The Philosophy of Existence: Plato's "Gorgias" Author(s): Eric Voegelin Source: The Review of Politics, Vol. 11, No.

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The Philosophy of Existence: Plato's Gorgias

By Eric Voegelin

of the Gorgias,1 andthe andbattle" arethe opening words "WTAR

declarationof war against the corruptsociety is its content. Gorgias,the famousteacherof rhetoric,is in Athens as the guest of Callicles,an enlightened politician. It is a day of audience. Gorgias receives to him. visitorsand is readyto answerall questionsaddressed house at Callicles' his calls Socrates, accompanied by pupilChaerephon, in orderto see the greatman. The ultimatemotif of the battle is not with Plato, throughthe as so frequently statedexplicitlybut indicated, exhausted formof the dialogue. Gorgiasis somewhat by the streamof visitorsand the hours of conversation, and he lets his followerPolus Socratesleavesthe openinggame to Chaerephon. open the discussion; The battleis engagedas a strugglefor the soul of the youngergeneration. Who will form the futureleadersof the polity: the rhetorwho who teachesthe tricks of political success,or the mystic-philosopher soul createsthe substance in and society? I. The Existential Issue. the firstquestion:Ask him "Who Socratessuggeststo Chaerephon he is?" (447d). This opening move dominatesthe whole dialogue. in The substance of man is in question,not a philosophical "problem" the modernsense. This is for all times the decisivequestion,cutting throughthe networkof opinions,of social ideals and of ideologies;it is the questionthat appealsto the nobilityof the soul; and it is the one cannotstand. Fromthis initial questionwhichthe ignobleintellectual the of the unfolds dialogue: the functionof rhetoric, topics question the problemof justice,the questionwhetherit is betterto do injustice or to sufferinjustice, and the fate of the unjustsoul. the attitudesof his By means of these topics Plato characterizes lightly. Socrates contemporaries.Gorgias is let off comparatively shouldalso the teacherof rhetoric whether involveshim in the problem
1 This study of the Gorgias is taken from the writer's History of Political Ideas to be published by the Macmillan Company of New York. It is a section of Part iii, Chapter 4.

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of justice in hispupils instilltheknowledge so thattheywillnot misuse theirart. Gorgias, in the best advertising his art and style,praises teach rhetor to he that has the admits the of justice; condemns misuse whomisuse rhetoric but he declines for pupils his teachresponsibility of the dialogue enters into the arguing. At thispointthe situation ment. Socrates, for the of a misdeeds too, woulddecline responsibility to who has his but his man listened condemnation teaching, young formof banishing the youngmanfromhis wouldtakethe tangible of the hishands him; breach andwashing of comity couldnot presence behealed. Gorgias hasto lapseintoan embarrassed silence because his is the the fineadvertising lie of the speech given by presence unscrupulous and vulgarPolus,his follower and partisan in the dialogue, a of the evil of his glaring object-lesson conequences corrupting activity. lesswhen doesnot become And hisembarrassment youngPolus,rising to the occasion, to the support rushes of his embarrassed master and to berate Socrates. starts II. TheStruggle withtheCanaille. the following In its literary scenewithPolusis a masterqualities, of of the Platonic art The undertone of grimness, howpiece comedy. us constantly remind ever,as well as our contemporary experiences, thatin a decadent theridiculous intellectual is theenemy of the society he that is and to its murder powerful enough spirit representatives phyinto the fray. He cannotgraspthe difference sically. Polusrushes existential between andintellectual hence he hasnot honesty argument; of embarrassment thathe is thecause for hismaster; understood he believesthat the causeof embarrassment is Socrates withhis quibbling He complains Socrates for evenraising aboutdefinitions. the against whether the rhetorician teachjustice. The couldand should question is unfair; everdenythathe knows whatjustice for,whowould question is andthathe canteachit? Suchquestions not be asked. To should involvea manin a contradiction by forcingfromhim an admission on a pointwhichhe is ashamed to deny,betrays grossboorishness (461b-c). (agrokia)on thepartof Socrates to turnon the unfortunate master This is the cue for Socrates of Polus!" most with his distinguished etiquette "My issue. He thanks the Polusfor Firsthe subtly suggests existential to of the men the debate. themselves with rescue For, provide coming the younger friends and sonsso that as they growold and stumble

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will help themup againin wordsand actions(461c). After generation the condihe formulates this slap at the productof Gorgianeducation, tion under which he will enter into discussionwith him: Polus will have to restrainthe prolixityof speech (makrologia)in whichhe insuave flow of cliche speechmakes dulged earlier. The interminable of Socratestouchesupon a probThe condition discussion impossible. of with rightist or us who have had experiences lem, familiarto all with a manwho is existenleftist intellectuals.Discussionis impossible of who misuses the rules the game, who by irrelevant dishonest, tially on a point, and who seeks to down avoid nailed being profuseness of the semblance the gains victory by exhausting time which sets an limitto a discussion. The only defensepossiblein this situainevitable and this refusalis socially tion is the refusalto continuethe discussion; becauseit seemsto violatethe rulesof comityand the freedom difficult and indignantly of speech. Polus immediately jumpsat this argument talk at such to be to that he is not going permitted lengthas he objects on. the that in war is Socrates is horrified at idea But the pleases. of men most of Polus all should the Athens, free-spoken city Hellas, then him at his fromtalking reminds that be prevented pleasure and of his freedomif his irrelevant prolixitywould deprivehis interlocutor werenot permitted it shouldbe construed as meaningthat he, Socrates, simplyto go awaywhenhe was sick of the oration. After this threat to the Socraticcondition. Polus submits of a walk-out, of Polus' character comeswhenSocrateshas The criticalrevelation that a man who does evil does not whathe truly exactedthe admission wills. For, a man can trulywill only what is good; if he commitsacts whichare unjusthe acts againsthis true interest. If he indulgesin evil beliefthat they servehis interest, he revealsthereby acts in the mistaken that he is powerlessto do what he truly wills. Hence the tyrant is powerless. When this absurditiyis reached,Polus can no longer and startssneerhimself. He breaksawayfrom the argument restrain like to to not have would if as power do in the polis ing: you, Socrates, what seemsgood to you; as if you werenot jealouswhen you see anyor jailingpeopleat his pleasure!(468e). By one killingor plundering this sneer,Polus declareshis own level of existence.He is the type of man who will piouslypraisethe rule of law and condemnthe tyrantand who ferventlyenviesthe tyrantand wouldlove nothingbetterthan of the to be one himself. In a decadentsocietyhe is the representative effort at who order and men of common reservoir every paralyze great

