaler - Retailer - Consumer
Table 7: Size distribution of commission agents handling jaggery in Anakapalle market.

Class $ % <2000 2000-3000 3000-4000 4000-5000 5000-6000 6000-7000 7000-8000 8000-9000 >9000 GINI RATIO 20.00 13.33 10.00 16.67 13.33 6.67 6.67 10.00 3.33 2.55 4.68 6.51 8.55 11.17 13.81 16.01 17.13 19.59 1993-94 CU 2.55 7.23 13.74 22.29 33.46 47.27 63.28 80.41 100.00 0.50 1994-95 % 2.92 5.19 7.04 9.51 10.93 13.83 14.70 16.92 18.96 0.47 CU 2.92 8.11 15.15 24.66 35.59 49.42 64.12 81.04 100.00 1995-96 % 2.99 4.87 7.07 8.45 11.05 13.72 15.98 16.78 19.09 CU 2.99 7.86 14.93 23.38 34.43 48.15 64.13 80.91 100.00 1993-96 % 2.82 4.91 6.87 8.84 11.05 13.79 15.57 16.94 19.21 0.48 CU 2.82 7.73 14.60 23.44 34.49 48.28 63.85 80.79 100.00
0.48
NOTE: Classification based on quantity handled by a commission agent (quintals/year) $ indicates percentage of commission agents to total % indicates percentage of quantity handled to total CU indicated cumulative total Source: Kumar (1998)
Table 8: Producers share in consumers price of jaggery at Anakapalle market.

Particulars Channel I Amount (Rs/qtl) Marketing charges 87.17 Middlemen Margins 103.45 Total marketing costs (1+2) 190.62 Price paid by the consumer 1011.25 Producers share in consumers rupee Marketing efficiency Index Source: Kumar (1998) % to consumer rupee 8.62 10.23 18.85 81.15 4.35 Channel II Amount (Rs/qtl) 97.72 51.26 148.98 1011.25 % to consumer rupee 9.66 5.07 14.73 85.27 5.79
22
MANAGE Extension Research Review It is clear from table 8 that , the total marketing costs paid by the producers, exporters, wholesalers and retailers was higher in channel I (Rs 190.62 i.e.18.85% of consumers price) when compared to channel II 9Rs 148.96 i.e.14.73 % of consumers price). As the total marketing costs are lower in channel II, the producers share in consumers price is higher in channel II (85.27%) when compared to channel I (81.15%).
Conclusions
To conclude, India is the second largest producer of sugarcane in the world. But the disheartening aspect is that, the present use of cane to produce jaggery is on a declining trend (37.4% in 1990-91 to 26.7% in 1995-96). Besides this, there is a greater need to improve the export competitiveness of jaggery in the international market, as the jaggery is found to competitive only in UAE and UK countries. Hence, selecting a suitable variety of seed, improving processing efficiency, reducing cost of cultivation/production of jaggery, encouraging farm level grading, and storage facilities, improving transportation and market information network etc should be given more attention. In this context, the application of Integrated Pest Management (IPM), Integrated Nutrient Management (INM) strategies, strengthening the marketing infrastructure, conducting periodic studies on export competitiveness of jaggery in the international market, etc. should be given more importance for earning Indias due share in the world market.
Reference
Kumar K.N.Ravi, Unpublished Ph.D thesis on Study of Regulated Markets in Andhra Pradesh submitted to Acharya NG Ranga Agriculture University (ANGRAU), October 1998.
23
KINDLING THE HIDDEN FIRE : EMPOWERMENT THROUGH CONFLICT MANAGEMENT IN ORGANIZATIONS

G. Jaya*
In the middle of difficulty lies opportunity. -Albert Einstein

People with divergent personalities, perceptions, attitudes and values occupy different positions in organizations. These positions often have differing or contrasting job charts, different levels of status attached to them and also foster competition among employees. People of different divisions in organizations have to compete for scarce resources in order to achieve their targets / objectives. As a result, in every human endeavor conflict exists. Conflict exists wherever there is social interaction. It emerges as an outcome of interdependencies and interactions between and among people. Conflict is as old as human existence itself. Historical evidences indicate that conflict existed even in prehistoric times when man was at the stage of homo erectus evolving to be Homosapien, on the path to become a modern man. As man developed himself into a hunting society, there are proofs of feuds among tribes for cattle, precious stones, etc. Feuds also existed within the tribe and between clans. Over thousands of years man evolved into an agrarian society where feuds took place for land and water. In Indian epics there are several instances of conflict, especially in Ramayana and Mahabharatha. In modern industrial society, we come across several kinds of conflicts in organizations that sprout out of a number of sources. An individual experiences conflict due to many pressures exerted on him by many groups to which he belongs and the demands of various roles he must play. The socialization process of an individual itself is also viewed as conflict.
* Assistant Director, National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management (MANAGE), Rajendranagar, Hyderabad 500 030, Andhra Pradesh
24
Meaning of conflict
Conflict crops up as change disrupts the existing balance of resources and power thereby straining relations between the people involved. It is the perceived incompatibility between one goal, value or need and another goal, value or need. Conflict may exist within the same person or between a person and another entity. In organizations it shoots up when two interdependent parties perceive that they have incompatible goals and scarce resources, and there is interference from each other in achieving these goals or gaining the resources. Conflict is a state of mind characterized by indecision, uncertainty, dilemma, tension and anxiety. It is as though there are a number of forces, somewhere in the brain, each moving in opposite and non-complementary directions. An individual experiences conflict when he is expected to behave in two or more incompatible ways at the same time (Harigopal, 1995) An analysis of definitions given by various thinkers indicate that: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Conflict is a state of mind It occurs due to incompatibility of goals or values Conflict occurs when the existing balance of power and resources is disturbed. Frustration leads to conflict Differences of opinion may had to conflict
In its simplest terms, conflict is a bye-product of growth, change or innovation. Like change itself, conflict is practically inevitable and when handled properly, can provide better communication, guarantee results and improve employee morale and productivity. Traditional vs. Modern view about conflict management Classical view: The clanical approach of the 1930s and 40s viewed conflict as an undesirable phenomenon, an organizational abnormality, symptomatic of improperly designed communication and reward systems. Conflict was regarded as a negative process associated with outcomes like anger, resentment, confusion, agitation, violence, turbulence, destruction and irrationality. It disrupts the smooth
functioning of organizational processes and creates chaos and disorder. It was thought that conflicts indicate a malfunctioning within the organization and hence should be avoided altogether. Well-managed organizations would have ways of avoiding conflict altogether. Adherence to principles of classical management and scientific analysis of jobs will lead to cooperation in organization. If by any chance, conflicts were to develop, the management can easily and quickly resolve them. Taylor, the Father of scientific management, felt that quarrels, compromise and negotiation would be entirely discarded in labour management relations when everybody abides by the laws of the situation. The Behavioral view: From late 1940 through the mid 70s, conflict theory was dominated by the behavioralist approach in which conflict was seen as an inevitable fact of organizational life to be recognized and addressed. During this period, the emphasis was on finding and using appropriate methods for resolving conflicts by managers. This school of thought highlighted that since organizations are composed of individuals with different perceptions of goals and differing value systems, conflict is bound to arise in organizations. Agreements over priorities, time schedules, method of doing a job, allocation of resources give way to conflicts. Behavioralists believed that conflicts need not always be detrimental, as sometimes it may focus on problems and instigate a search for better and more innovative solutions to problems. Though this school of thought maintained that conflict is inevitable and will lead to creativity in problem solving and hence beneficial to organization, yet they opined that conflict should be resolved once it arises as it is harmful and detrimental to an organization. Achieving co-operation is the very essence of any organization. The Behavioralistic view reflected a popular pre-occupation with morals, human relations and co-operation and the general value that peace is good and conflict is bad. During 1960s, the focus was on the structural sources of conflict, particularly for conflicts that occurred between various functional departments and the choice of methods in managing conflicts. The Interactionist view: While behavioralists believed that conflict is inevitable and must be accepted, interactionists argued that conflict is not only acceptable but should be encouraged. It has a broader scope. The inevitability of conflict results from the interaction between an organizations imposed struggle for limited rewards and the innate aggressive and competitive instincts
MANAGE Extension Research Review in people. This school of thought argues that if harmony, peace tranquility and cooperation prevails in an organization over a longer period, the group will be prone to become non responsible to creativity, innovation and change and may become contended with the situation. Hence, a minimum and optimum level of conflict has to be maintained to make the organization viable, creative and self-critical. The mission of the management is not to create harmony, and cooperation, but to attain its goals effectively. Hence managers must find ways and means to increase the beneficial effects of conflicts and reduce the dysfunctional or negative effects. Interactionists maintain that stimulation of conflicts in organization is necessary to make the organization viable, creative and filled with diversion and excitement. Conflict is integral to the nature of change. It is an inherent structural component in all-social relations. Thus, conflict management travelled its journey through avoidance, acceptance and encouragement and stimulation over the years. The current thought acknowledges the inevitability of conflict and focuses it as a useful tool or vehicle to shake the organization from stereotype and contention to innovation and creativity. Consequences: Conflicts may yield either beneficial effects or negative effects in organizations. Beneficial Consequences: When properly managed, conflicts can have beneficial consequences. 4 4 Motivate individual to do better and to work harder. Ones abilities and talents come to the forefront in a conflict situation Satisfy certain psychological needs like dominance, aggression, esteem and ego, and thereby provide an opportunity for the constructive use and release of aggressive urges Provide creative, constructive and innovative ideas Add variety to ones organizational life Provide diagnostic information that can generate cues for better organization and management to prevent occurrence of similar problems Facilitate an understanding of the problem, people and interrelationships between people, better co-ordination among individuals and departments, in addition to strengthening intra-groups relationships
27
4 4 4 4
Dysfunctional consequences
4 Conflicts affect individual and organizational performance. Resolving conflicts consumes a considerable amount of managerial time and energy which could be more productively spent in the absence of conflicts In a conflict situation, people may promote their self-interests or personal gains at the cost of others in the organization Intense conflicts over a prolonged period affect individuals emotionally and physically and give rise to psychosomatic disorders. Time spent on conflicts, if costed, could mean considerable amount of money wasted Conflicts may lead to work sabotage, employee morale problems, decline in the market share of product / services and consequent loss of productivity. Organization related individual consequences: Absenteeism Job dissatisfaction Apathy or indifference to work Job stress and burnout Disloyalty Work sabotage Employee turnover Increased resistance to change Decreased information sharing
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
Types of conflict
Conflict has been classified in different ways. Following are some of the classifications. 4 4
28
Realistic and non-realistic. Inter psychic and psychosocial conflicts

MANAGE Extension Research Review 4 4 Conflict of interest and conflict of understanding: Intra-personal, interpersonal, organizational, inter-organizational and revolutionary conflict. Intra-individual conflict involves frustration, goal conflict, and role conflict and ambiguity. Frustration occurs when goal-directed behavior is blocked. Goal conflict occurs when a goal has both positive and negative features or when an individual has two or more competing goals thus blocking one another. three types of goal conflict are generally identified. Approach approach conflict, where the individual is motivated to approach two or more positive but mutually exclusive goals. Approach avoidance conflict, where a single goal has both positive and negative characteristics and the individual is motivated to approach and avoid it at the same time. This has relevance to the analysis of organizational behavior. Avoidance avoidance conflict, where the individual is motivated to avoid two or more negative but mutually exclusive goals. Role conflict and ambiguity arises as individual is expected to play various roles and a clash there from. Organizational conflict includes Hierarchical conflict, Functional conflict, etc. Line staff conflict and Formal informal conflicts exist between formal and informal organizations. Bargaining, bureaucratic and systems conflict Perceived, latent and manifest conflicts Organized and unorganized conflict
4 4
4 4 4
4 4 4
While there are different kinds of conflicts explained above, all conflicts in organization fall within one of six categories mentioned below (Arnold, 1993) 4 4 External (conflicts related to competition, the market place, regulation, or on adversarial take over) Management process and style (conflicts stemming from leadership style, the decision making process, or organizational structure
29
4 4 4 4
Strategic direction (conflicts over the companys mission direction, objectives and strategies) Operational (conflicts related to issue such as quality verses schedule or design-to-production transition.) Interdepartmental (conflicts that occur when divisions compete with themselves rather than with other companies Value system (conflicts over business philosophy)
Dynamic process of conflict development

Conflict before taking its final shape, undergoes a gradual process of development. For effective conflict management, it is necessary to understand the developmental stages of conflict. Pondy (1957) identified five stages of conflict episode viz. latent conflict the conditions that lead to conflict, perceived conflict cognition, felt conflict effect, manifest conflict behavior and conflict aftermath conditions and consequences of conflict. Arnold (1993) explained conflict development process in five sequential steps viz. individuals seek support for their cause, forming we - they boundaries polarization and conflict become more visible over time conflict touches every aspect of the organization, from board room to boiler room emotions and hostilities increase Conflict becomes life- threatening
Different ways of reacting to conflict

Conflict management strategies are different from conflict resolution. Conflict management brings conflict under control, whereas conflict resolution attempts to terminate the conflict. Conflict management recognizes the importance of positive conflict in relationships and may be a strategy to prevent conflicts from being resolved. However, these terms are interchangeably used in the conflict literature.
MANAGE Extension Research Review Three basic strategies for conflict resolution are : lose-lose approach where both parties lose, win-lose approach where one party emerges as a winner and the other party loses and win-win strategy where energies and creativity are aimed at solving the problems so that both parties emerge as winners. People respond in different personal styles to resolve conflicts in groups: The tough battler seeks his own goals, he demonstrates that he is right by using facts that support his position and views conflict as nuisance The friendly helper overvalues the importance of his relationship with the group and undervalues his own personal goals, he thinks that conflict should be avoided The jelly fish simply removes himself, either mentally or physically, from the conflict. He sees conflict as a hopeless, useless and punishing experience Compromiser actively seeks to find some middle ground, using voting and rules to avoid confrontation. He strives to develop a workable solution, rather than the best solution. The problem solver actively seeks to satisfy the goals of himself as well as others. Conflict is natural and helpful. He insists on getting disagreements into open, so that they can be worked out and a greater commitment to solution.
Depending on the conflict situation, a person may react in different styles to suit the situation. A persons behaviour in any situation is influenced by his emotionality, self-concept, the extent of fear of punishment and behavioural rigidity / flexibility that he has, in addition to how clear he is of the goals, tasks etc., to be performed.
Conflict management process

Conflict can be managed by the conflicting parties themselves by employing negotiation skills or by a third party intervention i.e. through mediation. Arnold (1993) explained conflict resolution process in ten steps. Specify the conflict in terms of its identity, location, time and magnitude of each Describe what is outside the conflict Identify the distinctions about the conflict
31
Test these distinctions for cause Identify values of the parties and your own Adopt a winning, opportunistic philosophy Develop criteria, determine what each party in the conflict wants to achieve, preserve and avoid Prioritize into Absolute and Highly desirable criteria Generate possible resolutions Evaluate and choose the best resolution and test alternatives against criteria.
Conflict can be creatively resolved by following different approaches, the most comprehensive as mentioned by Dunn (University of Arizona) Listen objectively to the other persons views Let the situation pass without comment Reflect : Both parties should understand the other persons view and check with each other Vent emotion : The affected person should be encouraged to express his feeling, to get every thing off his chest. Rational discusion and empathy can follow Compromise : Both parties give up something to come up with a win-win solution Gently confront with facts : If the above approaches do not work, confront the person head-on with the realities of the situation. Facts have to be used and not judgments Directly confront, with feelings : Both parties should openly express their feelings as to what is bothering them and encourage each other to react to feelings. Productively argue : If nothing else works, get the underlying conflict out in the open and thrash it out . But fight fair and preserve the relationships
Managers have to be sensitive to the conflicts and realize that conflict management is a gradual process. Conflicts have to be managed creatively to yield beneficial consequences.
Skills required to manage conflicts

Conflicting parties will have to possess the following combinations of skills to manage conflicts effectively. Understanding Analytical Initiative and proactive Honesty and enthusiasm Communication Information collection Result oriented Conceptualizing Objectivity Observation Persuasiveness Coordination Influencing Patience Sensitivity Planning Empathetic Active listening Probing Flexibility
A Multi-dimensional approach to conflict management

Different individuals react to conflict in different ways due to several factors. Philosophers, psychologists, sociologists, anthropologists and management thinkers analyzed the factors from the perspective of their respective field of disciplines. Infact, factors from all these disciplines would contribute to understand, analyze and react to conflict in a particular way. The following aspects may influence the individuals behavior during conflict. Social factors: include Culture, Length of relationship of the conflicting parties, Status in the organization, Leadership styles and Knowledge about the people involved in conflict Psychological factors: include differences in ideology and value system, earlier experience in conflict handling, multiplicity of roles and needs, goals and choices, motivation and hygiene factors, task role, emotionality expression of emotions in public, individual maturity, ability to influence others, degree of self confidence, risk taking behavior and intent of conflict Political dynamics within an organization: include organization factors like goals, structures, procedures, etc; size of the conflicting parties; time of conflict; context of the conflict and power - power, the use of power, or the lack of power is at the center of any conflict
33
Challenges for next decade : empowerment through conflict management

