Argentina and the Brain Drain: Some Perspectives from Expatriates in the United States

BY DAVID L. McKEE*

The present study will not be concerned with the general economic and political problems facing Argentina. Instead it will focus on a particular issue facing most Third World countries today -the brain drain. A general investigation ofthe brain drain from Argentina is well beyond the scope of this study. The magnitude of the difficulties involved in assembling primary information from the members of the various occupational groups who have migrated were thought to be prohibitive. Instead the author has elected to limit the study to a particular subset of the professional labour force, health care professionals and physical scientists. The findings presented in this study were derived from a survey of such persons who were born in Argentina and are currently residents of the United States. The survey population consisted of individuals listed in the current edition of American Men and Women of Science. N o sampling techniques were employed. The survey was mailed to all persons fulfillingthe required characteristics. Eighty-nineresponses were received from a total of 169 surveyed. Fifteen mailings did not reach the individuals addressed. In the first part of the questionnaire the respondents were asked to supply background information concerning personal and family matters. The respondentsranged in age from the thirties through retirement, but the vast majority were in their forties and fifties. The latter category accounted for 42 respondents, while the former accounted for 33. Although only five respondents were in their thirties it seems prudent to suggest that the forces behind the migration phenomenon are on the wane. A more reasonable view of the age spread might be that the directory from which the respondentswere recruited is less likely to include entry level professionals. Only seven respondents had reached the age of sixty.

Kent State University, College of Business Administration, Kent, Ohio, U.S.A.

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Thus, it seems as though the forces encouraging the migration under investigation achieved a critical impact towards the middle of this century. Sixty-eight respondents entered the United States prior to attaining thirty years of age. Ofthose, 48 entered in the decade preceding that milestone. Twenty-six respondents made the move during their thirties. The age of forty appears to be an effective cut-off date as only five respondents elected to move beyond that age. Seventy-nine of the respondents hold United States citizenship. Fifty-one indicated a similar status for their spouse. It is certainly evident that the bulk of the population under review have established permanent ties to the United States. The respondents were asked to identify their primary reason for moving to the United States. Forty-three cited educational considerations as their primary motivation while forty indicated that their move was work oriented. Several cited the political climate in Argentina as the prime factor in their decision to move and a small number accompanied their parents as small children. In an attempt to gain a clearer understanding of the factors underlying the migration decision, the respondents were asked if their ultimate career choice was made before or after entering the United States. Sixty-one indicated having made their career choice prior to leaving Argentina while 24 made the decision after their entry into the United States. Patterns ofdegree acquisition are also significantto the brain drain. The loss ofeducated people is probably more likely if their degrees are acquired abroad. While some of the respondents received considerable training in the United States, the pattern is mixed. Only 13 respondents received their bachelors degree in the United States while 73 hold Argentine degrees. At the masters level 23 hold degrees from institutions in the United States while 48 received degrees in their homeland. Even at the doctoral level the majority of those responding hold Argentine degrees. Fifty-nine earned Argentine doctorates while 35 earned degrees in the United States. These data indicate that opportunities for advanced study do exist in Argentina. In this respect that country is in a much stronger position than many Third World nations. The loss of scientific personnel cannot be blamed upon a lack of educational opportunities. Although some respondents did study in the United States, such persons were a minority. This information has clear policy implications for Argentina. If scientific personnel graduating from domestic programmes could be retained then the brain drain would be lessened considerably. Table 1 on page 455 presents information from respondents concerning the importance of selected factors in the migration process. In order to measure the significance of the factors, the respondents were asked to attach weights of one through six to them, with six being the least important. They were also given the option of writing in additional factors which were important to them. The factors were not to be rank ordered, thus the respondents could suit their own judgment in selecting similar or different weights for any or all factors involved. The bracketed figuresrepresent the number of respondents electing a particular factor who elected each specific weighting. Educational considerations play an obvious role in exposing foreign nationals to the United States. However, they were excluded from consideration in this particular instance in order to gain a clearer perception of how the factors included are related to each other and which are considered important. Of all the factors considered, career oriented matters took top billing. More than 95 per cent weighing professional considerations included that item in their top three categories. In the case of advancement possibilities the figure was just over 92 per cent. In absolute terms, 56 respondents gave a number one ranking to professional considerations and 53 gave that ranking to advancement possibilities.

