Copyright 2003, Society of Petroleum Engineers Inc.

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September 2003.

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Abstract
Twister is a revolutionary gas conditioning technology
which has been under development for natural gas
applications since 1997. Condensation and separation at
supersonic velocity is the key to some unique benefits. An
extremely short residence time prevents hydrate problems,
eliminating chemicals and associated regeneration systems.
The simplicity and reliability of a static device, with no
rotating parts and operating without chemicals, ensures a
simple facility with a high availability, suitable for
unmanned operation.
Full scale test units have been operational since 1998 at
five gas plants in the Netherlands, Nigeria and Norway, with
varying gas compositions and operating conditions. Test
results have been used to improve and validate sophisticated
Computational Fluid Dynamic (CFD) models of the complex
combination of aerodynamics, thermodynamics and fluid-
dynamics. These CFD models have been paramount in
improving Twister performance.
Although Twister is a mature technology, Twister BV are
developing a second generation Twister design promising a
step change performance improvement and reduced pressure
drop. Field testing is scheduled for early 2004 with market
launch later that year.
The first commercial Twister application will start-up in
the 4th Quarter of 2003. Twister has been selected for the
dehydration process of a large, offshore gas development in
Malaysia. The Twister system design will be described.
Its simplicity makes Twister a key enabling technology for
subsea gas processing. The results of a joint industry
feasibility study will be reported.

Introduction
Twister is a revolutionary gas conditioning technology which
can be used to condense and separate water and heavy
hydrocarbons from natural gas [1]. Current
applications include:
1. Dehydration
2. Hydrocarbon dewpointing
3. Natural Gas Liquids extraction
4. Heating value reduction
New applications under study include offshore fuel gas
treatment for large aero-derivative gas turbines, pre-treatment
upstream CO2 membranes and bulk H2S removal upstream
sweetening plants.
The Twister Supersonic Separator has thermodynamics
similar to a turbo-expander, combining expansion, cyclone
gas/liquid separation and re-compression in a compact, tubular
device. Whereas a turbo-expander transforms pressure to shaft
power, Twister achieves a similar temperature drop by
transforming pressure to kinetic energy (i.e. supersonic
velocity).

Figure 1 - Cross-section of the Twister tube

Error! Reference source not found. shows the basic
design concept:
1. A Laval nozzle is used to expand the saturated feed
gas to supersonic velocity, which results in a low
temperature and pressure. A mist of water and
hydrocarbon condensation droplets will form.
2. A wing placed in the supersonic flow regime will
generate a high vorticity swirl (up to 300,000g),
centrifuging the droplets to the wall.
3. The liquids are split from the gas using a
cyclone separator.
4. The separated streams are slowed down in separate
diffusers, recovering some 65-80% of the
initial pressure.
5. The liquid stream still contains slip-gas, which will
be removed in a compact liquid de-gassing vessel and
recombined with the dry gas stream.


SPE 83977
Twister Supersonic Gas Conditioning for Unmanned Platforms and Subsea
Gas Processing
J.M. Brouwer, H.D. Epsom / Twister BV (www.TwisterBV.com)
Laval Nozzle Supersonic Wing
Mach 1.3 (500 m/s)
Saturated
Feed Gas
Dry Gas
30 bar, -40C
(435psi, -40F)
Liquids
+ Slip-Gas
70 bar, 10C
(1015psi, 50F)
100 bar, 20C
(1450psi, 68F)
70 bar, 0C
(1015psi, 32F)
Cyclone
Separator
(300,000g)
Diffuser
Expander Cyclone Separator Compressor
2 SPE 83977
Benefits
Condensation and separation at supersonic velocity is the key
to some unique benefits. A Twister tube designed for 35
MMscfd at 100 bar is only 2 meters long inside a 150 mm
casing. The residence time inside the cold Twister Supersonic
Separator is only milliseconds, allowing hydrates no time to
form and avoiding the requirement for hydrate inhibition
chemicals. The elimination of the associated chemical
regeneration systems avoids harmful BTX emissions to the
environment. The simplicity and reliability of a static device,
with no rotating parts and operating without chemicals,
ensures a simple facility with a high availability, suitable for
unmanned operation in harsh and/or offshore environments.
The compact and low weight facilities can be installed on an
unmanned, minimum facilities platform, not much larger than
a simple wellhead platform.

