Chap 2

Chapter Two FLUID STATIC
Dr.Mohammed Al-jibory 2012/2013 1

KARBALAA UNIVERSITY
ENGINEERING COLLEGE
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT
2
nd
Year

Fluid Mechanics

CHAPTER TWO
FLUID STATIC

Prepared by: Dr. Mohammed W. Aljibory

2012/2013

2.1 Introduction:
For a static fluid, the only stress is the normal stress since
by definition a fluid subjected to a shear stress must deform and
undergo motion. Normal stresses are referred to as pressure p.

- Pressure
In fluids we use the term pressure to mean:

The perpendicular force exerted by a fluid per unit area
.
This is equivalent to stress in solids, but we shall keep the
term pressure. Mathematically, because pressure may vary from
place to place, we have:

p = ltm
F
A

As we saw, force per unit area is measured in N/m
2
which is the
same as a Pascal (Pa). The units used in practice vary:
1 kPa = 1000 Pa = 1000 N/m
2
1 MPa = 1000 kPa = 1 106 N/ m
2

1 bar = 10
5
Pa = 100 kPa = 0.1 MPa
1 atm = 101,325 Pa = 101.325 kPa = 1.01325 bars

Also,
1 atm = 14.696 psi (i.e. pounds per square inch)
1 psi = 6894.7 Pa 6.89 kPa 0.007 MPa


Pressure Reference Levels

The above diagram shows:
(a) the case when the measured pressure is below atmospheric
pressure and so is a negative gauge pressure or a vacuum
pressure;
(b) the more usual case when the measured pressure is greater
than atmospheric pressure by the gauge pressure.


Statics of Definition
We applied the definition of a fluid to the static case
previously and determined that there must be no shear forces
acting and thus only forces normal to a surface act in a fluid.

For a flat surface at arbitrary angle we have:

A curved surface can be examined in sections:


2.2 Pascals Law
This law states:
The pressure at a point in a fluid at rest is the same in all
directions.
To show this, we will consider a very small wedge of fluid
surrounding the point. This wedge is unit thickness into the
page:

As with all static objects the forces in the x and y directions
should balance. Hence:
F
x
= u P
x
. y P
s
. s. sin = u
But, sin =
y
s
, theiefoie:
P
x
. y P
s
. s.
y
s
= u
P
x
. y = P
s
. y
P
x
= P
s


F
y
= u P
y
. x P
s
. s. cos = u

But, cos =
x
s
, theiefoie:
P
y
. x P
s
. s.
x
s
= u
P
y
. x = P
s
. x
P
y
= P
s

Hence for any angle:
P
y
= P
x
= P
s

And so the pressure at a point is the same in any direction.
Note that we neglected the weight of the small wedge of fluid
because it is infinitesimally small. This is why Pascals Law is
restricted to the pressure at a point.


2.3 Pressure variation on a static fluid:

P
P P
P
P
P
JX
J
JZ
P

Then by:
Fx = u
+

_P
P
x
ux
2
] uyuz _P +
P
x
ux
2
] uyuz = u

P
x
uxuyuz = u
since, uxuyuz = u u

dP
dx
=
Similar:
Fz = u
+

_P
P
z
uz
2
] uyux _P +
P
z
uz
2
] uyux = u

P
z
uxuyuz = u
but, uxuyuz = u u

dP
dz
=


Now, for
Fy = u
+

_P
P
y
uy
2
] uxuz _P +
P
y
uy
2
] uxuz uw = u

So,
0P
0z
uxuyuz uxuyuz = u

dP
dy
= y
Since, P (x, z) P = P(y) unly

Then,
0P
0y
=
dP
dy
and,
dP
dy
= y
Basic Hydrostatic Equation


INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUID:
= constant = . g = constant
and, then:
_uP = _uy P = y +c
Or: P +y = constant

P1 +y1 = P2 +y2 but, y1 = u fiom the next figuie.
P2 = P1 y2
Where, y2 = h measuieu veitically uownwaiu

P2 = P1 +yh

COMPRESSIBLE FLUID: ( constant)
=
P
R. T
anu = . g =
P. g
R. T

but we have above,
dP
dy
= =
P.g
R.T

_
JP
P
= _
g
R. I
Jy


So,
1. Troposphere (010769m)
T = T
o
+(y y
o
)
wheie, T
o
= iefeience tempeiatuie = 288
0
K at y
0
= u
(sea level) and,
= Lopes iate = u.uu6S uegieem
Thus:
dP
P
=
-gd
R|1
c
+(y-
c
)]