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in the rise of the tyrant. Moreover, Polus fursupplymass-connivance nishesthe subtlereasonof politicalparalysis in the advancedstage of social decomposition. His sneerat Socratesimpliesthat his personal of humanity. No humanbeing can be anything vilenessis the measure else but vile. He is firmin the conviction that everyman will conduct if himselflike a swine he has a chanceto get away with it. His outburst against Socrates is motivatedby honest indignationagainst a of the canailleand pretendsto be man who breaksthe camaraderie he cannot be brushed And off; he insists. He givesa thumbsuperior. nail sketch of Archelaus,an unsavoryindividual,who recentlyhad
gained the rulership of Macedonia by an impressive series of crimes.

According to Socrates the successfulgentlemanwould have to be is glaring. Polus taunts Socratesthat he is unhappy. The absurdity not going to tell him that he would ratherbe any other Macedonian than Archelaus(471a-d). And he can be persistent becausehe knows that all the best peopleare on his side. He still breaksawayfromthe argumentbecausehe sincerelydisbelievesthat anybodycan in good faith maintain as absurdas the Socratic. With something propositions that Socratesmaliciously does not want to agree like despair he charges with him: "for surelyyou must think as I do" (471e). The battle lines are now drawnmoreclearly. SocratesassuresPolus that he will, indeed,find the majoritysiding with him, and offers a list of names from the best Athenian families,includingthat of Pericles,who will all agreewith Polus. Socrateswill stand alone; but he will refuseto be deprivedby false witnessesof his patrimony,which is the truth (472a-b). we have not yet reachedthe point of murder. This Nevertheless, the conditions of Socrates. His is a discussion, and Polus has accepted the to Socrates out beat to break and down appealto what by attempt two clubs The has failed. used thinks, great by vulgarity everybody for silencingthe spirit- that is, the "Holier Than Thou" argument and the "That'sWhat You Think"- have provedineffective. Now that doing injusticeis worse SocratesforcesPolus on to the admission withoutsuffering that and than suffering injustice pundoing injustice, ishmentis the worst of all, and hence that the notoriousArchelausis becausehe than his victims and still more miserable more miserable Once this is for his misdeeds the due (479-e). punishment escapes What can become doubtful. rhetoric has of the value admitted purpose be a accusation and to it serve to defend oneself against justified

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if whattheguiltyshould himself do is to accuse andto seek acquitted, If rhetoric hispunishment. wereusedfor thispurpose, andonlythen, of fact,however, it would it is used be of value(480b-d). As a matter the gainsof for the purpose of defending the criminal and to secure it maybe useful, butnotfor themanwho injustice.Forsuchpurposes to commit doesnot intend (480e-481b). injustice intoadmission, buttheadmission is sulky. He canPolusis forced followfromthepremises, not denythatthe conclusions butthe results is like He but are "absurd" embarrassed Gorgias, (aitopa)(480e). in theirembarrassments. has still some thereis a difference Gorgias of the existential he is aware conflict the senseof decency; underlying worries him. Polusis too fargone intellectual andhisconscience clash, he is intellectually buthis defeat to be worried beaten, by a conscience; in him. Still, he is bound of decency touchoff a spark cannot by the to has comefromthe activist, rulesof thegame. The violentreaction the enlightened astonishfromCallicles, politician.With increasing of the debate; he hasfollowed the course mentandwrath andnowhe Socrates is in earnest whether aboutthesethingsor asksChaerephon thathe is in earnest, whether he is joking. Beingassured he turnson Socrates:if that weretrue,wouldnot the wholeof humanlife be we not do in everything theveryoppoandwould turned down; upside hasrightly sensed siteof whatwe oughtto be doing? (481c) Callicles of Socrates.Thisis not a mere in thewords therevolution intellectual thensociety as represented is right, by thepolitician game. If Socrates to the is wrong. And sincethe wrong coreof Callicles goes spiritual to be the where it would canno human existence, corrupt point society existence havea claimuponthe loyaltyof man. The political longer is at stake. The battlehas nowreached in history the real of society of the order. Callicles the And corrupt enemy, publicrepresentative to joinbattle. doesnot hesitate III. Pathos andCommunication. is againopened witha deterThe scenewithCallicles by Socrates he whathe hasto expect; issue. He knows of theexistential mination starof thedebate is stilltheguiding andthat thattruth Callicles warns will availin the least. The existential differof opinion no pressure the speakers arenowmoreprecisely defined encesbetween by the variwiththe is in love withphilosophy, Callicles antsof Eros. Socrates

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demos of Athens.2WhenCallicles he doesnot dareto contraspeaks dicthis love;he is a politician of the type"Them aremy sentiments, them"(481d-e). In a few and if you don'tlike themI can change richin implications, Platohas predetermined the inevitable sentences, of thedebate. In thetwoErotes of Socrates course andCallicles is imof the its with of the later distinction the Republic plied development the situation is revealed goodandtheevilEros. Here,in the Gorgias, of a metamorphosis in which th conception of Erosoriginates. The issue at stakeis thatof communication in a decadent andintelligibility sociAre the existential between Socrates Callicles so differences and ety. the of a common that between them has profound bridge humanity Platocomes where closeto characterbroken down? In theTheaetetus as beasts,he nevertheless restores by izing the enemies community it in conversation is that at least to scratch observing private possible the thickcrustof the vulgarian and to touchin him a sparkof his but where are renounced thus,is not broken; humanity.The bridge, its points of support on bothsides? Theycannot be foundon thelevel of principles of conduct, for thisis precisely thelevelon which thepromeetin "war andbattle."On thelevelof politics no comprotagonists
mise is possible;the politicalform of the citta corrottais the civil war.

