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Fatigue for Engineers

Instructors Guide
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Fatigue for Engineers
Prepared by:
A. F. Grandt, Jr.
School of Aeronautics and Astronautics
Purdue University
Copyright 1999 by
All Rights Reserved
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract3
Introduction..4
Organizing Unit Responsibilities.. 5
Instructor Guidelines and Responsibilities. 6
Fatigue for Engineers Outline/
Teaching Plan. 8
Instructor Notes.. 9
Appendix A: Reproducible Overheads71
Appendix B: Course and Instructor Evaluation Form... 134
Appendix C: Continuing Education Unit (CEU) Submittal Form... 137
Course Improvement Form
Instructors Biography Form
3
ABSTRACT
The ASME Fatigue for Engineers seminar provides an introduction to the fatigue
structural failure mode. Fatigue is caused by cyclic loading and results in the formation
of cracks that can then propagate to fracture. It is a common failure mode for many
types of structures and materials, and has been estimated to be the cause of over half of
all mechanical failures.
This four-hour course begins with a general description of the fatigue process and its
characteristics. The stress-life and strain-life approaches for determining the number of
cycles required to form cracks in smooth and notched components are then presented.
The next section deals with linear elastic fracture mechanics techniques to predict
fatigue crack growth and subsequent fracture. The final section overviews various
fatigue design criteria and approaches for providing structural resistance to fatigue for
long service lives.
Who Should Attend
This course is directed to engineers involved with the design and/or maintenance of
mechanical components. It is assumed that the student is familiar with basic strength of
materials concepts.
Benefits of Taking the Course
The student will be exposed to a broad overview of the nature and consequences of
fatigue, one of the most common sources of structural failures. The student will also be
introduced to several different approaches for analyzing fatigue and for designing and
maintaining fatigue resistant structures for long service lives.
4
INTRODUCTION
This Fatigue for Engineers course is part of the ASME International Career Development
Series an educational tool to help engineers and managers succeed in todays
business/engineering world. Each course in this series is a 4-hour (or half-day) self-
contained professional development seminar. The course material consists of a
participant manual and an instructors guide. The participant manual is a self-contained
text for students/participants, while the guide (this booklet) provides the instructional
material designed to be presented by a local knowledgeable instructor with a minimum
of preparation time.
The balance of this instructors guide focuses on:
1. Organizing Unit Responsibilities
2. Instructor Guidelines and Responsibilities
3. Comprehensive teaching materials which may be used as is or adapted to
incorporate experiences and perspective of the instructor.
Welcome to the ASME International Career Development Series! We wish you all the
best in your presentation, operation and delivery of this course.
5
ORGANIZING UNIT RESPONSIBILITIES
Detailed procedures for conducting professional development courses are available from the
ASME Professional Development or Member Affairs Departments, or from the ASME Regional
Offices (see the inside front cover for contact information). The key responsibilities and activities
for conducting a Career Development Series course falls with the organizing unit (Section,
Division, or other) and includes the items listed below.
1. Select the Course Content: Do this based upon member or industry input and use one or
more of the modules to create a course anywhere from 1/2 day to 2 days in length.
2. Select a Local Instructor: Find a technically qualified individual who is a good communicator,
is knowledgeable, and is capable of generating participant interaction.
3. Materials: Arrange with ASME for the instructors guide and participant manuals (call 1-800-
THE ASME to order).
4. Schedule the Event: A 6 month lead time is recommended so enough publicity can be
performed and accommodations and course details can be arranged.
5. Arrange a Site: Find a university, a company or a hotel, hopefully at low or no cost. Make
sure the facility is good for an adequate table and chair arrangement to accommodate the
expected attendees (typically 10 - 25). Make sure you have access to proper audio-visual
equipment, either supplied at the facility or brought with you.
6. Publicize the Event: Use your unit newsletter for several months; use mailings to selected
companies; use 3-fold brochures, fliers, etc. Three months of publicity is usually required to
hold a very successful course.
7. Registration: Arrange for pre-registration by mail and on-site registration at a higher cost. This
will tend to encourage pre-registration.
8. Program Preparation: Follow up with the facility and the instructor to meet the needs of the
course. For example, name tags for the participants, tent cards for the table, overhead
projector w/extra bulbs), screen, large pad of paper or a whiteboard (could use clear
overheads and an overhead pen if necessary).
9. Site Management: Have at least one person on site to help the instructor and handle the
audio/visual requirements, facility logistics, on-site registration, refreshments, etc.
10. Wrap Up: Final resolution of any bills, arrangements, and materials including all Career
Development Seminar costs.
11. ASME Feedback (REQUIRED): Return the following items to the ASME Regional Office
administering to your region (if unsure which office this is, call one of the offices and ask or
contact InfoCentral at 1-800-THE-ASME).
Biography of the author (this is required for ASME to provide CEUs for the
course... form in the back of this book).
Course/Instructor evaluation forms
Course improvement form (if any comments)
The Career Development Series professional development courses are intended to be low cost
($50 or less per 4-hour course) but also financially self-supporting; hopefully, generating revenue
for the organizing unit. Assistance in budgeting is available from your ASME Regional Office.
6
INSTRUCTOR GUIDELINES AND RESPONSIBILITIES
Thank you for serving as an instructor for ASMEs Career Development Series, an exciting
opportunity to help engineers and managers grow professionally to meet today's rapidly changing
business world. This Instructor's Guide is intended to provide the basic instructional materials for
direct use or for adaptation and expansion in teaching the course. While a separate document for
the participants contains the course text, this guide includes:
1. Options and Responsibilities: (These pages)
2. Teaching Plan: This is a preliminary plan that the instructor can use as is or adapt to meet
their experiences
3. Instructor Notes: This is a comprehensive page of information for each overhead and
provides the major learning points for the slide as well as some ideas on how to present it.
4. Reproducible Overheads: These are in the Instructors Guide and are here so the Instructor
can produce their own teaching tools (make their own plastic).
5. Course and Instructor Evaluation Form: This needs to be reproduced and handed out to the
participants at the conclusion of the course.
6. Continuing Education Unit (CEU) Form: This form should be reproduced and handed out to
the participants at the conclusion of the course. To receive the CEUs for taking this course,
this form must be filled out and sent with the indicated payment to the address on the form.
7. Course Improvement Form: This form should be completed by the instructor and the
organizing unit (if there are any comments) and submitted to the Regional Office, along with
the Instructors Bibliography Form and evaluations.
8. Instructors Bibliography Form: The biography section of this form must be filled out (or
participants cannot get CEUs) and by the organizing unit to the Regional Office.
This Instructors Guide is intended to provide a reasonably complete basis for teaching this
course. The instructor may adapt the material to meet his/her style, or use it as is. Preparation
steps include:
Send the Organizing Unit Information: This includes the instructor biography, A/V needs,
etc.
Read the Material: Review the Participant Manual and the Instructors Guide
Review and Adapt the Outline/Teaching Plan:
- adapt as needed
- 1-hour segments with breaks recommended
- include in-class exercises
- frequent Q & A periods
Prepare Class Materials:
- make transparencies from hard copies
- add new overheads (if needed)
- 2 blank transparency sheets per participant + marking pens
- Diskettes with simple spreadsheets (Lotus/Excel)
- Have students bring or supply annual reports (one per two students)
- Have students bring laptops or have site provide them (optional)
7
Prepare Your Teaching Notebook: Many instructors use a 3-ring binder to hold
transparencies, notes and examples in proper order. Review the course content and
prepare a teaching plan for time verification. Other preparation options can be used to
suite the instructors style.
Typically, it takes 1 to 2 days to evaluate the materials and prepare to give the course. Some final
helpful hints include:
1. Keep it simple
2. Identify one key thought per visual
3. Remember... this is not a classroom... attendees do not have to listen
4. Pace yourself, speak slowly and distinctly
5. Avoid acronyms
6. Practice the presentation
7. Keep to the schedule or teaching plan
8. Encourage lots of class participation
9. Field questions throughout the class, but watch your time
10. Dont forget breaks
11. Challenge the participants to interact
12. Add humor to your presentation with things like cartoons, stories, etc.
13. Recommend to the participants that they take notes on the back side of the course text
pages... they have been left blank for this purpose!
8
SUGGESTED OUTLINE/TEACHING PLAN
Time Major
Interval
Class
Segment
Sub-segment
Interval
Sub-Segment Overheads
30 min. Introduction 2 min.
5 min.
8 min.
15 min.
Objectives
Failure Mechanisms
Fatigue Characteristics
Exercises
1-2
3-4
5-7
8-10
30 min. Crack
Formation
2 min.
15 min.
13 min.
Objective
Stress-Life Concepts
Strain-Life Concepts
11-12
13-16
17-21
10 min. Break
45 min. Formation cont 10 min.
10 min.
10 min.
5 min.
10 min.
Strain-life continued
Variable Amplitude
Notches
Summary Initiation Methods
Questions/discussion
17-21
22-25
26-27
28-29
15 min. Crack Growth 10 min.
5 min.
Objectives/Damage Tolerance
Stress Intensity Factors
30-33
34-35
Major Break
60 min. Crack Growth 5 min.
10 min.
15 min.
15 min.
15 min.
Crack tip Stress Fields
Fracture
Fatigue Crack Growth Rate
Crack Growth Life
Retardation and Cycle-by-Cycle
36
37-40
41-46
47-49
50-51
10 min. Break
10 min. Crack Growth 4 min.
6 min.
Summary Crack Growth
Questions/discussion
52
40 min Design/Repair 30 min.
10 min.
Design Criteria
Life Extension Techniques
53-59
60
10 min. Summary &
Closure
Summary 61-62
9
Fatigue for Engineers
Instructors Personal Notes
Instructors Outline
1. Introduce course title and yourself.
Major Learning Points
1
Fatigue for Engineers
Prepared by
A. F. Grandt, Jr.
Professor of Aeronautics and Astronautics
Purdue University
W. Lafayette, IN 47907
June 1999
10
Fatigue for Engineers
Instructors Personal Notes
Instructors Outline
1. Introduce course goals:
Overview of fatigue failure mode.
Crack initiation concepts.
Crack growth concepts.
Design implications of fatigue.
Major Learning Points
1. Overview course goals
2
Objective
Overview nature/consequences of the
fatigue failure mechanism
Determine number of cycles required to
develop a fatigue crack
propagate a fatigue crack
Discuss implications of fatigue on
design and maintenance operations
11
Fatigue for Engineers
Instructors Personal Notes
Instructors Outline
1. Review various structural failure modes. Set
context for discussion of fatigue.
2. Note failure modes may appear in combination
(i.e. corrosion-fatigue or creep-fatigue.
3. Ask students to give examples of the various
failure modes from their personal experience.
4. Ask students to discuss the material properties
associated with individual failure modes.
5. Point out this course deals with fatigue failure
mechanism.
Major Learning Points
1. Fatigue is one of sever
al failure modes that limit structural design
3
Structural Failure Modes
Excessive Deformation
Elastic
Plastic
Buckling
Fracture
Creep
Corrosion
Fatigue
F
o
r
c
e
Displacement
Yield
Permanent
displacement
displacement
Force
12
Fatigue for Engineers
Instructors Personal Notes
Instructors Outline
1. Fatigue is associated with cyclic loading.
2. Fatigue can occur at small stress levels that
wont cause failure if only applied one time.
3. Although nominal stresses can be elastic, fatigue
results from local plastic deformation.
4. Point out the total fatigue process consists of
crack formation, growth, and fracture. This course
will introduce all 3 phases of fatigue life.
5. Pre-existent damage can shorten or eliminate
fatigue crack formation period.
6. Fatigue cracks may form, but then arrest in some
situations, so that fracture does not always result.
7. Another common scenario is for small cracks to
form separately, and this coalesce into larger
cracks.
Major Learning Points
1. Fatigue is due to repeated loading.
2. Fatigue process involves crack formation,
growth, and final fracture.
3. If the structure contains pre-existent damage, the
crack formation process may be greatly shortened
or eliminated entirely.
4
Fatigue Failure Mechanism
Caused by repeated (cyclic) loading
Involves crack formation, growth, and final
fracture
Fatigue life depends on initial quality, load, . . .
S
t
r
e
s
s