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TABLE 1 IYPOBTAICL 01 BLLECTLD ?ACTORB I 1 TEE YIORATIOI PROCLBS

Order of Importance
Pactom
1 2

3
(8) 9.09% (9) 12.33 (5) 6.76 (22) 38.59 (6) 7.89
(10) 11.73

Advancement Possibilities Buainess Interests Family Ties Financial Conslderatlons Health Considerations Political Environwnt Professional Considerations

(53) 60.23% (4) 5.48 (14) 18.92

(12) 21.05

(20) 22.72% (4) 5.48

(3)
3.41%

(0)

(4)
4.55%

0.0% (8) 10.96 (5) 6.76

(3)
4.11 (5) 6.76 (4) 7.02 (2) 2.63 (5) 5.81 (1) 1.23

(45) 61.64
(62) 56.76 (7) 12.28 (58) 76.32
(11) 12.79

(3)
4.05 (9) 15.79 (2) 2.63 (17) 19.77 (16) 19.75

(3)
5.26 (5) 6.58

(3)
3.95 (40) 46.51 (56) 69.14

(3)
3.49 (1) 1.23

(5) 6.17

(2) 2.47

Although those results indicate that there was considerable pragmatism associated with the decision to emigrate, the political environment was also quite important. Seventy-eight per cent of the respondents included that item in their top three. Forty respondents gave it a number one rating. Financial considerations were also important. More than 75 per cent of those rating that category included it in their top three. However, only 12 respondents gave it a number one rating, indicating that they considered it to be much less important than the categories discussed above. Business interests, family ties and health considerations appear to have relatively little significance. Following the rating procedure, the respondents were asked for a more specific identification of the factors which prompted them to choose a career in the United States. They were asked to rank the factors which had been considered earlier. The respondents were also given the option of including anything they wished. Thus the ranking could include a maximum of eight categories. The results are included in Table 2 on page
456.

In this case professional considerations emerged as the most important factor in the migration decision. Only one respondent listing it failed to include it in the top four categories, while 16 ranked it number one. Although 17 respondents ranked advancement possibilities number one, that item was clearly less significant overall, asjust under 85 per cent of those listing it included it in their top four categories. Financial considerationswere also quite important. Nearly 90 per cent of those listing that item included it in their top four categories. However, it was clearly less important than those discussed above, since fewer respondents included it in their lists. The political environment was also an important item. Of the 58 respondents listing it, more than 79 per cent included it in their top four categories. Other items listed were much less significant. Following the rating and ranking procedure, the respondents were invited to comment if they wished. Seventeenchose to do so. One respondent identified two ovemding issues for a permanent emigrke. The first concerned the reason for leaving and the second was the reason for not returning. Applying those considerations to his own case, he explained that he left to acquire further training. He did not return because of much better living standards in the U.S. coupled with a decreasing living standard in homeland.

455

TABLE Z ? A R N K O R D I R I I O O? SELECTED ?ACTORS C O I T R I B U T I I O TO H I O R A T I O I

?actor'.

-3

Order of Importance

-6 7 (2) 3.77%
(6) 20.69

4
(4)
7.551 (2) 6.89 (2) 5.71

5
(6) 11.32% (9) 31.03 (6) 17.14
(3) 6.67

Advmccment P a o i b i l i t i e a Burnineen Intere'.ta

? P i l y Ties

(17) 32.082
(0)

(7) 13.21% (2) 6.89

(17) 32.081 (3) 10.34

(0) OX
(4) 13.79 (5) 14.29

Financial Consideration. Health Conoidcratlon~ Politico1 Environment

(4) 8.89

(5) 14.29
(9)

(6) 17.14 (1) 2.22

20.w

(7) 15.56
(0)

(20) 44.24
(3) 10.71

(0)
0

0
(14) 29.17

(3) 10.71 (5) 10.42 (0)

0

(8)
28.57 (2) 4.17 (1) 1.75
(0)

(11) 39.29 (2) 4.17

(5) 10.42
(7) 12.28 (1) 9.09

Profemmima1 Consideratlam
other

(8) 14.04
(2) 18.18

(0)
0

(0)