thatintellectual is notfollowed The caseof Polushasshown agreement The of necessity existential level of understanding. communication, by if there is oneto be foundat all,mustlie deeper.To thisdeeper level for otherwise the debate withCallicles Platomustnowappeal, would of the existentially inconclusive boutwithPolus. onlybe a repetition term the levelPlatodesignates Thisdeeper (481c). by pathos however it maybe in Pathos variable is whatmenhavein common, its aspects intensities. Pathos it is a and designates passive experience; to man,whathe suffers, not a conscious action;it is whathappens himin his existential himfatefully whatbefalls andwhattouches core of Eros(481c-d). In thisexposure the experiences -- as for instance to pathos in the manall menareequal, though theymaydiffer widely to with come the and nerin which build pathos they grips experience touchevenin thisearly work intotheirlives. Thereis theAeschylean which is experienced of Plato,withits hintthatthepathema all by may of pathos for eachman. The community different resultin mathema
2 A more detailed account of this scene would have to go into the homo-eroticimplications. The reader should be aware that Socrates refers to philosophia as tai ema paidika (482e).

OF EXISTENCE THE PHILOSOPHY

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is the basisof communication. Behindthe hardened, intellectuallywhich lie the which bind attitudes men, separate pathemata supported themtogether.However the intellectual falseand grotesque position of an immediate at thecorehasthetruth experience. maybe,thepathos in a manthe awareIf one can penetrate to this coreand reawaken in communication the existential sense nessof his condition humana, becomes possible. The possibility of communication on the levelof pathos is the consense. If theappeal dition which under thedebate in theGorgias makes cannot the intellectual in itselfwill be of go to the pathos, argument no avail. The reminder at thisjuncture, as we havesaid, is necessary the followingargument becauseotherwise with Callicleswouldbe to the pathos at least,of breaking senseless.The possibility, through thatthe operation mustbe open. This doesnot mean,however, will Callicles no morethanPoluswillbe wonover. be successful. actually to themurder thetragedy of On thelevelof politics willrunits course to the pathos ineffective the situaSocrates.Sincethe appeal remains for whatmeaning tion wouldseemto end in an impasse; couldthe if it of have cannot actualized? We the be potential pathos community of theimpasse, if we wantto understand haveto realize theseriousness meansthat historically the conclusion of the Gorgias. The impasse is broken; the PolusandCallicles thebondof humanity andpolitically Does it areoutside thepaleof human as the inevitable mean, comity. to be, thattheyshould seems be killedon sightas dangerconsequence is a definite No. In the to the Gorgias ous animals?The answer that his others Socrates hadwarned judges wouldcomeafter Apology, himandwithrenewed for which askthequestions he hadto insistence die. The prediction is fulfilled; nowit is Platowhoasksthe questions as we shallsee,of suffering the fate of Socrates. andwhois in danger, wouldbe a senseless and But the repetition sacrifice; is therean alterwiththepurpose of exterminating to theorganization of a revolt native the of the Gorgias the Athenian rabble?The conclusion formulates of mankind canbe maintained which the community conditions under it hasbroken evenwhenon the levelof historical down. The society of man. The is the faithin the transcendental condition community to the human that remains of the evildoer incrustation impenetrable the eternal the soul before off in leave will fall death and naked appeal life will be in afterin restored has been broken The order that judge. theJudgement of theDeadis theanswer life. In thelogique du coeur,

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in life. We shallcomebackto this to the failure of communication we thatPlatoreminds For moment haveto be aware later. the point scene of pathos at the beginning of the Callicles us of the community of the Dead as the transcendental the Judgement in orderto prepare communiwhich existential continuation of a dialogue doesnot achieve theliving. cation among IV. The Inverted of Existence. Philosophy of the scene. Callicles will have is the ruler The Erosof Socrates to refute buthis love,the truthof philosophy; not Socrates andif he will soundthrough his wholelife doesnot refute Eros,thena discord never be in with himself Callicles will and (482b). Callicles agreement intoagreement withthepathos of Eros. The to come theappeal scorns his settles theexistenof answer sentence (482c-486d) lengthy opening the is concerned.Callicles tial issueas far as his ownperson rejects it inverts it he and of Socrates it; by transposing appeal by inverting effectby level. Plato achieves a brilliant dramatic to the vulgarian an argument which haswhenthepartners thedouble revealing meaning has restrained the rhecommunication. Socrates arenot in existential he has the issue of Polus torical and sharpened by warning prolixity will availagainst to massopinion the law of thatno oppeal Callicles inverts of truth. Now Callicles with the Eros these warnings harmony a popular whogainshis a regular andcallsSocrates demegoros, speaker he ridito theprejudices of themasses. Moreover, success by catering of ranting for he accuses Socrates of pathos; culesthe Socratic theme to havePolussuffer manner because he has managed in a demagogic which the same Gorgiashas suffered mishap(pathos) (pathein) him him into the admission when Socrates before goaded (pathein) thatthe rhetorician has to teachjustice(482c). Socrates gainedthis advantage by the trick of playingon the conflictbetweennature onesaysthatdoing and (nomos). Conventionally (physis) convention evil is the worse. evil is worse thansuffering evil;by nature, suffering the convention and that of Polus were afraid and violating Gorgias contradictions them in their involved (482c-483a). He is not goingto be no mean is Callicles adversary. Obviously, of a half-hearted in thecontradictions likehispredecessor positrapped of existential the Socratic tion. He matches by a philosophy appeal as hadunderstood whichSocrates of his own. The pathos, existence thecoreof hisexistence, touch which of manto experiences theexposure