P = P
u
_
T
u
+(y y
u
)
T
u
_

2. Stratosphere (10769mS2Km)
T const. = 21.8
0
K
_
JP
P
= _
guy
RT

P = P
u
exp_
g(y y
u
)
RT
_


2.4 Pressure Measurement.
P
abs
= P
atm
+P
gagc

And,
101325 Pa = 1.01325 bar =76 cmHg = 29.92 in Hg =
10.34 m water = 33.92 ft water

Pressure Head
Pressure in fluids may arise from many sources, for
example pumps, gravity, momentum etc.
Since p = gh, a height of liquid column can be associated with
the pressure p arising from such sources. This height, h, is
known as the pressure head.


Barometric Pressure
Mercury barometer used to measure atmospheric
Pressure

Top is evacuated and fills with mercury vapor

P atm = h + p vapor

p vapor = 0.000023 psia = 0.1586 Pa at 68
0
F (20
0
C)

h = 760 mm = 29.92 in for standard atmosphere

Manometers
A manometer (or liquid gauge) is a pressure measurement
device which uses the relationship between pressure and head to
give readings.
In the following, we wish to measure the pressure of a fluid in a
pipe.
- Piezometer
This is the simplest gauge.
A small vertical tube is connected
to the pipe and its top is left open to
the atmosphere, as shown.
The pressure at A is equal to the pressure
due to the column of liquid of height h1 :


P(A)= g h1
Similarly,
P(B) = g h2

- U-tube Manometer
To overcome the problems with the piezometer, the U-tube
manometer seals the fluid by using a measuring (manometric)
liquid:

- Pressure at B, PB Pressure at C, PC
P
B
= P
A
+ g h1

P
C
=
mano
g h2

But, P
B
= P
C
(Same level for the same fluid)
P
A
+ g h1 =
mano
g h2
P
A
= p
manu
g h2 - p g h1

- Differential Manometer
To measure the pressure difference between two points we
use a u-tube as shown:

P
A
+y. o = P
B
+y(b ) +y
muno
.

Hence the pressure difference is:
P
A
P
B
= y(b ) +y
muno
. y. o


- Advances to the U tube manometer.
The U-tube manometer has the disadvantage that the
change in height of the liquid in both sides must be read. This
can be avoided by making the diameter of one side very large
compared to the other. In this case the side with the large area
moves very little when the small area side move considerably
more.

Know that:
Z1. A = Z2. a same volume, Z1
n
4

2
= Z2
n
4
J
2

Z1 = Z2_
J
]
2

By the U tube manometer theory, the height different in the
two columns gives the pressure difference so:

P1 P2 = Z2_1 +_
u
B
]
2
_ ; tcn or _
u
B
]
2
is veiy small
P1 P2 = Z2

So only one reading need be taken to measure the pressure
difference.


If the pressure to be measured is very small then tilting the
arm provides a convenient way of obtaining a larger
(more easily read) movement of the manometer. The above
arrangement with a tilted arm is shown in the figure
below.(Inclined manometer).

The pressure difference is still given by the height change
of the manometric fluid but by placing the scale along the line of
the tilted arm and taking this reading large movements will be
observed. The pressure difference is then given by:

P1 P2 = Z2 = xsin0


Problems Pressure Measurement

1. What is the pressure head, in meters of water, exerted by the
atmosphere? (Ans. 10.3 m)

2. What is the maximum gauge pressure of water that can be
measured using a piezometer 2.5 m high? (Ans. 24.5 kN/m2)

3. A differential manometer is used to measure the pressure
difference between two points in a pipe carrying water. The
manometric liquid is mercury and the points have a 0.3 m height
difference. Calculate the pressure difference when h = 0.7 m.
(Ans. 89.47 kN/m2)

4. For the configuration shown, calculate the weight of the
piston if the gauge pressure reading is 70 kPa. (Ans. 61.6 kN)


6. A hydraulic jack having a ram 150 mm in diameter lifts a
weight W = 20 kN under the action of a 30 mm plunger. What
force is required on the plunger to lift the weight? (Ans. 800 N)


2.5 Fluid Action on Surfaces
- Plane Surfaces
We consider a plane surface, PQ, of area A, totally
immersed in a liquid of density and inclined at an angle to
the free surface:

Side Elevation Front Elevation

d = 0 for symmetrical about the vertical

uF = P. uA = . y. uA
F = _. y. uA = _y. uA

But y. uA is just the first moment of area about the surface.
Hence:

F = yAy

Where y is the distance to the centroid of the area (point G)
from the surface.