Organizations are set to undergo changes in future due to rapid changes taking place in the requirements of customers and stakeholders. This will stimulate conflicts and pose challenges to people in organizations. When organizational members are sensitive to these challenges, the constructive conflict because of its beneficial effects will lead to empowerment of conflicting parties. Empowering is an act of building, developing and increasing the power of people though cooperation, sharing and working together. Empowerment is achieved through focused freedom, and this depends on the managers underlying philosophy towards people in the organization.. Some of the challenges conflict management poses for near future are mentioned below. In the market scenario, a number of multinational organizations with establishments in different geographic locations in the world which recruit global workforce with diverse socio-cultural backgrounds may pose challenges to managers in human resource management for handling cross- national and cross cultural gaps. When people from different parts of the organization with different values and philosophies are forced to work together, strife is inevitable. As a result of globalization everyone in the universe is interconnected in the flow of information, money, goods and services. Liberalization of market forces led to international competition. The market has now become a battleground for each industry in which firms of different nations compete in different ways which also affects the nations prosperity. Advancement of science and technology introduced new techniques and methods of production in organizations for effective and efficient use of resources which might stimulate conflict among the workforce. This was clearly evident right from scientific management days. Use of computer for information collection, processing and decision making has already become an integral part of managers routine. Global networking through electronic media make the job of managers much more challenging in exploring and exploiting opportunities for widening their franchises.
34
MANAGE Extension Research Review Competition among the producers and heightened demand for the best products and services from customers is forcing organizations to be innovative to produce customized products in a vast array of choices in order to withstand the market forces and retain their market segment in view of liberalized market economy. As a result of fierce competition in the market, organizations are prompted to introduce changes in the processes relating to production, distribution, sales, human resource management and financials management. This redesigning makes the jobs challenging and difficult and necessitates people to do their jobs differently than what they did previously. People occupying different positions may perceive this change as a threat and feel insecure and hence conflict may sprout. As multi-level hierarchy of functions and departments is disappearing and a flat organizational structure is the order of the day. As a result of fierce competition from all quarters of the globe, customers increased quality requirements for goods and services and intensive time pressures, organizations will be forced towards more flat and flexible organizational structures. In an era of rapid change open, flexible responsive organization is of crucial importance. The restructuring of working relationships in teams, with multiplicity of roles and memberships in different teams, self-directed work teams might emerge to respond to the situation. Trend is towards increasing the participation of stakeholders in many business processes and decisions. Stakeholders of different interest groups possessing different goal directed behavior might foster conflicts. Marriage of organizational profits to social events i.e. of late organizations have began to look at the business from the social point of view and environmental and ecological restoration has gained focus. Organizations are on the path to becoming learning organizations facilitating the learning of all its members and continuously transforming themselves. Participation, openness, trust and responsibility are all concepts encouraged in learning organizations.
35
Conflict management should lead to empowerment of people in organizations. Features of an empowered organization are Expanding the skills and tasks required for a job Enhancing the content of a job Unfolding creativity and innovation Better human relations and high morale Greater control over decisions about the work as a result of participation Customers satisfaction Team work Better communication and healthy organizational environment Clarity of goals and mission
Conclusion Realizing the interdependence in performing any activity and even to lead a successful and peaceful life, people may face a variety of conflicts in almost all walks of life in organizations with their interface to members at organization, family and society. People have to reconcile and co-ordinate with several members and stakeholders to achieve the desired results. This necessitates the need for taking conflicts in a positive way in order to generate processes, systems, structures to improve the effectiveness of individuals and teams. A culture has to be built up where in team members will be encouraged to participate and share their ideas, unlock the creativity and innovation and interact freely with each other for institutional learning and growth. Crisis of conflict may be seen as a chance to bring all the issues and concerns in to the forefront and people may openly vent out their feeling leading to cooperation and synergy of energies, and empowerment. An empowered team has all the talents and skills of the players to create even better results. The effectiveness of managers depends on how well they understand the underlying dynamics of conflict, which may be all together different from its expression, and whether they can identify the crucial tactical points for intervention.
MANAGE Extension Research Review Conflict management some times becomes programmed and institutionalized in organizations as in the case of decision making process. To a great extent, an organizations success depends on its ability to structure and operate appropriate mechanism to stimulate and manage a variety of conflict phenomenal. Increasing nature of technological development and competitive global market demanding higher levels of quality of service, greater sensitivity to customers needs has prompted organizations to create and manage organizational culture that foster commitment, responsibility and the development of individual potentiality for the organizational betterment. Conflict management is people-oriented but at the same time all the processes should be focused on achieving strategic aims, goals and mission of the organization.
References
Arnold John, When the sparks fly- Resolving conflicts in your organization, McGraw Hill, Inc, New York, 1993 Druckman Daniel and Zechmeister Kathleen, Conflict of interest and value dissensus: proposition in the sociology of conflict, Human Relations, vol. 26, No. 4, pp 449-466, 1973 Dunn Douglas, How to motivate people in groups, community guide, Motivation series, The University of Arizona Harigopal K, Conflict Management Managing interpersonal conflict, Oxford & IBH publishing Co. Pvt Ltd., New Delhi IGNOU, Management of organizational conflicts, Course on Management Function and Behaviour, MS1, Study material of Management Programme Murphy Jim, Managing conflict at work, American Media Publishing, Iowa, 1994 Pondy R Louis, Organizational conflict: concepts and models, Administrative Science Quarterly, vol. 12, pp 298-320, 1967
37
FOOD GRAIN PRODUCTION IN INDIA AN ANALYSIS OF TREND AND SEASONAL PATTERN DURING THE POST-GREEN REVOLUTION PERIOD
K.Kareemulla* and R.H.Rizvi**
Introduction
Food grains comprising of cereals, millets and pulses, form the primary and staple food of majority of the population in India. Food grain production in India increased from a low level of 72 million tonnes (1965-66) to 152 million tonnes (1983-84) and touched a peak of 209 million tonnes (1999-2000). Thus it took 18 years to double and another 16 years to treble the production. This increase has put the country from a net food scarcity to food surplus status. In the recent past, favourable monsoons have enhanced the food grain buffer stocks to about 60 million tonnes. However, it is a great concern that due to lack of purchasing power a significant proportion of the Indian population is going hungry to the bed. From the producers viewpoint, surplus production meant, inadequate market opportunities and discouragement for further continuance of such crops. The substantial increases in production have been made possible due to technological innovations in terms of varieties, enhanced irrigation capabilities and better infrastructure. Given the variety of agro-climatic situations across the country and weather abnormalities in the long run, one would be tempted to analyse the trend and the seasonal pattern of food grain production in terms of changes in the area, productivity and production as such. These changes may present a clue for policy analysis like incentives to farmers for anchoring to food grain area. Hence, the present paper attempts to analyse the trend and seasonal pattern of food grain area, productivity and production in India at the aggregate level in the past 35 years.
Methodology
Data on area, productivity (per ha) and production of food grains- both seasonwise (kharif and rabi) and annual for the period 1966-67 to 2000-01 were
* Senior Scientist and ** Scientist, National Research Centre for Agroforestry,Jhansi
38
MANAGE Extension Research Review collected from the web site of the Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operation, Government of India. Trend curves were fitted for the total area, productivity and production of food grains. Based on the trend type, whether linear or logarithmic or polynomial, projections for a further period of 15 years i.e. up to 2015-16 were made. The growth in production was further analysed, using the decomposition technique into area effect, yield effect and interaction effect. The changes in the seasonal area and production were analysed by relative percentages, while the productivity changes were compared in terms of growth rates and percentage changes. The moving averages of the data at three-year interval were also estimated for the area, productivity and production.
Results and Discussion

The results of the analysis are presented in four sections viz. trend, decomposition of growth, seasonal pattern and forecasts.
Trend
The trend of the time series data for the total food grain crop area, productivity of food grain crops and total food grain production over the period 1966-67 to 2000-01 was estimated. The type of curve was decided based on the value of coefficient of multiple determination (R2). Thus for the total area under food grains, polynomial function with a degree of two was found to be the best fit, while for the total productivity and production, linear function was appropriate. The trend curves are given in figures-1, 2 and 3. The linear trends in respect of productivity and production are purely in the long run. However, in the short run, say 2-3 years, both the productivity and production will be increasing and decreasing due to various reasons. Hence, the real changes in the trend could be noted in the moving averages. The three-year moving averages for the total area, productivity and production are given in Table-1. The three-year moving average for the food crop area slightly decreased up to 1981-82 but declined subsequently. Whereas, the productivity increased from 736 Kg/ha (1966-67) to 1598 Kg/ha (2000-01), an increase of more than 117 per cent in 35 years. Consequently, the total food grain production increased by 125 per cent in the reference period.
Table-1: Three-Year Moving averages of Food Grain Area, Productivity and Production 3-year period 1966-67/68-69 1969-70/71-72 1972-73/74-75 1975-76/77-78 1978-79/80-81 1981-82/83-84 1984-85/86-87 1987-88/89-90 1990-91/92-93 1993-94/95-96 1996-97/98-99 Total area (million ha) 119.05 123.50 122.30 126.69 126.96 128.47 127.30 124.71 124.29 122.54 124.20 Productivity Total production (Kg/ha) (million tonnes) 736.00 87.76 845.00 104.36 821.33 100.51 943.00 119.54 973.67 123.73 1076.33 138.40 1150.67 146.47 1284.33 160.44 1406.33 174.75 1512.67 185.39 1597.67 198.44
Decomposition of Growth
The growth in food production obviously comes from area growth and yield growth. There will be contribution from the interaction effect also. This decomposition can be modelled as follows: P = A0. Y +Y0. A +A Y (change in Production) (yield effect) (area effect) (interaction effect) WhereP : Change in production between two points of time (t1-t0) A0 : Base year yield Y0 : Base year yield A : Change in area between two points of time (t1-t0) Y : Change in Yield between two points of time (t 1-t0) The changes in production for certain intervals were decomposed using the above model. The results of such an analysis are given in Table-2. It may be noted that the highest incremental production was recorded in the green
MANAGE Extension Research Review revolution period, followed by the decade 1981-82 to 1990-91. The yield effect was significantly higher through out the reference period, while the area effect decreased from 17.02 per cent to 10.76 per cent. Interaction effect was positive only during 1966-67 to 1980-81. Due to negative effect of area from 1981-82 onwards, the gains in productivity were slightly offset and impacted the total production. Table-2: Decomposition of Food Grain Production Changes
(in million tonnes) Period 1966-67 to 70-71 1971-72 to 80-81 1981-82 to 90-81 1991-92 to 2000-01 Incremental Production 34.19 (100.00) 24.42 (100.00) 43.09 (100.00) 27.69 (100.00) Yield Effect 26.31 (76.95) 20.27 (83.01) 44.88 (104.15) 31.22 (112.75) Area Effect 5.82 (17.02) 3.48 (14.25) -1.34 (-3.11) -2.98 (-10.76) Interaction Effect 2.06 (6.03) 0.67 (2.74) -0.45 (-1.04) -0.55 (-1.99)
N.B.: Figures in parentheses indicate percentages to total
Seasonal Pattern
The share of area and production of food grains in the country by seasons at different points of time during the past three and half decades is given in Table-3. It may be seen that both the area and production from Kharif season have reduced over the study period 1966-67 to 2000-01. The decrease in the area was 5 per cent compared to 13 per cent in case of production. Obviously the loss in Kharif seasons share was due to increase in rabi area and productivity. The relative proportion of food grains production, which was more favoured towards Kharif at 2:1 in 1966-67, was approaching towards 1:1 by 2000-01. This meant the greater reliance on rainfed food grains production is giving way to sustainable rain (water) harvest production. The increase in rabi contribution to the food grains kitty may further be analysed through, the changes in seasonal food grain crop productivity (Table-4).
Table-4: Food Grain Crops Productivity by Seasons (Kg/ha) Year 1966-67 1970-71 1980-81 1990-91 2000-01 Kharif 625 837 933 1231 1371 Rabi 683 941 1195 1635 2088 Pooled 644 872 1023 1380 1638
The overall productivity of food grain crops has increased from 644 kg/ha (1966-67) to 1638 kg/ha (2000-01). This amounts to an increase of 154 per cent. The productivity increase across seasons was higher in case of rabi at 206 per cent compared to about 119 per cent for Kharif food grain crops. Forecasting Kumar and Mathur (1996) and Kumar (1997) adopted the compound growth rate and total factor productivity approach and forecast the supply of food grains in the country. The former study projected a food grains supply of 243.2 million tonnes from 120.80 million ha of area for 2006-07. Whereas, the latter reported that the food grain supply would be 271.3 million tonnes in 2010. In another study, Goel (2000) projected a food grains supply of 270 million tonnes by 2011. The present study employed the trend method, which is basically slope of the trend (curve), and forecast the area, productivity and production of food grains in India for the next 15 years. The figures for different points of time are presented in the Table-5. The trend of forecast may also be noted from the figures 1-3. Table-5: Forecasts of Food Grain Area, Productivity and Production Year 2001-02 2005-06 2010-11 2015-16
42
Area (million ha) 119.43 115.60 109.68 102.53
Productivity (kg/ha) 1682 1780 1947 2093
Production (million tones) 209.00 223.55 241.73 259.91

MANAGE Extension Research Review The forecasts are conservative as compared to that of similar studies quoted in the paper. It is also likely that after a few years, the productivity will reach a plateau due to limitations of land and technological capabilities, which will limit the production consequently. The decreasing trend in case of food grain crop area may be due to replacement by the commercial crop, as indicated by the quadratic trend of the area under food grain crops (figure-1).
Conclusions
The trend analysis indicated that the area under food grains slightly increased in the long run and started declining from 1987-88 onwards. This is justified since the farmers could offset the area loss by increased yields to a large extent. However, the use of food grain area for other crops is not likely to come back due to better remuneration from such crops. This will be a concern in the future, as the decrease in food crop area reaches unmanageable proportions. The shift in greater burden of production from kharif towards equal contribution from both kharif and rabi is good for two reasons viz. spread of risks of production as also scope of uniform employment for the farm families and the agricultural labour. The unfavourable terms of trade of farmers for food grains in terms of disproportionate increase in input prices and more or less stagnant output prices will gradually discourage farmers to allocate increased areas under food grain crops. Further, deliberate policy efforts are required to reduce the huge buffer stocks of food grains, which propel the demand and consequently supply from the farmers.
References
Goel.A.K.2000. Agricultural Production Scenario in 21 st Century. Manage Extension Research Review. 1(1):1-10 Kumar.P.1997.Food Security-Supply and Demand Perspective. Indian Farming. December. Kumar.P. and V.C.Mathur.1996. Agriculture in Future: Demand-Supply Perspective for the Ninth Five Year Plan. Economic and Political Weekly. September.28.
43
44
19 66 -6 7 19 69 -7 0 3 6 -7 -7 9 72 75 -7 2 19 19 19 78 -8 5 8 19 81 -8 -8 19 84 87 19 19 19 91 93 19 94 96 19 99 97 -2 00 20 0 02 20 03 05 20 06 08 20 09 11 20 12 14 -1 5 90 -6 7 0 3 6 66 -7 -7 -7 9 19 69 72 75 -7 2 19 19 19 19 78 -8 5 8 19 81 -8 -8 19 84 87 19 90 19 91 93 19 94 96 19 99 97 -2 00 20 0 02 20 03 05 20 06 08 20 09 11 20 12 14 -1 5 19
19
66
19
-6
69
19
-7
72
19
-7
75
19
-7
78
19
-7
81
Fig-2:Total Productivity of Food Grains
Fig-3:Total Food Grain Production
Fig-1:Total Area under Food Grains
19
-8
19 85 87 19 88 90 19 91 93 19 94 96 19 99 97 -2 00 20 0 02 20 03 05 20 06 08 20 09 11 20 12 14 -1 5
84
IMPACT OF PARTICIPATORY PLANNING ON ADOPTION OF NEW TECHNOLOGY THROUGH FLD (OIL SEEDS)
Dr. P.K. Singh
Front Line Demonstration (FLD) is a new concept of field demonstration evolved by the Indian council of Agricultural Research with the inception of Technology Mission on oil seeds crops during mid eighties. The field demonstrations conducted under the close supervision of scientists of the National Agriculture Research System / Krishi Vigyan Kendra are called Front Line Demonstrations because the technologies are demonstrated for the first time by the scientists themselves before being fed into the main extension system of the State department of Agriculture. The main objective of Front Line Demonstration is to be demonstrate newly released crop production and protection technology and its management practice in the farmers field under different climatic regions and farming situations. In Saharanpur (UP) district FLD on Oilseeds is carried out by Krishi Vigyan Kendra on three crops viz., Mustard, Sunflower and Groundnut. The present study focuses on Mustard. The area under mustard during last five years (from 1995 to 1999-2000) is around 6000 ha with average field between 9-10 qt/ ha. Under Front Line Demonstration, (FLD) component demonstration is followed rather then full package demonstration so that there is an impression that the farmer is not getting subsidy but technology for improving yield. Selection of Technology to be demonstrated :The most crucial point for transferring the message of demonstrations to the farmers is selection of superior technology over the technology already in use because many a times under the top down approach, recommended package of practices is considered as the ultimate basis for technical planning of demonstrations and it has been observed that in many cases yield under
* Assistant Professor (Agronomy) Krishi Vigyan Kendra, PO-Chander Nagar, Saharanpur district, UP - 247001
45
demonstration plot has not been found to be significantly higher than the yield of plots which are outside the demonstration plot. So, for planning of the critical inputs / technology various tool of PRA were used to decide the most critical inputs in order of prioritization having effect on yield of mustard for deciding technology / critical input semi structured interview (SSI), Problem cause analysis and matrix ranking were done with mustard growing farmers.
PROBLEM - CAUSE ANALYSIS CROP - MUSTARD
46
Gap in adoption as the basis for selection for critical inputs under demonstration:
The intervention points were identified on consultation with the farmers from problem cause three The deciding factors for selecting critical inputs under demonstration were gap in adoption of a technology (full, partial) and percentage of farmers not following recommended practices.
Item Recommended Practice Existing Practice Gap in Adoption Percentage Farmers not Recommended Practice 90% 50% 100% 100% 100% Farmer Prioritization for critical inputs IV IV VI III II
Variety Seed rate Seed treatment Gypsum application Fertilizer
Vardan 5 kg/ha 2g thiram / kg seed 200 kg / ha N-120 kg/ha P-60 kg/ha K-40 kg/ha Pendimenthal in 3.3 lit/ha Monocrotophos 750 ml/ha
Local 3-4 kg/ha Nil Nil N-80 kg/ha P-30 kg/ha K-Nil Manual control Application of insecticide without knowing In correct dose
Full Partial Full Full Partial
Weed control Aphids**
Partial Partial
70% 90%
V I
White rust
Dithan M-45 2 kg /ha
Partial
100%
II
Note : Farmers always fail to distinguish between infestation of disease and insect attack.
The following inputs were finalized by farmers and scientists under demonstration: I. II. III. Improved treated seed (Vardan variety) Gypsum @ 200 kg / ha Insecticide Monocrotophos @ 850 ml / ha control aphids
IV. Fungicid Dithane M-45 @ kg / ha to control white rust

Results and discussion

The demonstration was conducted at the farmers field under the management of scientists and farmers on finalized package of practices. The results obtained during last the 5 years are given below. Year 1995-96 1996-97 1997-98 1998-99 1999-2000 No. of farmers 13 10 11 6 8 Demonstration yield (q/ha) 17.10 15.80 14.00 15.20 20.9 Local yield (q/ha) 12.00 11.00 9.00 10.50 12
Conclusion:
The participatory approach in planning and conducting the demonstration help to motivate the farmers in adopting new technology. The approach in conducting the demonstration was positive from farmers side as they felt involved. The farmers paid substantial cost of demonstration rather than treating the demonstration critical inputs as subsidy. The bottom-up approach planning and conducting the demonstration proved better as it created sense of owning the demonstration among farmers. The bottom-up approach of planning led to the selection of the right intervention and critical inputs for better transfer of technology.
48
INFORMATION REVOLUTION IN INDIAN AGRICULTURE

Bankey Bihari* and A.S. Mishra**
Introduction
Indian agriculture contributes 32% to the G.D.P and after 53 years of independence about 64% of Indian population still depend on agriculture. Economic reforms were started about 8 years ago in the country. Accordingly, each and every sector has changed its strategies in view of global competition However, for information dissemination at farmers level age old concepts of grossroot level workers and adopted villages & localities are continuing where after introduction of technology, you have to wait for years together, so that it percolates to- the remaining farmers. Even in adopted villages people take interest only till the project/ programme is there after project is over they again come to the point from where they had started, and despite providing free of cost, extension services, only 25-30% technologies have reached to the farmers field. Though we have a vast network of 4 deemed universities, 45 ICAR institutes, 4 bureaux, 30 national research centres, 28 state agriculture universities, one central agriculture university, 261 KVKs, 8TTCs, 4EEIs, and state governments set up, for research education and Extension in agriculture, we have still not been able to bring about a dramatic change in the agriculture sector. No doubt, we are self sufficient in foodgrain production with 205.91 million tonnes (Rice-88.25 million tonnes, wheat - 74.25 million tonnes, coarse cereals - 30.35 million tonnes pulses13.06 million tonnes ) Surpassing all records and also Milk -78 million tonnes, fruit & vegetables -104 million tonnes, Eggs-31380 million, Fish -55.81 lakh tonnes, Cotton-i 19.9 lakh bales of 170 kg. each Sugarcane- 3093.1 lakh tonnes, Potato -241.5 lakh tonnes and Onion - 47.5 lakh tonnes for the year 1999-2000.
* Scientist (Agril. Extension) and ** Principal Scientist (Agril Extension), Central Soil & Water Conservation Research & Training Institute, 218, Kaulagarh Road, Dehradun - 248 295 (U.P.)
49
Stocks of foodgrain with food corporation .of India are at a record high but in view of liberalized economy and global competition, we should not be satisfied only with the self sufficiency because inspite of self sufficiency the plight of the small farmers and landless agricultural workers in the villages remains the same as before. The rural poor still go hungry because they do not have the purchasing power. Many continue to live in primitive conditions without basic aminities and about 30% of the population can not still meet its nutritional requirements. Inspite of near food self sufficiency in the county, still large population living in hilly and tribal areas do not have assess to food (Dr. Mangla Rai, 2000). It is because India as the country may be self sufficient but most of the states are still starving and unable to produce sufficient foodgrain to meet their requirements. So until and unless this big lot is first properly fed it will not enable them to complete in the global market with increase in yield and its quality. Poverty level will rise & situation will become worse. Farmers despite hard work and intensive techniques, if they are not better educated can not compete with multinational companies, because modern agriculture is information intensive and it calls for more and more exposure to the latest technologies as well as information about the crop demand & market prospects. Even states like Punjab and Haryana are behind developed countries in agriculture production. Past and Present Despite continuous emphasis on technology transaction through various extension services and community development programmes in the agriculture sector, the fruits of development have not been equally shared by the farming community. One important reason is communication failure in the sense that information related to technology up-gradation has not so far reached the farming community. (Tyagi & Sinha, 1999). In the past, right from pre-independence efforts were made to disseminate information to the farming community for their overall betterment and for the first time F.L. Brayne (1920) introduced the concept of village level worker during Gurgaon project which is still continuing. Further, whatever approaches viz: Community approach Area approach, Target group approach, Employment approach, integrated rural development approach and participatory approach
MANAGE Extension Research Review were adopted, were confined to certain selected / adopted community, block, district, region or states and their results were expected to percolate automatically to the rest of the population. The assessment of Communication linkages in Indian agriculture provide an insight that information channels to the ultimate beneficiary could not bear the desired fruit. (Tyagi & Sinha, 1999). Idea of selection or adoption of State, district, block or village has made great loss to the Indian agriculture. There are the regions in our country which are saturated with the different development programmes through different agencies but there are areas / regions where still neither the government nor nongovernment organizations have registered their attendance. Way of selection or adoption may. be good for the purpose of testing research findings but certainly not for the dissemination of information and that too in liberalized economy. Future India is the 7th larger country in the world in terms of area. Its share in land resources is only 2% but it sustains 18% & 15% of the global human and livestock population. In changing perspectives world wide, Indian agriculture has to feed its own huge population first it has to maintain environmental sustainability and subsequently has to compete in the international market to keep the economic growth of the country steady and stable. The Government has opened the market globally, it has also the responsibility of safeguarding the interest of its farmers, first by increasing their purchasing power and then by making them capable competing in the international market, and for that it is indispensable to add something more to the present system of approach to information dissemination. Information should be available to the whole population to create such an atmosphere to change the farmers mindset to think & work scientifically which is a must for maintaining sustainability both on ecological and socio-economic fronts. Exploitive agriculture offers great possibilities if carried out in a scientific way but poses great dangers if carried out with only an immediate profit motive. The emerging exploitive farming community in India should become aware of this. Intensive cultivation of land without conservation of soil fertility and soil structure would lead, ultimately, to the springing up of deserts. Irrigation without arrangements for drainage result in the soil getting alkaline
or saline. The indiscriminate use of pesticides, fungicides and herbicides could cause adverse changes in biological balance as well as lead to an increase in the incidence of cancer and other diseases through the toxic residues present in the grains or other edible parts. Unscientific tapping of underground water will lead to the rapid exhaustion of this wonderful capital resource left to us through ages of natural farming. The rapid replacement of numerous locally adopted varieties with one or two high yielding stains in large contiguous areas would result in the spread of serious diseases capable of wiping out entire crops. Therefore, the initiation of exploitive agriculture without a proper understanding of the various consequences of changes introduced into traditional agriculture; and without first building up a proper scientific and training base to sustain it, may only lead us, in the long run, into an era of agricultural disaster rather than one of agriculture prosperity. (M.S. Swaminathan, 1968). Farmers are also to be given international exposure about what advanced technologies are being adopted in other developed and developing countries and all that can not be possible-until and unless the mass media takes interest in highlighting agriculture, the backbone of Indian economy, which does not get the importance it deserves.
Media Situation in India