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hasbecome in thehands of Callicles in the discussion.This a mishap of to raceindicates the a setback in the change meaning competitive direction of Callicles' Existence must not of existence. interpretation be interpreted of the Erostowards but in terms in terms the Agathon, of the stronger or weaker is the fundamental reality, physis. Nature andthe victorious of life. The assertion of the physis is the meaning order of the soul,which of the for Socrates in the eroticism originates is weaker as the aside a natures brushed invented convention, mystic, by in order to restrain of thestronger thesuffering ones. Nobodyprefers to a of its so are slavish those who nature; injustice really doing; say no manof a lordly nature wouldagree(483a-c). This is not the attitude of a second-rate of beingen rascal like Poluswho is conscious froman existenthisis thedeliberate of values transvaluation canaille; tial counter-position. it only if Callicles knowsthathe can maintain he can invalidate he the Socratic For this purpose useshis position. distinction of physis he strikes at the withthisinstrument andnomos; heartof Socratic eroticism: "Youpretend onlythatyou aresearching for truth! As a matterof fact, you are propagating whatholds a how for the masses!" Polus was still in vulgar appeal (482e).3 despair: coulda manentertain suchfantastic as Socrates? Callicles propositions knows the motive:Socrates is in the gamelikeeverybody else;he is a whoseeksfavorby a pretense of respectability. Callicles demagogue is in theknowof ideologies; the othermanandreveals he getsbehind the dubious motive the facade of ideas. The theoretical attack behind on the Socratic attack on the existential becomes a position political demagogue. But why shouldCallicles, the politician, be so excitedaboutthe of thatwillkeepthe slavish content while preacher a morality subjects not hampering the superior the swindle?The manwhoseesthrough is complicated. with situation is fraught, The Socratic indeed, appeal a real dangerfor the politician. The characterization of conventionas an invention himself at some is aware, thatthe inventor implies levelof his consciousness, of moral character of the artificial principles. Poluswasoutspoken wouldsidewith on thepointthatnobody enough of convention, thateverybody envies thetyrant. Therestraint Socrates, of while of the victims the connivance thus,is tempered tyranny; by raise not a will like to not suffer do themselves, certainly they they
3 The problem of a new philosophy of existence through the inversion of direction from the summum bonum towards nature recurs in periods of political disintegration.

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as long as other suffer. Whena society hasreached this finger people of which from of the view of Callicles is degree corruption, point quite theharmonious connivance in criminality disdesirable, maybe gravely are turbed thatconventions the people by a manwhotriesto persuade not conventions, thattheirtruthcanbe confirmed to recourse through the existential in which that have and they experiences originated, they mustbe takenseriously.If an appreciable sector of the people should fall for the Socratic the situation preaching, might,indeed,become forCallicles andhistype. unpleasant Thereis more, to the resistance of Callicles thanthe fear however, of a Socratic of is not success. The the situation dialogue popular thatof an assembly of the people. Members of the rulingclassare In suchcompany of Socrates are themselves. the propositions among in bad taste. It is the samecomplaint as that of Polus. But while Polus was indignant becauseSocrates did not conducthimselfen himself that Socrates not conduct as a Callicles does canaille, protests of Callicles the The remarks of gentleman superior type. subsequent in spiteof theirthreatening the character have,therefore, undertone, of a not altogther to mendhisways. to Socrates admonition unfriendly interest to us because Theyareof special improbable theyaresomewhat as the remarks of a muchyounger manto the historical Socrates and because fit the circumcontain which some not details do they quite stances of Socrates' life. In theadmonitions of Callicles we havequite Callicles to see a pieceof Plato's holdsforth autobiography. probably in a manner in whicha friendof the familymighthaveon occasion givenPlatoa pieceof hismind. of the terms Callicles with a clarification openshis admonitions in such The conventional lawmakers and define justice justice injustice. a manner manwhootherwise would thattheywill terrify the stronger of them,whiletheydeclare it shameful and unjustif a get the better mandesires to havemorethanthe others(pleonektein) (483c). Jusin the conventional as desire tice and injustice sensearedistinguished is for equality andpleonexia.By nature, however, pleonexia just;and cities realm as well as in the animal justorder, humans, among among over the the of the rule weaker as wellas among is stronger peoples, for followthislawof nature; history (483c-d).4 The menwhomake
4 The problem of pleonexia is intimately connected with the "inverted" philosophy of existence. When the new philosophy of existence recurs, in the seventeenth century A.D., the problem of pleonexia also reappears. In the political philosophy of Locke we

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on whatothergrounds of Hellasbe justified? invasion couldXerxes' not by the convention we teachourbestandstrongest which Certainly menfromtheir in order to tame them lions. If a man likeyoung youth hadsufficient he theslave would break all these would charms; strength, risein rebellion would andbecome ourmaster; andthe lightof justice shine forth. Socrates all this,if onlyhe woulddrop would understand is an eleand turnto moreimportant philosophy things. Philosophy if pursued but withmoderation in younger gantaccomplishment, years, if a manindulges in it andcarries it on in laterlife,he willbe ignorant of the things which a gentleman oughtto know. He willbe inexperiencedin politics; he he will not be ableto holdhis ownin a debate; will be ignorant of human character and of its motivations through or in business and passions.5 When suchmenget involved pleasures a will cut of affairs would as a man ridiculous politics they figure, just makehimself ridiculous in a philosophical debate.6One has to combinethe twoaccomplishments themproperly.Thus,it andto balance is not a disgrace fora young manto be interested in philosophy; on the its study is becoming it will to a freeman andhe whoneglects contrary, never be a superior manwithnobleaspirations. makes Butindulgence themaneffeminate; he willbe shyof public mendiswhere gatherings he will or four in with three around comers themselves; tinguish hang but never out likea freeman.Callicles assures admiring youths speak Socrates of his goodwill he askshimwhether he is not and affection; ashamed of beingin the notoriously of a philosodefenseless position For what he him for a wrong would if someone do had arrested pher. which he has not committed? He wouldbe confused andwouldnot knowwhatto say; and beforea courthe mightnot evenbe ableto himself defend the death against penalty. And whatis the valueof a manwhocannot of a manwhom, his enemies, defendhimself against so to speak, onemayhitwithimpunity?7
have the curious attempt.to propagate pleonexia as conventional justice. Locke institutionalizes the "desire to have more than the other man" by transformingthe government into a protectiveagency for the gains of pleonexia. 5 The reader should compare this passage with Bentham's attack on the "ascetic" type. 6 In this part of the admonition,we probablyhave to see the origin of the Diversion of the Theaetetus. 7 This section of the Callicles speech is distinctly autobiographic. One has to realize the situation of Plato in Athens at this time and the effect which talk of this kind must have had on a proud man who was conscious of his qualities.