This resultant force will acts at a point which is called
(Center of pressure (C) ):

To determine the location of this point we know:
Mument uI F abuut D = muments uI dF abuut D
Sincc y = s sin, so tc momcnt is:
N uF about 0 = |(s sin)uA]. s = sin(s
2
. uA)
M F
u
= ystnq. _s
2
. dA
But s
2
. uA is the second moment of area about point O or just
I
o
. Hence we have:
M F
u
= ystnq. I
u

yAy . DC = ystnq. I
u
Ay .
D
stnq
= stnq. I
u

B =
I
o
Ay
. sin
2

But, I
o
= I
G
+A. (
y
sInq
)
2

B =
I
o
Ay
. sin
2
D = y
p
= y +
I
C
Ay

Hence, the centre of pressure, point C, always lies below the
centroid of the area, G.

Plane Surface Properties


Plane Surfaces (Vertical & Horizontal surfaces)
- For vertical surfaces F = F
h
= yAy
- For horizontal surfaces F = F
v
= yAy,
where D = y
p
= y = y

- Curved Surfaces

uF = P. uA = . y. us. (1)
dF
H
= JF. sino = . y. us. sino = . y. uy = y. y. dA
V

F
H
= _uF
H
= _y. uA
V
= y. y
v
. A
v

Where,
A
v
= veitical piotection of the curved surface on a vertical
plane.
y
v
= distance between the centroid of (A
v
) and the free surface.

To find the location of this force, use the moment role:
F
H
. y
p
H
= _uF
H
. y y
p
H
= y
v
+
I
C
v
A
v
y
v
.
By, similar procedure:
x
p
H
= x
v
+
I
C
v
A
v
y
v

Now, the vertical component:
dF
V
= JF. coso = . y. us. coso = . y. ux

F
V
= _uF
V
= y_u = y.
Where,
= closeu volume between the cuiveu suiface anu the fie suiface.

Also, by the moment rule:
F
V
. y
p
v
= _uF
V
. y y
p
v
= y
x
p
v
= x
z
p
v
= z
F
V
posscs troug tc ccntroicJ o tc :olumc


Discuss the Example below:


Curved Surfaces Problem
Determine the resultant force and its direction on the gate
shown:
F
x
= y. A. y
=10
3
x9.81x(6x1)x(
6
2
)
=176.6kN

And this acts at a depth h=(2/3).6=4

F
= y. imo] = 1u
3
9.81_
n6
2
4
1_ = 277.4kN
This vertical force is located at:

x =
4R
Sn
=
4 6
Sn
= 2.SSm

F = _F
x
2
+F
2
= 176.6
2
+277.4
2
= S28.8kN

And acts at an angle:

0 = ton
-1
P
j
P
x
= S7.S
o


H.W.
The face of a dam is curved according to the relation
y =
x
2
2.4

where y and x are in meters, as shown in the diagram. Calculate
the resultant force on each metre run of the dam. Determine the
position at which the line of action of the resultant force passes
through the bottom of the dam.

(Ans. 1920 kN, 14.15 m)


2.6 Buoyancy:

F
X
+
= R
X
= F
1
F
2
= u

F
Z
+
= R
Z
= F
3
F
4
= u

F
Y
+
= R
Y
= F
F
5
= y
I
. -y
I
. = y
I .

= y
I .

d|xp|aced

R = _R
x
2
+ R
y
2
+ R
z
2
= F
B

F
B
= y
I .

d|xp.

Where,

F
B
= Buoyancy force
y
I .
= Specific weight of fluid
d|xp.
= Displaced volume

Note:
F
B
passes through the center of buoyancy, which is the
centroied of the displaced volume.

- Hydrometer:

W= F
B1
= S1.
w
.
o

Where
o
= uisplaceu volume

S1.
w
.
o
= S2.
w
. (
o
a. h)

Or: h =
u
a
=
S2-S1
S2


EXAMPLE: A block of concrete weighs 100 kg in air and
weighs 60 kg when immersed in water. What is the average
specific weight of the block?