Time
Crack Nucleation
Fracture
Crack Growth
Elapsed Cycles N
C
r
a
c
k

L
e
n
g
t
h

(
a
)
a
Crack
13
Fatigue for Engineers
Instructors Personal Notes
Instructors Outline
1. Use exercise for students to become personally
familiar with fatigue.
2. Point out that the fatigue life will depend on how
much the wire is bent each cycle (I.e. applied load).
3. Also point out that surface damage (nicks &
dings) will shorten life by causing early crack
formation.
4. Heating of wire is due to plastic deformation.
Fatigue always involves plastic flow, although it may
be limited to a micro-level.
5. Note magnified photograph of fracture surface of
wire -- note fatigue cracks on top and bottom.
6. Next slide discusses fracture surface in more
detail.
Major Learning Points
1. Fatigue is a very common failure process that
requires repeated load applications to occur.
2. Although nominal loads may be elastic, plastic
deformation always occurs on a local level.
5
Paper Clip Experiment
Bend wire repeatedly until fracture
Note:
life (number of applied load cycles)
depends on:
applied stress amplitude
component quality (notches, scratches, etc.)
heat emitted >>plastic deformation
14
Fatigue for Engineers
Instructors Personal Notes
Instructors Outline
1. Early engineers mistakenly thought that fatigue
crystallized the material, causing it to lose its
ductility. Brittle appearance actually due to crack
growth.
2. Fatigue cracks often form at free surfaces --
susceptible to surface damage, corrosion, plane
stress yielding. Individual cracks may form grow,
coalesce before fracture.
3. Macroscopic Beach marks are remnants of
the crack tip location left when the load changed
significantly or result from environmental influences
-- visible to naked eye.
4. Striations often occur on microscopic level,
and record the crack advance per each cycle of
loading. Striations are positive proof of a fatigue
failure, although they may not always be present.
Major Learning Points
1. Fatigue fracture surfaces have a characteristic
appearance, both on a macroscopic and
microscopic scale.
2. Fatigue striations represent the crack advance
per cycle of loading (I.e. fatigue crack growth rate),
and offer conclusive evidence of a fatigue failure.
6
Characteristics of Fatigue
Brittle fracture surface appearance
Cracks often form at free surface
Macro/micro beach marks/ striations
0.3 in
Beach marks
20 m
Striations
15
Fatigue for Engineers
Instructors Personal Notes
Instructors Outline
1. Many types of structures susceptible to fatigue.
2. Examples top row left-right:
fatigue crack between 2 fastener holes in aluminum
aircraft stringer.
fatigue crack surface at bolted fatigue specimen.
Note beach marks, crack origins.
cracked automobile piston.
3. Bottom row, left-right:
broken safety pin. Note is actually a corrosion
fatigue failure since cyclic loading occurs in
presence of aggressiveenvironment.
Cracked doorbell chime. Failure occurred as
stress waves caused by clapper met on opposite
side.
Cracked bicycle pedal crank.
Major Learning Points
1. Fatigue is a very common failure mode for a
wide variety of structures.
2. It has been estimated that 50 - 80% of all
structural failures are associated with fatigue.
7
Fatigue is problem for many
types of structures
16
Fatigue for Engineers
Instructors Personal Notes
Instructors Outline
1. Encourage students to discuss their personal
experiences with fatigue failures or fatigue design
requirements.
2. Emphasize that cyclic loading was required, and
that fatigue may have been hastened by poor
quality control.
3. Have students discuss how problem detected --
were cracks easy to find?
4. What design changes or modifications were
necessary.
Major Learning Points
1. Fatigue is a common problem for many types of
structures.
8
Exercise
Describe fatigue failures from your
personal experience
What was cause of fatigue failure?
What was nature of cyclic load?
Was initial quality an issue?
How was failure detected?
How was problem solved?
17
Fatigue for Engineers
Instructors Personal Notes
Instructors Outline
1. Have students try to estimate how many cycles
of loading will occur for the various examples given.
(Only attempt crude order-of-magnitude estimates.)
2. Point out that not all structures require the same
fatigue life.
The space shuttle motor cases may be
used a dozen times, and only need a
fatigue life of a hundred or so cycles.
The lower wing skin on an aircraft may see
millions of repeated gust loading during the
aircrafts lifetime.
3. Often estimating how many loading cycles will be
required for a given application (or what the design
lifetime should be) is a difficult job.
Major Learning Points
1. Different components require different fatigue
lives.
2. Some components must resist millions of small
cycles (high cycle fatigue).
3. Other components only need to resist relatively
few large load cycles during their lifetime (low cycle
fatigue).
9
Exercise
Estimate the fatigue lifetime needed for:
Automobile axle
Railroad rail
Commercial aircraft components
landing gear
lower wing skin
Highway drawbridge mechanism
Space shuttle solid propellant rocket motor
cases
18
Fatigue for Engineers
Instructors Personal Notes
Instructors Outline
1. Emphasize that different applications require
different fatigue lives.
2. Roughly speaking, LCF applications are those
that see <10,000 cycles of loading during the
component life.
3. HCF lives >100,000 cycles
Major Learning Points
1. Discuss examples of structures with low cycle
fatigue and high cycle fatigue design requirements.
10
Exercise
Give an example of a High Cycle
Fatigue (HCF) application.
What is the required lifetime?
What are consequences of failure?
Given an example of a Low Cycle
Fatigue (LCF) application.
What is the required lifetime?
What are consequences of failure?
19
Fatigue for Engineers
Instructors Personal Notes
Instructors Outline
1. The next section of charts deals with
methods to analyze fatigue crack formation.
Major Learning Points
11
Fatigue Crack Formation
20
Fatigue for Engineers
Instructors Personal Notes
Instructors Outline
1. The next section deals with methodology to
predict crack formation.
2. Assumes initial cracks/damage are not present
(note this assumption is not always true, and in that
case will employ crack growth methodology --
discussed later).
3. Will briefly examine both stress life and strain life
approaches here.
4. Stress life concepts are the oldest approach to
fatigue, beginning toward the end of the 19th
century.
5. The strain-life method is a more modern
approach developed in the 1950s.
Major Learning Points
1. Introduce goals of fatigue crack formation
methodology.
12
Crack Formation
Fracture
Crack Growth
Elapsed Cycles N
C
r
a
c
k

L
e
n
g
t
h

(
a
)
Fatigue Crack Formation
Objective
Characterize resistance to fatigue crack formation
Predict number of cycles to initiate small* fatigue crack
in component
*crack size ~0.03 inch
=committeecrack
Approach
Stress-life concepts
(S-N curves)
Strain-life concepts
21
Fatigue for Engineers
Instructors Personal Notes
Instructors Outline
1. Original S-N approach developed by Wohler for
RR problems in the 1870s.
2. Test smooth specimen to repeated stress
amplitude -- measure cycles to failure.
3. Emphasize there will be lots of scatter in fatigue
life results. Scatter factors of 4 - 10 in life are not
uncommon. Often more scatter in HCF due to
longer initiation period.
4. Basic S-N curve is limited to constant amplitude
loading, same mean stress.
5. S-N curves are given in data handbooks.
6. Original fatigue work emphasized endurance
limit. Modern applications realize that infinite life
may not be achievable in practice.
Major Learning Points
1. Stress-life approach relates cyclic stress
amplitude to cyclic life.
2. Involves testing smooth, unnotched specimens
under load controlled conditions.
3. S-N curve may be viewed as a material property.
4. Endurance limit (infinite life) may exist under
some conditions.
13
Stress-life (S-N) Approach
Concept: Stress range controls fatigue life
S
S
Log cycles N
S/2
Note:
Life increases as load amplitude decreases
Considerable scatter in data
Run-outs suggest infinite life possible
Life N usually total cycles to failure
S
time
S
22
Fatigue for Engineers
Instructors Personal Notes
Instructors Outline
1. Note log-log format of S-N curve. Have also
changed life from cycles N to reversals 2N
1 cycle =2 reversals
change in life units is to be consistent with
format used later in the strain-life method
2. Empirical estimate for endurance limit is based
on steel data. Other materials may not have
endurance limit.
3. Boxed equation is known as Basquins rule.
Simple straight line fit (power law) to log-log plot.
Only applies to stress amplitudes above endurance
limit.
4. Note definition of material properties:
endurance limit, fatigue strength coefficient, fatigue
strength exponent.
Major Learning Points
1. S-N data are often modeled with simple power
laws.
2. Define endurance limit, fatigue strength
coefficient, fatigue strength exponent.
14
Model Stress-life (S-N) Curve
S
e
=endurance limit
for steels
S
e
~0.5 ultimate stress S
ult
S
e
~100 ksi if S
ult
200 ksi
Log reversals 2N
L
o
g

S
/
2
S
e
S/2 =
f
(2N)
b

f
=fatigue strength coefficient
b =fatigue strength exponent
typically -0.12 <b <-0.0
Note: Measure life in terms of reversals 2N
(1 cycle =2 reversals)
23
Fatigue for Engineers
Instructors Personal Notes
Instructors Outline
1. Original S-N curve usually established for
completely reversed loading (R =-1, mean stress =
0). Many applications involve other mean stress
levels.
2. Haigh diagram relates stress amplitude and
mean stress conditions that give same life.
3. To avoid measuring S-N curves for all possible
mean stresses, numerical models have been
formed. Models are collectively known as
Goodman diagrams, and permit application of R =
-1 data to other mean stress conditions.
4. First boxed equation is Goodman diagram --
other forms exist. Usually applied to endurance
limit conditions.
5. Second boxed equation is mean stress corrected
version of Basquins law. Use for finite life.
Major Learning Points
1. Mean stress has a significant effect on fatigue
behavior.
2. Tensile mean stress decreases life (are bad).
3. Compressive mean stresses increase life (good).
4. Several numerical models have been proposed
for mean stress effect (see references for more
models).
15
S-N Curve: Mean Stress
Mean stress effects life
stress ratio R =S
min
/ S
max
S
mean
=0.5(S
min
+S
max
)
S
a
=0.5(S
max
- S
min
) =S/2
Mean stress models
S
a
/S
e
+S
m
/S
ult
=1
S/2 =(
f
- S
mean
)