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V. The ArgumentAgainstIthe InvertedPhilosophy of Existence. The positionof Callicleshingeson the identification of good and of the strongernature. The dejust with the self-assertive expression bate between Callicles and Socrates which follows the admonition proves the position untenable. We do not have to follow this long debatein detail (486d-522), but we must single out the principal argumentsof Socratesbecausethey have remained to this day the classical catalogueof arguments againstthe "inverted" philosophyof existence whichcharacterizes of a civilithe age of enlightenment and positivism zation. We shall find the same theoretical in the situationrecurring nineteenth A.D. and centuries eighteenth The positionof Callicleshas a fundamental that is characweakness teristicof this type of existentialism.Calliclesdoes not seriously deny differences of value; he is not prepared to maintainthat couragedoes not rankhigherthancowardice, or wisdomhigherthanfolly. When he identifiesthe good with the strong,he acts on the inarticulate premise that thereexists a preestablished harmonybetweenthe lustinesswhich he represents and the socialsuccessof valueswhichhe does not discern too clearlybut to whichhe gives conventional assent. Socrates,in his uses the techniqueof pointing to facts which disprovethe argument, and of involvingCalliclesin the contradictions preestablished harmony betweenhis value assumptions of his existenand the consequences tialism. The first and most obviousattackis directedagainstthe harmony betweenstrengthand goodness. Callicleshad maintained that the rule of the strongestis justice. Now Socratesraisesthe questionwhether inferiorpeople,if they are numerous enough,cannotbe strongerthan the betterones. And if so, would then the morenumerous weakwho the impose despisedconventionsnot be the strongerone; and would, as a consequence, the argument for justiceby natureagainstjusticeby conventionnot breakdown? Calliclesis incensedat the idea that a rabbleof slavesshouldlay down the law for him becausethey happen to be physically to his valueposistronger. He withdraws immediately tion and insists that when he said "the stronger"he had meant of course "the more excellent." Thus the first defense of the principle that the survival of the fittestentailsthe survival of the best has broken down. The "excellent" are finallydefinedby Calliclesas the men who are

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mostwiseand courageous in affairs of state. They oughtto be the be fairif theyhadmore thantheirsubjects andit would rulers, (491dSocrates counters with the have than more should e). they question: A themselves? This question a new from outburst Callicles. brings manshouldnot rulehimself. On the contrary, and goodness justice consistin the satisfaction of desires. "Luxury, licenseand freedom" if provided withmeans, arevirtueand akolasid, eleutheria), (tryphe, whatever to is is the said the (arete, eudaimonia); happiness contrary ornamental talkof worthless men(492c). It is notdifficult forSocrates to suggest of suchbaseness thatevenCallicles desires squirms.Buthe hasbecome stubborn on the identification of happiness andinsists with the satisfaction of desires; to distinguish andhe refuses between good andbadpleasures (495b). of Callicles The resistance the opportunity to introgivesSocrates ducethequestion whether menwhoareadmitted to be good by Callices feel morepleasure thanthosewho (suchas the wiseandcourageous) areadmitted to be inferior (suchas the cowards). The resultof the is that a can morepleasure coward experience, inquiry quitepossibly, man. By the reasoning thana wiseandcourageous of Callicles, therethe better wouldhaveto be considered menbecause fore,the cowards more in the hedonistic sense. This contradicexperience happiness they the to Callicles admit of distinction tion,finally, compels goodandbad pleasures (499c). With thisadmission the caseof Callicles is lost. Socrates canstep force his to the assent by step, adversary's unwilling positive philosophy - fromwhich of existence thelaterposition of theRepublic is derived. In the presentcontextwe have to concentrate on the existential Callicles between andSocrates-Plato andon the critical enmity analysis of political Aboveall, Socrates nowresumes the issue corruption. of communication in a moreradical manner.Onlyif the soulis wellordered can it be calledlawful(nomimos) (504d); and only if it has the rightorder(nomos) is it capable of entering into communion The is no more than a for (koinonia)(507e). pathos precondition the to be in order actualize Erosmust oriented towards it, community; the Good(agathon)andthedisturbing mustbe restrained passions by If the lusts are man will the of life a lead unrestrained, sophrosyne. be man cannot the robber Such a of God friend (lestes). (prosphiles) of communion, andhe whois incapaor other men;forhe is incapable of friendship ble of communion is incapable (philia) (507e). Friend-

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ship, philia, is Plato's term for the state of existentialcommunity. Philiais the existential bond amongmen; and it is the bond as well betweenHeaven and Earth,man and God. Becausephiliaand orderperis calledkosmos(order) and not disorder vade everything, the universe

or license (akosmia, akolasia) (508a).

VI. The Murderer Facesthe Victim. The meaningof orderin existence The existential is re-established. issue betweenSocratesand Calliclescan now be taken up in earnest. Socratesrestatesthe orderof evils: (1) it is bad to sufferinjustice; in the dis(2) it is worseto commitinjustice;(3) it is worstto remain orderof the soul whichis createdby doing injustice and not to experience the restoration of this orderthroughpunishment. The sneerof - that the philosopher treatment Callicles is exposedto ignominious can now be met on the level of the philosophy of order. Callicleshad to protectoneself taken the stand that it was of supremeimportance that the price againstsuffering injustice. Socratesmaintains effectively of safety againstinjusticemay be too high. The suffering of injustice can be averted if a man acquires mosteffectively a positionof power,or if he is the companion of the powersthat be. The tyrantis in the ideal of position safety against injustice. About the natureof the tyrant of the tyrantwill be acceptable thereare no doubts,and the companion to him only if he is of a similarnature,that is, if he connivesin the of tyrannymay escape injusticeof the rulingpower. The companion will inevitably involvehim the sufferingof injusticebut his corruption and again in the doing of injustice. Calliclesagreesenthusiastically of the will that the Socrates reminds tyrant plunderand kill companion is nearingits the man who does not imitatethe tyrant. The argument climax. The sneersof Calliclescan be effective only againstmen of his own ilk. They fall flat before a man who is readyto die. Do you think, is the answerof Socrates,that all cares should be directedtoof life? (511b-c). The "trueman" is not so wardsthe prolongation fond of life, and theremay be situationsin whichhe no longer cares to live (512e). The argumentis not yet directedpersonallyagainst towardsthe point where Callicles,but we feel the tension increasing his Calliclesis co-responsible, through connivingconduct,for the murof Plato himself. The social conventions, der of Socratesand perhaps whichCalliclesdespises,are wearingthin; and the advocateof nature and that he faces his victim. is broughtto realizethat he is a murderer