1.
52
Doordarshan TV Stations - 274 Homes with TV Sets -45 million Primary viewers - 250 million Community viewing is popular Farm - based programmes Krishi Darshan I Choupal/ local Programme Krishi Katha Ankur Time - 250 minutes / week
MANAGE Extension Research Review II. Akashvani (All India Radio) Broadcasting Stations - 125 Population Covered - 1000/0 Farm - based Programmes Krishi Jagat Local Programmes
III. News Papers News Papers and periodicals - 35, 595 Circulation of newspapers and periodicals -67 million Daily newspapers - 369 in 18 languages Circulation of dailies- 20 million (20% circulation in English for 2% English knowing population) Farm Magazines No. of farm magazines ( Approx.) 250
IV.
Total telecast broadcast time devoted is not sufficient and the type and quality of information is also not sufficient to cope with the circumstances because the complexity of the technology including its impact on natures health as well as public health is generally ignored. Further, information is provided mostly on how to deal with increase in production, The matter of quality produce as well as how to make a business or profit out of it at the farmers level is absent so, in view of future exigencies following steps may be followed: 1. Farmers have to be kept abreast of changes in programmes and policies. Though about 8 years have passed since economic reforms were started, so far no efforts have been made to communicate the implecation of changes in policies, to the farmers. Development cannot take place unless those who participate in the process are socially, economically, technologically and politically literate. (Prof. Layle D. Lawrence, West Virginia university, USA - 1998)
53
2.
Present system has to be modified drastically and it has to be honest enough in terms of its responsibility, accountability and commitment to win the peoples confidence, their participation, co-operation and cover more and more population with desirable outcomes, because credibility of the system, deliver informnation or provide services, counts much more at the grossroot level. Failure of programmes may be due to many reasons but one which has been largely overlooked is the disparity between the way bureaucracies operate and the requirement of development programrnes which can mobilize the rural poor for sustained, effective self development and encourage innovative farmers for adopting hi-tech agriculture(Dr. Ranjit Singh - 1998). Telecast / Broadcast timings on Television / Radio are to be increased and quality of programmes is also to be upgraded with maximum load of informations. Technologies - and Package of Practices should be well screened and coded interms of their feasibility, adoptability and the cost effectiveness. Detailed guidelines may also be provided for supporting enterprises viz: Dairy, Piggery, fish farming, Poultry keeping, Goat / Sheep rearing, Rabbitry, Bee-Keeping Sericulture etc According to a 1999 readership survey 42% of Indian villagers own television sets and the Govt. of India can afford to have a separate television channel on agriculture, like Discovery channel and the national Geographic channel to telecast only agriculture related programmes giving complete details and highlighting the benefits from different enterprises and practices. Simultaneously, efforts can also be made in radio computer and print media. A compute approach should be adopted. Farmers have to be provided I educated with variety iof technologies so that they can choose what suits to them. It is important to ensure that what is being highlighted by the media or other information sources, their inputs products and training facilities are available with concerned development departments, NGOs or in private. Farmers should also be given a comprehensive idea of import and export of agriculture produce and tips to make the maximum benefit out of that.
3.
4.
5. 6.
7.
54
MANAGE Extension Research Review 8. An atmosphere of desired development in agriculture has to be created and inculcated among the farming community where farmers themselves can take the right decision and come forward to the available sources, agencies & systems to see their decision in reality. Sources, agencies & systems may or may not reach to the whole population but population may reach them if guided sufficiently & properly.
Conclusion
Information Revolution would be helpful to enhance the adoption of latest technologies to increase both quantity and quality production and also will benefit the rural educated unemployed youth struggling for jobs, so that the problem of unemployment could be minimized and by enriching their know how sustainability could be maintained both on ecological as well as socio- economic fronts. It will help to lead quality development in the field of agriculture.
References
Hansra, B.S. and Adhiguru, P. (1998). Agriculture Transfer of Technology Approaches since Jndependence in India. Ji of Extn. Edu. Vol.9, 4; 2167-2176. Singh, Ranjit (1998). Mgt. Of Extn. Edu.: New Dimensions of Extension Strategy in changing Agril. Scenario. md. JI. Of Extn. Edu. Vol. 35, 1&2 6-12. Lawrence, Layle D. (1999). Creating the future: Extensions role in Sustainable Economic development. md. JI: Of Extn. Edu. Vol. 35, 1&2 6-12 Tyagi and Sinha (1999). Communication linkages in Indian Agriculture. INTERACTION, National council of Development Communication. Vol . 34, 1&2 93-95. Swaminathan, M.S. (1999). Green Revolution the challenges ahead. The Hindu Survey of Jndian Agriculture - 1999 9- 16 Venkataramani, G. (1999). Information Technology - Ushering in a new era. The Hindu survey of Indian Agriculture- 1999; 33 -34. Towards food and nutritional Secuity in new Millennium. The Hindustan Times, Nov. 1, 2000:10 Sengupta Jayshree (2000). Is Indian Agriculture going to seed. The Hindustan Times, Oct. 31.2000.: 10
CYCLONE DISASTER PREPAREDNESS OF PRAWN GROWERS IN ANDHRA PRADESH

T.Krishna Prasad*, Md.Suleman Khan** and M.Veera Raghava Reddy***
Introduction
Now-a-days aquaculture has been recognized as a part of agricultural activity in many coastal districts of Andhra Pradesh. Since the arable land for crop production is on the decline, mainly due to population pressure, aquaculture has gained momentum. Since the gestation period is short, technology is easy to operate and returns are higher, most of the coastal farmers are now switching over to prawn culture. Asia alone is accounts for about 90 per cent of the worlds aquaculture production, while South America and Africa contribute a meager 1.4 and 0.3 per cent, respectively. India, by virtue of its 8.5 per cent contribution to the world aquaculture production, ranks second in the world. Aquaculture in India has sustained an average annual growth rate of 17 per cent during 1985-94. Indias seafood production has increased by 300 per cent in the last four years and the annual export earnings exceeded 1.107 billion dollars (US$) in the four consecutive years since 1996, according to MPEDA. In India, out of 1.2 million hectares of total coastal land available for brackish water aquaculture, only 70,700 hectares are under prawn farming at present, out of which Andhra Pradesh ranks third in area and second in production. There is still a vast potential to expand aquaculture and thereby increase production. But, aquaculture development, especially in coastal belts of Andhra Pradesh is severely constrained due to recurrent exposures to cyclones, which causes irreparable losses.
* Research Associate, National Academy of Agricultural Research Management, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad ** Research scholar, EEI, ANGRAU, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad and *** Retd.Professor, Department of Extension Education, Agricultural College, Bapatla, A.P
56
MANAGE Extension Research Review As cyclones have become an annual feature, prawn farmers along the 1,030 km of Andhra coast are facing heavy losses. Among the cyclone-affected states, Andhra Pradesh ranks second in terms of average monetary losses. In this scenario it is therefore, essential to reorient the extension and developmental efforts by integrating the scientific disaster management principles. This would not only ensure minimizing losses due to disasters, but also give a boost to gainful economic activities like prawn farming. In doing so, it is desirable to understand the level of preparedness of prawn farmers towards cyclone disaster and also the factors influencing it. With this background, the present study was carried out with the objective of knowing the disaster preparedness level of prawn farmers and the influencing characteristics.
Methodology
Ex-post facto research designs reinforced with a few case lets was used since the variables, socio economic status, educational status, prawn farming experience, prawn farm size, mass media exposure, innovativeness, risk orientation, scientific orientation, economic orientation market orientation and cyclone disaster management had already occurred. A case let in an extension part of case study is to explore and analyze the life of a social unit, be that a person, family, institution, cultural group or an entire community. In the study, the prawn growers were purposively selected based on their successfulness in cyclone disaster management in tackling different specific cyclonic adversaries. A prawn grower who has previous experience of cyclone disasters was selected to study the different management practices after cyclone disasters and lessons learnt which includes coping mechanism and preparedness, the second and third prawn growers are selected depending on the small and large size of prawn farm considering the cyclone disaster managerial abilities. These cases are conducted to reinforce the findings drawn out of ex-post facto by following major steps like location, data collection in relation to factors associated with the selected phenomena, identification of relevant points on diagnosis, interpretation and determination of the out come of the study.

It can be seen from Table 1 that a majority (58.34%) of the prawn growers had high cyclone disaster preparedness followed by low and medium levels of cyclone disaster preparedness. Table.1: Distribution of prawn growers according to their cyclone disaster preparedness S.No 1 2 3 Category Low Medium High Prawn growers frequency 29 21 70 120 Standard Deviation =2.46 Percentage 24.16 17.50 58.34 100.00
Total Mean = 15.77
The reason may be that the prawn growers with lower cyclone preparedness were of the opinion that cyclones will definitely sweep away all their preparedness efforts, so whatever remained was due to their luck and Gods grace. They felt that they couldnt manage the cyclones with preparedness efforts alone. Even though they used to take some measures such as strengthening of the bunds around prawn ponds, decreasing the level of water in their ponds, keeping coconut leaves around the ponds (inside) to prevent the escape of prawns, keeping the nets at inlets and outlets etc., suitable production technology in prawn culture at times of cyclonic conditions should be developed in order to tackle the cyclone disasters. So far, the Agricultural University, fisheries departments, government agencies like MPEDA and CMFRI had not paid much attention to the captive prawn cultivation. Till today very meager amount was spent on the development of the cyclone disaster preparedness technology on prawn cultivation. Dissemination of early warnings plays a crucial role in taking preparedness measures. Mass media sources should be strengthened. Relationship between the selected independent variables and cyclone disaster preparedness of the prawn growers:
MANAGE Extension Research Review It is clear from table 2 that the variables, socio-economic status, mass media exposure, innovativeness, risk orientation, economic orientation and market orientation were contributing significantly towards cyclone disaster preparedness of the prawn growers. Table 2: Regression co-efficients of selected independent variables with the cyclone disaster preparedness of the prawn growers
Variable Regression co-efficient 0.11942** -0.77423** -0.13439 0.51427 0.51656** 0.35921** 0.34652* 0.13526** -0.10803 0.47694* Standard error 0.058031 0.15597 0.17109 0.29421 0.13923 0.081347 0.13632 0.071117 0.06670 0.18338 F - Value = 22.90 T-value 2.058 -4.964 -0.786 1.748 3.710 4.416 2.542 2.902 -1.618 2.602
X 1 - Socio-economic status X 2 - Educational status X 3 Prawn farming experience X 4 - Prawn farm size X 5 - Mass media exposure X 6 - Innovativeness X 7 - Risk orientation X 8 - Economic orientation X 9 - Scientific orientation X 10 - Market orientation R2 = 0.677 * Significant at 0.05 probability level ** Significant at 0.01 probability level
The prawn growers with high socio-economic status had more exposure to various mass media sources and can take preparedness measures in anticipation to reduce the losses. Since they had more exposure to various mass media, the prawn growers were becoming more innovative to take much risk to avoid losses and to maximize their profits (economic orientation). They generally had much curiosity about the market trends and market information. The other variables like educational status, prawn farming experience, prawn farm size and scientific orientation were found significant with the cyclone disaster preparedness of the prawn growers. The reasons may be due to lack of proper education with special reference to bunds formation along with drainage system and ponds treatment with latest prawn growing technology.
Summary and Conclusions

1. The study clearly advocates that there is an urgent need for an integration of research and extension system to work hand in hand to develop and popularize the cyclone disaster management technology. The extension agencies of state department of fisheries and other agencies like MPEDA, CMFRI, CIFE, ANGRAU, etc., should come forward to convince and educate the prawn growers for the adoption of new technology. Fisheries research should be more emphasized on disease resistant strains. Insurance agencies should come forward to extend insurance facilities for prawn culture, which was previously present. Government agencies like MPEDA should came forward to purchase the damaged produce and should pay the compensation to the prawn growers. Fisheries extension should be strengthened to focus on coastal development and should facilitate proper training programmes to the prawn growers about cyclone disaster management practices. Non-governmental organizations should come forward to bring changes in prawn growers attitude towards cyclone disaster management. In order to take up large-scale cyclone disaster management activities, the banks, MPEDA and other financing agencies should provide loans to the prawn grower and the repayment period should be extended at times of cyclones. The cyclone monitoring system and cyclone information dissemination system (cyclone warning system) should be strengthened to take up immediate preparedness activities. The broadcast media such as radio and television and the print media like newspapers should be improved to disseminate the authentic cyclone warnings. The remote sensing agency and department of space can be integrated into research system in cyclone disaster management with various agencies, universities.
2.
3. 4. 5. 6.
7. 8.
9.
10.
11.
60
MANAGE Extension Research Review Mishra (1998) in a valedictory address at the four-day workshop on Disaster preparedness, organized by the state unit of Red Cross and International Federation of Red cross crescent societies disclosed that a computer based optical fibre underground cable network, linking the districts with the state headquarters will be ready by the end of this year which is helpful to warn the people well in advance as a preparedness measure to reduce the loss of life and property. Fisheries extension should be strengthened for coastal development and should facilitate proper training programmes to the prawn growers about cyclone disaster management practices, Government agencies like MPEDA should came forward to purchase the damaged produce and should pay compensation to the prawn growers and non-governmental organizations should initiate measures to bring changes in prawn growers attitude towards cyclone disaster management and improvement of institutional credit support and introduction of insurance facilities will also help the prawn farmers to tackle the cyclones and floods.
References
Suresh Kumar M 1994 A study of cyclone disaster management of coastal tracts of Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh. M.Sc (Ag.) Thesis submitted to APAU, Hyderabad. Soman A M 1986 Disaster management of flood - A proposal for centre for crisis management. Disaster Management 5(2): 88. Reddy A V S 1993 Integrated Early warning systems for disastet management and long-term development. Journal of Rural Development 11(3) : 265-289. Mishra K C 1998 Validictory addres at four day workshop in Disaster Preparedness at Hyderabad from 10-13 April 1998 A News Report in the Hindu. Dated on 14th April, 1998
61
DEVELOPMENT ORIENTED PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL SYSTEM FOR THE AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION PERSONNEL
Souvik Ghosh* and K. Vijayaragavan* *
Introduction
Performance appraisal is an integral part of most extension organizations. There is a great degree of unhappiness in agricultural extension personnel with the present performance appraisal systems. The performance appraisal is not meant to be a mere reporting of an individuals performance once a year but serves as an instrument of motivation and development of employees (Rao, 1992). The development oriented performance appraisal system (PAS) is expected to help an employee to create learning spaces for himself in an organization and it can substantially contribute to the organizational health and facilitates multiplication of managerial resources (Mufeed, 1998). the bove-mentioned changes in the performance appraisal offers a greater scope to improve the human resources of agricultural extension organizations. The quality of the human resources in an agricultural extension organization is a determining factor in its success or failure. Of a programme success the hinges largely on the performance of extension agents in the field. Performance appraisal is a critical management function in an extension organization and an effective way to improve performance of extension personnel (Davis, 1993). In an era where agricultural extension has the role of not only meeting the increased production but also conserving and protecting natural resource base, the effectiveness of extension workers performance has become very important. For the ever increasing complexity of challenges facing extension organizations and the place of change, both signal the escalating pressures that will be brought to bear on extension personnel to play a proactive and strategic partner roles. Therefore, if development oriented performance
* Scientist (Agril. Extension), WTCER, (ICAR), Chandrasekharpur, Bhubaneswar - 751023 ** Principal Scientist (Agril. Extension), IARI, New Delhi-110012
62
MANAGE Extension Research Review appraisal system is implemented well, it can take the extension organization on a fast development track by meeting all the challenges through motivated, committed and competent personnel. In this context, the present study is aimed to design an alternative development oriented PAS for the extension personnel.
Methodology
This study was under taken in the State Department of Agriculture, Haryana (INDIA) and two Non-Government Organizations (NGOs) in the state of Haryana (INDIA), were purposively selected. An exhaustive sample of eight sub-division level and eighteen circle level extension personnel and a random sample of fifty four village level extension personnel were taken from the randomly selected two district units of State Department of Agriculture. Fifteen extension personnel were chosen from each of the two NGOs on the basis of random sampling method. Thus, a total of eighty extension personnel from State Department and thirty personnel from NGOs were selected for data collection through personal interview method. In order to design the development oriented PAS for the extension personnel the following aspects were taken into consideration. For the designing of an alternative development oriented performance appraisal system the following dimensions were considered, operationalised and measured. (i) Identification of key performance areas (KPAs) The KPAs of a role are those functions, which require priority attention. In the present study, Key Performance Areas of the extension personnel working at different levels were identified with the help of a schedule developed. All the functions that a role occupant expected to carry out were listed on the basis of literature search and discussions with agricultural scientists, experts and officers of the State Department of Agriculture. KPAs were weighed according to their importance for the role, which was measured through frequency of performance and level of performance on a 5-point continuum. For each task/activity, mean scores and rank ordering were worked out separately for each category of extension personnel working at different levels (village, circle and subdivision level) in State Department as well as for the extension personnel of NGOs. Five KPAs were identified for each category of extension personnel on the basis of higher mean scores and rank ordered.
(ii) Target setting: In addition to the identification of KPAs, it is useful to consider the targets set for the extension personnel for a definite period. These targets should deal with the tasks expected to be accomplished by them under the KPAs. This was studied through a review of existing documents and in-depth interview of extension personnel with the help of semi-structured interview schedule. (iii) Identification of critical behavioral attributes The role can be analyzed to indicate what personal qualities and characteristics (called attributes) a role occupant should have in order to be effective in the role. Critical attributes are those which distinguish an effective role occupant from an ineffective one. Critical attributes include all kinds of qualities educational, experience, physical characteristics, mental abilities, skills, personality characteristics, attitudinal characteristics, etc. In the present study, behavioral attributes for extension personnel, which might be required to handle different tasks, were analyzed with the help of a schedule developed for the purpose. As many as thirty attributes that an extension personnel were to required to perform their job were listed on the basis of review and discussions with agricultural scientists, experts and officers of the State Department of Agriculture. The responses on each attribute were obtained on a 9-point continuum ranging from least critical to very critical. For each attribute mean score and rank ordering were worked out for each category of extension personnel. Twelve most critical attributes were identified for different categories of extension personnel on the basis of higher mean scores and rank ordered. Apart from the above dimensions other dimensions considered for the designing of development oriented PAS were: (iv) Self-appraisal (v) Performance analysis (vi) Performance discussion (vii) Identifying developmental needs and action planning
MANAGE Extension Research Review (viii) Final assessment
Findings and Discussion