(2N)
b
Mean Stress
S
t
r
e
s
s

A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
N =10
6
N =10
3
Haighconstant life diagram
S
time
S
min
S
max
S =2S
a
24
Fatigue for Engineers
Instructors Personal Notes
Instructors Outline
1. Many other factors influence fatigue life.
2. S-N curves can be generated for various types of
coatings, notches, surface finishes, specimen sizes,
etc.
3. Reference books contain many empirical knock-
down factors for these effects -- detailed discussion
beyond scope of current notes --- see other texts.
4. S-N approach is original methodology for fatigue
problems. Initial emphasis was on characterizing
the endurance limit-- implied small stresses and
nominally elastic behavior.
5. Larger stress levels result in shorter lives and
more plasticity. S-N approach is not as accurate for
LCF applications.
Major Learning Points
1. S-N approach is simplistic model of fatigue
process.
2. Many practical considerations limit approach,
and result in empirical knock-down factors.
3. Problems associated with notches and variable
amplitude loading are discussed later.
4. S-N approach best suited for HCF problems
where plastic deformation is small.
5. Strain-life method developed for LCF
applications.
16
S-N Curve: Other Factors
S-N curves are very sensitive to
surface finish, coatings, notches
prior loading, residual stresses
specimen size effects, etc.
Many empirical knock-down factors
S-N approach best suited for HCF (High
Cycle Fatigue) applications
limited by local plastic deformation
strain-life approach better for LCF (Low
Cycle Fatigue)
25
Fatigue for Engineers
Instructors Personal Notes
Instructors Outline
1. Strain life approach developed mid 1950s by
Coffin and Manson for LCF turbine engine
problems.
2. Oriented to situations involving considerable
plasticity.
3. Basic experiment involves subjecting smooth
specimen to controlled cyclic strain range.
4. Due to plasticity, the applied stress needed to
maintain strain limits can change initially.
If stress increases >hardens
If stress decreases >softens per example
on chart
5. Stress range needed to maintain strain limits
usually stabilizes by mid-life.
6. Measure stable stress range and fatigue life
(measured in reversals) for various strain
amplitudes.
Major Learning Points
1. Strain-life approach is based on strain amplitude
as key parameter that controls life.
2. Describe strain-life experiment.
3. Stress-strain response of material initially
changes due to plasticity, but eventually stabilizes.
17
Strain-life ( - N) Approach
Concept: Strain range controls life
Experiment
Control
Measure
Reversals (2N
f
)
to failure (1 cycle
=2 reversals)
Stable stress range
needed to maintain
Note: stable usually occurs
by mid-life (2N
f
/2)

time



time

26
Fatigue for Engineers
Instructors Personal Notes
Instructors Outline
1. Top schematic shows strain controlled test and
resulting stabilized stress range.
2. Stable stress-strain response for one cycle of
strain controlled loading is shown by hystersis
loop. Note plastic deformation.
3. Plot of stable stress amplitude that results as a
function of various applied strain amplitudes is
shown by cyclic stress-strain curve.
4. Cyclic stress-strain curve is a material property
that indicates cyclic behavior. It may be compared
with conventional static (monotonic) stress-strain
curve to indicate whether material cyclically hardens
or softens.
5. Note numerical model of cyclic curve that defines
K

and n

. E is conventional elastic modulus.


Major Learning Points
1. Stress-strain response changes with cycling, but
stable response develops about mid-life.
2. Stable cyclic stress-strain response is shown in
hystersis loop and cyclic stress-strain curve.
3. Cyclic stress-strain curve may be modeled and
used to define cyclic material properties.
18
Cyclic Stress-Strain Curve
Relate stable cyclic stress and strain ranges

time

time

Hystersisloop
/2
/2
/2 =/2E +(/2K
)1/n
Cyclic stress-strain curve
E =elastic modulus
K =cyclic strength coefficient
n =strain hardening exponent
27
Fatigue for Engineers
Instructors Personal Notes
Instructors Outline
1. Coffin and Manson originally related plastic
strain life amplitude with life -- felt plastic strain was
most important parameter for LCF conditions.
2. Note power law model relating plastic strain-life
data. Defines material constants
f
and c.
3. Note how total strain range (which is applied
during test) is broken into elastic and plastic
components. For uniaxial loading, elastic strain is
simply stress/E.
Major Learning Points
1. Plastic strain-life curve.
2. Definition of fatigue ductility exponent and fatigue
ductility coefficient.
3. Resolution of total strain amplitude into plastic
and elastic components.
19
Plastic Strain-Life Curve
Relate plastic strain amplitude
p
/2
with reversals to failure 2N
f
Compute
p
/2 =/2 - /2E =total - elastic strain amplitudes
L
o
g

p
/
2

Log 2N
f

p
/2 =
f
(2N
f
)
c

f
=fatigue ductility coefficient
c =fatigue ductility exponent
typically -0.7 <c <-0.5
28
Fatigue for Engineers
Instructors Personal Notes
Instructors Outline
1. The S-N curve and plastic strain-life curves may
be added to obtain total strain-life behavior.
2. Again note summation of elastic and plastic
strain amplitudes.
3. Elastic strain =stress/E. Dividing Basquins rule
(mean stress corrected version of stress-life) by E
gives elastic strain amplitude versus life.
4. Add to Coffin-Manson plastic strain life to get total
strain-life (note log-log scales).
5. Total strain life approach combines stress-life
and plastic strain live methods >>approach good
for both LCF and HCF problems.
Major Learning Points
1. Total strain-life approach combines stress-life
and plastic strain-life approaches.
20
Total Strain-Life Curve
Plot total strain amplitudes versus life 2N
f

total
/2 =/2 = 0.5
elastic
+0.5
plastic
=

/2E +0.5
plastic
/2 ={(
f
- S
mean
)/E}(2N)
b
+
f
(2N
f
)
c

p
/2 =
f
(2N
f
)
c
/2E ={(
f
- S
mean
)/E}(2N
f
)
b
Log 2N
f
L
o
g

s
t
r
a
i
n

a
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
2N
t
=transitionlife
29
Fatigue for Engineers
Instructors Personal Notes
Instructors Outline
1. Note plastic-strain life curve dominates for short
lives (LCF).
2. Elastic strain life dominates for HCF.
3. Transition life life defined as life when elastic
and plastic strains are equal -- can be used to
separate HCF from LCF.
4. Material selection depends on life regime and
often involves trade-off.
LCF properties emphasize ductile behavior.
HCF properties emphasize high strength
behavior.
Major Learning Points
1. Total strain-life approach applicable to both HCF
and LCF problems.
2. Transition life separates HCF and LCF behavior.
21
Total Strain-Life
Note:
Plastic strain dominates for LCF
Elastic strain dominates for HCF
Transition life 2N
t
separates LCF/HCF

p
=
f
(2N
f
)
c
/2 ={(
f
- S
mean
)/E}(2N)
b
+
f
(2N
f
)
c


Log 2N
f
L
o
g

s
t
r
a
i
n

a
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
/2E ={(
f
- S
mean
)/E}(2N
f
)
b
2N
t
=transitionlife
LCF
HCF
30
Fatigue for Engineers
Instructors Personal Notes
Instructors Outline
1. Discussion so far has focused on constant
amplitude loading --- many practical problems
involve variable amplitude loading (ask students for
examples).
2. Miners rule provides a simple way to estimate
variable amplitude lives from constant amplitude
data. Can be used with either stress-life or strain
life approaches.
3. Note that Miners rule must be used with caution,
as it assumes linear cumulative damage that may
not occur in practice.
4. Load interaction effects are often observed in
variable amplitude fatigue tests (see later chart).
Miners rule ignores load interaction.
Major Learning Points
1. Many problems involve variable amplitude
loading conditions.
2. Miners rule provides simple method to predict
variable amplitude behavior from constant
amplitude stress-life or strain-life data.
3. Miners rule must be used with extreme caution.
4. Variable amplitude loading can lead to mean
stresses that result from plastic behavior during
large overloads.
22
Variable Amplitude Loading
Load amplitude varies in many applications
Use of constant amplitude S - N or - N
data requires damage model
Miners rule*
(N
i
/N
f
) =1
N
i
=number of applied cycles of stress amplitude S
ai
N
f
=fatigue life for S
ai
cycling only
*Use with caution!
S
time
N
i
2S
ai
31
Fatigue for Engineers
Instructors Personal Notes
Instructors Outline
1. This example demonstrates Miners rule for
variable amplitude loading.
2. The example also demonstrates use of mean-
stress corrected Basquins rule.
3. Here, one duty cycle (1 block of loading) consists
of
100 reversals of +/- 80 ksi
1000 reversals of 0 to 100 ksi
1000 reversals of -100 to 0 ksi
4. How many blocks can be repeated to a smooth
specimen before it fails?
Major Learning Points
1. Application of Miners rule to a variable
amplitude stress history.
2. Use of mean stress corrected version of
Basquins rule.
23
Example Problem
Assume:

f
=220 ksi, b =- 0.1
stress history shown (1 block of loading)
Find: number of blocks to failure
+80 ksi
S
time
- 80 ksi
- 100 ksi
+100 ksi
2N =100
2N =1000
2N =1000
S
S
32
Fatigue for Engineers
Instructors Personal Notes
Instructors Outline
1. First two columns are given stress amplitudes
and mean stresses for parts of duty cycle.
2. Third column is fatigue life computed for
individual stress conditions in columns 1 and 2.
These lives are obtained from the Basquins rule
(upper right hand box).
4. Note big difference in life for 50 ksi stress
amplitude with +or - 50 ksi mean stress (206,000
vs 21 x 10
6
).
3. Fourth column is number of applied stress
amplitude/mean stress combinations in one loading
block.
4. Fifth column is ratio of applied cycles/fatigue life
(column 2/3). Summation is damage per load
block. Inverse is number of blocks to failure.
Major Learning Points
1. Application of Miners rule.
2. Application of mean stress corrected Basquins
rule.
24
Solution
(N
i
/N
f
) =1
2N
f
={(S/2) / (
f
- S
mean
)}
1/b

(N
i
/N
f
) =1
When:
1/0.0089
=112.5
Answer
112 blocks
S/2
(ksi)
Smean
(ksi)
2N
f
2N
i
Ni/Nf
80 0 24,735 100 0.0040
50 +50 206,437 1000 0.0048
50 -50 21 E
6
1000 4.74 E
-6
0.0089
33
Fatigue for Engineers
Instructors Personal Notes
Instructors Outline
1. Note development of mean stresses in a hi-lo
block of strain controlled loading.
2. Note initial large completely reversed strain
amplitudes. Follow strain-time plot down to stress-
strain (hystersis curve) to obtain the resulting
completely reversed stable stress-time history.
3. When strain changes to the smaller completely
reversed amplitudes.
Stable hystersis loop is now small red
loop inside the original large loop.
Although applied strain is completely
reversed, stress amplitude has
compressive mean and big effect on life.
4. If hi-lo change had occurred after tension peak
>>tensile mean stress.
Major Learning Points
1. Demonstrate how the sequence of applied loads
can introduce mean stresses that can have large
influence on life.
2. Point out limitation of Miners rule.
25
Load Sequence Effects
Hi-lo strain sequence
results in compressive
mean stress
increases life
Note last large peak
was compression here
If last peak had been
tension, would result in
tensile mean stress
decreases life
Load sequence important!