System design
Figure 2 shows a process flow diagram of a typical Twister
system. Twister is a Low Temperature Separation (LTS)
process, which performance can be optimised by inlet cooling.
This can be achieved by heat integration using the cold gas
exiting Twister, supplemented with air or seawater cooling if
required. The inlet separator upstream of the Twister tubes is
designed to remove produced liquids and prevent carry-over
of slugs and solids. The gas from the inlet separator is then
directed through the Twister tubes. The liquids separated by
Twister will still contain slip-gas, some 20-30% of the total
gas stream, which will be removed in a liquid de-gassing
vessel and recombined with the dry gas stream.

Figure 2 - Process flow diagram of a Twister system

The dry gas from the Twister tubes is mixed with the gas
from the liquid de-gassing vessel and directed through the
gas/gas heat exchanger to cool the feed gas. The water and
hydrocarbon condensate from the inlet separator and liquid de-
gassing vessel will typically be routed to a coalescer to
remove free water from the condensate.
In designing a gas conditioning system based on Twister
technology, the following issues need to be considered:
Twister is a fixed actual volumetric flow device. The gas
velocity at the throat of the Laval nozzle will always be
exactly Mach 1, fixing the flow through the tube. Some
turndown flexibility can be achieved by adjusting the
operating pressure. However, a typical Twister system
will include multiple Twister tubes to provide the required
turndown flexibility.
Twister is a pressure ratio device. For any design
pressure, the gas will expand to typically 30% of feed
pressure mid Twister and recompress to 65 to 80% of feed
pressure at the exit of Twister.
The supersonic conditions inside the Twister tubes are
intolerant to solids. Careful design of the inlet separation
system will be required to capture solids larger than
15 microns.

LTX liquid de-gassing vessel
Typically, the operating conditions of the liquid de-gassing
vessel are well within the hydrate formation regime. Twister
BV has developed a compact and highly efficient vessel
design based on conventional LTX technology, using heating
coils to melt the hydrates. A prototype of the improved and
proprietary LTX design has been commissioned at the NAM
operated Leermens plant in the Netherlands early 2002 and
performance testing has been successfully completed
early 2003.

Figure 3 - Vertical Twister-LTX pilot plant in the Netherlands

Field test results
Although Twister is a relatively new technology, extensive
operating experience has been obtained with commercial scale
test units in five different gas plants in the Netherlands since
1998, in Nigeria since 2000 and in Norway since 2002. These
test units have proved the viability of gas conditioning to
typical pipeline specifications as well as suitability for
unmanned operation.
The Twister plant in Nigeria has been in operation since
November 2000, successfully dehydrating 30 MMscfd to
pipeline specification (5C water dewpoint at 70 bar
export pressure).
In total six different Twister tubes were tested in Nigeria.
These design iterations were required to expand the operating
envelope of Twister and the validity envelope of the Twister
design models from lean to rich gas compositions, since the
Utorogu gas composition is significantly richer than any gas
Air/Sea
water
Cooler
Inlet
Separator
Twister Tube(s)
Water &
Condensate
Gas/Gas
HEX
Liquid
De-Gassing
Vessel
Air/Sea
water
Cooler
Inlet
Separator
Twister Tube(s)
Water &
Condensate
Gas/Gas
HEX
Liquid
De-Gassing
Vessel
SPE 83977 3
tested before. In addition, problems were initially encountered
with the accuracy of test measurements, necessitating the
development and installation of sophisticated measurement
systems including on-line water and hydrocarbon (HC) dew
point metering.
The latest test results in Nigeria showed a particularly
good water dew pointing performance, with an effective water
dew point suppression of approximately 22-28C (40-50F).
Based on a typical feed temperature of 20C (68F), operating
just outside the hydrate regime, the effective water dewpoint
of the gas exiting Twister is -2 to -9C (18 to 28F),
confidently meeting the water dewpoint specifications of both
the onshore and offshore Gas Gathering Systems in Nigeria.
HC dewpointing performance has proved more difficult to
validate since 2-phase flow occurred at the point of
measurement which could only be operated at 10 bar (145
psi). However, the addition of a simple separator ensures the
HC dewpoint specification of 15C at 80 bar (59F at 1,160
psi) will be met. Note that the HC dewpointing performance of
Twister strongly depends upon the gas composition and
process conditions.
Over the complete testing period Twister has been
operated without glycol injection. The elimination of glycol
and its associated regeneration systems, combined with the
absence of rotating parts, has demonstrated a step change
improvement in simplicity and reliability, critical factors
enabling normally unmanned operation. Studies indicate that
Twister can typically reduce life cycle cost by 10-25%
compared to conventional technologies such as Joule
Thompson expansion and mechanical refrigeration. The Shell
operating unit in Nigeria (SPDC) now plans to relocate the
Twister plant for a commercial fuel gas conditioning
application. Further commercial applications in Nigeria are
under study, including an expansion of the Utorogu plant.