The development oriented PAS was designed which included the following components in it. A. Identification of KPAs for different categories of extension personnel Analysis of a role for its Key Performance Areas (KPAs) is necessary for performance appraisal because performance appraisal has to be done against certain functions and objectives on which a person works. Therefore, the identification of KPAs is an essential component of PAS. The KPAs of a role are those functions that require priority attention. Key Performance Areas of the extension personnel working at different levels were identified and prioritized on the basis of job analysis (level of performance as well as frequency of performance) following the procedure as described in methodology part. The KPAs identified for each category of extension personnel are furnished in Table 1, Table 2, Table 3 and Table 4. Table 1. Key Performance Areas (KPAs) for village level extension personnel (in priority order)
Key Performance Areas (KPAs) According to frequency of performance Mean score 4.39 According to level of performance Mean score 4.44 Overall Importance Mean score 8.83
1. Visit to group of farmers to communicate technical know how and attending their different problems and queries 2. Inspiring and motivating farmers 3. Identification of problems and needs of farmers 4. Giving talk to group of farmers 5. Attending training conducted by subject matter specialists and superiors
4.72 4.20 4.61 4.04
3.59 4.07 3.59 3.69
8.31 8.27 8.20 7.73
65
Table 2. Key Performance Areas (KPAs) for circle level extension personnel (in priority order)
Key Performance Areas (KPAs) According to frequency of performance Mean score 4.67 According to level of performance Mean score 4.56 Overall Importance Mean score 9.23
1. Supervision and constant professional advice to subordinates to assisting them in getting the message across to the farmers 2. Providing technical support to subordinates 3. Motivating subordinates 4. Visit to field to supervise field trials, to communicate technical know how and attending queries 5. Attending training conducted by subject matter specialists
4.22 4.39 3.78
4.22 3.83 4.11
8.44 8.22 7.89
3.61
3.89
7.50
Table 3. Key Performance Areas (KPAs) for sub-division level extension personnel (in priority order)
Key Performance Areas (KPAs) According to frequency of performance Mean score 4.25 4.00 According to level of performance Mean score 4.63 3.58 Overall Importance Mean score 8.88 7.58
1. Providing technical support to subordinates 2. Conducting training for subordinates to accomplish their tasks and to improve their work performance 3. Organising meeting, training, seminars etc. 4. Inspiring and motivating people 5. Supervision and constant professional advice to subordinates to assisting them in their work
3.75 3.75 3.65
3.75 3.50 3.38
7.50 7.25 7.03
66
MANAGE Extension Research Review Table 4. Key Performance Areas (KPAs) for NGOs extension personnel (in priority order)
Key Performance Areas (KPAs) According to frequency of performance Mean score Visit to farmers to communicate 3.76 technical know how and attending their problems and queries Identification of problems and 3.70 needs of farmers Organizing farmers training, 3.90 meeting, seminar etc. Visit to field to supervise and 3.23 arrange different field trials, demonstrations and other extension activities Giving talk to group of people 3.67 According to level of performance Mean score 3.43 Overall Importance Mean score 7.19
1.
2. 3. 4.
3.43 3.13 3.42
7.13 7.03 6.66
5.
2.83
6.50
It is evident from the data present in above-mentioned tables that KPAs and their priority or importance is different for different categories of extension personnel. Training and Visit System has been prevailing in State Department of Agriculture. The most important Key Performing Area of village level extension personnel, grass root level workers is to communicate the technical know-how to the farmers and attend to the problems and queries of the farmers during their fortnightly visit. Each circle level extension personnel supervises and provides constant professional advice to eight village level workers and assists them in getting the message across to the farmers. Above the circle level there is sub-division level where one sub-division level officer is responsible for conducting fortnightly training for circle level and village level personnel to providing technical know-how, technical support and helping them to accomplish their tasks. Each district of the State has two to four sub-divisions. Experience has shown that identification of KPAs also leads to an understanding of difference of one role from another in the organization. It helps to remove the existence of role-ambiguity in different jobs leading to poor performance. Superiors realize that their KPAs have to be qualitatively different, indicating higher responsibility, from those of their
subordinates. They are forced to think of delegating to the subordinates, what they can do (Pareek and Rao, 1992). Thus, the specification of KPAs for different extension personnel not only serves the basis of their performance evaluation, but also for a general development of them in the organization. The identified KPAs are to be included in the performance appraisal format of development oriented PAS. B. Target setting
It is not fair to assess the performance of any employee on tasks and targets that have not been made clear to him/her and that do not take into consideration of mutual consultations and discussions. Therefore, in addition to the identification of KPAs, it is useful to set targets for a set period. These targets should deal with the tasks expected to be accomplished by the appraisee with respect to their KPAs. The targets should be fixed at beginning of the year with consultations and discussions between the supervisor and extension personnel. The study revealed that the targets for different extension personnel usually set at the state level and district level with little/no consultations of the lower level extension personnel. The existing PAS do not take into consideration the targets set forth and their achievement by the extension personnel. Therefore, the proposed development oriented PAS would include the different targets and their achievements by different categories of extension personnel. C. Identification of critical behavioral attributes required for the Job
Another important aspect of employee performance is the extent to which each employee exhibits the qualities desired for his/her job. Organization should identify a list of such qualities desired to be shown by different personnel and include these in performance appraisal (Rao, 1992). Appraising the behavioral attributes of employee periodically will enable the employees to strive for developing such attributes, which will help them to perform specific role better. This will help in improving the effectiveness of the role occupants. Critical attributes are those which distinguish an effective role occupant from an ineffective one. Critical attributes include all kinds of qualities - educational, experience, physical characteristics, mental abilities, skills, personality characteristics, attitudinal
MANAGE Extension Research Review characteristics, etc. In the present study behavioral attributes for extension personnel, that might be required to handle different tasks, were analyzed. The critical attributes required for different categories of extension personnel are reported in Table 5. It is evident from the table that critical behavioral attributes in priority order as indicated by the ranks (higher value indicates higher priority) are different for different categories of personnel. Basic knowledge of local agricultural situation as well as modern farm practices and problem-solving ability were found to be mostly required attributes for all kind of extension personnel. Table 5: Critical behavioral attributes required for the job of extension personnel.
Extension personnel of State Dept. of Agriculture (n=80) Village level Circle level Sub-div. Mean Mean level criticality criticality Mean score score criticality score 1. Basic knowledge of 8.39 (1) 8.50 (1) 8.38 (2) local agricultural situation 2. Knowledge of modern farm 7.78 (2) 7.56 (2) 7.88 (3) practices 3. Communication abilities 7.30 (6) 7.28 (4) 7.13 (9) (verbal, written) 4. Skills in conducting 7.22 (7) 7.00 (6) 7.88 (4) demonstrations, campaign meeting, etc. 5. Showing genuine interest 7.57 (3) 7.50 (3) 6.88 (11) in helping farmers 6. Motivation to influence 7.04 (8) 6.83 (7) 7.38 (7) others 7. Planning ability 6.50 (13) 6.61 (11) 7.38 (8) 8. Organizing ability 6.70 (12) 6.64 (10) 7.88 (5) 9. Problem solving ability 7.48 (4) 7.17 (5) 8.50 (1) 10. Team spirit 7.02 (9) 6.28 (12) 6.13 (15) 11. Persuasiveness 6.70 (11) 6.17 (14) 6.63 (13) 12. Initiative 6.48 (14) 6.22 (13) 6.38 (14) 13. Flexibility and openness 5.83 (15) 5.72 (15) 6.75 (12) 14. Decision making ability 7.35 (5) 6.67 (9) 7.50 (6) 15. Willingness to learn 7.00 (10) 6.78 (8) 6.88 (10) from others Figures in parentheses indicate ranks/priority Critical Attributes NGOs Extension Personnel (n=30) Mean criticality score 7.30 (2) 7.60 (1) 7.16 (4) 6.43 (5)
6.43 (6) 6.00 (12) 6.03 (11) 5.75 (13) 7.16 (3) 6.37 (7) 5.35 (15) 5.70 (14) 6.23 (9) 6.20 (10) 6.37 (8)
69
For the relatively higher-level extension personnel (sub division level), skills in conducting training, demonstrations, etc; organizing and decision making ability are highly required attributes to perform their role better. Grass root level extension workers should show genuine interest in helping the farmers and have the effective communication ability to pass the message to the farmers properly. The development oriented PAS would make a provision of evaluating extension personnel on the critical attributes needed for their effective performance. D. Self-Appraisal
At the end of the year or the appraisal period the appraisal process will begin with self-appraisal by each extension personnel. To appraise ones own self on KPAs, targets and qualities, the appraisee would go through a process of reflection and review. Provision has to be made in the development oriented performance appraisal form to include self-rating of appraisee on KPAs, targets and behavioral attributes. It has established beyond doubt that change is faster when it is self-initiated (Rao, 1992). Besides, when one reviews ones own performance, one also gets an opportunity become more aware of his/her own strengths and weaknesses. It would provide the employees with an opportunity to look back on their own performance (introspection) and to plan and work for achieving the improved performance (perspiration). Verma (1991) has also reported the need for introducing self-appraisal. For example, an extension worker might say to himself/herself that he/she has done well in conducting a demonstration, but failed to make the farmers understand the practice and to convince them about the benefits on its adoption. On the basis of selfappraisal he/she might discover his/her lack of interpersonal convincing skills and interpersonal communication skills. Thus, self-assessment helps extension personnel to discover their developmental needs and plan for development that also helps the organizational effectiveness. E. Performance Analysis
The performance appraisal climate of an organization should ensure the communication between appraisee and appraiser. The appraiser should know more about the situation under which his appraisee is working, the difficulties he/she is experiencing and the contribution he/she is making. The appraisee
MANAGE Extension Research Review should also understand how he/she himself/herself is responsible for some achievements or non-achievements. To meet these objectives development oriented PAS includes the performance analysis component in it. Under this performance analysis, extension worker reflects about his performance at the end of appraisal period and identifies factors that helped in doing whatever he/she has done and factors that prevented him/her from doing better. The appraisee then gives his/her analyses to the supervising officer who may add to the list other relevant issues influencing the performance. F. Performance Discussion
The performance discussion on a prefixed date is intended to improve understanding and support between the supervisor and extension worker. The form of self-appraisal and performance analysis is submitted by the extension worker to supervising officer that serves as an initiator of discussions. Extension personnel may be able to share a lot of things in mutual discussions, which they may not be able to put in writing. The purpose of it for the extension personnel is to know more about the perceptions, expectations and assessment of the supervisor and also to communicate the difficulties and ask for support. For the supervisor, it is an opportunity to understand the subordinates better, help them to understand their own strengths and weaknesses and assist them to identify mechanisms for technical development and improve performance standard. G. Identifying Developmental Needs and Action Plan
The performance analysis and performance discussion would generally lead to the identification of developmental needs. The poorly performed KPAs or targets not accomplished by the extension personnel may be indicators of inadequate understanding or lack of capabilities (Knowledge, skills, etc.). If it is lack of capabilities, development of capabilities through training, on the job-coaching, etc. becomes the action plan. If poor performance is due to lack of motivation, it should be dealt with during the performance discussion session. Developmental needs flow directly from the assessment (self-assessment as well as assessment by the appraiser) of performance. The appraiser should therefore, indicate the developmental needs of the appraisee and suggest
action. The suggestions are to be attended by the personnel department of organization and actions are to be initiated at the appropriate time. H. Final Assessment
The final assessment will be given by the appraiser after completion of all the above mentioned components of PAS. By this stage the appraiser would have a thorough understanding of the subordinates, their accomplishments, strengths and weaknesses, developmental needs, etc. on the basis of which the appraiser is expected to be in a good position to prepare final assessment report of the subordinates. Besides, the development needs identified should get special attention leading to the implementation of action plan. The final assessment report would include the above-mentioned facts along with the future action plan to develop the extension personnel for the improved performance leading to enhanced organizational effectiveness. The final assessment will have to be communicated to the appraisee. In case of any strong difference the appraisee will have the scope to communicate his/her reaction to the higher authority. Basic structure of a model format of development oriented PAS for extension personnel will include all the above-mentioned eight dimensions. The KPAs, targets, behavioral dimensions in the appraisal form will be different for different categories of extension personnel as mentioned earlier. Therefore, different appraisal form will have to be developed for different categories of extension personnel considering respective KPAs, targets, behavioral dimensions in the format.
Conclusion
The development oriented PAS is expected more likely to produce positive and less likely to produce negative outcomes than the existing PAS that are used only for control and administration. This development oriented PAS is expected to improve the performance appraisal climate which will have a positive impact on overall organizational climate and job satisfaction of extension personnel. This offers greater scope to improve the human resources of agricultural extension organizations at minimum cost. The need
MANAGE Extension Research Review to improve the human resources of agricultural extension organizations to face the emerging challenges arising out of present techno-economic scenario can be met through the implementation of development oriented PAS.
References
Davis, William L. (1993). Performance appraisal: How extension agents view the system. Journal of Extension. Winter, Vol. 31 (4). p. 15-17. Mufeed, S. (1998). Evaluating employee performance : A successful instrument for human resource development. Indian Journal of Training and Development 28 (2): 72-92. Pareek, U. and Rao, T.V. (1992). Designing and managing human resource systems. Oxford and IBH Pub. Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi p. 408. Rao, T.V. (1992). Appraising and developing managerial performance. Academy of human resource development, Ahmedabad.
73
DEVELOPMENTAL PRIORITIES OF FARM WOMEN IN AGRIBUSINESS MANAGEMENT - A CASE OF AN ADOPTED VILLAGE K.B.PALEM
Neelaveni S*, Rambabu** and Punna Rao***
Agriculture is the source of livelihood for over 70 percent of the population in India. Women carry out 50-90 percent of agricultural operations in this country. Thus, the prosperity and growth of the nation depends on the status and development of women. Despite these contributions, women continue to be marginalized, undervalued and unrecognized. There is a tendency among most administrators and policy makers to see men as farmers and women as farmers wives and highlight their supportive role than productive role. There is an increasing attitude of farm women towards farm business (Chakravarthy and Chakravarthi 1996) Involving farm women in mainstream of development is sound strategy and hence there is a need to foucs on their priorities in for overall development. Hence the research study was conducted in village Kondabhotlapalem of Bapatla Mandal in Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh with the following objectives. 1. 2. 3. 4. To study the profile characteristics of farm women To study the developmental priorities of farm women in ARM To know the relationship between selected characteristics of farmwomen and developmental priorities To suggest a strategy for effective implementation of village adoption programme in accordance with their developmental priorities.
* Ph.D Student, EEI, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad. ** Scientist(Agricultural Extension), District Agricultural Advisory and Transfer of Technology Centre, Agricultural Market Committee, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh *** Assistant Professor, Extension Education Institute, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad.
74
Methodology
An Ex-Post- facto research design was used for conducting this research since the variables chosen for the study had already occurred. The study was conducted in the purposively selected village namely Kondubhotla palem that comes under Bapatla Mandal, Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh. This village was an adopted village of agricultural College, Bapatla. A total number of 120 farm women were selected randomly as respondents from Kondubhotla palem village in proportionate with family farm size. The scale developed by Sabitha Kumari (1995) with suitable modification was used for quantifying the developmental priorities. Suitable measurement techniques were determined for measuring the selected profile characteristics of farm women. The interview schedule, an instrument of data collection, consisted of set of questions, which were asked to the farm women. Answers were filled in by the investigator in a face-to-face situation with the respondents. Correlation Coefficient, multiple linear regression and frequency and percentage were used for meaningful interpretation of data.

The results of the study are presented and discussed under the following 1. Personal, Socio- Psychological Characteristics of the farm women
The results presented in the table 1 indicated that majority (66.68%) of the respondents belonged to middle age followed by young age (26.7%) and old age (6.7%) group. It is indicative of the fact that most of the middle-aged women were involved in agribusiness management due to their heavier responsibilities. While looking at their educational status, results revealed that majority (40.83%) of the respondents were illiterate followed by primary school (22.50%), functionally literate (27.50%), middle school (7.50%) and high school(1.67%). The plausible reasons might be their financial problems and non-availability of educational facilities. Another reason observed is the lack of encouragement from parents and traditional outlook towards their daughters education. Therefore women should be encouraged to have higher education as education is the means for development.
Fig. 1 : Model of strategy for effective implementation of village adoption programme (VAP)
MANAGE Extension Research Review Distribution of the respondents according to profile characteristics of farm women (n120)
S.No 1. Variable/Category Age: a) Young age b) Middle age c) Old age Education: a) Illiterate/no schooling b) Functionally literate c) Primary school d) Middle school e) High school Social participation: a) Low social participation b) Medium social participation c) High social participation Mass media consumption: a) Low mass media consumption b) Medium Mass media consumption c) High mass media consumption Extension contact: a) Low extension contact b) Medium extension contact c) High extension contact Urban pull: a) Low urban pull b) Medium urban pull c) High urban pull Aspiration: a) Low aspiration b)Medium aspiration c) High urban pull Leadership status: a) Women who were never consulted by others b) Women who were rarely consulted by others c) Women who were some times consulted by others d) Women who were often consulted by others Frequency Percentage Mean 32 80 8 49 27 33 9 2 32 79 9 39 60 21 17 79 24 18 92 10 16 88 16 30 46 32 10 26.66 66.68 6.66 40.83 22.50 27.50 7.50 1.67 26.67 65.83 7.5 32.50 50.00 17.50 14.16 65.83 20.01 15.00 76.67 8.33 13.33 73.34 13.33 25.00 38.33 26.67 8.223 1.67 7.50 53.33 39.17 5.00 79.17 15.83 S.D
41.33
10.166
2.
2.25
0.97
3.
2.242
0.93
4.
9.558
2.2
5.
10.133
2.26
6.
20.108
3.5
7.
18.83
2.95
8.
2.223
8.92
9.
10.
e) Women who were most often consulted by others 2 Opinion about sponsoring agency: a) Unfavourable opinion 9 b) Neutral opinion 64 c) Favourable opinion 47 Drudgery: a) Low drudgery 6 b) Medium drudgery 95 c) High drudgery 19
19.133
2.4
19.525
2.78
77
Regarding social participation, half of the respondents had medium level of social participation followed by low (26.67%) and high social participation (7.5%). The probable reasons for the above trend might be lack of more number of social organizations in the village and hindrance from male members of the family for their social participation. Social participation of women could be improved through formation of more number of mahila mandals, organizations for women ,women charcha mandals, local village institutions like primary cooperative societies. There was a need to break the iceberg of shyness and traditionalism among the women. With regard to mass media consumption, half of the respondents belonged to medium mass media consumption category followed by low (32.5%) and high (17.50). Illiteracy and inaccessibility to printed literature might be the reasons for this trend. The results on extension contact focused that majority (65.83%) of the respondents had medium extension contact followed by high(20.01%) and low(14.16%). This trend might be due to the fact that study area is an adopted village of Agricultural college Bapatla where scientists of this college make regular visits to the village for transfer of technology. Regarding urban pull, majority of the respondents had medium (76.67%) urban pull followed by low (15%) and high (8.33%) urbanpull. Busy schedule of farm and house hold activities coupled with more attachment with rural area might have made them to inhibit urban pull. While coming to aspiration, nearly three fourth of the respondents had medium aspiration . A sense of fatalism and blocked opportunities might have conditioned the farm women to have medium and low level of aspirations. Results on leadership status denoted that most of the farm women were rarely (38.33%) consulted by others followed by some times consulted by others (26.67%), never consulted by others (25%), often consulted by others (8.33%) while very few( of the respondents were most often(1.67%) consulted by others. With regard to opinion about sponsoring agency that most of the respondents had neutral (53.33%) followed by favourable (39.17%) opinion about
78
MANAGE Extension Research Review sponsoring agency and very few number of respondents had unfavourable(7.5%) opinion about sponsoring agency. Regarding drudgery, most of the respondents belonged to medium(79.17%) category of drudgery followed by high(15.83%) are low( 5.00%) category of drudgery. The probable reasons for the above trend might be due to over work load in house and farm activities. II. Developmental Priorities of Farm women in Agribusiness Management
A cursory glance at the table 2 reveals that most of the farm women had medium (64.17%) and high (21.66%)developmental priorities and only few of the respondents had low (14.17%) developmental priorities. Majority of the respondents were middle aged and had heavier responsibilities. To meet the same they have to earn more income. Since their major occupation is agriculture, they paid more attention in agribusiness management activities to earn more profits. Prioritization of developmental activities of the farm women is the forerunner for effective implementation of the programmed activity. Farm women with high priorities need to be equipped with understanding of the resource base through bench mark. Table 2.Developmental priorities of farmwomen in Agribusiness Management; Distribution of respondents according to their developmental priorities
S.No 1. 2. 3. Category Low developmental priorities Medium developmental priorities High developmental priorities X = 96.392 Frequency 12 77 26 Percentage 14.17 64.17 21.66
, \= 15.07
Response analysis of Developmental priorities