t
t
Mean stress
34
Fatigue for Engineers
Instructors Personal Notes
Instructors Outline
1. Notches represent a difficult, but practical fatigue
problem.
2. Schematic S-N curves are shown for notched
and smooth fatigue specimens (nominal stress
amplitudes shown in both cases).
3. Notches usually more effective in reducing HCF
than LCF life.
4. Influence of notch depends on material
response. Define this effect by fatigue notch
concentration factor =ratio of smooth/notched
fatigue strengths at some reference life (usually 10
6
cycles).
4. Note if K
f
=1, the notch has no effect in reducing
fatigue life. This is desirable property, and may
occur in ductile materials.
5. If K
f
=elastic K
t
notch significant in reducing life
(often occurs in high strength materials).
Major Learning Points
1. Point out influence of notches on fatigue life.
2. Define fatigue notch concentration factor
(distinguish from elastic stress concentration factor).
26
Notch Fatigue
Notches can reduce life
Define Fatigue Notch Factor
K
f
K
f
= Smooth/notch fatigue
strength at 10
6
cycles
= S
s
/S
n
1 <K
f
<K
t
(K
t
=elastic stress
concentration factor)
K
f
=1 no notch effect
K
f
=K
t
full notch effect
Smooth
Notch
S/2
Log cycles N
S
s
/2
S
n
/2
10
6
35
Fatigue for Engineers
Instructors Personal Notes
Instructors Outline
1. Are several approaches to analyzing notch
problem.
2. This slide shows use of Neubers rule to relate
nominal stress/strain amplitudes away from notch
(where behavior is often elastic) with larger
stress/strain at tip of notch.
3. Fatigue life is controlled by notch stress/strains,
which are often plastic.
4. The three boxed equations can be solved to find
fatigue life for notched member.
Obtain K
f
from testing or handbook.
Stress analysis gives nominal stress/strain
amplitudes awary from notch (may be
elastic).
The 3 unknowns are usually notch
stress/strain amplitudes and fatigue ife.
Major Learning Points
1. Application of Neubers rule to notch fatigue
problem.
27
Neubers Rule
K
f
=fatigue notch concentration factor
(s,e) =nominal stress/strain ranges
(away from notch)
(,) =notch stress/strain ranges
Neubers rule relates notch and
nominal stress/strain behavior
Solve with:
K
f
2
se =
/2 =/2E +(/2K
)1/n
/2 ={(
f
- S
mean
)}(2N
f
)
b
+
f
(2N
f
)
c
(,)
(s,e)
36
Fatigue for Engineers
Instructors Personal Notes
Instructors Outline
1. Next two slides summarize the stress-life and
strain-life approaches to fatigue initiation life. Will
discuss crack growth life next.
2. Point out have only provided brief introduction to
approaches, and that many other details are
available in the literature.
3. Definition of initiation or crack formation life is
problematic.
S-N or strain-life tests are usually
conducted to failure (I.e. total life).
Specimens are small, however, so crack
growth portion usually short >>often treat
as initiation methods.
Unless crack length actually measured
during test, often assume committee crack
at end of these lives.
Major Learning Points
1. Summarize stress-life and strain-life approaches
to fatigue.
28
Summary Initiation Methods
Total strain-life approach combines:
original S-N curve (best suited for HCF) and
plastic strain-life method developed for LCF
problems
S-N and strain-life often viewed as crack
initiation approaches
actually deal with life to form small crack
crack size implicit in specimen/test procedure
typically assume committee crack ~0.03 in.
37
Fatigue for Engineers
Instructors Personal Notes
Instructors Outline
1. Point out that notch fatigue and sequence effects
are complex problems that are only introduced here.
2. Encourage students to read more on these
subjects.
Major Learning Points
1. Summarize notch fatigue and sequence effects.
29
Initiation Summary Cont
Notches increase local stress/strain and
often are source for crack formation
complex problem leads to local plasticity
characterize by fatigue notch concentration
factor K
f,
, Neubers rule
Load interaction effects result in local
mean stress
can increase/decrease life
invalidate Miners rule
38
Fatigue for Engineers
Instructors Personal Notes
Instructors Outline
1. Introduction to the next group of slides that deal
with methodology to predict fatigue crack growth.
2. This will involve a different viewpoint about
fatigue, and will entail a different technical
approach.
3. The focus will be entirely on the crack growth
phase of fatigue.
Major Learning Points
1. Now consider fatigue crack formation concepts.
30
Fatigue Crack Growth
39
Fatigue for Engineers
Instructors Personal Notes
Instructors Outline
1. Assume now that the component is cracked
before subjected to cyclic loading.
2. The crack initiation phase is ignored entirely. In
many cases this will be a conservative assumption,
but it is based on prior experience where several
new structures failed prematurely by fatigue that
initiated at pre-existent defects associated with poor
quality control.
3. The fatigue crack growth approach was
developed in the 1960s where conventional fatigue
design procedures (i.e. S-N approach) resulted in
several designs that could not resist pre-existent
structural damage.
4. Fatigue crack growth concepts are a key
element of damage tolerant design methods.
Major Learning Points
1. Focus on fatigue crack growth process.
2. Introduction to goals of a damage tolerant
design.
31
Crack Growth Approach
Assumes entire life
fatigue crack growth
ignores initiation
assumes component
cracked before cycling begins
Used with damage tolerant design
protects from pre-existent (or service) damage
based on linear elastic fracture mechanics
Elapsed Cycles N
Crack Growth
C
r
a
c
k

L
e
n
g
t
h

(
a
)
Fracture
Initial crack
40
Fatigue for Engineers
Instructors Personal Notes
Instructors Outline
1. Define damage tolerance: ability to resist pre-
existent damage for given period of service.
2. Is a measure of the safety provided to
unanticipated damage occurrence. Damage
tolerance is essential for structures whose failure
can result in loss of life (e.g. aircraft, nuclear power
plants, etc.).
3. Initial damage can be due to material
imperfections (inclusions, porosity, etc.),
manufacturing problems (poor welds, burrs, etc.), or
it may be induced during service (e.g. foreign object
damage--bird strikes by aircraft, battle damage,
corrosion, etc.)
4. Damage tolerant design codes specify the initial
crack size to be considered. Based on what can be
missed by inspection, experience, etc.
Major Learning Points
1. Definition of damage tolerance.
2. Discussion of the types of initial damage that
might be present in a new structure.
32
Damage Tolerance
The ability of a structure to resist prior
damage for a specified period of time
Initial damage
material
manufacturing
service induced
size based on
inspection capability,
experience, . . .
time
C
r
a
c
k

s
i
z
e
Desired Life
41
Fatigue for Engineers
Instructors Personal Notes
Instructors Outline
1. Establish the two major goals for this section:
Determine crack size that will cause
fracture (i.e. end of fatigue life).
Determine how long it takes for a fatigue
crack to grow to this size.
2. Also will establish the material properties related
to fatigue crack growth.
3. Will use linear elastic fracture mechanics
concepts developed in the 1950s and 60s to
analyze cracks.
4. Key parameter will be the stress intensity factor
K. Both fracture and fatigue crack growth rate will
be expressed in terms of this parameter.
Major Learning Points
1. Objective is to predict fracture and fatigue crack
growth rate.
2. Will employ linear elastic fracture mechanics
concepts.
33
Fatigue Crack Growth
Objective
Characterize material resistance to fatigue crack growth
Predict catastrophic fracture and subcritical crack
growth
Approach
Assume crack growth
controlled by stress
intensity factor K
fracture
growth rate da/dN
Elapsed Cycles N
Crack Growth
C
r
a
c
k

L
e
n
g
t
h

(
a
)
Fracture
Initial crack
42
Fatigue for Engineers
Instructors Personal Notes
Instructors Outline
1. The stress intensity factor is the key parameter
for analyzing fatigue crack growth.
2. It relates crack length, remotely applied stress,
and crack geometry . (point out is dimensionless
function of crack length).
3. Emphasize that this is a crack term. Make sure
students dont confuse with the familiar stress
concentration factor K
t
.
K
t
is for notches, not cracks. It is the ratio
of local to remote stress (is dimensionless)
Stress intensity factor is a crack term. Note
that it has units of stress-length
1/2
(i.e., ksi-
in
1/2
or Mpa-m
1/2
.
4. Stress intensity factor has a rigorous definition in
the context of crack tip stress fields.
Major Learning Points
1. Stress intensity factor is key parameter for
analyzing crack growth.
34
Stress Intensity Factor K
I
K
I
is key linear elastic fracture mechanics
parameter that relates:
applied stress:
crack length: a
component geometry: (a)
((a) is dimensionless)
a
Crack

=1.12
a K
I
Note units: stress-length
1/2
43
Fatigue for Engineers
Instructors Personal Notes
Instructors Outline
1. Two sample stress intensity factor solutions are
given.
2. When cracks are small in both cases (a/W ~0),
the terms simplify.
=Secant term ~1 for center crack
~1.12 for edge crack
3. While the particular solutions given here, will be
used later, emphasize that many solutions are
available for other crack configurations (see
reference handbooks). Its shown later that one can
characterize fracture and fatigue in terms of the
stress intensity factor.
4. The examples discussed here are all for Mode I
loading (remote stress applied perpendicular to
crack plane). See references for modes II and III
results which entail shear loading.
Major Learning Points
1. Examples of stress intensity factors for two
specific crack geometries.
2. Handbooks contain solutions for many other
crack configurations.
35
Stress Intensity Factors
2a
W

K a Sec
a
W

_
,

1
]
1


1
2
Remote Stress
2
095
a
W
.
W
a

h
a
W

_
,
06 .
a
W

_
,

h
W

_
,
10 .
K a
a
W
a
W

_
,

_
,
+

112 0231 10. 55 . .
a
W
a
W
a
W

_
,

_
,
+

_
,
2173 3039
2 3 4
. .
For and
Many K
I
solutions
available
44
Fatigue for Engineers
Instructors Personal Notes
Instructors Outline
1. These equations indicate that the stress intensity
factor is related to the stress distribution near the
crack tip, and that K
I
has a rigorous mathematical
basis.
2. Point out that all crack configurations have same
elastic stress field at tip. All differences between
various crack problems are contained in the stress
intensity factor K
I
term.
3. Point out that these elastic results give infinite
stresses at crack tip (examine limit as distance r
from crack tip approaches 0). Although yielding will
occur at tip, it is often small, and the stress intensity
factor remains a useful parameter.
4. Derivation and interpretation of these equations
is beyond current scope. See references.
Major Learning Points
1. The stress intensity factor is related to the elastic
stress filed near a crack tip.
2. It can be rigorously proven (see references) that
crack tip stresses for all crack problems are
characterized by the stress intensity factor.
3. Thus, stress intensity factor is a key crack
parameter.
4. The following sections demonstrate how fracture
and crack growth can be characterized by K.
36
Crack tip Stress Fields
( )

'

'


y x z
z
yz xz
I
xy
I
y
I
x
r
K
r
K
r
K

strain plane
0 stress plane
0
2
3
cos
2
cos
2
sin
2
2
3
sin
2
sin 1
2
cos
2
2
3
sin
2
sin 1
2
cos
2
Theory of elasticity gives elastic stresses near crack tip in
terms of stress intensity factor K
I
All crack configurations have same singular stress field at tip
(are similar results for other modes of loading, i.e., modes II and III)
Crack
x
y

xy

x
45
Fatigue for Engineers
Instructors Personal Notes
Instructors Outline
1. Schematic representation of fracture stress
versus critical crack size for center crack specimen.
Note K equation for infinite sheet width ( =
1).
Line gives condition that K =constant =
material toughness -- fits most data except
for small cracks.
2. Crack tip plasticity limits application of K
c
fracture criterion for small cracks.
Note deviation in small crack regime.
Fracture stress when there is no crack is
tensile ultimate
3. Emphasize that this simple criterion is quite
powerful. Relates crack length, stress, crack
geometry, and material in simple statement.
Major Learning Points
1. K
c
Fracture criterion to determine fracture
conditions for cracked member.
2. Fracture toughness as material property.
3. Crack tip plasticity limits small crack
applications.
37
K
c
Fracture Criterion
Fracture occurs when
K >constant =K
c
K
c
=material property
= fracture toughness
Criterion relates:
crack size: a
stress:
geometry: (a)
material: K
c
Plasticity limits small
crack applications

2a

ult
F
r
a
c
t
u
r
e

S
t
r
e
s
s

Crack Sizea
( ) K a a
c

46
Fatigue for Engineers
Instructors Personal Notes
Instructors Outline
1. Typical fracture toughness values for various
materials (thick plates).
2. Point out that fracture toughness does depend
on specimen thickness.
Thicker specimens have smaller toughness
values
A minimum value, known as plane strain
fracture toughness K
Ic
, is eventually
reached.
Although in depth discussion of this point is
beyond current scope (see references), it is
caused by crack tip plasticity limitations.
3. Fracture toughness also can depend on the
orientation of the crack plane relative to the material
axes.
4. Handbooks have toughness values for other
materials.
Major Learning Points
1. Typical fracture toughness values for some
common structural materials.
2. Fracture toughness decreases with specimen
thickness, until reaching a minimum value known as
the plane strain fracture toughness.
38
Fracture Toughness K
c
Typical K
c
values (thick plate)
Note K
c

depends on:
specimen thickness -- K
c
decreases as
thickness increases until reaching minimum -
K
Ic
=plane strain toughness
crack direction (material anisotropy)