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in for thoseamong us whofindourselves The situation is fascinating in the men with whomwe the Platonic and who recognize position in our whowillconnive forpower associate todaytheintellectual pimps tomorrow. murder VII. TheTransfer of Authority. to burden Callicles It wouldbe too muchof an honor,however, of The whole is and the murder. with society corrupt, guilt personally Callicles is no more of corruption theprocess did not startyesterday. in the morass thanoneof a kind;andhe mayevenhimself get caught of the goodstatesman which raises the question he deepens.Socrates in terms of adarenowdefined on principle.Goodness and badness A of statesman is the order existence. or good vancing decomposing he is badif under become his rule if under his rulethe citizens better, order. Socrates the citizensbecomeworse,in termsof existential the menwhoarethe prideof Athenian reviews Themistocles, history: his criterion he findsthat and Cimon,Miltiades; applying Pericles, with the docks and have were statesmen. bloated bad city they They room for left no andtheyhave andwallsandrevenues, harbors justice of their The conclusive and temperance. prooffor the evil character themby the veryciticommitted ruleis the ferocious injustice against zens whomit wouldhavebeentheirtask to improve.The present the sucis theheirto theevilthathasaccumulated through generation And men like Callicles statesmen. and rulesof such"great" cessive of the masses whocaterto the evil passions Alcibiades mightwellbewantwithhis admonitions victims.So, whatdoesCallicles cometheir a flatterer of the and to become to the habitsof politics to conform that Socrates should demos? Does Callicles seriously suggest jointhe his further? it not rather still Is ranks of thosewho corrupt society Calrestore some But order? thetruth which would taskto pronounce out of the circleof his evil. He can only repeat liclescannot break forSocrates willbe unpleasant. thattheconsequences of Plato:no doubt, the confixestheposition answer The Socratic whodoesnot knowthatin Athensany maybe unpleasant; sequences if he wereput to nor manmaysuffer anything; wouldit be a surprise a of this kind. And why fate he rather on thecontrary, death; expects he is one of the few Athenians his death? Because doeshe anticipate thetrueartof politics andtheonlyonein histimewho about whocares actslikea statesman (521d).

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This last formulation, by which Plato claimsfor himselfthe true of his time, is imporatnt in severalrespects. In the constatesmanship structionof the Gorgias,this claim destroysthe authorityof Callicles to give advice to anybodywith regardto public conduct. The man of tyrannical who standsconvictedas the accomplice murderers and as of his country,does not represent the corruptor an orderand cannot speakwords to which anybodyis obliged to bow with respect. The of publicorderlies with Socrates. With regardto the relaauthority tion of Plato to Athens the claim stigmatizes the politicianswho are the of "love the obsessed people"(demouEros,513c) as the "adverby saries" (antistasiotes,513c) of the existentialorder represented by the authoritative from the people order is transferred Socrates-Plato; of Athens and its leadersto the one man Plato. Surprisingas this move may seem to many, Plato's claim has proved historically quite sound. The orderrepresented by Callicleshas gone down in ignominy; Athens and is still one of the orderrepresented by Plato has survived in the of the soul of those men the most important order ingredients who havenot renounced the traditionof Westerncivilization. Finally, this claimis of a certaininterestin the historyof politicalideasbecause the Platonicsituationrecursin recentWesternhistoryin the personof Nietzsche. Faced by the horrorsof powerpolitics in the nineteenth of Bismarck's underthe impression foundacentury,and in particular this in the claim almost same wordsas Plato tion, Nietzscherenewed the GrossePolitikof Bismarck as the KleinePolitik whenhe stigmatized and against such usurpationclaimedthe representative statesmanship of the age for himself. VIII. The Judgment of the Dead. fromAthens to Plato is the climaxof the The transfer of authority of the transferand the source of the new The meaning Gorgias. clarification.Let us recallwhat is some need still however, authority, that the authority means of Athens, transfer of at stake. The authority of a people in history,is invalidatedand as the public organization which is manifestin the person by a new publicauthority superseded of Plato. That is revolution. And it is even more than an ordinary in whichnew politicalforcesenterthe strugglefor powerin revolution is a radicalcall for with the olderones. Plato'srevolution competition of Athens has lost its soul. The The people spiritualregeneration. is disorAthenian of Callicles, existentially democracy, representative

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the greatmenof Athenian of their are the corruptors dered; history the lawcourts of Athenscan kill a manphysically but their country; sentence has no moralauthority of punishment.The fundamental raison of a people, d'etre thatit goesits waythrough in partnerhistory with is Athens has there no reason should ceased; God, exist, ship why whatshe is. The Gorgias of deathupon is the sentence considering Athens. But whatis the nature of the authority whichrenders judgment? Platoreveals it through of the Dead,conthe mythof the Judgment the Gorgias.Callicles of the Socrates hadreminded cluding repeatedly fatethatawaits himat thehands of an Athenian court. In a finalanswerSocrates die witha justsoul,thango saysthathe wouldrather intothebeyond be thelast witha soulfull of injustice.Forthiswould he sets for this resolution andworstof all evils (522e). The reason forthin themyth. From there stems a lawconcerntheAge of Cronos of man,whichstill is in forceamongthe gods: that ing the destiny to theIslands menwhohaveleda justandholylifewillgo, afterdeath, life will of theBlessed, andimpious whilethosewhohaveled an unjust even Cronos of and to In the Tartarus for quite Age go punishment. on the day wererendered in the Age of Zeus,the judgments recently alive. were on which to die;themenas wellas thejudges themenwere For men the occurred. of As a result,frequent miscarriages justice "hadtheirclotheson," that is, theywerestill in the body;and the of the souls;and the the truecharacter of the bodycovered apparel corin perceiving their clothes" were themselves "by hampered judges the about The them. the before of souls the state complaints rectly the Now the he to Zeus and came changed procedure. misjudgments are in and after souls sentences arepassed death; judgment uponthe sons of Zeus thedead andAeacus, (523Minos, Rhadamanthys sitting, deforor their reveal souls the of their bodies, beauty 524a). Stripped indicates because themimpartially caninspect nothing mity,thejudges of to the Islands them can send and theirearthly correctly rank, they of punishment is twofold. or to Tartarus.The purpose the Blessed unlesstheyaretoo the soulswill be chastised suffering By temporary and their eternal are incurable suffering bad;someof them,however, soulswithfearandthus of fillingthe unregenerate the purpose serves badsoulswhosuffer The utterly to theirchastisement. of contributing of we can trust the authority to be seem eternal (if always punishment and rulers existence were in their who men the of souls bodily Homer)