It was evident from the table 3 that farm production sector was given first rank followed by extension skill development (II rank) input sector (II rank) and out put sector (IV rank) in their developmental priorities.
It is an indication of the fact that farm women had given priority to the areas in which they were participating mostly i.e. farm production sector includes sowing/transplanting, weed management, water management, pest and disease management and harvesting techniques. It is quite natural that participating activities are prioritized more than non-participating activities. To that extent farm production sector includes only the activities which involve active participation of farmwomen (Bhagyalakshmi, 1997). This calls for a strategy to formulate women friendly technology for reducing their hardship and drudgery. In input sector, quality seed, quality fertilizer, plant protection chemicals were given first rank in their developmental priorities. In farm production sector, sowing/transplanting, weed management were given first rank in their developmental priorities. Harvesting was given second rank in their developmental priorities. In output sector, post harvest techniques were given first rank in their developmental priorities . In extension skill development, information-seeking skills were given first rank in their developmental priorities. Table 3. Regression coefficients between the independent variables and developmental priorities of farmwomen
S.no 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Urban pull Aspiration Leadership Status Opinion Drudgery -0.20461 Variable Age Education Social participation Mass media consumption1.8012 Extension contact Regression coefficient -0.29168 0.5829 -1.7192 0.53312 1.9851 -0.039233 0.26774 3.3539 0.088833 0.4307 F=76.05* * Standard error 0.1446 2.1460 3.8875 3.379 0.54768 0.32172 0.46708 3.3410 0.33807 0.472 Intercept=64.24 3.624 0.122 0.573 1.004 0.263 t-value 2.016 0.272 0.442
R2=0.875
80
MANAGE Extension Research Review Table 4. Response wise analysis of developmental priorities of farm women in Agribusiness management.
Sl.No 1. a. b. c. d. e. f. 2. a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. j. k. l. m. 3 a b. c. 4 a. b. c. d. e. Particulars Input sector Quality seed Quality fertilizer Credit procurement procedure Plant protection chemicals Irrigation facilities Transportation facilities Farm production sector Weather forecasting Soil sampling techniques Seed treatment Nursery preparation Sowing/Trans planting Weed management Pest and disease management techniques Irrigation management Fertilizer management Operation of farm machinery Harvesting techniques Financial management Energy management Output sector Post harvest techniques Transportation facilities Marketing Extension skill development Communication skills Leadership skills Organization skills Information seeking skills Total quality management 2.5 2.6 2.5 2.7 2.6 III II III I II 2.58 II Mean score Rank Score for Rank main area
2.7 2.7 2.6 2.7 2.2 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.95 2.95 2.73 2.4 2.4 2.9 2.6 2.6 2.7 2.4 2.4
I I II I IV III VI VI V IV I I III VI VI II IV IV I II II
2.55
III
2.6
2.5
IV
81
III. Relationship between selected personal social and psychological characteristics of farmwomen and their developmental priorities in ARM Perusal of Table 4 reveals that variables of age and drudgery were negatively and significantly associated with developmental priorities. Education, social participation, mass media consumption, extension contact, urban pull, aspiration, leadership status, opinion about sponsoring agencies were positively and significantly associated with developmental priorities. As age increases energy declines, and their interest in management of farm activities d eclines. Hence it might be the reason for negative relationship between age and developmental priorities. As drudgery increases, due to hardship and busy schedule of farm and home activities, their attention might be decreased in management of farm activities. Hence priorities in agribusiness management decreases. As education , mass media consumption, extension contact, leadership status, opinion increases, their interaction with others and exposure to new technology increases and their attention in management of activities in Agribusiness increases thereby developmental priorities in Agribusiness management also increases. IV Strategy for effective Implementation of village adoption programme in accordance with their identified developmental priorities Based on the findings of the study the following strategy is suggested. As majority of the farm women have given priority to farm production sector women friendly technologies like transplanters, sickles, hoe, spade etc. have to be designed which are most suitable for the physique of women. Training programmes should be conducted in identifying pests and diseases and to improve their knowledge and skills in pests and disease management, 1PM and skills in identification of physiological disorders. Save grain campaign should be conducted to improve storage techniques
82
MANAGE Extension Research Review Seed village Concept should properly be implemented in the village by taking group of progressive and innovative farmers covering the area of at least 50 acres and they should make the villagers self sufficient in producing quality seed for the use of farmers in the same village. Agricultural growth centres were required to be established in the village to provide up to date technology by identifying their priorities. Incentives should be given to farm women to improve their participation in social activities.

Conclusion
Farm women had medium developmental priorities and farm production sector was highly prioritized. So as to reduce drudgery and hardship women friendly technologies should be developed. Women should be educated to improved their prioritization.
References
Chakravarthy Ritu and Chakravarthi R 1996 Comparitive case studies of farm women in Nethrlands and India. Journal of Dairying, Foods and Home Science 15:81-87. Bhagyalakshmi K 1997 A Study on participation and perception of drudgery in farm women in Srikakulam dt.of A.P., M.Sc.(H.Sc.). Thesis ANGRAU, Hyderabad. Sabitha Kumari 1995 Developmental priorities of rural women in Chandapur village of Medak dt. of Andhra Pradesh M. Sc. (H. Sc).
83
POTENTIAL APPRAISAL OF AGRICULTURAL EXENSION HUMAN RESOURCE -A SWOT ANALYSIS

P. Punna Rao * and B. Mukunda Rao** Agricultural development is seen as an increase in agricultural production and / or the productivity of land, labour and capital in agriculture. Agricultural extension is an instrument to promote agricultural development. The proposed Extension policy framework by the Ministry of Agricultural, GOI emphasised that in the context of meeting the holistic needs of increasing agricultural production, and to do so in a sustainable manner, agricultural extension has a crucial role to play. Reforms in the system envisage an extension service that is more broad- based and holistic in content and scope, thus beyond agricultural technology transfer. Its normal task of transferring and disseminating appropriate technologies would not be sufficient. Extension agencies, and workers need to exercise a more proactive and participatory role, serve as knowledge/ information agents, initiating and facilitating mutually meaningful and equitable knowledge based transactions among agricultural researchers, trainer and primary producers. All this needs to be done in an effective and cost efficient manner. Under the T & V system, the technology dissemination regime was more supply-driven. In the light of the new international trading regime under the WTO and the export opportunities being opened up and also due to paradigm shifts in the agriculture from Productivity to profitability Subsistence to commercial agriculture Green revolution to Evergreen revolution Commodity oriented to Farming systems Local market to Export- oriented
* Assistant Director of Extension, ANGRAU, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad - 30. ** Assistant Professor, Dept of Agril. Extension, Ag. College, Bapatla.
84
MANAGE Extension Research Review Technology to Eco-technology Mono cropping to crop diversity Supply driven to Demand driven and Exploitative to sustainable agriculture.
There is a need for promotion of farmer participatory, demand-driven and farmer accountable extension. Organisations which are the assembling of interacting human beings collectively seeking to attain common goal, should be sensitive to change. Change has become an inevitable part of life. Organizations that do not change when needed or are not sensitive to the need for change do not survive long. The human resources available to agricultural extension is one of the key elements that affects the success of the system. Organizations need not have more people but more competent people who can recognise the requirements of the profession and improve their competency in accordance with changing times. Competencies are the characteristics of an individual which underlie performance of behaviour at work. Nowadays, competency movement has entered into the human resource scene to identify, evaluate and retain the competent people in the organizations. People require different competencies in dynamic and growth oriented organizations viz., technical, managerial, human and conceptual. The importance of Human Resource Development (HRD) for agricultural extension is increasingly being realized. In the context of the latest changes in the development front, there is a need for a fresh look at the HRD scenario and for necessary efforts to build the capacity and capability for HRD in the emerging issues. This calls for examining the Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats (SWOT) of the human resource in the organisations. With this in mind, an attempt has been made to analyse the potential of Extension scientists through SWOT analysis.
Methodology
The study was planned with scientific human resource working in the only agricultural university in the state of Andhra Pradesh i.e., Acharya N.G. Ranga Agricultural University (ANGRAU). All the teachers, trainers and TOT Scientists serving in ANGRAU with M.Sc(Ag)/Ph.D in Agricultural Extension were
considered for the investigation. At present 64 Scientists are working in the Agricultural l Extension discipline in ANGRAU at its centres like Colleges, KVKs, District Agril Advisory and Transfer of Technology centres (DAATTCs), Extension Education Institute, (EEI), Agril. Information & Communication centre (AI & CC), ATIC and Extension Units of ZARS. The questionnaire with a request to indicate their own strengths, weaknesses opportunities and threats was sent to all these Agril Extension Scientists. Few simple questions were also asked which reflect the domain under study with a view to obtain as many SWOT items as possible to facilitate the logical discussion, a few attributes mentioned in results were also included in the questionnaire. The responses received from the 45 respondents (70.31%) were analysed by using simple frequency and percentage and ranks are presented for the purpose.

The profile analysis based on the few selected attributes is given in Table-1 Table-1 Profile of Agricultural Extension Scientists n=45 Sl. No.
1
Attribute
Cadre a) Asst Professor b) Assoc. Proffessor c) Professor Nature of Work a) Teaching b) Training c) Field extension d) Administration Academic qualifications a) Masters degree b) Doctoral degree Age a) Upto 35 years b) 35 to 50 years c) 50 and above
F
27 12 6 6 6 35 2 17 28 12 21 12
%
60.00 26.70 13.30 13.34 13.34 77.78 4.44 37.78 62.22 26.67 46.66 26.67 July - December, 2002
2.
3.
4.
86
MANAGE Extension Research Review It is seen from the Table 1 that a majority of the respondents (60.00%) were Assistant Professors followed by Associate Professors (26.70%) and Professors (13.30%). There is a scope for sharpening the abilities of the Asst Professors as a major force through career planning, counselling, training and development mechanisms so as to mould their behaviour towards achieving goals for excellence. Most of the scientists (78%) are working in field extension i.e., in KVKs, DATTCs, ZARSs and Communication centre. The main job of the scientist working in these field units is to develop a data base, identify the needs, prepare action plans, train the stake holders, village adoption, content generation and dissemination to educate the farmers on reducing the cost of cultivation by 15% and increase productivity by 15% in the wake of WTO. A majority (62.22%) of the scientists possessed Doctorate Degree in Extension Education while 37.78 per cent were having basic qualification of M.Sc (Ag). The facility of deputation for inservice candidates for higher degree leading to Ph.D helped the 19 respondents to acquire Doctorates. This clearly shows the interest of the organisation in Human Resource Development for growth. About 47.00 per cent of the respondents are belonged to the age group of 35 to 50 years while rest of these were equally distributed under upto 35 years and 50 & above categories.
A. Strengths
Every employee requires the highlighting of his strengths. His strong areas need to be known and capitalized. An effort in this regard could see the employee performing to the best of his potential. The strengths identified as perceived by the respondents are presented in the Table 2. Table 2 Strengths of Agricultural Extension Scientists.
Sl. No. 1 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Strength Hard working Expertise Self confidence Empathetic ability Self motivation Optimistic attitude Job commitment Positiveness Frequency 36 32 24 31 27 29 41 38
n = 45
Rank III IV VIII V VII VI I II
87
As seen from the results, job commitment was found to be the major strength of the respondents. This shows that they perceive a particular job as useful, emotionally attaches himself to the ideals of a job to extend loyalty and there by making him obligatory rather than mandatory to sperform better to the maximum extent. positiveness and `Hard working` of the respondents should be exploited by the organisation, through assigning productive tasks as these are the characteristics of true extension functionaries. The Expertise is considered as specialist knowledge, skills, know how, competence and capacity to perform difficult activities. Extension Scientist are always concerned with doing difficult activities like teaching and training of abstract subjects, convincing/ motivating people of having unlimited treasure of knowledge, while maintaining pace with rapidly changing technologies. Thanks to the DAATTCs a successful innovation in technology dissemination was introduced by ANGRAU by reorganising its Extension Education units. The working Experience in this centres and KVKs might have made them experts in their area of work. The Empathetic ability which is a basic feature of an ideal extension worker was the other strength identified. This trait distinguishes them from the crop scientists. Due to this ability, extension scientist could work for the satisfaction of the stake holders compared to others. The Optimistic attitude of the extension human resource is really a strength that an organisation can exploit to attain the goal of extension mandate Reach the unreached an individual should be a self starter in life. It should be his endeavour to set his own goals and finish them within his own prescribed time limits. The self motivation and self confidence would pave the way to set their realistic goals and succeed both in their professional and personal life. It is genuine to expect that higher degree of self confidence helps an individual in motivating himself by increasing his decision making ability, as stated in the theory of transactional analysis by Berne (1964).
B. Weaknesses
Not only the strengths, it is equally important to realise the areas of improvement of an employee and help him to overcome it. The identified
MANAGE Extension Research Review weaknesses of the respondents have been given in Table 3 Table 3 Weaknesses of Agricultural Extension Scientists Sl. No. 1 2. 3. 4. 5. Weakness Frequency Junior in Service 27 Poor drafting skills 18 Poor participatory management skills 34 No exposure to I.T. 40 Less professional interaction 36 n = 45 Rank IV V III I II
It could be noticed that no exposure to IT was the major weakness. Development of computers and improvements in telecommunications offer farmers many new opportunities to obtain technical and economic information quickly and use it effectively for decision making. Communication technologies can range from low cost radio and videos to networked environments involving computers and satellites to expert systems, interactive video disc and Geographical Information systems. The extension scientists therefore have rightly recognised the area for improvement. The Less professional interaction was the other weakness recognised. Professional interaction will help the scientists to come to know about the happenings outside the box. Hence, frequent interaction meetings at least once in a year may be thought of for extension scientists to share the ideas. The poor participatory management skills and poor drafting skills were also identified as their weaknesses. The whole world is now moving around participatory approaches to involve all the players of the gaming the process. Drafting is a skill necessary to inform the readers / stakeholders about the technologies in a concise and convincing form, particularly in the wake of WTO which requires educating farmers on the cost reduction technologies. Though the seniority should be respected and recognised, the junior scientist should also be recognised and given challenging jobs. Majority (60.00%) of the respondents were of Asst. Professor cadre. Given an opportunity, junior scientists will also prove their metal. This also helps them in experiential learning and mould them in a way what their organisation wants. Not giving an opportunity for conducting meetings with senior level people, participation in State, National and International level seminars / workshops / conferences,
guiding P.G students and undertaking research projects, might have made the respondents to feer that Junior in service is a weakness.
C. Opportunities
The opportunities spelt out by the respondents are given in Table 4 Table 4 Opportunities of Agricultural Extension Scientists n = 45
Sl.No. 1 2. 3. 4. 5. Opportunity Frequency Higher qualification 28 Creativity 42 Preparedness 34 Research and guidance skills 30 Team spirit 36 Rank V I III IV II
Creativity emerged as the major potential as perceived by the respondents. Employees with creativity as career driver do things that are distinctly different from others, and they want to own the results. According to Shivkhera (2002), winners dont do different things, they do things differently. The Doctoral qualification coupled with rich experience in field extension might have contributed for their creativity. Team Spirit was the other potential identified. In the present organisational context, majority of the funtions require strong team work for achieving success. Team work is the element for an employee to perform to his optimum level and win laurels for his team and the organisation as a whole. Preparedness is one of the quality of an extension worker who is supposed to deal with mostly varied personalities of various stake holders at various levels. The research and guidance skills and Higher qualification were the other potentials perceived. The extension Scientists working in field units particularly DAATTCs, KVKs and at RARSs can also be given an opportunity to guide the M.Sc (Ag) and Ph.D students depending on the competencies and resources they have. This enable the scientists to further sharpen their skills through attending Colloquiums and improved professional interactions.
90
D. Threats
The perceived threats by the respondents for discharging their duties are presented in the Table 5
Table 5 Threats of Agricultural Extension Scientists n = 45

Sl.No. 1 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Threat Feeling of transfer at any time Rapidly changing technology Poor recognition Less scope for career development Heavy work load Frustrated fellow scientists Frequency 39 18 32 24 22 14 Rank I V II III IV VI
A cursory look at the data indicated that Feeling of transfer at any time was the major threat posed to the respondents. Transfer policy could only solve this problem and make the employees mentally prepared to work in places of their work comfortably with strategic extension plans. Poor recognition was also the threat identified. Proper recognition from both superiors and colleagues of other disciplines at their centre could boost up the performance of the employee. People work for money, but need love, care, praise and recognition to go that extra mile. Clearcut job specifications and allowing the extension scientists to do technology related work could find solution for this problem. The HRD sub systems like man power planning, counselling and motivation and rewards helps the organisations in taking care of threats like heavy work load less scope for growth and frustrated employees. Being extension personnel working at field units, they are supposed to cope with all the extension programmes at gross root level with a major focus on TAR, Kisan melas, capacity building programmes, and other dissemination works. Since most of them are working in DAATTCs and KVKs whose area of operation is more, they might have felt that Heavy work load, as the threat. The prospects of career growth
in the organisation enhances employee performance, boosts up their morale and motivation. The respondents could notice rightly that Rapidly changing technology was the threat. Frequent interactions with higher ups, participation in national and international level workshops could help him/her to keep pace with rapid changes and face the challenges.
Conclusion
The study has brought out the potentials of Agricultural Extension Scientists through perceived strengths like job commitment and positiveness; weakness like no exposure to IT and less professional interaction, opportunities like creativity and team spirit; and threats viz., feeling of transfer at any time and poor recognition. The strong areas need to be capitalized and the areas of improvement should be realized to help the extension human resource to overcome them through planned and continuous counselling and training and development. Challenging work environment, enconragement, creativity and out of the box thinking, placement of individuals based on their competencies provide positive stroke for the human resource to exploit their potential.
References
Anonymous (2001) Reading material on HRD in Extension Organisations. Extension Education Institute, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad. Berne Eric (1964) Games people play. Grove Press, New York. Jhansi Rani G (1985) Scientific productivity of Agricultural Scientists An Activity Analysis Approach. Ph.D thesis, ANGRAU, Hyderabad. Shiv Khera (2002) You can win. Macmillan India Ltd, Delhi.
92
ALIENATION FROM WORK AMONG ENTREPRENEURS IN AGRICULTURE

Hemchandra Gajbhiye,* R.T. Katole,** and Jyoti Sahare**
Introduction
A large part of interest in entrepreneurship stems from the fact that economic development is the outcome of purposeful human activity and hence promoting entrepreneurship is the key to it. Entrepreneurship in agriculture is not solely guided by profit and entrepreners in agriculture do not form a social class like the capitalists. Recent interest in agricultural development coupled with the problems of poverty and unemployment and opening of markets has brought the concept of rural entrepreneurship to the fore. It is not simply re-distributive justice alone but of increasing the productive capacities of the rural people, particularly the young ones and their participation in the development process which has become more important. With the change in the political philosophy of the country, entrepreneurs in agriculture are looked as supplementing the existing network to accelerate the process of technology transfer to agriculture and providing supplementary sources of input supply and services, for which by and large, farmers presently depend upon State Agencies. However, in general, private entrepreneurs in agriculture are ridiculed, be they moneylenders, traders or commission agents for supplying services and inputs such as fertilizers, pesticides, seeds, custom hiring (for all the poor quality and sky rocketing prices), no matter how efficient any of them may be in their respective areas in providing the necessary services. They are often ignored, hated and regarded as superfluous middlemen (Karam Singh, 1990) who are exploiting the poor farmers. In one of the studies Jajoo et.al.( 1994) have observed higher degree of dissatisfaction among women entrepreneurs in rural areas.
* Principal Scientist & Head (Agril. Extension) Central Institute for Cotton Research, Post Bag No.2, Shankamagar P.O., NAGPUR - 440010 ** Research Associate, Central Institute for Cotton Research, Post Bag No.2, Shankamagar P.O., NAGPUR - 440010
93
Considering the higher degree of failure in agricultural enterprises and lack of interest towards this profession among the unemployed agricultural graduates, attention has to be focused on the concept of work alienation among the agricultural entrepreneurs. The concept of work alienation has its origin in the writings of Karl Marx. He argued that creative activity is a basic aspect of human nature and that this need was most satisfied in work (Marx,1963). It is a condition where the individual has lost control over the product of his labor, the immediate work process and hence the capacity to express himself in work. Most of the recent theoretical and empirical studies of alienation in general have been strongly influenced by the work of Melvin Seeman. In his initial article (1959), he attempted to clarify the meaning of the concept by identifying five dimensions of alienation; powerlessness; meaninglessness; normlessness; isolation; and self- estrangement. Of all the five dimensions, selfestrangement has been given the greatest attention in the literature on work alienation. Self-estrangement exists when workers feel their work is not selffulfilling. That is, their task is not intrinsically rewarding in itself, but simply a means to something else (Mottaz, 1981). This was the crucial meaning for both Marx and Blauner (1964). Moreover, the literature suggests that the task conditions of powerlessness and meaninglessness are important determinants of self-estrangement in work. Factors other than technology, structure and job codification may also account for variations in work related alienation. Several studies have considered demographic factors and found work alienation to be higher for certain groups of workers. Among the demographic factors found to be important are age, sex, education, total income, race, marital status and urban-rural background. This brief review of literature on work related alienation suggests that variations in technology and organizational structure lead to variations in working conditions and working conditions in turn interact with individual factors to produce different levels of self-estrangement in work. The intention of the present study is to explore the later portion of this model with entrepreneurs in agriculture.
Method
The basic data for this study have been collected from 50 agricultural entrepreneurs in a district situated in mid-west India. The area is char94 July - December, 2002
MANAGE Extension Research Review acterized by high value horticultural and agricultural crops. The respondents had their establishments in rural, semi-urban and urban areas and are selling inputs like seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, farm implements etc. However, they are not involved in marketing agricultural produce. Only the owners of these establishments have participated in this study. The data was obtained by personal interviews conducted during early 2002.
Concepts and measurement

Work alienation : Following Mottaz (1981), work alienation is defined here as a lack of intrinsic fulfillment in work. That is, work is an instrumental activity in the sense that it is not rewarding in itself but simply a means to some other end. Measures for work alienation were adopted from Mottaz (1981) with slight modification to suit the setting of agricultural entrepreneurs. Alienation from work was computed on the basis of response to seven questions. The response categories ranged along a four point continuum and consisted of strongly agree, agree, disagree and strongly disagree. The higher the score, the greater the perception of self-estranging conditions. Risk taking ability: Risk taking ability has been defined as the degree to which an entrepreneur becomes involved in risk bearing and has courage to face new problems of uncertainty in the business which comes with the introduction of new products in the market. A six dimension scale was developed to measure the risk taking ability of farm entrepreneurs. The responses were recorded on a four point scale from Strongly agree (1) to Strongly disagree (4). Age : Age is the respondents age measured in years. Respondents who are below 30 are scored (1), 31 to 40 are scored (2), 41 to 50 are scored (3), and 51 and above are scored (4). Years in business: It is the number of years spent in running the business dealing with inputs and services required for agriculture. Those respondents who are in business for less than 5 years are scored (1), and more than 25 years are scored (6). Investment : It the amount in rupees invested in this business from their own resources while starting the business. Those who have invested less than Rs.50,000/-were scored (1), and those who have invested Rs.10,00,000/ were scored (5).
Turnover: It the volume of business done in a year in terms of Rupees. Whose annual turnover is less than Rs.5,00,000/- are scored (1), and whose turnover is more than Rs.50,00,000/- are scored (5). Income : It is the gross annual profit in Rupees obtained in the business. The income of less than Rs.50,000 was scored as (1), and More than Rs. 10,00,000/- was scored as (6) Loan: It is the debt in Rupees outstanding at present against the money borrowed from various sources. Those who have outstanding loan of less than Rs.50,000/- are scored (1), and more than Rs.10,00,000/- are scored (5).