( )
2024351

7075651

6 4

300
(235 )
18
(200 )

(
1/2
)
31 26 112 47 100
47
Fatigue for Engineers
Instructors Personal Notes
Instructors Outline
1. This example demonstrates how fracture
toughness concepts can be used to predict fracture.
2. Point out there are two different specimen
configurations made from the same material (same
plate thickness).
3. Use the results of the edge- cracked specimen to
predict fracture for the center-cracked member.
Major Learning Points
1. Example of fracture toughness criterion.
39
Fracture Example
Member A fractures when
crack length a =2.0 inch
and remote stress =5 ksi
What stress will fracture
member B (assume same
material)?
2.0 in
4.0 in
5 ksi
5 ksi
A
5 in
8 in
?
?
B
48
Fatigue for Engineers
Instructors Personal Notes
Instructors Outline
1. Begin solution by obtaining stress intensity factor
solutions for the two specimens -- given in earlier
charts. Note that there are handbooks that have
these types of solutions for many other crack
configurations.
2. Compute the stress intensity factor that causes
fracture for the edge-crack solution.
Note that the beta value in this case is 2.83.
The stress intensity factor for the load/crack
length that causes fracture is 35.4 ksi-in
1/2
.
This is K
c
=value that will cause fracture in
all members made from this plate.
3. Compute K for center-crack specimen. Set =K
c
and solve for fracture stress. Note total crack length
2a =5, so a =2.5.
Major Learning Points
1. Calculation of stress intensity factors.
2. Use of fracture toughness concepts to predict
fracture load.
40
Fracture Example Solution
Edge crack
K =(a)
1/2
(a) = K
c
at fracture
a/w =2/4 =5 a =2 =2.83
K
c
=35.5 ksi-in
1/2
=constant
Center Crack
K = ( a)
1/2
(a) (a) =[Sec ( a/W)]
1/2
a =2.5 W =8 =1.34
K =K
c
at fracture =35.5
2.0 in
4.0 in
5 ksi
5 ksi
5in
8in
?
?
a
W
a
W

_
,

_
,
+
112 0 231 10. 55 . .
a
W
a
W
a
W

_
,

_
,
+

_
,
21 73 30 39
2 3 4
. .

f
=9.5 ksi
49
Fatigue for Engineers
Instructors Personal Notes
Instructors Outline
1. Now that we can predict the crack size that
causes fracture, focus now on determining the
fatigue crack growth rate before the crack reaches a
size that results in fracture.
2. The fatigue crack growth rate method is
introduced by looking at the results of two fatigue
crack growth tests (modeled after Paris, Gomez,
and Anderson 1963 results).
Note two center cracked sheets are made
from same material.
Although they have same geometry, they
are loaded differently. One sheet is subject
to remote cyclic stress , while other is
loaded with cyclic force P applied through
pins located above and below crack plane.
Major Learning Points
1. Introduction to basic concept that fatigue crack
growth rate is controlled by the cyclic stress
intensity factor.
41
Fatigue Crack Growth
Goal: show cyclic stress intensity factor K
controls crack growth rate da/dN
P =constant
time
P
2a
P
Crack FaceLoad
2a

RemoteLoad
=constant
time

Same material
Different loadings
50
Fatigue for Engineers
Instructors Personal Notes
Instructors Outline
1. Although both experiments involve constant
amplitude loads, they give entirely different crack
growth behaviors.
2. For remote loading, the crack growth rate da/dN
increases as crack length a increases. Also note
from K solution that cyclic K increases as a
increases.
3. For crack face loading, growth rate da/dN
decreases as crack length increases (i.e. rate slows
down). Note, however, that the cyclic K also
decreases in this case as the crack length gets
larger (a is in denominator, B =thickness).
4. Crack face pressure K solution may seem
strange to students, but is correct solution for this
configuration (note has same units as before).
5. Note cyclic K here =K at max load - K at min
load per cycle.
Major Learning Points
1. Cyclic K controls fatigue crack growth rate.
42
Measure Crack Growth
2a

RemoteLoad
2a
P
Crack FaceLoad
da
dN
C
r
a
c
k

L
e
n
g
t
h

(
a
)
Number of Cycles (N)
K
P
Ba
K


a
C
r
a
c
k

L
e
n
g
t
h

(
a
)
Number of Cycles (N)
da
dN
a*
51
Fatigue for Engineers
Instructors Personal Notes
Instructors Outline
1. Prior chart indicated that the two specimens
gave entirely different fatigue crack growth rate
behavior under constant amplitude loading. It was
noted, however, that cyclic K controlled fatigue
crack growth rate.
2. Now plot crack growth rate at a given crack
length versus the cyclic K for that crack length.
Use K solutions given for the two
specimens.
Now the fatigue crack growth behavior for
these specimens is identical when plotted
versus K.
3. Thus, K is key parameter that controls rate.
Major Learning Points
1. Fatigue crack growth rate is controlled by cyclic
stress intensity factor K.
2. The da/dN - K plot is the material property that
characterizes fatigue crack growth.
43
Correlate Rate da/dN vs K
C
r
a
c
k

L
e
n
g
t
h

(
a
)
Number of Cycles(N)
da
dN
2a
2a
C
r
a
c
k

L
e
n
g
t
h

(
a
)
Number of Cycles(N)
da
dN
a*
K
th
K
c
Log K
L
o
g

d
a
/
d
N
K a


K
P
B a

52
Fatigue for Engineers
Instructors Personal Notes
Instructors Outline
1. The da/dN - K plot is a material property --- is
given in material handbooks.
2. Note upper asymptote (K
c
) where fracture
occurs.
3. The lower asymptote defines a threshold K
th
.
If K <K
th
, da/dN =0.
This result is analogous to the S-N curve
endurance limit, except here we have the
situation where a cracked member does not
fail under cyclic loading.
The K
th
threshold is usually a small
number, and it is difficult to design for zero
crack growth (would involve very small
stress levels).
Major Learning Points
1. The da/dN - K plot is a material property.
2. Definition of threshold K
th
.
44
da/dN Vs K
K
th
K
c
LogK
L
o
g

d
a
/
d
N
Note:
K correlates fatigue
crack growth rate da/dN
K accounts for crack
geometry
No crack growth for
da/dN <K
th
Fractures when K
max
in the K range K
c
da/dN - K curve is
material property
53
Fatigue for Engineers
Instructors Personal Notes
Instructors Outline
1. Note sample da/dN - K data taken from Mil-
Handbook 5.
2. Similar data are available for other materials in
this and several other handbooks. Thus, the da/dN
delta K curve is a common format for documenting
fatigue crack growth data.
3. Note the effect of stress ratio R.
In general, increasing R increases the
fatigue crack growth rate at the same delta
K level.
Thus, attempts to model the fatigue crack
growth data will need to include the R ratio
(or some other measure of mean stress) as
a parameter.
Major Learning Points
1. Example of actual fatigue crack growth data
taken from a handbook.
2. Increasing the stress ratio increases fatigue
crack growth rate at same level of stress intensity
factor.
45
Sample Crack Growth Data
da/dN - K data for
7075-T6 aluminum
Note effect of stress
ratio R =min/max
stress (da/dN as R)
Reference: Military
Handbook-5
Other handbook data
are available
54
Fatigue for Engineers
Instructors Personal Notes
Instructors Outline
1. The objective now is to model the da/dN - K
data with equations that can be used for subsequent
analysis. Note this is primarily a curve fitting
exercise.
2. The Paris and Forman equations are two simple
growth rate models.
Note the Paris law is a straight line on the
log-log plot, and does not show the
asymptotic behavior at small and large
cyclic Ks or depend on R.
Forman equation has upper asymptote and
depends on R.
3. These are only two examples of the many
equations that have been used to model fatigue
crack growth data (see Refs. for more).
4. All of the models will involve determining some
empirical constants such as those shown here.
Major Learning Points
1. Introduction to modeling the da/dN - K data.
46
Model da/dN - K Curve
Fit test data with numerical
models such as:
K
th
K
c
Log K
L
o
g

d
a
/
d
N
da
dN
F K ( )
da
dN
C K
m

da
dN
C K
R K K
m
c

( ) 1
Here C, m, K
c
are
empirical constants
R =min/max stress
(are many other models)
Paris
Forman
55
Fatigue for Engineers
Instructors Personal Notes
Instructors Outline
1. Return to the main objective of determining the
crack growth life.
2. The key concept is based on the fact that the
fatigue crack growth rate is a function of the stress
intensity factor da/dN =F(K).
The particular function will be determined
with baseline experiments that establish the
da/dN - K data.
In addition to K, F(K) could depend on R
or other values.
3. Integrating the da/dN law gives the boxed
equation. Crack length a is the variable of
integration and initial/final crack lengths are the
integration limits.
a
f
is specified by K
c
condition if life is to
fracture
a
o
is set by inspection, code, etc.
Major Learning Points
1. Calculation of fatigue crack growth life by
integrating da/dN model.
47
Compute Fatigue Life N
f
a
o
, a
f
=initial, final crack sizes
F(K) =function of:
cyclic stress: , R, . . .
crack geometry: (a)
crack length: a
material
N
da
F K
f
a
a
o
f

( )
da
dN
F K ( )

time

2a

56
Fatigue for Engineers
Instructors Personal Notes
Instructors Outline
1. Now demonstrate the life calculation procedure
with a simple example that can be solved closed
form.
2. Note given geometry, stress, da/dN model, etc.
3. Final crack size a
f
=10 is computed from the
fracture toughness K
c
criterion.
Note that =1.12 for an edge-crack in a
semi-infinite sheet. See earlier K solution
for edge-crack when a/W ~0.
4. Results are desired for two initial crack sizes.
Major Learning Points
1. Demonstrate fatigue life calculation.
48
Example Life Calculation
a
Crack

=constant
time

Given: edge crack in wide plate


K
c
=63 ksi-in
1/2
initial crack a
i
=0.5 inch
cyclic stress =10 ksi, R =0
( =
max
=10 ksi)
da/dN =10
-9
K
4
Find: a) cyclic life N
f

b) life if initial crack size
decreased to a
i
=0.1 inch
Note: at fracture
K =K
c
=63 = 1.12
max
(a)
1/2

final crack a
f
=10 inch
57
Fatigue for Engineers
Instructors Personal Notes
Instructors Outline
1. Solution is obtained by integrating basic da/dN =
F(K) model.
2. Note in this case that Paris model is used for
F(K) =CK
m
3. Since and are constant in this case
(independent of a), the integration is quite simple,
and a closed form solution results.
4. In other situations, closed form integration is not
possible
The expression may be a function of
crack length a (see earlier expression).
F(K) may be more complex (see Forman
model)
Applied stress may not be constant
amplitude.
4. In those cases numerical integration is readily
accomplished with a computer program.
Major Learning Points
1. Example life calculation involving direct
integration of da/dN model.
49
Solution
[ ]


da
C K
da
C a
m m
a
a
a
a
o
f
o
f

112 .
N
f
( )
( )
[ ]
N
C m
a a
f m f
m
o
m


1
112 1 5
1 5 1 5
. .
. .