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crimes arealways committed for,the greatest potentates; by thosewho havepower. If, however, a good soulappears before the judges, it is mostlikely to be thesoulof a manwhohasbeena philosopher andwho has refrained in his lifetime frominterfering withthe affairs of other men(526c). The mythof theGorgias of thePlatonic which is theearliest poems concern a philosophy of politics in its andhistory. It is verysimple construction. formthemeanit contains in a rudimentary Nevertheless, in thelater differentiated ingsthatareexpressed, symbolism, by a more of the The Timaeus. the Statesman the and poems Republic, special valueof thepresent andits closeterseness mythis dueto its elemental ness to the original in it. Socrates whichare expressed experiences theaccount of themythwiththewarning thatCallicles opens mayconsiderit no morethana prettytale,but thathe is, indeed, tellingthe "truth" theissueof the formwe see raised (523a). In an abbreviated truthof the mythwhich in becomes the object of elaborate discussion the Timaeus.Hence,we shallnot search on the level for the "truth" of theovert intotheexpebuttranslate theovert "pretty story" symbols riences offer of thesoulfor which which theystand. The firstsymbols themselves for suchtranslation andZeus. We aretheAgesof Cronos areacquainted withtheirmeaning fromthe Statesman.They signify the historical of of the sequence mythandof the age age the people's of the differentiated, them Plato introduces autonomous personality. in the Gorgias for for the purpose in procedure of datingthe change the judgment of the dead. In the Age of Cronos, and "untilquite in the of were whiletheywere the souls Zeus," recently Age judged still"alive"; for theworldly thatis, thejudgment wasbiased by regard of the soul. Now the soulsarejudged station whentheyare"dead," thatis, in their rank. Thischange to worldly without nakedness, regard in the modeof judgment thatis, in historical is quite"recent"; time, of thesoulthatwas Platois speaking of thenewapproach to theorder thesenaked inaugurated by Socrates. Under the new dispensation, of this soulsarejudged With the of the "Sons Zeus." meaning by Sons of The Statesman. we are the symbol againacquainted through in general, and Zeusarethemenof thenewage,themystic-philosophers Platohimself.TheseSonsof Zeusare"dead."We haveto primarily "life"and "death" in of the symbols the meaning ascertain, therefore, themyth. The meaning of deathin the mythhasbeencarefully by prepared the remarks in the dialogue itself. WhenCallicles incidental praised

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life of hedonistichappiness,Socratessuggestedthat in this case life wouldbe something awful (deinos). Euripides might even be right in that life is is life. Most and death death, saying likely,at this moment we wouldhave to be considered it be truewhat a sage for would dead; has said: that our body (soma) is our tomb (sema) (493a).8 The truelife of the soul, thus,wouldbe its existence free of the prisonof the or in a life its body, preceding following earthlyentombment. Conthe Plato has exand post-existence cerning meaningof pre-existence at The himself in other pressed length dialogues. great symbolization of pre-existence is given in the myth of the Phaedrus. Let us recall only one passagewhich clarifiesthe meaningof the "Sons of Zeus." In Phaedrus "whenwe (the (250b) Plato speaksof the happyexistence the formsof eterin train of the followed Zeus," philosophers) seeing nal being whichnow can be recalledthroughanamnesis. Concerning the idea of post-existence, in particular with regardto the purification of the soul in after-life, we have an important passagein the Cratylus as unfoundedthe fear which (403-404b). In this passagePlato rejects menhaveof the rulerof the underworld.His names,Pluto and Hades, indicatethat he is richand consequently does not want anythingof us, and that he has the knowledgeof all noble things. If the souls who dwell in his presencehad reallyreasonto fear him, at least now and then one wouldescapefromhim. But, as a matterof fact, they like to dwell with him; they are bound to him by their active desire;for, he has the knowledge of virtueand he pointsto the souls the path to their this the souls do not have fully developed In however, life, perfection. desirefor perfection. That is the reasonwhy Pluto wants them only after they are freed from the passionsof the body. Only after death their desire for virtue (peri will they be free to follow undisturbed Pluto binds the souls to himself,for aretenepithymia). By this desire of which in the relationwith him they will at last achievea purification "the fear were and obsessed as as were by incapable long they they the is to make No the of thus, compulsion, necessary body." frenzy on the consouls undergotheir catharticsufferingin the underworld; trary,here at last the soul is free to pass throughthe desiredcatharsis of the body. in earthly existence whichwasprevented by the obstacle castsomelight on the mythical These variouspassages play with the symbolsof life and death in the Gorgias. Death can mean eitherthe
8 The image of life as an entombmentof the soul in the body recurs in other contexts. In Phaedrus 250c, for instance, Plato speaks of the souls in the state when they were still "pure and untombed"by the body.