The data reveals that 46 per cent of entrepreneurs in agriculture are in the age group of 31 to 40 years. However, on educational front, things are not that encouraging. Twenty four percent are not even graduates, 42 per cent do not have a science degree. Only 6 per cent are agricultural graduates and 12 percent are post-graduate in agriculture. Majority of entrepreneurs (54%) have completed less than 10 years in the business. The initial investment of less than one lakh rupees was made by majority (66%) of the respondents. The annual turnover for 48% entrepreneurs is between 5 to 25 lack of rupees and 60% respondents have annual gross income of Rs.50,000/- to Rs.2.5 lack. However, 38% reported that their income is just enough to meet all needs comfortably and 44% respondents said the income is just enough to barely get by on. For 14% entrepreneurs, their income is not enough to live on. Seventy nine per cent of entrepreneurs in agriculture are have outstanding loans to the tune of Rs.50,000/- to Rs.5 lakh and a majority of them (62%) are very concerned about repaying the loan but 76 per cent have reported that current financial condition of their family is not a problem. The data also reveal that 46 per cent entrepreneurs have financially very resourceful parents but not many of them are having politically influential parents or in-laws. The correlations among all the indices of work alienation are presented in Table 1. The pattern of relationships indicates that those entrepreneurs having higher income also have higher turnover (r = .77) and higher amount of outstanding loan (r = 62). The relationships are positive, quite strong and significant. Entrepreneurs having higher turnover are also likely to take higher risk (r .35). The relation is significant. Correlation matrix also reveal that younger entrepreneurs are associated with higher degree of alienation. Simi96 July - December, 2002
MANAGE Extension Research Review larly, entrepreneurs with lower income have higher degree of work alienation. Those with lower investment have higher alienation. Data also indicates that as the turnover increases, alienation decreases and as the loan amount increase, work alienation also increases. The relationship between risk taking ability and work alienations seems to be positive (.08) but not significant. Table 1 : Zero order Correlations between age, income, investment, turnover, loan, years in business risk taking ability and alienation from work.
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 * Age Income Investment Turnover Loan Years Risk Alienation p< .05, ** .29* -.10 .23 .22 37** .18 -.10 p< .01 2 3 4 5 6 7
-.05 77** .62** .23 .23 -.10
-.01 .23 -.13 -.01 -.02
.58** .26 35* -.24
.24 .11 -.06
.02 .08
.03
The bivariate relationships dictated the strategy for multivariate analysis. The model was tested to explain the effects of independent variable on work related alienation among entrepreneurs in agriculture. The structure of regression model conforms to the classical fixed effects, least-squares configuration. The model assumes that the effects are linear and makes no explicit provision for interaction. Table 2: Standardized partial regression coefficient of independent variables on alienation from work.
Variables Age Income Investment Turnover Loan Years Risk Beta -.17 -.23* -.01 -.54** .07 .22* .18 T -1.06 -.92 -.07 -2.22 .35 1.35 1.17
Multiple R R Square
*p<.05 **p<.O1
38* .15
97
The multivariate analysis also yields consistent relationship for age, income, investment, and turnover as all the Beta are negative. This supports our hypothesis that these variables inversely contribute to the explanation of work related alienation among entrepreneurs in agriculture. The contribution of income and turnover looks quite strong and significant. Number of years in business and risk taking ability also yields consistent relationship in terms of positive Beta. Number of years in the business also emerges as s strong predictor of alienation from work. The overall model is significant (Multiple R .38), and 15 per cent of the variance in work related alienation among the entrepreneurs in agriculture is explained by this model. Among all the variables in the model Annual turnover emerge as the very strong predictor for alienation. The outcome confirms a notion suggested earlier that work alienation is a very complex phenomenon. Financial factors which are consistently neglected in previous alienation studies seem to interact with the work situation to produce different levels of work alienation. In this study, the volume of annual turnover seems to make a significant difference in alienation from work. Younger entrepreneurs, appear to be more alienated than older entrepreneurs indicating that younger entrepreneurs react more strongly to alienating job conditions. The findings of this study may have implications for the development of entrepreneurship in agriculture. With the diversification and modernization of agricultural practices, there is a need to augment and support extension services for agriculture. For this purpose, several Agriclinics and Agribusiness Centers are being set up by the agriculture graduates with the sponsorship of NABARD. They will strengthen transfer of technology, extension services and also provide self-employment opportunities to technically trained persons. No doubt, the role of entrepreneurs in agriculture will be crucial in changed economic environment. The entrepreneurs who are motivated by the desire to excel in achievements can conquer new horizons in providing services to the majority of farmers. But, those who are alienated from their work will be thrown out of business by dynamic market forces and the investment made in them by the society may not yield the returns. Such entrepreneurs need to be identified, counseled and properly trained.
References
Blauner, R., 1964. Alienation and Freedom. Chicago : Uni. Of Chicago Press. Jajoo, Alka S., Sneha Mahajani, and S.Y.Kulkarni, 1994. Factors in job satisfaction of women entrepreneurs. Maharashtra Journal of Extension Education XIII: 249-52. Marx Karl, 1963. Early writings. Trans and T. B. Bottomore (eds.). London : C. A. Watts. Mottaz, Clifford J., 1980, Some determinants of work alienation. The Sociological Quarterly 22 515-29 Singh Karam, 1990. Case studies of successful farmers, societies and private entrepreneurs experiences and issues Indian Jn of Agril. Econ. 45:350-357. Seeman, M., 1959. On the meaning of alienation. American Sociological Review, 24:783-91.
99
MONITORING AND EVALUATION OF EXTENSION ACTIVITIES

B.S. Nadagoudar * and A.T. Patil ** Monitoring and evaluation are necessary for successful implementation of programmes. The success of a programme depends on scientific formulation, vigorous implementation at field level, close and continuous supervision, monitoring, evaluation and modification of the programme. Monitoring and evaluation are important management functions providing feed back of performance of the job in project implementation. Monitoring is the process of measuring, recording, collecting, processing and communicating information to assist the process of project management in assessing the progress of project implementation. Monitoring is direct detention and control over the programmes to help future plannings. Evaluation is a process by which the programme inputs, activities and results are analyzed and judged against explicitly stated norms. It is a method of determining how far an activity has progressed and what more has to be done to attain the objectives regarding project operation and performance and impact with those originally specified planned. The role of monitoring and evaluation in the project sequence can be traced as follows. o o o Monitoring involved in assessing the impact / output segment of the project sequence. Concurrent evaluation assesses the project progress from output to effect stage; Impact evaluation relates to assessment after the project is over, on the overall benefits to the society as a whole.
* Director of Extension, and ** Associate Professor of Extension, University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad 580 005.
100
An effective monitoring system is able to

o o o Director problems (deviations from schedule, emergence of unforeseen technical problems) early enough for remedies to be applied. Provide realistic, adequately summarized and easily interpreted information on the likely progress of the project, both technical / social and financial Identify those who failed to do things on time.
Project Monitoring and evaluation stages

Start of the project End of the project Output effect ----------------------------------Input -------------------
Monitoring
Concurrent Evaluation
Impact Evaluation
Monitoring is a continuous or recurrent process that can be perceived and conducted at three levels. Programme monitoring, evaluation and impact monitoring. Project cycle: Project Identification Project Formulation Project Appraisal
Execution Expost project Implementation
Management plan
Monitoring and concurrent Evaluation
101
Programme monitoring is a short-term monitoring of day-to day activities and finance to provide immediate feedback to management for adjusting and timetunning of activities to ensure that they conform to plans, budgets and objecgives. Joint progress review is an intermediary tool in the project cycle. It attempts to address the missing elements for peoples perceptions in the traditional management tools.
Sample format of joint progress review

Date _____________
Survey No. Sub and Activity micro watershed Boulder bund natural terracing broad contour bunds Farm forestry Observations Remarks
Diversion channel
Activities executed match with treatment plan. Performance satisfactory For better upkeep a minimum of three years maintenance is required Planned but not executed due to lack of funds and to be taken as spill over. Follow up
Signature of Joint progress review committee members. NGOs Agricultural Department Horticultural Department Forestry Department
Components of monitoring and evaluation

A. Targets:
Progress targets must be developed, allowing sufficient time for the completion of work. Compare targets with actual achievements to see whether remedial measures are required, either by the projects sponsor or by the aid agency. If targets are unrealistic, there will be continuous misconceptions regarding actual and planned progress. Targets must be feasible and close to being optimal. If targets are quite unrealistic, they may be revised from time to time as the need arises.
MANAGE Extension Research Review B. Channel of Instructions:
The methods by which the targets are communicated to the project supervisors are often unsatisfactory. It must ensure that the supervisors are instructed on their role in a timely and comprehensible manner. Often, no formal provision is made for this and junior staff are expected to decide upon their responsibilities from a circulated generalized over all description of the project. C. Feedback mechanisms:
A systematic reporting system will facilitate objective identification of reasons for delay and, forms a reliable basis for forecasting future progress. Without proper identification of reasons for delay, it is difficult to devise effective remedies. Timing of a reporting system must be appropriate in relation to the duration of the project cycle to identify delays before they become serious.
Techniques used in monitoring

A. Traditional method:
Periodical reports like monthly reports, quarterly reports etc in prescribed formats. Limitations / deficiencies: Targets are often unrealistic Lack of a systematic method of converting targets into instruction at the right time to the right people. There is no methodical checking of what has to be done, by whom and when certain activities maybe overlooked Distortion in reporting and delayed communication results in delayed decision making on cross check measures. Physical progress summary tends to be presented after issues have already arisen because deviations are picked up after they have become serious.
103
It gives no guidance to the project manager on the relative importance of project activities at any one stage Provides no logical basis for summarizing the state of progress. It remains as an undigested, unclassified list of everything that has happened. The overall picture is concealed. Instead of identifying the problems the reports often end up reassigning the blame.
Self Monitoring:
The process by which the community and beneficiaries can participate in monitoring their own progress in development initiatives.
Improved method : critical path method

It involves realistic working methods and rates of implementation to generate a feasible plan and provide a means of implementing it. It consists of the following steps. Assembly of a complete list of all activities needed to complete the project together with the relationships between them (that is, which job must follow which) and the length of time required to complete them. Calculation of the time needed to complete the project and the dates on which each job should be commenced and finalized. Setting up instructional and feedback links between the project manager and executives.
Critical path activities:

Delay in any activities will automatically lengthen the project. The continuous line of activity from the start to finish of the project is known as the critical path. The method of project control depending on this sort of analysis is referred to as the critical path method (CPM). The length of the CPM is the minimum time in which the project can be completed. For easy understanding it is explained by citing following example on yield gaps.
MANAGE Extension Research Review Basic data in CPM on the extension activities of an agricultural assistant.
Activity number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 * Activity description Mass meeting Selection of groups of farmers Group meeting of selected farmers Identification of yield gaps on individual land holdings Understanding farmers perceptions about technologies Identification of production constraints Setting goals on yield levels Preparation of technology plan for land development and crop production Documentation technology plan Follow up on implementation of technology plan Collection of yield data Group meeting on performance appraisal Mass meeting on publicity of performance Need based. Duration Jan (4 weeks) Feb (2 weeks) Feb (2 weeks) Mar-April (6 weeks) * * * * May-Oct (24 weeks) Nov 92 233ks) Nov. (2 weeks) Nov (2 2weeks) Dec (4 weeks) Activities proceeding 1 2 3 * * * * 8 11 10 11 12
Programme Evaluation Review Technique (PERT)

Moder and Philips (1970) enlist the following key advantages of using PERT. 1. 2. 3. 4. It encourages logical discipline in planning, scheduling and control of projects It encourages more length range and detailed project planning It provides a standard method of documenting and communicating project plans, schedules and time and cost performance. It identifies the most critical elements in the plan, thus focusing management attention on the 10-20 percent of the project that is most containing and procedural changes on overall schedules.
105
Monitoring the management

In addition to field level implementation, project monitoring should assess the management as well, for the effectiveness of the institutional set up. Check list for monitoring the management Whether a standard review mechanism has been scheduled. Whether proper training / orientation has been given to extension workers on the extension mechanism. Whether the requirements like teaching materials, audiovisual aids and stationery have been supplied to extension workers. Whether inspection, supervision and guidance are organized with reference to identified steps in the extension approach. Whether the reporting system has been standardized.
Evaluation is normally a once only exercise to determine if a project was carried out efficiently, effectively, within budget and conforming to objectives. It can be midterm, or expost, and may be sued, for example, to decide whether a project should be continued or not and if so, whether and what changes are to be made in design and or management.
Impact Monitoring
Impact monitoring is to determine long term, sustained changes that occur because of intervention, whether or not they are planned. It looks at the result and provides impacts to long range planning and design of future interventions. Steps in participatory impact monitoring Preparing the monitoring Step 1 : Deciding on programmes to be monitored Step 2 : Identifying impacts of the programmes Step 3 : Clarifying key and agreeing on the meaning of the impact Step 4 : Deciding on impacts to be monitored
MANAGE Extension Research Review Reflecting on the background of the impacts Step 5 : Investigating the relation between project activities and impacts Step 6 : Investigating the relation between other factors and impacts Step 7 : Examining existing M & E activities concerning the impacts Developing indicators Step 8 : Drafting indicators Step 9 : Consulting key informants for indicator development Step 10 : Selecting the most appropriate indicators Step 11 : Defining survey units and deciding on the sampling procedure Step 12 : Elaborate questionnaires and other data collection tools Step 13 : Elaborate data proceeding and data analysis sheets Step 14 : Pre testing indicators, methods and data analysis Step 15 : Determining targeted achievements Measuring Step 16 : Preparing the impact measurement in the field Step 17 : Collecting and processing data Analyzing Step 18 : Analysing and pre-assessing results Step 19 : Drawing conclusions in joint reflection with the target groups Step 20 : Elaborating recommendations for future monitoring of the impact
Techniques used in evaluation

Capital investment appraisal methods such as payback period, rate of return, benefit cost rations, net present value (NPK), internal rate of retun etc., may all be used for economic evolution. In addition different statistical or econometric method may be used to analyze the data.
Many external and internal evolution studies have been conducted in the field of extension activities by many government agencies, research institutions, voluntary organizations. Various types of evaluation such as Enante, Concurrent, Ex-post factor and Terminal are carried out. It has been seen that the evaluation studies lose sight the purpose for which those are conducted resulting into more problems than solutions. Thus, the evaluation study should strictly be restricted to the parameters already designed. There is a need for imparting trainings to the personnel engaged in evaluation and also making use of modern electronic tools to get evaluation results in time.
Reference
Barnabas A.P. and Lakshmiswaramma M., 1980, Assessment of Evaluation system for Rural development In, Kuldeep Mathu and Inayatullah (eds) Monitoring and Evaluation of Rural Development: Some Asian Experiences, KaulA Lumpur U.N. Asian and Pacific Development Centre. Goel S.C. and Jain R.K. 1988, Monitoring and Evaluation, Social Welfare Administration Theory and practice Vol 1, Deep and Deep publications D-1/24, Rajouri Garden, New Delhi-110027 Moder and Phillips., 1970(Cecil R) Project management with CPM and PERT, Edition 2, VANJ NOSTRAND REINHOLD COMPANY, 450 West 33rd street New York NY-1001. Myrada and IIRR 1997, Resource Management in rainfed dry lnds HYRADA, Bangalore India and IIRR Silang Cavite, Philippines MYRADA 1998, Participatory impact monitoring of an integrated rural development programme in holalkara, Karnataka.
108
RESEARCH IN FIELD EXTENSION AN APPROACH FOR SUSTAINABILITY