K a 112 .
da
dN
C K
m

a) N
f
=12,234 cycles (a
i
=0.5)
b) N
f
=63,747 cycles (a
i
=0.1)
Note: big influence of initial crack length!
58
Fatigue for Engineers
Instructors Personal Notes
Instructors Outline
1. Load interaction effects can complicate fatigue
crack growth life calculation for variable amplitude
loading.
2. The fatigue crack retardation phenomenon can
be significant.
Note peak overload can increase life
(assuming it is not large enough to cause
fracture)
Fact that large tensile load can be beneficial
is not intuitive, but is readily explained by
crack tip plasticity considerations that are
beyond present scope.
There are several numerical models for
crack retardation (encourage students to
examine references).
Retardation can be analyzed and
accounted for.
Major Learning Points
1. Fatigue crack retardation can delay subsequent
crack growth.
2. Retardation is a load interaction effect that must
be accounted for.
50
Fatigue Crack Retardation
Time
A
p
p
l
i
e
d

S
t
r
e
s
s

(

)
Overload
Without Overload
With Overload
Retardation
C
r
a
c
k

L
e
n
g
t
h

(
a
)
Elapsed Cycle (N)
Note load interaction effect
Tensile overload can retard crack growth (increase life)
Life increase due to crack tip plasticity
Depends on magnitude/sequence of overload, material,
Are empirical retardation models
59
Fatigue for Engineers
Instructors Personal Notes
Instructors Outline
1. For variable amplitude loading, the life cannot be
calculated by direct integration between initial and
final crack lengths (i.e. stress depends on crack
length a, and must remain under integral sign).
2. For these cases, crack growth is computed on a
cycle-by-cycle basis.
Note that K will change with each cycle as
the crack length a increases (since , a,
and all change with each cycle).
F(K) and da/dN can be computed for each
cycle, however, and summed for the total
life.
One can also account for crack retardation
in this calculation.
3. Many computer programs are available for these
calculations.
Major Learning Points
1. Cycle-by-cycle calculation schemes are a
powerful and general approach to accomplish
fatigue crack growth life calculation.
2. Many general computer codes are available for
the engineer to make black box life calculations for
complex fatigue crack growth problems.
51
Cycle-by-Cycle Calculation
Compute cycle-by-cycle growth in crack length a
a
current
=a
prior
+da/dN
current
da/dN
current
=F(K
current
) * Retardation term
Sum for all cycles in spectrum
Powerful technique for computer programming

n+1
A
p
p
l
i
e
d

S
t
r
e
s
s

(

)
Time(t)
Variable amplitude
loading prevents
simple life integration
60
Fatigue for Engineers
Instructors Personal Notes
Instructors Outline
1. Summarize the fatigue crack growth analysis
procedure.
2. Method is used with damage tolerant design
concepts that conservatively assume the structure
contains pre-existent cracks.
3. Key point is the stress intensity factor controls
fracture and fatigue crack growth in many practical
situations.
4. Method is limited by crack tip plasticity in some
cases that require more complex analysis
procedures (see references).
5. Encourage students to consult references for
more details of crack growth methodology.
6. Emphasize, however, that analysis of fatigue
crack growth is possible for many engineering
applications.
Major Learning Points
1. Summary of key concepts related to fatigue
crack growth.
52
Crack Growth Summary
Fracture mechanics approach assumes
entire fatigue life is crack growth
Stress intensity factor K controls fracture
and growth rate da/dN
K =[a]
1/2
(a)
Fracture: K =K
c
Fatigue: da/dN =F(K)
Integrate da/dN for life
Are load interaction and other effects (see
references)
61
Fatigue for Engineers
Instructors Personal Notes
Instructors Outline
1. The final set of slides deal with fatigue design
concepts and a brief introduction to repairing fatigue
damage.
Major Learning Points
1. Transition slide to final portion of course.
53
Fatigue Design/Repair
Concepts
62
Fatigue for Engineers
Instructors Personal Notes
Instructors Outline
1. Several different design criteria have been
developed to design fatigue resistant structures (i.e.
determine component dimensions and materials).
2. These approaches differ in the philosophy one
takes regarding the presence of initial fatigue cracks
and the desired final life.
3. Companies follow different design concepts
depending on the application. One may, in fact, use
different fatigue design criteria for different
components in the same structure.
4. The following slides attempt to overview several
common approaches to fatigue design.
5. Ask students to give examples from their
personal experience as the various approaches are
described.
Major Learning Points
1. Introduce various design criteria that have been
employed for fatigue resistant structures.
54
Design Philosophies
Fatigue Design Criteria
Infinite Life
Safe-Life
Damage Tolerant
Fail-safe
Slow crack growth
Retirement-for-cause
a

Crack

S
t
r
e
s
s
Time
Crack Formation
Fracture
Crack Growth
Elapsed Cycles N
Pre-Crack C
r
a
c
k

L
e
n
g
t
h

(
a
)
63
Fatigue for Engineers
Instructors Personal Notes
Instructors Outline
1. To achieve infinite life, the material needs a well
defined endurance limit, the component must
remain in pristine condition, and service loads can
never exceed those assumed in design.
2. Unfortunately, these assumptions often cannot
be achieved in practice. Other factors also make
infinite life impractical for complex components:
Low stress levels lead to heavy and/or
expensive components.
Manufacturing or service induced damage
often lead to early crack formation.
Service loads often exceed those assumed
in design.
3. Engineers must recognize infinite life is probably
impossible, and most components will have a finite
life that they must determine.
Major Learning Points
1. Infinite life design criteria are based on
endurance limits or threshold K concepts.
2. Although a laudable goal, infinite life is usually
not achievable in practice.
3. The engineer must determine what the actual
component life could be, and make sure it is retired
or repaired before failure occurs.
55
Infinite Life Criterion
Design Goal: prevent fatigue damage from ever
developing (i.e. infinite life)
Usually based on endurance limit
Could also employ threshold K concepts
Leads to small design stresses/heavy members
Limited to simple components/loading
Often impractical/not achievable in practice
Weight critical structure
Complex loads
64
Fatigue for Engineers
Instructors Personal Notes
Instructors Outline
1. Safe-life design recognizes the component will
have a finite fatigue life and that there is much
scatter in fatigue behavior.
2. Safety is provided by determining the variability
in the component fatigue life through test and/or
analysis.
The mean life is then divided by a safety
factor to determine the safe operating life.
Safety factors of 4 are common, but could
be as large as 10.
3. Safe-life has been used for aircraft design, but
has been unreliable due to the possibility of initial or
service induced damage that eliminates the crack
formation period of fatigue life and defeats the
safety factor. It is being replaced by damage
tolerance designs.
Major Learning Points
1. Description of the safe-life design procedure.
2. Potential shortcomings of safe-life designs.
56
Safe-Life Criterion
Design goal: component is to remain crack free for
finite service life
Assumes initial crack-free structure
Establish mean life by test/analysis
Safety factors account for scatter
predicted mean
Desired life = mean/S.F.
Design Life





F
a
i
l
u
r
e
O
c
c
u
r
r
e
n
c
e
1 3 2 4
Problems:
large safety factor
no protection from
initial damage
65
Fatigue for Engineers
Instructors Personal Notes
Instructors Outline
1. The remaining criteria are all forms of damage
tolerance where pre-existent cracks are assumed.
One designs/manages the structure so that these
cracks cannot cause catastrophic failure during
service.
2. The fail-safe criterion employs redundant
components for safety. Although an initial crack in
one component could cause it to fail prematurely
(first crack growth curve), adjacent members pick
up the failed components load.
3. The second crack growth curve is for the
redundant member. Again, for safety, it is assumed
to contain a small pre-crack. Since the loads in the
redundant member increase, it will fail earlier than
normal.
4. Note that for approach to be successful, the
original failure must be detected and repaired.
Major Learning Points
1. The fail-safe design criterion is a form of damage
tolerant design that protects from unforeseen
damage.
2. This is a preferred design approach for many
aircraft components.
57
Fail-Safe Criterion
Design goal: contain single component failure
without losing entire structure
Assumes crack is present
Provide alternate load paths, redundant structure, crack
stoppers, etc.
Requires detection of 1st failure
Time
C
r
a
c
k

s
i
z
e
1st member
2nd member
Crack arrest
66
Fatigue for Engineers
Instructors Personal Notes
Instructors Outline
1. The slow crack growth approach is for the
situation where redundant components are not
possible.
2. Safety is provided by ensuring that the crack
growth lives of all critical members exceed the
desired service life by some specified safety factor
(typically 2).
3. Note that materials selection and component
dimensions are based on crack growth analyses.
4. The initial crack size assumption is based on the
largest possible crack that could missed by
inspection and wind up in a new component.
Major Learning Points
1. The slow crack growth design criterion is a form
of damage tolerance employed for primary
structural members that cannot be protected by
redundant load paths.
58
Slow Crack Growth Criterion
Design goal: prevent initial crack from growing to
fracture during life of structure
Pre-existent crack size specified by inspection
limits, experience
Crack growth life
>service life x S.F.
Based on fatigue
crack growth
resistance
Emphasizes nondestructive inspection
C
r
a
c
k

s
i
z
e
Desired Life
time
Fracture
67
Fatigue for Engineers
Instructors Personal Notes
Instructors Outline
1. Periodic inspection and repair are used to obtain
the desired life.
2. The first inspection period could be based on
fatigue crack growth concepts (as shown here) or
on crack formation methods (stress-life or strain-life)
where the component was originally assumed to be
crack free.
3. Following the first inspection, all cracked
members are repaired or retired, and the
component(s) returned to service.
4. The second inspection is based on crack growth
analyses, assuming an initial crack that could have
been missed by the original inspection.
5. The process can be repeated indefinitely until
the cost of inspection and repair becomes
unacceptable (note that eventually there will be
many cracks to repair).
Major Learning Points
1. Retirement-for-cause is a life management
philosophy that incorporates repeated inspection
and repair periods to obtain the desired service life.
59
Retirement-for-Cause
Failure size
C
r
a
c
k