-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Inlet temperature [C]
D
e
w
p
o
i
n
t

[
C
]

5
15
25
35
45
55
65
75
85
50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Inlet temperature [F]
D
e
w
p
o
i
n
t

[
F
]

HC dewpoint @ 10 bar (145 psi)
H2O dewpoint @ 80 bar (1160 psi)

Figure 4 - Dewpointing performance of the Twister demonstration
plant in Nigeria

CFD Modelling
The continuing performance improvement achieved since
testing the first Twister tube design mid November 2000 can
be mainly contributed to advancing modelling accuracy of the
supersonic, multi-phase flow behaviour inside the Twister
tube. Twister operating experience before testing at Utorogu
was limited to relatively lean gas. Utorogu produces a
particular rich non-associated gas comparable to associated
gas, resulting in a relatively high liquid loading inside the
Twister tube.
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) models were used
for the first time to design Twister tubes for Utorogu. Model
calibration proved to be an iterative process, progressively
improving the modeling accuracy and Twister performance.
The CFD modelling of the liquid-rich multi-phase flow
behavior inside Twister proved key to achieve further
performance improvements.
Figure 5 CFD plot of the supersonic flow inside Twister. The
colours represent pressure. The white triangle is the supersonic
wing twisting the gas. The pipe-in-pipe separator is on the right.

Twister BV has now established in-house, world-class
CFD modeling capabilities. CFD modelling has become an
inherent part of the Twister design process. Testing at Utorogu
has enabled Twister BV to expand the operating envelope of
Twister, and the validity envelope of the Twister design
models, from lean to rich gas compositions. Twister tube
designs can now be confidently made for a wide range of gas
compositions and process conditions without the design
iterations experienced in Utorogu.
Although Twister is a mature technology, Twister BV has
an extensive research and development program in place to
further improve the Twister performance envelope. An
exciting development is the second generation Twister
technology (patents pending). Principle improvements include
enhanced separation efficiency due to higher vorticity and
elimination of re-evaporation. Analysis with validated CFD
models has been completed indicating a step change
performance improvement allowing a significant reduction in
pressure drop. Field testing is scheduled towards early 2004
with market launch later in the year.

Offshore applications
The benefits of Twister are most apparent for larger offshore
gas developments. Offshore gas developments have
traditionally been developed using manned glycol (TEG)
dehydration facilities. Ever increasing pressure on cost,
personnel safety and environment is steadily pushing
unmanned concepts such as wet gas evacuation for new gas
developments. The simplicity of Twister Supersonic Gas
Conditioning technology now enables unmanned operation of
offshore dehydration and dewpointing facilities, ensuring
single-phase export. Twister offers a cost effective, safe and
environmentally friendly, development concept, eliminating
many of the flow assurance risks and limitations involved with
multi-phase wet gas evacuation.
The term "flow assurance" covers a broad range of topics
in multiphase hydrocarbon production systems, including flow
behaviour, hydrates, wax, asphaltenes, emulsions, scaling,
corrosion and erosion. Flow assurance is about ensuring a
steady and predictable flow of product to meet business
commitments. It includes some of the most important
technical issues facing the oil and gas industry today such as:
4 SPE 83977
Multi-phase export limits both pipeline turndown
flexibility and maximum pipeline size, sometimes
necessitating multiple smaller diameter pipelines and
often eliminating the flexibility to tie-in
future developments.
The pressure drop in a multi-phase pipeline can be
significantly higher compared to single-phase gas export
and difficult to predict. The pressure drop across the
Twister process (20-35%) may be more than compensated
for by the reduced pressure drop in the export pipeline.
Twister may also allow a lower pipeline design pressure.
The corrosion and hydrate management system needs to
be extremely reliable since the consequence of pipeline
failure will be severe. Combined with the complexity of
multi-phase flow behaviour, generally a conservative
approach needs to be adopted at an obvious additional
expense. Expenses for conservatively designed (CRA)
pipelines and costly slug catching facilities need to be
balanced with operational constraints including pigging
and ramp-up procedures. Routine pigging for liquid hold-
up and corrosion management is an inherently hazardous
and cumbersome operation.
The chemistry of the produced water, in combination with
the corrosion & hydrate inhibition chemicals, may result
in operational problems such as chemical contamination
& scale depositions. Costly vacuum desalination facilities
may be required to manage glycol salt contamination and
its associated operational and corrosion issues.
Table 1 shows the capital expenditure for a large offshore
Non-Associated Gas (NAG) development, comparing some
typical gas developments options. Note that the incremental
cost of the offshore Twister facilities is more than balanced by
savings on the pipeline and onshore facilities, notably
elimination of slug-catcher and chemical regeneration
systems. Twister will be a particularly attractive option for
corrosive service, i.e. for gas compositions with a high CO2
fraction, which may necessitate a Corrosion Resistant Alloy
(CRA) export line. For non-corrosive service, Twister will
generally start to become attractive for longer gas export lines.
The principle limitation of the Twister process compared to
chemical dehydration is the required pressure drop of 20-35%
of the feed pressure. However, this may be more than
compensated for by the reduced pressure drop in a single-
phase export pipeline.
Table 1 Cost comparison for offshore gas development options