Kella Lakshmana*, I.M. Iqbal**, R. Netaji Seetharaman*** and R. Ranga Swamy**** Though the need for research in physical and biological sciences has been well recognised for centuries, the importance of research in social and behavioural sciences including extension was not recognised. The research in agricultural extension is of relatively recent origin traced back to mid 1950s. It was born out of practical considerations such as making improvement on extension work. Studies on communication methods and social change were needed to make effective interventions for increasing farm production. Though the research in extension is 40 years old. India is one of the important centres in extension research (Singh, 1998). The history of extension discipline in India reveals that organised effort in extension research started with establishment of discipline of extension in agricultural colleges and farm Universities. It was evolved through continuous rythemic shift with the changing needs of farming community and it need to be strengthened further in the 2l st century with the changing concept in agricultural development. India experienced a four fold increase in food grain production from I 9505 to 1998 eventhough the available land area for cultivation had decreased. The achievement was because of high intensity cropping and cultivation of HYV which were highly input responsive. Farmers used chemical and synthetic pesticides, fertilizers and growth promoters in higher quantities with a motive to get higher yields.
* ** *** **** Ph.D Scholar, Extension Education Institute, ANGR Agricultural University, Hyderabad 500 030. Associate Professor, Dept. of AE & RS, TNAU, Coimbatore Professor & Head, Dept. of AB & RS, TNAU, Coimbatore Associate Professor, Dept. of Statistics & Mathematics, TNAU,Coimbatore. Paper presented in National Seminar on Extension role of Agricultural Universities in India held at UAS., Bangalore, June 8 9 , 2001.
109
The concept of sustainability has been aroused because of increasing soil and environment pollution which were caused by injudicious land utilization with high intensity cropping and dumping of chemical and synthetic pesticides, fertilizers and growth promoters. At this juncture, there was an additional responsibility on agricultural research system to minimise the soil and environmental pollution, keeping the primary objective of achieving the targeted food grain production intact. The two approaches to achieve sustainability in Indian agriculture are i) ii) Integrated Farming Systems (IFS) Blending of Indigenous Farm Practices (IFP) into modem technologies
These two approaches have advantage that they are eco-friendly, economically feasible and the IFS gives more income per unit area by reducing the cost of production and increasing income per unit area. i) Integrated farming systems
Farming system is defined as a unique and reasonably stable arrangements of family enterprises that the household manages according to its physical, biological economic and socio cultural environment in accordance with households goal, preference and resource. The farm wastes are better recycled for productive purpose in the integrated system. A judicious mix of agricultural enterprises like crop production, horticulture, silviculture, sericulture, dairy, poultry, piggery, fishery etc. suited to given agroclimatic conditions and socioeconomic status of the farmers would bring prosperity to the farmers. In IFS, the waste products of rice formed 33 per cent of the poultry feed and the feed cost could be reduced by 57.5% by substituting rice grain, maize, oil cakes of crop component and the Luceme grown around fish pond. In commercial poultry farm, cost of production per egg will be around 42 paise, by way of reducing the feed cost, the cost of production per egg under IFS was reduced to 19 paise. Thus the net income under the IFS was Rs.15,145/ acre (0.4 ha) while Rs.9,010/acre (0.4 ha) was obtained from the cropping system rice-rice-green manure (Rangaswamy eta!. 1988).
MANAGE Extension Research Review ii) Blending of Indigenous Farm Practices (IFP) with modern technologies
The study was conducted in Srikakulam and Vizianagaram districts of North Coastal Zone of Andhra Pradesh in two phases. First phase involves identification or documentation of IFP through informal interview with selected elder farmers and rationality was found out by referring questionnaire to 30 agricultural scientists and testing of awareness adoption and knowledge of farmers on IFP by administration of structural pre-tested interview schedule for 120 farmer respondents. The results shows that out of 96 identified IFP on 6 major crops existing in the study area 80.21% were rated rational by the scientists. The respondents have more awareness, adoption and knowledge on rational IFP than the irrational IFP. This shows that rational IFP are more liable and compatable with the culture and traditions of the farming community hence it is very easy for the extension agency to disseminate such technologies. So identification of viable rational IFPs which are economically feasible can be disseminated by involving a Inventory of crop wise IFP Fixing rationality Experimentation of rational Integration of IFP with scientific Recommendations Technology Generation system Technology dissemination System Evaluation Technology use system
Suggestive model for effective harnessing of IFP

participatory extension approach. I would like to suggest a model for effective harnessing of IFP to achieve the sustainability in Indian agriculture. In this model, extension workers are encouraged to identify the existing IFP intensively and test verification of IFP by discussing with the team of agricultural scientists for their rationality. Experimentation of selected rational IFP at farm and research stations to test the validity behind the IFP with integration of scientific technologies and for their cost benefit analysis. These integrated technologies further disseminated to technology user system for their adoption. Evaluation of these three systems involving a participatory approach further strengthens the scope for identification of unidentified IFP and their integration into modern technologies. It could be concluded that the two suggested approaches are very much useful in keeping the environment pollution intact in addition to the primary objective of achieving targeted agricultural production. This is because rational IFP are eco-friendly, economically feasible and culturally compatible with the traditions of the society and IFS is an eco-friendly and economically feasible approach and give more income per unit area of land.
References
Lakshmana Kella 2000 Documentaiton and analysis of indigenous farm practices on major crops an inventory, Unpub. (M.Sc. (Ag) Thesis, TNAU, Coimbatore Ranga Swamy A, Venkatasamy R, Premasekar M, Jayanthi C, Purushothaman S and Palaniappan S P 1 995 integrated farming system for rice based ecosystem. Madras agric J. 82:287-290. Singh S N 1998 Research in Extension a critique of four decades of performance, IJEE, Vol.34 : No. 3 &4: pp.19-26
112
SHAHAM AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICES OF ISRAEL

Dr. T.D.S.Kumar* Israel is a small country, located in the middle East. The total geographical area is about 21,000 sq km with a population of 6 million. The total area cultivated in the country is 4000,000 ha. Out of this 50%, area is irrigated (i.e. 200,00 ha). The rainfall varies from 25 mm 700 mm per annum. In the countrys total economy, agriculture contributes about 2.5% of GNP and 3% of population are employed in agriculture. There are 25 lakh full time farmers and 20 lakh part time farmers. The country exports about 1 bill, worth of fresh products, 1 bill worth of processed products and 1.5 bill worth of equipments inputs to other countries. It has an advantage as it can reach any US / European markets within 6 to 8 hrs because of good transport and communication facilities. The country has all the four climatic regions namely, humid, semi-humid, semi arid and arid zones The agricultural extension system in Israel is an integral part of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, employing 250 professional assisted by 65 support and clerical staff, and providing advisory services to a clientele of around 25,000 growers : private family farmers (20%), Cooperative farmers (80%) kibbutzim (collective farms) and Moshavism (family - cooperatives). The extension service covers all crop and animal husbandry production branches, as well as four service disciplines, namely plant protection, irrigation / fertilization, farmer machinery and farm management, which support the crop production units. The technical departments, headed by the state extension specialists, are all located in the Agriculture Ministry offices in Tel AVIV, where as the frontline activity is carried out by the regional extension offices located throughout the country.
* Assistant Director, National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad.
113
The following are the state level technical units Flower crops Vegetables crops Deciduous and subtropical fruit crops Citrus Field crops Poultry Dairy and beef production Sheep Beekeeping Crop Protection Irrigation & Fertilization Farm machinery Farm management Landscape & gardening
* * 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
The following are the six newly organized extension regions Kiriyat Shmonah Region (Northern Galilee and the Golan Heights) Amakim Region (beit-shean and Jordan Valley and Afula, Yezreel Valley) Acre Region (western Galilee) Central Region (central coast, from dadera to Ramana) Rehovot Region (southern Plain) Hanegev Region (kiryat Gat, Beer-Sheva and the Negev).
Shaham -The extension and production services shahams mission is to serve

National Policy Land settlement Population spread Self supply Promote exports Protect Environment Farmer welfare Standard of living Efficient production Profitability Consumer welfare Safe nutritions food All year round supply At reasonable prices 114 July - December, 2002
MANAGE Extension Research Review Shaham role : Gathering and analyzing info know how Developing new technologies Transfer of know how and technologies Application of know how
Promoting agricultural production Shaham The extension and production service, Ministry of Agriculture Some guiding principles Initiate extension and advice to all farmers Guide and follow-up application on farm Generate and develop relevant technologies Guided by professional considerations Provides professional and technical advice only Intensity of advising according to needs Shaham continuously upgrading to needs Shaham continuously upgrades staffs competency Technology and know how Extension methods Maintain strong on-going ties with research Cooperate fully with agricultural organization The main objectives of the Israel Agriculture extension service 5 5 Promoting agriculture and rural environment by varying farmers production and management capability. Providing information, knowledge and agricultural technological services to the Ministry of Agriculture and rural development and to the sectors an a public and private basis.
115
5 5 5
Providing technological development, including technology generation, different and adoption. Providing quality and excellence in both agricultural production and marketing Providing a national policy of sustainable agriculture for all the answers of agricultural goods with particular attention to environmental and natural resource productivity.
The service generates applied knowledge with the help of field trials and observations and diffuses it relying on a series of information dissemination techniques 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 One to one advice visits of advisors on farmers fields Group activities with selected groups of farmers Training sessions for farmers Pre-season, seasonal and season end meetings Publication of leaflets and data sheets Publication of crop production and protection recommendation guides Filming and editing videotapes for the use of the individual farmers, in most agricultural branches. Preparation of radio programs for farmers.
The extension services operates technical support laboratories all over the country, being responsible for the accuracy of the results, their incorporation into technical recommendations and their interprettion to farmers in the following areas 5 5 5 5 Soil analysis Leaf tests for the formulation of fertilization recommendations Analysis of dry matter content Tests for water quality in irrigation, brackish water , etc. with particular attention to environmental and natural resource protection.
116
MANAGE Extension Research Review High professional and a rapid pace of development are the main characteristics of agriculture. Producers show a steady demand for know-how and reveal high rates of extension adoption and application. This kind of agriculture requests agricultural extension and research services to capture both information and knowledge from local and foreign sources, to generate knowledge of its own and follow-up its application at farmer level. An R & D system of this nature has to develop skills and capabilities in both production and farm management. The strength of the service consists in its ability to tackle the complex and the non conventional by forming inter disciplinary and inter institutional teams of extension specialists and researchers. These teams can resolve crop production and farm management problems encountered by producers, in addition to the provision of routine advice in the various agricultural branches.
The structure and mechanism of extension

A At headquarters
Location of state - level technical units responsible for the branch wise formulation of the technical policy Technical support to all 4 regional extension specialists, advice to the various units of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development. Responsibility for ties with research, technology generation and the operation of field experimentation programs.
In the Regions * *
Six regional extension offices (recently-re-organized) accommodating regional extension specialists; the specializations of the advisors being parallel to the needs of the producers in the area. Through these regional offices, the service maintains its continuous and close relationship with the farmers, seeing to it that they receive relevant advisory services. The advisors identify production and socio-economic constraints at field level, find and adapt technical solutions to local needs and conditions.
The Extension & Technology Service
118
Regional Extension Office
Working ties of A Branch Department Ministry Directorate
119
The farmers are not charged for field visits, but their regional and state associations contributes about 10% annually to the extension services budget and support the field trial programme. The extension specialist and collaborate with researchers in joint field experimentation programmes. The extension services are presently involved in a process of redefining the mission, organizational structure and mechanisms, in order to cope with the current anticipated changes in agricultural production environment. It is planning to adopt a more market oriented, entrepreneurial, customer oriented approach, competing for customers and signing branch wide service agreements with clientele, individual growers and with their associations . This approach tends to go far beyond the traditional extension capacity of differing knowledge and know-how from research to growers.
RATIONAL DELIVERY OF PRIVATE LIVESTOCK EXTENSION SERVICES INTERVENTIONS

P V K Sasidhar* and B S Chandel** Livestock extension services have been traditionally funded, managed and delivered by the public sector in India until recently. Since the early 1990s economic reforms, the public sector monopoly came under increasing threat as many started questioning the economic and efficiency grounds. Financial stringency and increasing private and voluntary agency involvement in the service provision have accelerated the process of limiting the role of the State in livestock extension. Decentralization, costs sharing, cost recovery, withdrawal from selected services and contracting are some of the options suggested. This paper focus is on rationalization of services keeping in view the interests of the stakeholders, externalities and withdrawal of state from selected services.
Delineation of Services
Livestock services can be classified into two broad categories: health and production. Health services include curative and preventive services whereas production services include livestock research and extension and supply of inputs (Fig. 1). The curative services include diagnosis and treatment. The preventive health services include immunization, vector control and disease control. The production services, which can also be called as promotive services, include research and extension including artificial insemination. All the major stakeholders are either directly or indirectly related to these services . The major stakeholders in livestock extension services are the individual owners of the livestock, public veterinary doctors and the consumers for whose benefit animals are kept and their products are marketed.
* Trainee Scientist, National Academy of Agricultural Research Management, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad-30 ** Senior Scientist, National Academy of Agricultural Research Management Rajendranagar, Hyderabad - 30
121
Fig: Classification of Livestock services
Source: JPS Associates, 1994
Livestock owners
About three-fourths of Indias population and poor live in rural areas, and over 70 per cent of them own livestock. A large majority of them comprises small and marginal farmers and land less households (Table 1). Overall, the distribution of livestock is much more equitable than that of land, the bottom 60 per cent of rural households own 65 per cent of all milch animals, leading to more equitable sharing of gains from livestock production. On an average the farmers are willing to pay between Rs.600-700 per year for veterinary services in Gujarat and Rajasthan and about Rs.300 in Kerala. For the service at the hospital, the farmers are willing to pay approximately Rs.300-350 in Rajasthan and Rs.140-150 per annum in Kerala. Analysis of determinants showed that willingness to pay was lower for poor households ( Ahuja, Vinod et.al.,2000). When livestock extension services are privatized, livestock keepers with small herds of one or two animals are more likely than larger farmers
MANAGE Extension Research Review to be deferred from using a service for which they have to pay. This is not because they value their animals any less (indeed they value them more as a single animal might be the only source of wealth for a small farmer), but simply because they are less able to pay, since the costs of servicing them in remote areas are likely to be higher (Gros, 1994). In India, most of the Table 1: Distribution of cattle and buffaloes according to the size of land holding S. No. 1 2 3 4 5 Size of land holding < 1 hectare 1 2 hectare 2 4 hectare 4 9 hectare > 10 hectare % of cattle and buffaloes 28 18 31 16 7
Source : Ahuja, Vinod et al. (2000)
small farmers own traditional, rather than modern crossbreeds or graded buffaloes, which are in general less susceptible to diseases. Their more extensive production systems and lower number of animals will further reduces the risk of contagious diseases. Poorer people besides owning the large ruminants, greater proportion of them own small ruminants and poultry and for them curative and preventive services are more important than production services. To the extent that problems relating to these animals are ignored, poorer people fail to benefit from change. However, there is an increasing recognition of the need for change, which may improve the prospects of poorer people in over longrun, subsistence livestock farming of small holders may not absorb the short-term immediate adverse effects.
Consumers
The consumers are the ultimate beneficiaries for whose benefit the animals are kept and their products marketed. They are indirectly involved in the rationalization process as taxpayers and from those taxes producers are offered subsidies. From the consumers point of view, it is imperative that concerted efforts of the other stakeholders results in sufficient output of good quality products at reasonable prices.
Public Veterinary Personnel

In the public sector, the focus throughout the past planning periods has been on enhancing the supply of veterinary services by strengthening the capabilities and coverage of the State Animal Husbandry Departments ( SAHDs). The number of state run veterinary institutions grew from about 2,000 in 1951 to over 50,000 at the end of 1997-98. There were 7,415 veterinary hospitals/ polyclinics, 14,573 veterinary dispensaries, and 23,682 veterinary aid centres including mobile dispensaries and 43,782 Artificial Insemination (AI) centers. Despite that, however there was only one veterinary institution per 10,000 animals. Only Tripura, Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh and Kerala had one institution for 5,000 animals as recommended by the National Commission on Agriculture (1976). The comparable figures for West Bengal and Rajasthan were 20,000 25,000 (GOI, 1997). On the AI side, there were about 4.2 centers per 10,000 breedable bovines with Kerala appearing on the top of the list with 10.3 AI centers. Comparable figures for Gujarat and Rajasthan were 7.2 and 2.4 respectively. AI programmes cover only 17 million cattle and buffaloes, which comprises of about 15 per cent of breedable population. The only exception is Kerala, where coverage is more than 50 per cent. (Table 2). Table 2 : Veterinary institutions and AI centers in India
State Andhra Pradesh Assam Bihar Gujarat Haryana Himachal Pradesh Jammu& Kashmir Karnataka Kerala Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra Orrissa Punjab Rajasthan Tamilnadu Tripura Uttar Pradesh WestBengal All India Vetrinary institutions/ 1000 livestock 0.14 0.11 0.07 0.09 0.24 0.23 0.09 0.10 0.19 0.07 0.09 0.15 0.26 0.05 0.12 0.27 0.08 0.04 0.10 AI centers/ 1000 bovines 0.18 0.07 0.06 0.31 0.35 0.31 0.15 0.34 0.49 0.08 0.18 0.11 0.26 0.11 0.29 0.14 0.06 0.16 0.15 AI centers / 1000 breedable bovines 0.48 0.22 0.21 0.72 0.78 0.75 0.38 0.96 1.03 0.24 0.45 0.35 0.53 0.24 0.72 0.43 0.16 0.49 0.42
Source: GOI, 1997
124
MANAGE Extension Research Review Overall, the impact of government breeding programmes has been limited, thus making a strong case for rationalization of the services. Table 3: Expenditure on animal Husbandry, 1996 98 S. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Service / activity Health services Breeding and genetic improvement Extension activities Feed and fodder development Technology development Education Miscellaneous % expenditure 38 30 10 8 3 2 9
Source: GOI (1998)
The share of total agricultural spending allocated to animal husbandry and dairying activities ranged from 5.5 per cent in the first five-year plan to 6.6 per cent in the fourth five-year plan. During the seventh five year plan the investment declined sharply to 4.3 per cent and then marginally increased to about 5 per cent in the subsequent plans (GOI, 1998). Animal health services received the largest portion of the budgets followed by breeding and genetic improvement services. The feed and fodder development, extension and training activities, which are very important to sustain / enhance the productivity of livestock, received limited budget allocations (Table 3). Further over 75 per cent of the staff either provided curative health services or implemented other livestock development schemes including cross breeding. The share of professional staff responsible for disease investigation and control was a meager 3.5 per cent, supplemented by a limited disease prevention role of the animal health service in the field (Table 4). Thus, the primary emphasis is on clinical services, and as a result endemic diseases are still prevalent in India. According to some estimates, India suffers a loss of Rs.50 billion in annual production as a result of neglect of disease prevention and control. Indeed, the limited emphasis on preventive services contributes to Indias inability to eradicate animal disease epidemics, which cuts the countrys competitive advantage at the global
Table 4: Functional distribution of livestock extension officers under public sector S. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Function Administration Veterinary / animal health services Livestock development schemes Disease control Extension / training Disease investigation Production of biological products Veterinary research Percentage 15.50 56.40 20.00 2.70 3.30 0.80 1.20 0.20
Source: VCI (1995)
level. Due to prevalence of some diseases, the sanitary and phyto-sanitary regulations of many countries deny entry of Indian livestock products, despite the minimum access clause of the world trade order. Curative veterinary services, delivered to the farmers with heavy subsidies, have been characterized by poor quality. Of the 51,000 veterinary institutions in the country, very few are equipped with clinical diagnosis facilities and those that do exist are very old. Lack of facilities for clinical diagnosis is atleast in part responsible for indiscriminate use of antibiotics and antiinfectives leading to higher cost of drugs and medicines besides inducing drug resistance. Since, the early 1990s, continuing this model of animal health delivery system has been seriously discussed by the policy makers and funding agencies. The steering group constituted by the GOI noted that free veterinary and AI services have resulted in an infrastructure that is vast and expensive, which the state governments are finding extremely difficult to sustain (GOI, 1996). Low levels of cost recovery have further limited the revenue generating capacity of SAHDs to meet their operational needs, making it difficult to provide high quality service. The budgetary difficulties in SAHDs are further exacerbated by the tightening fiscal situation in part a result of the low cost recovery in the system. This viscious cycle of limited cost recovery, contributing to budgetary constraints that, in turn, limit the availability and quality of public veterinary services called for rationalization of delivery of the services keeping in view of the interests of each stakeholder.
Economic analysis of the Services and their Externalities

The principles of excludability and subtractability determine whether a service is closer to being public or private (Fig. 2). The two types of services, which are closest to being pure private services, are Production services, curative health services and the provision of veterinary pharmaceuticals that often go together. In receiving treatment for a sick animal the owner reduces the stock of the drugs available to others (subtractability) and at least at first sight, is the sole beneficiary (excludability) of the services. For instance in Andhra Pradesh, drugs worth of Rs.1000 /- per annum are provided by the Government for each panchayat under Fig2. Economic analysis of Livestock extension services Excludability Low Low Public goods High Toll goods
Subtractability
High
Common pool goods
Private goods
Source: Adapted from Umali and Schwarrtz, 1994 and Beynon et al, 1998
a public veterinary dispensary. These drugs hardly meet the treatment requirements of animals for less than one-month period. Here the principles of subtractability and excludability matter much to the livestock owners. A pure public livestock service provides benefits that are non-excludable and non-rival. In contrast, the benefits provided by a pure private veterinary service is fully excludable and rival. The services such as disease surveillance, quarantine and food hygiene/inspection comes under pure public services, and clinical diagnosis, prescription and AI comes under private services. Due to the characteristics of non-rivalry and non-excludability, the free access tends to under provide public veterinary services since the provider cannot appropriate the full profits. Thus, it becomes the obligation of the Government to provide these services. The private practitioners at a socially
optimal level on the other hand provide private goods, if there are no externalities. Between the two extremes of pure public and pure private goods lies a whole continuum based on the degree of excludability and rivalry (Fig. 3). Fig. 3: Division of responsibilities between private and public sector
Public Sector Disease survivalence Compliance monitoring Quarantine Drug/vaccine quality control Food hygiene/inspection Export inspection and certification Accreditation of personnel Planning for emergencies. Shared Responsibilities Disease diagnosis and reporting Compulsory testing, accreditation Diagnostic support, animal welfare Private Sector Clinical diagnosis/treatment, Drug/vaccine production/ distribution, Artificial Insemination Herd health and production Notified disease control programmes Disease emergency Marketing livestock and response, zoonosis control products, Research advice and extension
Source: FAO (1992)
Among curative services, diagnosis involves externalities because by making diagnosis and communicating it to the animal owner, the veterinarian is increasing the overall level of knowledge in the social system especially important if the illness in question might grow to epidemic proportions (Gros, 1994). Treatment only involves externalities where the illness in question is infectious and can be cured, thereby reducing the risk of other livestock owners. Despite all these externalities, public provision of curative livestock extension services is not justified to all sections of livestock keepers. Gros (1994) concurs with this, but gave more emphasis to the private nature of curative services on account of two factors. First no body but the owner of the animal receives immediate economic benefit from the treatment. Second, most of the curative treatment does not involve infectious diseases. Preventive health services also largely involve externalities through which the social benefits are much higher than individual benefits. In order to maximize social benefits, the Government will have to intervene in the production of preventive goods. If it does not directly provide the goods it self, then it will have to pay subsidies to the providers.
MANAGE Extension Research Review Therefore, the extent of public sector intervention should depend upon the type of externality involved and the degree to which the private sector can internalize it. Pure public provision is only justified under special economic circumstances such as for zoonotic diseases, foot and mouth disease, which might affect exports of livestock products. Otherwise, the public sector should support the primary efforts of the private sector through for example sub sidizing private provision or monitoring compliance. Because both clinical and preventive services are provided by the same individuals, any subsidy to preventive services might unavoidably spill over to clinical services. This might also be used to usher in subsidies to the clinical sector by the backdoor. Leonard (1985) opined that optimum coverage of preventive services could be achieved economically by financing them out of taxation. Otherwise, since each individual has an incentive not to inoculate due to slight risk of doing so, all individuals will attempt to free ride, and inoculated population percentage will be sub-optimal, thus, leading to violate the rationality assumptions of economic actions. This can be attributed to the livestock owners preference to cash in hand today, rather than benefits in the future. James and Upton (1995) believe that preventive medicine lies somewhere along the public private service continuum, but lean towards delivery as a public service since, external benefits are greater than private benefits. This is true when the diseases to be prevented are zoonotic and are communicable to humans.
The frame work for rationalization- Case of India