L
e
n
g
t
h
Time
inspect/repair
Design goal: Use periodic inspection/repair
to achieve desired fatigue lives
Limited by repeated maintenance economics
68
Fatigue for Engineers
Instructors Personal Notes
Instructors Outline
1. Outline life extension concepts.
2. Following inspection, uncracked members are
assumed to contain crack sizes below the
inspection threshold.
3. Life extension can be achieved by reducing
applied stresses or by introducing beneficial (i.e.
compressive) residual stresses. Common residual
stresses techniques are indicated.
4. Reducing applied stresses is achieved by local
reinforcement or by restrictions on usage.
5. Patching or stop drilling are particularly effective
crack repairs. (Stop drilling entails drilling a hole at
the crack tip -- turns it into a notch. A temporary fix
since new fatigue crack can form at the stop drill
hole.) Composite or metal patches can be bonded
or mechanically fastened.
Major Learning Points
1. Several methods are provide to solve fatigue
problems and to increase component life.
60
Life Extension Concepts
Shot peen
Hole coldwork
Interference fasteners
Overstress, etc.
Introduce Beneficial
Residual Stresses
Metal
Composite
Mechanical Fasten
Bond
Doublers
HCF damping materials
Reduce Stress
via Reinforcement
Weight limits
Flight restrictions
etc.
Reduce Operating
Loads
No Cracks Found
(assume small cracks)
Metal
Composite Mechanical Fasten
Bond
Patches
Replace component
Stop drill cracks
Welding
Repair Cracked
Structure
Cracks Found
Component
Inspection
69
Fatigue for Engineers
Instructors Personal Notes
Instructors Outline
1. Fatigue is a complex problem that is aggravated
by many factors and can occur in many types of
structures.
2. Several methods have been developed to
analyze/design for fatigue. Methods differ primarily
in the philosophy one has regarding the possibility
for pre-existent damage and the resulting
consequences.
3. Fatigue is a process that involves much
variability. Although not emphasized here,
probabilistic tools are available in the literature to
characterize/analyze the statistical nature of fatigue.
Major Learning Points
1. Summarize key concepts of course.
61
Summary
Fatigue is complex problem that
involves many disciplines
Fatigue affects design and operation of
many types of structures
Fatigue may be treated by several
methods/philosophies
Assume component cracked
Assume component uncracked
Probabilistic methods
70
Fatigue for Engineers
Instructors Personal Notes
Instructors Outline
1. Final cartoon to summarize complex nature of
fatigue.
2. Loads -- cyclic loading required for fatigue.
Stress or strain range is main factor although mean
stresses and overloads can be important. Point out
that from a design standpoint it is very difficult to
determine what service loads will be.
3. Crack Initiation/Detection -- S-N and Strain-life
methods assume fatigue life is time to develop a
crack.
4. Crack Growth -- Damage tolerance
approaches assume component is cracked at start,
and all of fatigue life is crack growth.
5. Manufacturing -- Life is very sensitive to
manufacturing quality. Poor quality leads to local
stress concentrations and short fatigue lives.
6. Probability -- refers to the variability in fatigue
process. Statistical considerations are necessary.
7. Environment -- Although not emphasized here,
fatigue frequently occurs in a corrosive
environment. Synergistic aspects of corrosion-
fatigue may accelerate crack formation and/or
growth. Corrosion is a source of local damage
and/or thickness reduction that provides stress
concentrations and increase nominal stresses.
8. Materials -- refers to various material
properties associated with the fatigue process.
Note that design often involves a trade off between
fatigue and other desirable material properties.
Major Learning Points
1. Review features that make fatigue such a difficult
problem.
62
71
Appendix A
Reproducible Overheads
1
Fatigue for Engineers
Prepared by
A. F. Grandt, Jr.
Professor of Aeronautics and Astronautics
Purdue University
W. Lafayette, IN 47907
June 1999
2
Objective
Overview nature/consequences of the
fatigue failure mechanism
Determine number of cycles required to
develop a fatigue crack
propagate a fatigue crack
Discuss implications of fatigue on
design and maintenance operations
3
Structural Failure Modes
Excessive Deformation
Elastic
Plastic
Buckling
Fracture
Creep
Corrosion
Fatigue
F
o
r
c
e
Displacement
Yield
Permanent
displacement
displacement
Force
4
Fatigue Failure Mechanism
Caused by repeated (cyclic) loading
Involves crack formation, growth, and final
fracture
Fatigue life depends on initial quality, load, . . .
S
t
r
e
s
s

Time
Crack Nucleation
Fracture
Crack Growth
Elapsed Cycles N
C
r
a
c
k

L
e
n
g
t
h

(
a
)
a
Crack
5
Paper Clip Experiment
Bend wire repeatedly until fracture
Note:
life (number of applied load cycles)
depends on:
applied stress amplitude
component quality (notches, scratches, etc.)
heat emitted >> plastic deformation
6
Characteristics of Fatigue
Brittle fracture surface appearance
Cracks often form at free surface
Macro/micro beach marks/ striations
0.3 in
Beach marks
20 m
Striations
7
Fatigue is problem for many
types of structures
8
Exercise
Describe fatigue failures from your
personal experience
What was cause of fatigue failure?
What was nature of cyclic load?
Was initial quality an issue?
How was failure detected?
How was problem solved?
9
Exercise
Estimate the fatigue lifetime needed for:
Automobile axle
Railroad rail
Commercial aircraft components
landing gear
lower wing skin
Highway drawbridge mechanism
Space shuttle solid propellant rocket motor
cases
10
Exercise
Give an example of a High Cycle
Fatigue (HCF) application.
What is the required lifetime?
What are consequences of failure?
Given an example of a Low Cycle
Fatigue (LCF) application.
What is the required lifetime?
What are consequences of failure?
11
Fatigue Crack Formation
12
Crack Formation
Fracture
Crack Growth
Elapsed Cycles N
C
r
a
c
k

L
e
n
g
t
h

(
a
)
Fatigue Crack Formation
Objective
Characterize resistance to fatigue crack formation
Predict number of cycles to initiate small* fatigue crack
in component
*crack size ~ 0.03 inch
= committee crack
Approach
Stress-life concepts
(S-N curves)
Strain-life concepts
13
Stress-life (S-N) Approach
Concept: Stress range controls fatigue life
S
S
Log cycles N
S/2
Note:
Life increases as load amplitude decreases
Considerable scatter in data
Run-outs suggest infinite life possible
Life N usually total cycles to failure
S
time
S
14
Model Stress-life (S-N) Curve
S
e
= endurance limit
for steels
S
e
~ 0.5 ultimate stress S
ult
S
e
~ 100 ksi if S
ult
200 ksi
Log reversals 2N
L
o
g

S
/
2
S
e
S/2 =
f


(2N)
b

f
= fatigue strength coefficient
b = fatigue strength exponent
typically -0.12 < b < -0.0
Note: Measure life in terms of reversals 2N
(1 cycle = 2 reversals)
15
S-N Curve: Mean Stress
Mean stress effects life
stress ratio R = S
min
/ S
max
S
mean
= 0.5(S
min
+ S
max
)
S
a
= 0.5(S
max
- S
min
) = S/2
Mean stress models
S
a
/S
e
+ S
m
/S
ult
= 1
S/2 = (
f


- S
mean
)

(2N)
b
Mean Stress
S
t
r
e
s
s

A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
N = 10
6
N = 10
3
Haigh constant life diagram
S
time
S
min
S
max
S = 2S
a
16
S-N Curve: Other Factors
S-N curves are very sensitive to
surface finish, coatings, notches
prior loading, residual stresses
specimen size effects, etc.
Many empirical knock-down factors
S-N approach best suited for HCF (High
Cycle Fatigue) applications
limited by local plastic deformation
strain-life approach better for LCF (Low
Cycle Fatigue)
17
Strain-life ( - N) Approach
Concept: Strain range controls life
Experiment
Control
Measure
Reversals (2N
f
)
to failure (1 cycle
= 2 reversals)
Stable stress range
needed to maintain
Note: stable usually occurs
by mid-life (2N
f
/2)

time



time

18
Cyclic Stress-Strain Curve
Relate stable cyclic stress and strain ranges

time

time

Hystersis loop
/2
/2
/2 = /2E + (/2K

)1/n
Cyclic stress-strain curve
E = elastic modulus
K = cyclic strength coefficient
n = strain hardening exponent
19
Plastic Strain-Life Curve
Relate plastic strain amplitude
p
/2
with reversals to failure 2N
f
Compute
p
/2 =/2 - /2E = total - elastic strain amplitudes
L
o
g

p
/
2

Log 2N
f

p
/2 =
f

(2N
f
)
c

= fatigue ductility coefficient


c = fatigue ductility exponent
typically -0.7 < c < -0.5
20
Total Strain-Life Curve
Plot total strain amplitudes versus life 2N
f

total
/2 = /2 = 0.5
elastic
+0.5
plastic
=

/2E + 0.5
plastic
/2 = {(
f
- S
mean
)/E}(2N)
b
+
f

(2N
f
)
c

p
/2 =
f
(2N
f
)
c
/2E = {(
f
- S
mean
)/E}(2N
f
)
b
Log 2N
f
L
o
g

s
t
r
a
i
n

a
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
2N
t
= transition life
21
Total Strain-Life
Note:
Plastic strain dominates for LCF
Elastic strain dominates for HCF
Transition life 2N
t
separates LCF/HCF

p
=
f
(2N
f
)
c

/2 = {(

f
- S
mean
)/E}(2N)
b
+

(2N
f
)
c


Log 2N
f
L
o
g

s
t
r
a
i
n

a
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
/2E = {(
f
- S
mean
)/E}(2N
f
)
b
2N
t
= transition life
LCF
HCF
22
Variable Amplitude Loading
Load amplitude varies in many applications
Use of constant amplitude S - N or - N
data requires damage model
Miners rule*
(N
i
/N
f
) = 1
N
i
= number of applied cycles of stress amplitude S
ai
N
f
= fatigue life for S
ai
cycling only
*Use with caution!
S
time
N
i
2S
ai
23
Example Problem
Assume:

f
= 220 ksi, b = - 0.1
stress history shown (1 block of loading)
Find: number of blocks to failure
+ 80 ksi
S
time
- 80 ksi
- 100 ksi
+ 100 ksi
2N = 100
2N = 1000
2N = 1000
S
S
24
Solution
(N
i
/N
f
) = 1
2N
f
= {(S/2) / (
f
- S
mean
)}
1/b

(N
i
/N
f
) = 1
When:
1/0.0089
= 112.5
Answer
112 blocks

S/2
(ksi)
S
mean
(ksi)
2N
f
2N
i
N
i
/N
f
80 0 24,735 100 0.0040
50 +50 206,437 1000 0.0048
50 -50 21 E
6
1000 4.74 E
-6
0.0089
25
Load Sequence Effects
Hi-lo strain sequence
results in compressive
mean stress
increases life
Note last large peak
was compression here
If last peak had been
tension, would result in
tensile mean stress
decreases life
Load sequence important!

t
t
Mean stress
26
Notch Fatigue
Notches can reduce life
Define Fatigue Notch Factor
K
f
K
f
= Smooth/notch fatigue
strength at 10
6
cycles
= S
s
/S
n
1 < K
f
< K
t
(K
t
= elastic stress
concentration factor)
K
f
= 1 no notch effect
K
f
= K
t
full notch effect
Smooth
Notch
S/2
Log cycles N
S
s
/2
S
n
/2
10
6
27
Neubers Rule
K
f
= fatigue notch concentration factor
(s,e) = nominal stress/strain ranges
(away from notch)
(,) = notch stress/strain ranges
Neubers rule relates notch and
nominal stress/strain behavior
Solve with:
K
f
2
se =
/2 = /2E + (/2K
)1/n
/2 = {(
f
- S
mean
)}(2N
f
)
b
+
f
(2N
f
)
c
(,)
(s,e)
28
Summary Initiation Methods
Total strain-life approach combines:
original S-N curve (best suited for HCF) and
plastic strain-life method developed for LCF
problems
S-N and strain-life often viewed as crack
initiation approaches
actually deal with life to form small crack
crack size implicit in specimen/test procedure
typically assume committee crack ~ 0.03 in.
29
Initiation Summary Cont
Notches increase local stress/strain and
often are source for crack formation
complex problem leads to local plasticity
characterize by fatigue notch concentration
factor K
f,
, Neubers rule
Load interaction effects result in local
mean stress
can increase/decrease life
invalidate Miners rule
30
Fatigue Crack Growth
31
Crack Growth Approach
Assumes entire life
fatigue crack growth
ignores initiation
assumes component
cracked before cycling begins
Used with damage tolerant design
protects from pre-existent (or service) damage
based on linear elastic fracture mechanics
Elapsed Cycles N
Crack Growth
C
r
a
c
k

L
e
n
g
t
h

(
a
)
Fracture
Initial crack
32
Damage Tolerance
The ability of a structure to resist prior
damage for a specified period of time
Initial damage
material
manufacturing
service induced
size based on
inspection capability,
experience, . . .
time
C
r
a
c
k

s
i
z
e
Desired Life
33
Fatigue Crack Growth
Objective
Characterize material resistance to fatigue crack growth
Predict catastrophic fracture and subcritical crack
growth
Approach
Assume crack growth
controlled by stress
intensity factor K
fracture
growth rate da/dN
Elapsed Cycles N
Crack Growth
C
r
a
c
k