(1) 9.09

Another respondent cited a better chance of doing mathematical research as his main reason for remaining in the United States. Additional related factors included access to libraries and communication with other researchers. Another whose visa required him to leave the United States for two years following the completion of his education, accepted a position with a medical research facility run by an American university in Columbia. Over the years he has been instrumental in the training of tropical disease specialists from several nations. Thus he feels that his work is having an impact beyond the United States, but of course it has kept him away from his homeland. The respondents were asked to identify any ties which they have retained with their homeland. Seventy-nine indicated that they still have family there and 7 1 have friends. Thirty have retained a professional association and another is trying to establish one. Only five indicated that they still have financial ties. Forty-six respondents have held positions in Argentina since the completion of their education. Of those, three worked for twenty years and another sixteen years. Such long periods of involvement were not typical however since 26 worked five years or less and another 12 worked for ten years or less. The fact that just over 50 per cent of the respondents have Argentine work experience suggests that positions have been available and that there has been an interest in them. A continuing interest in their homeland is also demonstrated by visitation patterns. Twenty-seven respondents indicated that they visited Argentina every one or two years and 24 others make the trip every two to four years. Eight said that they visit at five-year intervals and 18 attested to infrequent visits. Only eight respondents said that they have never visited their homeland. When asked if there was a need for their particular type of expertise in their homeland, 6 1 indicated that there was, 2 1 said no, and seven didn't know. Those who felt that their

456

skills were needed were asked how such a need might be fulfilled. One respondent placed the responsibility squarely on Argentina: It is up to the homeland to take proper action leading to a) identifying its needs for professionals; b) recovering from abroad its own qualified nationals and integrating them within a productive work force; c) creating conditions to make them feel at home again, both as professionals and as citizens. As a suggestion on how to pursue such a policy he added, The best example I know of such [a] programme is the U.K. science and technology policy after the Second World War. It seems obvious that the success of the undertaking suggested requires at least support from the government if not direct action. Twenty-three respondents cited political considerations as a problem. Economic matters were also recognized as important. Among these stability and growth were perhaps the most significant. One respondent summed up the problem by citing economic development, consistent economic policy to decrease inflation and promote industrial expansion. Several respondents felt that there were adequate supplies of scientific expertise available in Argentina. The respondents were asked what employment they might seek if it became necessary for them to return home. Many simply indicated that they would continue their careers in teaching and research. Two of those seemed sceptical of their chances of success. Another indicated an interest in education, research or a health oriented management position. He felt that he would have to do something different than his current occupation because he is at the peak of his scientific career and realistically ... cannot maintain a similar level of productivity and quality back in ... [his] country. Some indicated that they would practice medicine. One of those would do so by default since there is no need for his present academic specialty (medical history). Some mentioned engineering and technical fields. One expressed an interest in patent, licensing and technology transfer laws. There was also some interest in management and/or consulting.

By way of a final summing up, the respondents were invited to make any comments that they considered germane to the availability and utilization of professional expertise in Argentina. Responses alluded to various political and economic problems. Some respondents felt that there is no real lack of professional talent but that conditions will have to change if it is to be recovered and/or retained.
Comments and suggestions were plentiful. Many respondents shared certain of the concerns quoted above. Ongoing political and economic problems were thought by many to be major factors in the brain drain. The feeling seems to be that there would be no real shortage of expertise if a receptive climate for it could be established including the availability of employment. As might be expected, some respondents have acquired specialties beyond the needs of their homeland. One specialist in solar system exploitation saw no employment opportunities in any Third World country without some direct association with a godfather in the US. or Europe. Another described his expertise as a luxury in Argentina. He went on to explain that many problems need to be solved before money can be applied to research. Even within research pursuits he suggested the need for a pecking order.