Since large number of veterinarians and para-veterinarians are working as regular employees, total privatization of veterinary services in the near future is not a feasible option. It is not an advisable action as the government has an important, though a changing role in view of economic, professional, technical and social welfare obligations. Therefore, the technical framework for rationalization should take into account these factors besides the stakeholders issues. For a long time to come, government sector presence in the livestock service delivery is inevitable. However, private delivery of those services that are private goods, should be the goal. The issue, therefore, is protecting the interests of disadvantaged stakeholders in the transition process. The suggested framework for rationalization draws heavily from FAO (1992)
and Umali et al . (1992) and was modified to the Indian conditions ( Fig.3). Public funded veterinary services are expected to be responsible for providing services where no free market incentives justifies or create a demand for a service. In public health services, there is a free market incentive but there are economies of scale, externalities or professional or biological determinants which dictate how best to deliver specific services, viz., disease eradication by area wide vaccination. Further services are provided based on the need for specific services and how much the public is willing to pay for them. Public sector veterinary services should also direct their activities in accordance with national development policies for investment, poverty alleviation, food security, environmental protection, support for disadvantaged groups, sustainable livestock production and other socially desirable goals. Where these principles do not apply, selected services can be legitimately diverted to the private sector.
Conclusion
Until recently the provision of livestock outreach services have essentially been the responsibility of the government. However, the emphasis in recent years is on cost recovery due to cut downs in budgetary allocations. Rationalization in the delivery of services has been advocated as a means of improving the supply of veterinary services to the end users. One major intention of rationalization is to allocate costs where individual benefits are expected more, i.e. increased production is to be paid for by the livestock owners. Overall environmental and public health aspects remain Government responsibilities, and thus Government operational capacity and effectiveness can be improved by rationalizing the delivery of public veterinary services, while diverting those services which can be commercialized and ultimately benefit individual owners of livestock.
Reference
Ahuja, Vinod, George P S, Sunil Ray, MC Connell K E, Kurup M P G, Gandhi V, Dina Umali D and De Haan 2000 Agricultural services and the poor: Case of Livestock Health and Breeding Services in India. IIM, Ahmadabad. Beynon,J Stephen Akroyd, Alex Duncan and Stephen Jones 1998 Financing the future options for agricultural research and extension in SubSaharan Africa, Oxford policy management, Oxford, England
MANAGE Extension Research Review FAO 1992 Principles for rational delivery of public and private veterinary services. FAO, Rome GOI 1998 National Accounts Statistics, CSO, Department of Statistics. Ministry of Planning, GOI, New Delhi. GOI 1997. Basic animal husbandry statistics, DAHD, Ministry of Agriculture, New Delhi GOI 1996 National livestock Policy: Report of the steering group, GOI, New Delhi. Gros J G 1994 Of Cattle farmers, veterinarians and the World Bank: The political economy of veterinary services privatization in Cameroon. Public Administration and Development 14 (1) : 37 51. James A and Upton M 1995 Cost recovery for veterinary services. University of Reading. JPS Associates 1994 A study on institutional aspects of livestock and animal husbandry sector in India. JPS Associates, New Delhi. Leonard D 1985 The supply of veterinary services. Harvard Institute for International Development, discussion paper 191. Cambridge, Mass, HIID. National Commission on Agriculture 1976. Report of the National Commission on Agriculture. Part VII. Animal Husbandry, Ministry of Food and Agriculture, Govt. of India, New Delhi. Umali D L, Feder G and de Haan C 1992 The balance between public and private sector activities in the delivery of livestock services, world bank discussion paper 163, Washington DC: World Bank Publications. Umali D L and Schwartz L 1994. Public and private agricultural extension: Beyond traditional frontiers. World bank discussion paper No 236, Washington D C VCI 1995 Human resource development in the veterinary profession: A brief report on the zonal meeting of Directors of animal husbandry of state/ union territories. Convened during 1994 and 1995, Veterinary Council of India, New Delhi.
UTILISATION OF INFORMATION SOURCES BY THE TRIBAL FARMERS IN RAMPACHODAVARAM AGENCY AREA : A MICRO STUDY
P.L.Manohari *
Introduction
Communication plays a vital role in all social changes. Studies in India and elsewhere have pointed the need for an Effective Communication Strategy to enable research results to reach the farmers fields without much time lag. It is obvious, therefore, that the change from traditional to modern ways of life essentially involves communication of new ideas and their unhesitating acceptance by people. For this purpose, various communication media ranging from the sophisticated TV to the common and casual ones like interpersonal channels have to be utilized. There are many sources through which farmers seek or get information about the technological changes in farming. The preference and selectivity for a particular source may vary with the individuals. Nevertheless, interpersonal communication still plays an appreciable role in communication of technology in tribal areas because of their social bindings. The available and relevant research information in mass communication indicates that the interpersonal channels both cosmopolite and localite enjoy the confidence of farmers and have obviously the capacity to influence them to willingly adopt what is urged through these channels (Rogers with Svenning, 1969 and Daniel Lerner and Schram, 1967). In tribal situation today, the effectiveness of the sophisticated media can at best be very limited because majority of the tribal farmers are socially backward, economically poor, psychologically traditional and a majority of them are illiterates. In such a situation greater stress should inevitably be
* Research Associate, National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management (MANAGE), Rajendranagar, Hyderabad 500 030.
132
MANAGE Extension Research Review placed on the fostering of less sophisticated media like informal, interpersonal channels of communication to reach the isolated tribal farmers. The main thrust of all the tribal agricultural development programme is to spread farm technology in tribal areas through different communication sources. Extension workers use various channels to send the developmental messages. Hence the pattern of source utilization is likely to be different from tribal farmers to non-tribal farmers because of their culture and personality. Keeping this in the view the present study is taken with the following objectives.
Objectives
1. 2. To understand the personal sources of information utilized by the tribal farmers. To know the extent of utilization of extension staff and mass media as a source of information by tribal farmers.
Methodology
Three villages in R.C.Varam agency area i.e Cheruvupalem, D.N.Palem and Madicherla were selected purposively to represent 3 major tribal groups i.e Konda reddy, Konda kammara and Konda kapu. 10 % of the village population was selected as a sample respondents. Thus the size of the sample is 150 which covers 30 respondents from Cheruvupalem, 60 respondents from D.N.Palem and 60 respondents from Madicherla. Utilisation of information sources is measured by taking into consideration all the18 sources available to the tribal farmers which are listed and classified into three categories viz., personal localite, personal cosmopolite and mass media on the lines followed by Sadamate (1978), Sangle and Kulkarni (1980), Kulkarni (1985) and Pandey (1989). Each respondent will be asked to indicate how often he will utilise farm information from each of the listed sources. Based on the responses the utilization percentages of each source was calculated.
133
Profile of the Respondents The household profile of the sample respondents is presented in the following table. Profile of the Respondents
S.No 1. 2. 3. 4 Particulars Average literacy (%) Average farm size (acres) Average family size (no) Average asset composition (Rs) a) Buildings b) Livestock c) Implements Gainful employment (in mandays/annum) Cheruvupalem 10.76 7.22 7 62000 5964 525 134 D.N.Palem 15.04 3.979 6 5985 6491 585 158 Madicherla 13.78 4.026 7 6402 5631 489 163
5)
From the above table, it can be seen that the average literacy percentage of the sample villages were 15.04 in D.N.Palem, 13.78 in Madicherla and 10.76 in Cheruvupalem. This clearly shows that the literacy percentage is very low in these villages. The average farm size of these 3 villages are 7.22 acres in Cheruvupalem followed by 4.026 acres in Madicherla and 3.979 acres in D.N.Palem. This farm lands includes uplands, medium lands, low lands and irrigated lands. Negligible amount of irrigated land is existing in Cheruvupalem and D.N.Palem. The average family size of the respondents is in between 67. After seeing the average asset composition the total assets in livestock and implements are more when compared to the building assets in all the 3 villages. This clearly indicates the dependency of the farm on the livestock for the purpose of draught, manure, fuel, meat etc. It is seen that the total employment in a year is between 134-163 mandays, which includes agriculture and non agriculture sources. The income from non agricultural sources like collection of forest produce, wages from forest department, road construction and watershed works were more when compared to regular farm activities. This key issue is to be addressed in terms of increasing the cropping intensity by the introduction of double cropping or bringing additional area under cultivation so that the additional employment on the agricultural lands could be brought about which ultimately leads to the production, income and employment status of the farmers and thus improve the standard of living.
Results and Discussion The results and discussion of the utilization of information sources was presented below. Utilisation of Information Sources n-150 Category Sl. No Sources of information Most often Often No.of respon dents 28 126 126 125 107 14 Percen tage 18.66 84.00 84.00 83.33 71.33 9.33 No.of respon dents 99 20 22 20 13 31 1 2 Some times Percen tage 66 13.33 14.67 13.33 8.67 20.67 No.of respon dents 13 3 1 3 19 55 2 1 1 1.33 1 1 1 3 1 1 0.67 0.67 0.67 2.0 0.67 0.67 Never Percen tage 8.67 2.0 0.67 2.0 12.67 36.67 1.33 0.67 0.67 No.of respon dents 10 1 1 2 11 50 148 149 Percen tage 6.67 0.67 0.67 1.33 7.33 33.33 98.66 99.33
Personal Localite
Personal Cosmop -olite 11
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Family members Friends / neighbors Other farmers Local leaders Tribal farmer leaders Religious leaders Sub Assistant A.O ITDA personnel
0.67
Mass media
10 APAU scientist Cooperative personnel 12 Voluntary agency 13 Bank personnel 14 News paper 15 Information material 16 Radio 17 Demonstration 18 T.V
0.66
2.0
Personal Localite Category

Among all the 6 sources of information available to the farmers the priority of the sources which were used most often are friends/neighbors (84 %), other farmers (84 %) followed by local leaders (83.33%), tribal farmer leaders (71.33%), family members(18.6%) and religious leaders (9.33%). The sample farmers had expressed their first priority to friends/neighbors, other farmers and local leaders as their main source of information because of their social values in the tribal setting. The other reason may be they have less or no social awareness of different sources of information. Only 18.66 % of the respondents are utilizing the family members as a source of information followed by religious leaders (9.33%). Keeping this in view, the ITDA (Integrated Tribal Development Agency) has to take up their extension activities through these identified sources. It can be observed from the above table that 66% of the respondents are often utilizing family members as their source of information followed by religious leaders (20.67%), other farmers (14.67%), local leaders, friends/ neighbors (13.33%) and tribal farmer leaders (8.67%). In tribal habitats, before the onset of monsoon family members used to discuss about the activities to be carried out in the field. Due to this reason more than half of the respondents (66%) were often used family members as a source of information. The extension personnel in agency area has to involve all the family members in all the extension activities. The respondents were also some times using the information sources like religious leaders (36.67%) followed by tribal farmer leaders (12.67%), family members (8.67%), friends/neighbors, local leaders (2.0) and other farmers (0.67%). In Rampachodavaram agency area few religious institutions are working for upliftment of the tribals. Along with the religion they are organizing some awareness programmes on health, education, agriculture etc. Because of this reason sometimes 36.67 % of the farmers are utilising the religious leaders as their source of information. From the above table it can be clearly seen that the farmers had never used the information sources like religious leaders (33.33%), tribal farmer leaders ( 7.33%), family members (6.67%), local leaders (1.33%) and other farmers (0.67%).
MANAGE Extension Research Review Majority of the farmers expressed that most often they use information sources like local leaders, friends/neighbors, other farmers and tribal farmer leaders.
Personal Cosmopolite Category

Under the personal cosmopolite category the sources of information like GCC - personal and ITDA personal were found to be utilized often by very few respondents i.e (1.33%) and (0.67%). Similarly, a very few respondents were utilizing the other four sources of information some times i.e. sub assistant (1.33%), agricultural officer, ANGRAU scientists and voluntary organizations (0.67%) each respectively. And (98%) a majority of the respondents never utilize the sources like Agriculture Sub Assistants, Agricultural officers, ITDA personnel, APAU Scientists, Cooperative personnel and Voluntary Agency. None of the respondents utilized bank personnel as their source of information. The reasons for never or poor utilization of the above said source of information by the tribals may be attributed in many ways, their habitat (living on the hill slopes amidst thick forest) difficult to reach, lack of awareness, illiteracy, non-recognition of the extension personnel etc. Some of the leaders and outspoken tribals utilize the sources of information and others do not. The meetings conducted by the extension personnel at village level and Government interventions like Janmabhoomi (a scheme of Andhra Pradesh Government) conducted in each village provides an opportunity to the tribal farmers to utilize the sources.
Mass Media
It is evident from the table that the utility of mass media is very limited. The sources of information like news paper, information material, demonstration, radio and television are used. Among these 5 sources of information television was used as a information source most often by 0.66%, often by 2.0% and sometimes by 0.67 % of the respondents. A percentage of 2 and 0.67 of the respondents use radio and newspaper respectively as a source of information sometimes. A majority of the respondents (almost 98 per cent) do not use any of these mass media as the source of information. The reasons for a majority of respondents not utilizing the mass media as a source of information is poverty, illiteracy, unaware of receiving messages from such sources etc.
Conclusions
Majority of the respondents indicated that they were using friends, neighbors and local leaders as their main source of information. Most of the tribal farmers had never used information sources like sub assistants and agricultural officers. Negligible amount of farmers are utilizing newspaper and information material as their source of information. This finding is in line with the findings of Kulkarni (1985) that the neighbors and tribal leaders were found to be most utilized and trustworthy for seeking farm information and the less used and low credibility sources were demonstration, radio, newspaper and magazines etc. In light of the above finding the ITDA (Integrated Tribal Development Agency) has to take up their extension activities extensively through these sources of information. The findings further, indicate that it is high time the awareness of the farmers was improved on the importance of the information sources like Agricultural Sub Assistants, Agricultural Officers, Radio, News papers etc., and their utility in regular day to day life for adopting better practices in agriculture and allied fields which ultimately leads to enhance the crop- yields and better living.
References
Kulkarni R R 1985 Utilisation of media and methods in tribal areas. Maharashtra Journal Of Extension Education IV: 159-160. Pandey K N 1989 Adoption of Agricultural Innovations. Northern Book Centre, New Delhi. Punna Rao P, 1993 Study on adoption of improved agricultural technology by the tribal farmers in high altitude and tribal zone of Andhra Pradesh. Ph. D Thesis. ANGRAU, A.P. Sadamate V V 1978 A Study of tribal farming system and technological gaps. Ph.D Thesis, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi. Sangle G K and Kulkarni R R 1980 Multivariate analysis of technological gap in tribal farming. Tribal Research Bulletin III (I):15-18 Singh J P Socio Economic Dynamics And Development Strategy For Participatory Adaptive Research Project.
MANAGE EXTENSION RESEARCH REVIEW (Organization of the National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management) A Half-yearly Journal devoted to dissemination of knowledge in the field of Agricultural Extension Management
Chief Editor A.K. Goel , IAS Director General MANAGE
Editor Dr. J.P. Singh Director MANAGE
Associate Editor Dr. P. Chandra Shekara Deputy Director MANAGE
TO CONTRIBUTE
You are welcome to contribute papers on any aspect of Agricultural Extension and Agricultural Development. Papers on Agricultural Extension will be preferred. Article contributions and editorial correspondence should be sent to the chief editor/editor.
SUBSCRIPTION
Individual Annual Subscription Rate : Rs.300/ Institutional Annual Subscription Rate : Rs.600/ Individual Life Subscription Rate : Rs.3000/ Institutional Life Subscription Rate : Rs.6000/Subscription amount may be sent to Chief Editor/Editor through D.D. drawn in favour of MANAGE, Hyderabad payable at Hyderabad.
Statement of Ownership and other Particulars of MANAGE EXTENSION RESEARCH REVIEW

Place of Publication Periodicity of Publication and Printers Name Hyderabad Half Yearly Heritage Print Services Pvt. Ltd. Nallakunta, Hyd-44.
Publisher's Name Nationality Address
A.K. Goel, IAS Indian Director General, MANAGE
Editor's Name Nationality Address
Dr. J.P. Singh Indian Director, MANAGE
I A.K. Goel, hereby declare that the particulars given above are true to the best of my knowledge and belief.
Sd/- A.K. Goel Signature of Publisher

Cost Price Analysis of Sugarcane Tamil Nadu

Diunggah oleh

Informasi Dokumen

Hak Cipta

Format Tersedia

Bagikan dokumen Ini

Bagikan atau Tanam Dokumen

Opsi Berbagi

Apakah menurut Anda dokumen ini bermanfaat?

Apakah konten ini tidak pantas?

Hak Cipta:

Format Tersedia

Cost Price Analysis of Sugarcane Tamil Nadu

Diunggah oleh

Hak Cipta:

Format Tersedia

MANAGE EXTENSION RESEARCH REVIEW

Vol. III July - December, 2002 No.2

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION MANAGEMENT

MANAGE EXTENSION RESEARCH REVIEW

MANAGE Extension Research Review

COST PRICE ANALYSIS IN SUGARCANE : A STUDY IN TAMIL NADU, SOUTHERN INDIA

July - December, 2002

July - December, 2002

Rupees per ha 38500 3850 42350 13175 55525

% Total 69.34 6.93 76.27 23.73 100.00

July - December, 2002

July - December, 2002

Time series price analysis in sugarcane

Trend or secular price movements

MANAGE Extension Research Review

Irregular price fluctuations

July - December, 2002

Fig.1 : Trend in Prices of Sugarcane Jaggery Power in Kavundappadi Regulated Market

July - December, 2002

Fig 2 : Trend in jaggery wholesale prices in Tamil Nadu State

July - December, 2002

July - December, 2002

Seasonal price index

Fig.4 : Seasonal Index of jaggery powder prices.

July - December, 2002

MANAGE Extension Research Review

Integration among spatially separated markets

July - December, 2002

July - December, 2002

Results and Discussion : World Scenario

Source: FAO Year Book (1998)

July - December, 2002

MANAGE Extension Research Review

Source : Agricultural Statistics at a Glance-2000.

Area 3.28 1.83 0.85 3.62 1.53

Yield 0.95 1.36 3.08 0.55 11.70 3.13

Production 4.26 3.14 1.22 -0.31 0.93 -0.02

July - December, 2002

MANAGE Extension Research Review

Jaggery Production and Trade

Destination-wise Exports of jaggery from India

Compound Growth Rate (%) : 0.79

July - December, 2002

Source: Indian Agriculture, 1999

Export Competitiveness of jaggery

Market structure for jaggery in Anakapalle market

Table 7: Size distribution of commission agents handling jaggery in Anakapalle market.

Table 8: Producers share in consumers price of jaggery at Anakapalle market.

July - December, 2002

July - December, 2002

KINDLING THE HIDDEN FIRE : EMPOWERMENT THROUGH CONFLICT MANAGEMENT IN ORGANIZATIONS

In the middle of difficulty lies opportunity. -Albert Einstein

July - December, 2002

MANAGE Extension Research Review

July - December, 2002

Realistic and non-realistic. Inter psychic and psychosocial conflicts

July - December, 2002

Dynamic process of conflict development

Different ways of reacting to conflict

Conflict management process

July - December, 2002

MANAGE Extension Research Review

Skills required to manage conflicts

A Multi-dimensional approach to conflict management