B11 Offshore Malaysia
Petronas and Sarawak Shell Berhad (SSB) have signed a
purchase order for two 300 MMscfd Twister dehydration
trains to be installed on the B11 platform offshore Malaysia.
Commissioning is currently well underway with start-up
planned for October 20
The B11 gas is particularly corrosive with CO2
concentrations of up to 20 mol%, advocating a reliable
dehydration process. The very high H2S concentration of
3,500 ppm is a hazard to personnel and another incentive for
unmanned operation. The gas is feeding an LNG plant in
Bintulu, making high platform availability a key requirement.
For these reasons there was a strong drive to design the B11
platform as a normally unmanned facility. Feasibility studies
comparing Twister with the original manned TEG dehydration
concept concluded that Twister was a key enabler for
unmanned operation. Potential capital and operating cost
savings were quantified to be US$30-80 million, roughly split
50/50% capital/operating expenditure.

Figure 6 - B11 process flow diagram
Figure 6 shows a process flow diagram of the B11 gas
dehydration system. Gas from the platform wells arrives at
approximately 155 bar and is cooled from 125 to 40C using
air-coolers. Further cooling to 25C is achieved by cross-
exchange using the cold gas exiting Twister. Note inlet
cooling is limited by the hydrate formation temperature of
22C at 155 bar. An efficient inlet separator removes free
liquids and solids down to 15 microns. The gas is then
dewpointed using a total of 5x10% parallel Twister tubes in
each of the two trains. The pressure drop across the Twister
tubes is 30% or 47 bar. The condensate and water condensed
and separated by the Twister process is de-gassed in a 3-phase
LTX separator equipped with heating coils to melt hydrates.
The free water in condensate from the inlet- and LTS
separators is removed using a combination of tilted-plate and
filter coalescers designed to meet 275 ppmV free water in
condensate. The dry condensate will be re-combined with the
export gas.
Six compact Twister tubes (one spare), each with a
capacity of 60 MMscfd, are mounted in a vertical position on
an LTX type, vertical liquid de-gassing vessel (see Figure 7).
The footprint of the Twister module is 3x3 meters.
1,000MMSCFD
100m waterdepth
TEG Wet Gas
CRA
Wet Gas
CS
Twister TEG Wet Gas
CRA
Wet Gas
CS
Twister
Platform 185 120 120 165 Manned Unmanned Unmanned Unmanned
Pipelines (100km) 45 120 50 35 3x24" CS
3x24" CRA
6" CS
3x24" CS
6" CS
48"CS
12" CS
Slugcatcher 35 35 35 - Yes Yes Yes No
Onshore treatment 50 55 55 35
Gas/Liquid
treatment
Gas/Liquid
treatment,
MEG regen.
Gas/Liquid
treatment,
MEG regen.
Liquid
treatment
Total US$MM (%) 315 330 260 235 (121%) (127%) (100%) (90%)
Capital Expenditure (Surface) Scope
SPE 83977 5

Figure 7 Twister lay-out for B11

A prototype of the B11 Twister system design has been
commissioned at the NAM operated Leermens plant in the
Netherlands early 2002 and performance testing has been
successfully completed early 2003 (see Figure 3).