L
e
n
g
t
h

(
a
)
Fracture
Initial crack
34
Stress Intensity Factor K
I
K
I
is key linear elastic fracture mechanics
parameter that relates:
applied stress:
crack length: a
component geometry: (a)
((a) is dimensionless)
a
Crack

= 1.12
a K
I
Note units: stress-length
1/2
35
Stress Intensity Factors
2a
W

K a Sec
a
W

_
,

1
]
1


1
2
Remote Stress
2
095
a
W
.
W
a

h
a
W

_
,

06 .
a
W

_
,

h
W

_
,

10 .
K
a
a
W
a
W

_
,

_
,
+

112 0231 10. 55 . .


a
W
a
W
a
W

_
,

_
,
+

_
,

2173 3039
2 3 4
. .
For and
Many K
I
solutions
available
36
Crack tip Stress Fields
( )

'

'


y x z
z
yz xz
I
xy
I
y
I
x
r
K
r
K
r
K

strain plane
0 stress plane
0
2
3
cos
2
cos
2
sin
2
2
3
sin
2
sin 1
2
cos
2
2
3
sin
2
sin 1
2
cos
2
Theory of elasticity gives elastic stresses near crack tip in
terms of stress intensity factor K
I
All crack configurations have same singular stress field at tip
(are similar results for other modes of loading, i.e., modes II and III)
Crack
x
y

xy

x
37
K
c
Fracture Criterion
Fracture occurs when
K > constant = K
c
K
c
= material property
= fracture toughness
Criterion relates:
crack size: a
stress:
geometry: (a)
material: K
c
Plasticity limits small
crack applications

2a

ult
F
r
a
c
t
u
r
e

S
t
r
e
s
s

Crack Size a
( ) K a a
c

38
Fracture Toughness K
c
Typical K
c
values (thick plate)
Note K
c

depends on:
specimen thickness -- K
c
decreases as
thickness increases until reaching minimum -
K
Ic
= plane strain toughness
crack direction (material anisotropy)

( )
2024351

7075651

6 4

300
(235 )
18
(200 )

(
1/2
)
31 26 112 47 100
39
Fracture Example
Member A fractures when
crack length a = 2.0 inch
and remote stress = 5 ksi
What stress will fracture
member B (assume same
material)?
2.0 in
4.0 in
5 ksi
5 ksi
A
5 in
8 in
?
?
B
40
Fracture Example Solution
Edge crack
K = (a)
1/2
(a) = K
c
at fracture
a/w = 2/4 = 5 a = 2 = 2.83
K
c
= 35.5 ksi-in
1/2
= constant
Center Crack
K = ( a)
1/2
(a) (a) = [Sec ( a/W)]
1/2
a = 2.5 W = 8 = 1.34
K = K
c
at fracture = 35.5
2.0 in
4.0 in
5 ksi
5 ksi
5 in
8 in
?
?
a
W
a
W

_
,

_
,
+
112 0 231 10. 55 . .
a
W
a
W
a
W

_
,

_
,
+

_
,

21 73 30 39
2 3 4
. .

f
= 9.5 ksi
41
Fatigue Crack Growth
Goal: show cyclic stress intensity factor K
controls crack growth rate da/dN
P = constant
time
P
2a
P
Crack Face Load
2a

Remote Load
= constant
time

Same material
Different loadings
42
Measure Crack Growth
2a

Remote Load
2a
P
Crack Face Load
da
dN
C
r
a
c
k

L
e
n
g
t
h

(
a
)
Number of Cycles (N)

K
P
B


a
C
r
a
c
k

L
e
n
g
t
h

(
a
)
Number of Cycles (N)
da
dN
a*
43
Correlate Rate da/dN vs K
C
r
a
c
k

L
e
n
g
t
h

(
a
)
Number of Cycles (N)
da
dN
2a
2a
C
r
a
c
k

L
e
n
g
t
h

(
a
)
Number of Cycles (N)
da
dN
a*
K
th
K
c
Log K
L
o
g

d
a
/
d
N
K a


K
P
B a

44
da/dN Vs K
K
th
K
c
Log K
L
o
g

d
a
/
d
N
Note:
K correlates fatigue
crack growth rate da/dN
K accounts for crack
geometry
No crack growth for
da/dN < K
th
Fractures when K
max
in the K range K
c
da/dN - K curve is
material property
45
Sample Crack Growth Data
da/dN - K data for
7075-T6 aluminum
Note effect of stress
ratio R = min/max
stress (da/dN as R)
Reference: Military
Handbook-5
Other handbook data
are available
46
Model da/dN - K Curve
Fit test data with numerical
models such as:
K
th
K
c
Log K
L
o
g

d
a
/
d
N
da
dN
F K ( )
da
dN
C K
m

da
dN
C K
R K K
m
c

( ) 1
Here C, m, K
c
are
empirical constants
R = min/max stress
(are many other models)
Paris
Forman
47
Compute Fatigue Life N
f
a
o
, a
f
= initial, final crack sizes
F(K) = function of:
cyclic stress: , R, . . .
crack geometry: (a)
crack length: a
material
N
da
F K
f
a
a
o
f

( )
da
dN
F K ( )


time

2a

48
Example Life Calculation
a
Crack

= constant
time

Given: edge crack in wide plate


K
c
= 63 ksi-in
1/2
initial crack a
i
= 0.5 inch
cyclic stress = 10 ksi, R = 0
( =
max
= 10 ksi)
da/dN = 10
-9
K
4
Find: a) cyclic life N
f

b) life if initial crack size
decreased to a
i
= 0.1 inch
Note: at fracture
K = K
c
= 63 = 1.12
max
(a)
1/2

final crack a
f
= 10 inch
49
Solution
[ ]


da
C K
da
C a
m m
a
a
a
a
o
f
o
f

112 .
N
f
( )
( )
[ ]
N
C m
a a
f
m
f
m
o
m


1
112 1 5
1 5 1 5
. .
. .

K a 112 .
da
dN
C K
m

a) N
f
= 12,234 cycles (a
i
= 0.5)
b) N
f
= 63,747 cycles (a
i
= 0.1)
Note: big influence of initial crack length!
50
Fatigue Crack Retardation
Time
A
p
p
l
i
e
d

S
t
r
e
s
s

(

)
Overload
Without Overload
With Overload
Retardation
C
r
a
c
k

L
e
n
g
t
h

(
a
)
Elapsed Cycle (N)
Note load interaction effect
Tensile overload can retard crack growth (increase life)
Life increase due to crack tip plasticity
Depends on magnitude/sequence of overload, material,
Are empirical retardation models
51
Cycle-by-Cycle Calculation
Compute cycle-by-cycle growth in crack length a
a
current
= a
prior
+ da/dN
current
da/dN
current
= F(K
current
) * Retardation term
Sum for all cycles in spectrum
Powerful technique for computer programming

n+1
A
p
p
l
i
e
d

S
t
r
e
s
s

(

)
Time (t)
Variable amplitude
loading prevents
simple life integration
52
Crack Growth Summary
Fracture mechanics approach assumes
entire fatigue life is crack growth
Stress intensity factor K controls fracture
and growth rate da/dN
K = [a]
1/2
(a)
Fracture: K = K
c
Fatigue: da/dN = F(K)
Integrate da/dN for life
Are load interaction and other effects (see
references)
53
Fatigue Design/Repair
Concepts
54
Design Philosophies
Fatigue Design Criteria
Infinite Life
Safe-Life
Damage Tolerant
Fail-safe
Slow crack growth
Retirement-for-cause
a

Crack

S
t
r
e
s
s
Time
Crack Formation
Fracture
Crack Growth
Elapsed Cycles N
Pre-Crack
C
r
a
c
k

L
e
n
g
t
h

(
a
)
55
Infinite Life Criterion
Design Goal: prevent fatigue damage from ever
developing (i.e. infinite life)
Usually based on endurance limit
Could also employ threshold K concepts
Leads to small design stresses/heavy members
Limited to simple components/loading
Often impractical/not achievable in practice
Weight critical structure
Complex loads
56
Safe-Life Criterion
Design goal: component is to remain crack free for
finite service life
Assumes initial crack-free structure
Establish mean life by test/analysis
Safety factors account for scatter
predicted
mean
Desired life = mean/S.F.
Design Life





F
a
i
l
u
r
e
O
c
c
u
r
r
e
n
c
e
1 3 2 4
Problems:
large safety factor
no protection from
initial damage
57
Fail-Safe Criterion
Design goal: contain single component failure
without losing entire structure
Assumes crack is present
Provide alternate load paths, redundant structure, crack
stoppers, etc.
Requires detection of 1st failure
Time
C
r
a
c
k

s
i
z
e
1st member
2nd member
Crack arrest
58
Slow Crack Growth Criterion
Design goal: prevent initial crack from growing to
fracture during life of structure
Pre-existent crack size specified by inspection
limits, experience
Crack growth life
> service life x S.F.
Based on fatigue
crack growth
resistance
Emphasizes nondestructive inspection
C
r
a
c
k

s
i
z
e
Desired Life
time
Fracture
59
Retirement-for-Cause
Failure size
C
r
a
c
k


L
e
n
g
t
h
Time
inspect/repair
Design goal: Use periodic inspection/repair
to achieve desired fatigue lives
Limited by repeated maintenance economics
60
Life Extension Concepts
Shot peen
Hole coldwork
Interference fasteners
Overstress, etc.
Introduce Beneficial
Residual Stresses
Metal
Composite
Mechanical Fasten
Bond
Doublers
HCF damping materials
Reduce Stress
via Reinforcement
Weight limits
Flight restrictions
etc.
Reduce Operating
Loads
No Cracks Found
(assume small cracks)
Metal
Composite Mechanical Fasten
Bond
Patches
Replace component
Stop drill cracks
Welding
Repair Cracked
Structure
Cracks Found
Component
Inspection
61
Summary
Fatigue is complex problem that
involves many disciplines
Fatigue affects design and operation of
many types of structures
Fatigue may be treated by several
methods/philosophies
Assume component cracked
Assume component uncracked
Probabilistic methods
62
134
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Appendix C
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Course Improvement Form
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6
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ASME Professional Development
Three Park Avenue
New York, NY 10016-5990
YOUR PATH TO LIFELONG LEARNING
ASME offers you exciting, rewarding ways to sharpen your technical
skills, enhance personal development and prepare for advancement.
*Short Courses - More than 200 short courses offered each year keep
you up to speed in the technology fast lane--or, help you fill in any gaps
in your technical background.
*Customized Training at your organizations site - Do you have ten or
more people at your site who could benefit from an ASME course?
Most of our courses can be offered in-house and tailored to your latest
engineering project. Bring a course to your company too.
*Self-study materials meet the needs of individuals who demand
substantive, practical information, yet require flexibility, quality and
convenience. Return to each program again and again, as a
refresher or as an invaluable addition to your reference library.
*F.E. Exam Review - A panel of seasoned educators outline a wide
range of required topics to provide a thorough review to help
practicing engineers as well as engineering students prepare for
this challenging examination. 24 hours of videotape and notes.
*P.E. Exam Review - A comprehensive review of all the major exam topics
that demonstrates the necessary math, logic and theory...and provides
shortcuts that reduce the time and effort required to prepare yourself
for this challenging exam. 15 hours of videotape and notes.
FOR INFORMATION CALL 1-800-THE-ASME AND MENTION CODE CD.
INFORMATION REQUEST FORM
Please mail to ASME at 22 Law Drive, P.O. Box 2900, Fairfield, New Jersey, 07007-2900
or fax to 201-882-1717, call 1-800-THE-ASME, or email infocentral@asme.org
Send me information on the following:
_____Short Courses _____ In-House Training _____ Self-Study Programs
_____F.E. Exam Review _____ P.E. Exam Review
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