457

Certain areas of research are more important than others for the countrys needs and should be given priority. According to one respondent there is no lack of talent. Rather there are no positions and nothing to stimulate younger people - no funds for teaching and research. He claims gross errors in teaching and academic policies originating in political decisions only. He goes on to say that universities graduate too many professionals because selection is non existent. Professional markets are flooded which then leads to emigration. Judging from responses, the losses of scientific personnel which have occurred in the past may be irreversible. Most of the respondents have become United States citizens and now have families in that country. However, the fact that many now regard the United States as home does not preclude further intercourse with colleagues in Argentina. The responses to the questionnaire indicate a continuing interest in Argentina. Many still have family and friends in that country. Thirty have retained some professional associations. Many of the policy implications of the study have been eloquently voiced by the respondents themselves and need little elaboration. However some subtleties bear mention. First of all, the retreat of the generals has not removed all political factors from the problem list. Now that the military have left the scene, the scientific and professional activities under consideration must be de-politicized. The government must take explicit steps to ensure that academic and scientific positions are awarded on the basis of expertise rather than other considerations. The role of the government must be one of support. It should be noted that political considerations were at best third or fourth among the factors cited by respondents as influential in their migration decisions. Professional considerations and advancement opportunities seemed far more important. Economic considerations were important as well. The evidence from the current investigation suggests that educational considerations are far less important as a causal element in the brain drain from Argentina, than is the case in many Third World nations. Many professionals are lost to emerging nations because they go abroad to seek advanced education. Having left their homes, career and related locational decisions follow almost by default. Sixty-one respondents in the current study made their career choices prior to moving and 59 hold Argentine doctorates. Unless the nation is in the business of training professionals for export, matters concerning training and placement require the attention of the policy makers. If surplus personnel are emerging in certain fields, then a reordering of training priorities may be called for. It seems doubtful that the best interests of the country will be served by a continuing leakage of well-trained nationals into external labour markets.

Selected Bibliography Aganval, V.B. and Winkler, D.R. Migration of Professional Manpower to the United States, Southern Economic Journal, January 1984. Vol. 50, No. 3. pp. 814-830. Bhagwati, J.N. The Brain Drain, International Social Science Journal, 1976. Vol. 28, No. 4. pp. 69 1-729.

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Ghosh, B.N. 'Typology of Brain Migration and Some Policy Implications', Rivizta Internazionale di Scienze Economische e Commerciali, April 198 1. Vol. 28, No. 4. pp. 350-365.

Kwok,V. and Leland, H.

'An Economic Model of the Brain Drain', American Economic Review', March 1982. Vol. 72, NO. 1. pp. 9 1- 100. MacMillan, M.J. 'The Economic Effects of International Migration: A Survey', Journal o f Common Market Studies, March 1982. Vol. 20, No. 3. pp. 245-267. Rodriguez, C.A. 'On the Welfare Aspects of International Migration', Journal of Political Economy, October 1975. Vol. 83, No. 5. pp. 1065-1072.

L'ARGENTINE ET L'EXODE DES CERVEAUX : QUELQUES PERSPECTIVES DAPRES DES EXPATRIES AUX ETATS-UNIS
Les resultats de cette etude decoulent d'une enquCte menee entre les ressortissants argentins actuellement vivant aux Etats-Unis. Selon son auteur, David L. McKee, cette etude se penche sur 'une question precise a laquelle font face aujourd'hui la plupart des pays du Tiers monde : l'Exode des Cerveaux'. La population de l'enqdte se composait des individus de souche argentine mentionnis dans la dernitre edition de 'American Men and Women of Science'. L'enquCte mtne M. McKee a la conclusion que, dans le cas de l'exode des cerveaux de l'Argentine, les considerations d'ordre educatifjouent un r61e moins important que dans le cas d'autres pays du Tiers monde en general. En effet, d'aprts les resultats de l'etude, non seulement la grosse majoritt des personnes faisant l'objet de l'enquete avait pris les decisions concernant leur camere avant de quitter le pays natal, mais aussi, presque le mCme nombre est titulaire d'un doctorat passe par une Universite argentine.

LA ARGENTINA Y EL EXODO DE COMPETENCIAS : ALGUNAS PERSPECTIVAS BASADAS EN UNA MUESTRA DE EXPATRIADOS EN LOS ESTADOS UNIDOS Los resultados del presente estudio, efectuado por David L. McKee, provienen de una encuesta realizada entre argentinos que residen actualmente en 10s Estados Unidos. Segun declara el autor, el tema del trabajo alude a 'una cuestion precisa que enfrentan actualmente la mayoria de 10s paises del tercer mundo: el exodo de competencias'. El public0 de la encuesta estuvo constituido por personas provenientes de la Argentina mencionadas en la ultima edicion de la guia American Men and Women on Science. Sobre la base de sus comprobaciones, McKee llega a la conclusion de que, en el caso del exodo de competencias de la Argentina, las aspiraciones en materia de estudios tienen una influencia mucho menor que en lo relativo a otors paises del tercer mundo. En efecto, segGn 10s resultados del estudio, no solo la gran mayoria de las personas que participaron en la encuesta habian adoptado las decisiones relativas a su carrera antes de abandonar su pais natal, sino que un nGmero casi identico posee un diploma doctoral expedido por una universidad argentina.

459