Figure 8 B11 Twister tubes and LTX assembly

Twister Subsea Gas Processing
Simplicity and reliability are critical success factors in subsea
applications. Twister scores high on both counts and is
therefore widely recognised as the missing link for subsea gas
processing and a key enabling technology for the development
of currently uneconomical gas reserves. Twister BV, FMC
Kongsberg Subsea and Shell Technology Norway have
completed a joint study, sponsored by Demo2000 and Norske
Shell, to investigate the feasibility of subsea gas conditioning
based on Twister technology [2]. No show stoppers have been
identified, even if the technology is still relatively immature
for subsea application. Several components required for such a
subsea processing plant need further development and
qualification prior to installation and operation on the seabed.
Figure 9 Subsea Gas Conditioning template including Twister
module

The subsea gas conditioning template includes the
following modules:
Manifold structure including the manifold piping with tie-
ins, the inlet cooler and the inlet separator.
Twister unit with the Low Temperature Separator (LTX)
including electric heater, a maximum of 6 off Twister
tubes and related piping and valves
Seawater cooling pump unit with electric motor, installed
on top of a transformer unit.
Control valve unit with control system and battery
back up
Spare unit with space for future condensate
polishing equipment
A water injection pump and a condensate polishing unit
are optional modules which are not included in the layout
of the processing plant described.

Three prospective gas field developments have been
studied to quantify the potential CAPEX savings of Twister
subsea gas processing compared to conventional development
options. One development which will be discussed, is a large
gas accumulation 150 km off the Norwegian coast which has a
varying water depth of 700 to 1,100m with a very irregular
seabed and soil composition ranging from stiff to soft clay.
The gas reserves cover a geographical area of approximately
350 km2, approximately 40 km long and up to 8-10 km width.
The design capacity is 1,750 MMscfd.
Two base cases have been considered by the stake holders.
One base case is a Tension Leg Platform (TLP) in deep water.
The other base case is a complete subsea field development
based on wet gas evacuation to shore (Subsea to Beach). A
major challenge for both base cases is the liquid hold-up and
terrain slugging induced by the heavily undulated seabed. For
the Subsea to Beach option, this risk also applies to the whole
150 km tie-back to shore and will be significantly more
severe. During shut-in of the 30 flowline infrastructure,
liquids may flow back and accumulate in the deep water
section of the pipeline. The back pressure on the wells induced
by the hydrostatic head of the liquid column will severely
complicate start-up. Liquid hold-up and slug management
will necessitate:
extensive seabed correction (rock dump)
6 SPE 83977
frequent pigging
strict operational turn-down limitations and
ramp-up procedures
costly slug catching facilities on the beach and on the
future compression platform
Twister subsea gas processing would ensure dry, single
phase gas export enabling tie-back to a fixed platform in
shallow water (SWP). The subsea Twister template conditions
the gas to sales specification, ensuring dry, single phase
export, preventing flow assurance issues such as corrosion,
hydrate formation and slugging. Considering the tight gas
specifications (Water dewpoint -18C at 69 barg and
hydrocarbon dewpoint -10C at any pressure above 50 barg),
seawater cooling to 5-10C will be needed upstream of the
Twister module. Glycol (MEG) injection will be required to
prevent hydrate formation. The gas is exported through two
30 (maximum line size for deep water installation) pipelines
to a fixed platform in shallow water for compression and
export through a single 42 CS pipeline. The liquids
(condensate & rich MEG) are produced back free-flow to the
shallow water platform through a separate 8 flowline. The
condensates are stabilised and stored in the concrete storage
cells of the fixed concrete platform with an off-take facility for
shuttle tankers. The MEG is regenerated, evaporating all
produced water and eliminating the requirement for water
disposal. Power (mainly for the seawater pump) and controls
are supplied to the Twister subsea templates from the shallow
water platform. Lean MEG can be supplied back through the
control umbilical or dedicated MEG return line.
TLP FSU Shuttle
Onshore plant Shuttle
SWP Shuttle