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and the imitatioSocratishad becomethe orderof life earthlyexistence;

entombment of thesoulin its earthly or theshedding of thebody. body, Lifecanmeaneither of thesoulfromthe or freedom existence, earthly of thebody. The shifting is the theseseveral between frenzy meanings source of therichness of theGorgias. Letusbegin withthemeaning on thelevelof history. of thesymbols In the historico-political arethe like Callicles the process lustily-living of in the passion entombed and frenzy theirbody;theyare "dead," wholet their thatis, by themystic-philosophers judged by the "living," soulsbe penetrated achieved the have of death and, thus, by experience life subspeciemortis The in freedom transfer fromsomatic passion. of authority means thevictory of thelife of thesouloverthedeadliness of earthly the life of the soulandthe between passion. This tension tombof the body,however, in history. has only "recently" developed life between in the age of the people's Formerly, myth,the distinction existence could anddeathhadnot beenso clear;at thattimeearthly for the life of the soul. The soulhadfirstto be easilybe mistaken of death. Onlywhen from the theexperience separated bodythrough from Thanatos the soul,couldit be distinguished had entered clearly the the semaof the body;onlythencouldits non-somatic nature, coof its order of its existence withthe cosmos andthe autonomy eternity become werethe decisive intelligible.The life and deathof Socrates in thediscovery of thesoul. The soulof Socrates events andliberation was oriented and the the Agathonthroughits eroticism; towards with the soul its eternal invaded substance, creating Agathon thereby of the body. the autonomous orderof the soul beyondthe passions the received existence the soul in its earthly this catharsis, Through was the The of Socrates of life its eternal great stigma post-existence. of deathinto the invasion of the soulthrough modelof the liberation for his followers, andaboveall for Plato. Onlynow,whenthe Sons of of Zeushavedied,when themin life,is thecatharsis embraces death of life; and onlythe soulswho the soulrevealed as the truemeaning of viewwhichenables themto judgethe havedied,havethe clearness of death is the of the The authority thus, authority judges, "living." overlife. of of thosewhodo not havethe experience But whatis the status the life of the soul? thisexperience deathin existence andthrough gain of history as a meaningful theproblem On thisquestion order, hinges as thetheogonic of history thatis, theproblem process.If we approach the fact that we haveto accept the problem of the theogonic process,

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the revelationof divinity in historyis ontologicallyreal. The myth of the peopleis reallysuperseded by the myth of the soul. The peoit is corroded ple's myth is in full decadence; by pleonexiaand reason, as evidencedby Gorgias,Polus and Callicles. The orderof the soul as revealed throughSocrateshas, indeed,becomethe new orderof relations betweenGod and man. And the authority of this new orderis To oneself the of in tomb inescapable. bury bodily existence (the of escape Callicles) is of no avail;the wayfromthe people'smythdoes not lead to the darkness of nature,it leads to the life of the soul; and the soul must die and, divestedof its body, it will stand before its judge. This new orderis understood secretlyeven by those who meet it with sulkinessand recalcitrance, for this secretunderstanding binds the partners of the dialoguetogetherat leastfor its duration. We must recalla passagefrom the Cratylus. The "desirefor virtue"is present, even if it is obscured by the maniaof the body; and it will reignfreely when the obstacleof the body is removed. Insofaras the dialogueis an attemptat existential it is an attemptto liberatethe communication, soul from its passions,to denudeit of its body. Socratesspeaksto his interlocutors as if they were "dead"souls, or at least as if they were soulswho are capable of death. On the part of Socrates,the dialogue is an attemptto submitthe others,at least tentatively, to the catharsis of death. The judgmentof the dead thus is enactedin part in the in the attemptof Socratesto piercethrough dialogueitself, concretely, the "body"of his interlocutors to theirnakedsouls. He triesto make and to those who threatenhim with death. Hence die, thereby live, the tale of the myth,turnsto Callicles for Socrates,afterhe has finished that last time and offershim an exhortation for of his own in exchange the former's friendlyadmonitions. He assuresCalliclesthat he is persuadedof the truth of the judgmentand that he wishesto presenthis soul undefiled beforethe judge;and that, to the utmostof his powers, he exhortsall men to be equallypersuaded. He now exhortsCallicles, to take part in this combat(dgon), whichis the agon of life therefore, and greater than any other. Otherwise he will sufferbeforehis eternal judges the fate which he predictedfor Socrates before the earthly - and he will lead Calliclesto eudaijudges. "Followmy persuasion" monia in this life and after death (527c). The existentialappealis of the demandto submitfreely now supported by the ultimateauthority to the inevitable here and right now, that is: to enterthe comjudgment of been liberated whose have those souls by deathand who live munity in the presence of the judgment.

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The barriers between the earthly existence of the soulandits postexistence havebroken of existence down. Catharsis is themeaning for the soul on both sidesof the dividing line of disembodiment. The catharsis which the soulhasnot achieved in earthly existence willhave to be achieved in post-existence. Hencethe punishment, the timoria, which the soul will haveto undergo in after-life doesnot differfrom the punishment which it hasto undergo of in thislife for the purpose Thispurifying timoria is a social it canbe applied purification. process; whose misbygodsorbymen. Thosewhoaretouchable by it arethose deeds(hamartemata) arecurable; to are able the undergo purificathey tionby painandsuffering.And thereis no otherwayfor the soulto be delivered fromevil (adikia)"inthisworld or thenext"(525c). In thisideaof the catharsis "inthisworldor the next," through suffering therecan againbe felt the Aeschylean touchof the wisdom through as thegreat lawof thepsyche forgodsandmen. suffering The curable in the stateof judgment; to soul,thus,is permanently itselfpermanently in thepresence of thejudgment, wemight experience of thecurable thegoodsoulsarein hell" soul;"only say,is thecriterion - as Berdiaev, on occasion, hasformulated theproblem.Thisconcepwouldhavean unexpected if it wereundertion,however, consequence stoodnot existentially butdogmatically. If the symbol of punishment in after-life weremisunderstood as a dogmatic the not so hypothesis, at the conclusion that theywill waitfor the good soulsmightarrive after-life andsee whatis goingto happen is the lot then;if suffering of the soul underall circumstances, can wait for their shareof they is no more than a in (which suffering assertion) post-existence dogmatic andmeanwhile It is a problem in enjoysomepleasurable criminality. thepsychology of dogmatic to thatwhich derailment similar hasarisen in someinstances in Calvinism: if the fate of the soulis predestined, somemayarrive at the conclusion that it doesnot matter whatthey do. This psychological the misunderderailment, through dogmatic of the existential truth of the Plato forestalls standing myth, by the of eternal threat condemnation for the incurable souls. In thesymbolismof themyth, eternal is the correlate condemnation to the refusal of communication on thelevelof themythof thesoul;eternal condemnation means, in existential self-condemnation. of The revelation terms, the divinity in history moves restswiththe menwho on; the authority live in friendship withGod;the criminal can achieve but the nothing of his soul. perdition