Figure 10 - Case study of deep water gas field
development options

A comparison between the two base case options and the
subsea Twister option indicates estimated savings of US$300
million for the surface facilities. The main savings of the
subsea Twister template tied-back to a SWP versus the TLP in
deep water are summarized below:
Substructure: The cost of a fixed concrete structure in
shallow water is significantly lower compared to a TLP.
Topside: The costly turbo-expansion facilities with
associated utilities and manning can be avoided.
Condensate storage: A dedicated FSU can be avoided by
integrating concrete storage cells in the
substructure design.
Risers: Flexible, dynamic risers can be avoided. The
concrete substructure can accommodate cost effective J-
Tube pull-ins of rigid flowlines, export lines
and umbilicals.
Seabed correction (rock dump): dry, single phase
pipelines will require significantly less seabed correction
since no terrain slugging will occur.

The results of the feasibility study have been reported and
distributed to potential end-users to gain support for a second
phase subsea pilot project. The scope and planning of such a
project indicates that development and pilot testing of the
necessary technology will take an estimated four years,
provided that support for an actual pilot project can
be obtained.

Conclusion
Twister is an innovative gas conditioning technology with
some distinct benefits compared to conventional technologies.
Although a relatively new technology, extensive operating
experience has been obtained with commercial scale test units
in five different gas plants in the Netherlands since 1998, in
Nigeria since 2000 and in Norway since 2002. These test units
have proven the viability of gas conditioning to typical
pipeline specifications as well as the practicality of
unmanned operation.
The first commercial Twister application will start
operation during the fourth quarter of 2003 on the B11
platform offshore Malaysia. This will be an important
milestone in obtaining industry acceptance for this
new technology.
Second generation Twister technology will be field tested
early in 2004, promising a step change performance
improvement and reduced pressure drop.
Twister combines dehydration and dewpointing, enabling
dry, single-phase export, eliminating many flow assurance
risks and limitations associated with wet, multi-phase export
systems. High level economic screening indicates that Twister
can be a highly competitive development option. The optimum
concept for each specific gas development will obviously
depend on many parameters including capacity, water depth,
distance to market and corrosivity.
Twister technology is simple and reliable and therefore
widely recognised as the missing link for subsea gas
processing and a key enabling technology for the development
of currently uneconomical gas reserves. A feasibility study
a) Tension Leg Platform
b) Subsea to Beach
c) Subsea Twister
SPE 83977 7
revealed no show stoppers. Case studies have confirmed the
benefits and potential savings.
Further information and contact details are available on
www.TwisterBV.com.

Acknowledgement
The achievements presented in this paper would not have been
possible without the valuable input and support from many
parties, most notably NAM, SPDC, SSB, FMC Kongsberg,
Norske Shell, Shell Technology Norway and Demo2000.

References
1. Okimoto, F.T., Brouwer, J.M.: Twister Supersonic Gas
Conditioning Studies, Applications and results, GPA paper, San
Antonio (2003).
2. Twister BV, FMC Kongsberg Subsea AS: Demonstration of
Twister for subsea application , REP-0000021304 (2002).

Abbreviations
TEG = Tri-Ethylene Glycol
MEG = Mono-Ethylene Glycol
CRA = Corrosion Resistant Alloy
CS = Carbon Steel
LTX = Low Temperature Separator with heating coils
GGHEX = Gas/Gas Heat Exchanger
CAPEX = Capital Expensiture
OPEX = Operating Expenditure
TLP = Tension Leg Platform
FSU = Floating Storage Unit
ppm = Parts per million
1,000MMSCFD
100m waterdepth
TEG Wet Gas
CRA
Wet Gas
CS
Twister TEG Wet Gas
CRA
Wet Gas
CS
Twister
Platform 185 120 120 165 Manned Unmanned Unmanned Unmanned
Pipelines (100km) 45 120 50 35 3x24" CS
3x24" CRA
6" CS
3x24" CS
6" CS
48"CS
12" CS
Slugcatcher 35 35 35 - Yes Yes Yes No
Onshore treatment 50 55 55 35
Gas/Liquid
treatment
Gas/Liquid
treatment,
MEG regen.
Gas/Liquid
treatment,
MEG regen.
Liquid
treatment
Total US$MM (%) 315 330 260 235 (121%) (127%) (100%) (90%)
Capital Expenditure (Surface) Scope
Table 1 - Cost comparison for offshore gas development options