SOLUTION: The buoyant force is,
By, F
y
= u

6u +F
B
1uu = u F
B
= 4ukg =
watcr
volume of block

=
40
1000
=0.04m
3

Therefore, y =
100
0.04
=2500kg m
3
= 2.Ston m
3

EXAMPLE 2: Find
when = totol :olumc,
=
uisplaceu volume.

By, F
y
= u

W= F
B
S
h
. y
w
. = S
. y
w
.
=
S
h
S


EXAMPLE: A block of steel (S = 7.85) floats at
a mercury water interface as shown. Find the ratio (a/b) for
this condition.

SOLUTION:
by F
= u
w = F
B totuI
= F
B(w)
+ F
B(Hg)

7.8Sy
w
. A. (o +b) = y
w
. A. o +1S.6y
w
. A. b
7.8S(o +b) = o +1S.6. b

u
b
= 0.839

2.7 Stability of Immersed and Floating Bodies:

- Immersed Bodies

II C ts abuve C budy ts stable

II C ts abuve C budy ts unstable

II C C budy ts newtral


- Floating bodies:

1. Linear Stability: Any small linear displacement in any
direction will set-up a restarting force tends to return the
body to its original position.

2. Rotational stability:

Metacenter: It is the point of intersection of the buoyant force
before and after the heel.

Metacentric Height: It is the distance (MG)

Nu > u {N above u] Stable

Nu < u {N below u] 0nStable

Nu = u {N u] Neutial


Nu
= NB
Bu

NB
=
X
tan

Now by moment of the areas:

X
102451
= X
024
+ X
045
|(X
035
) (X
031
)]

= X
024
X
031

= x. u = x. xtan. uA

X
= tan_x
2
. uA = tan I
oo

So, X
= tan
I
oo

NB
=
I
oo

Then, Nu
=
I
oo
Bu

Where,

= uisplaceu volume

I
oo
= Seconu moment of wateiline aiea about
hoiizontal centioiual axis oo

Discuss:


Example : A uniform, closed cylindrical buoy, 1.5 m high, 1.0
m diameter and of mass 80 kg is to float with its axis vertical in
seawater of density 1026 kg.m
-3
. A body of mass 10 kg is
attached to the centre of the top surface of the buoy. Show that,
if the buoy floats freely, initial instability will occur.

Solution
Moments of mass about horizontal axis through O:
(1ukg). (1.Sm) +(8ukg). _
1.S
2
m] = {(8u +1u)kg](0u)

OG = 0.8333 m
For vertical equilibrium,
buoyancy = weight.

n
4
(1m)
2
. 1u26kg. m
-3
= (8u +1u)kg

= u.1117m

BH =
AK
2
=
n
64
J
4
n
4
J
2
, =
d
2
16h
=
1
2
160.1117

= u.S6um
And:

0H = 0B +BH00 = _
u.1117
2
+u.S6u u.8SSS]m
= u.217Sm

Since this is negative (i.e. M is below G) buoy is unstable.

Discuss some other solved problems:


2.8 Relative Equilibrium:
Fluid in motion in such a way that no layer move relative
to an adjacent layer.
Examples:-
1. Motion with uniform linear velocity.
2. Motion with uniform linear acceleration.
3. Uniform rotation.

Uniform acceleration

_P +
P
y
.
uy
2
]. (ux. 1)

_P
P
y
.
uy
2
]. (ux. 1)

_P
P
x
.
ux
2
] . (uy. 1)

_P +
P
x
.
ux
2
] . (uy. 1)


by: F
x
= m. a
x

_P
P
x
.
ux
2
] . uy _P +
P
x
.
ux
2
] . uy = (. ux . uy. 1) a
x

dP
dx
= p. a
x

F
y
= m. a
y

_P
P
y
.
uy
2
] . (ux. 1) _P +
P
y
.
uy
2
]. (ux. 1)
= _
g
. ux. uy. 1] (a
y
+g)

P
y
uy. ux = . ux . uy. (a
y
+g)

dP
dy
= p(a
y
+g)

u
P
=
P
x
ux +
P
y
uy

u
P
= . a
x
. ux . (a
y
+g)uy

P = . a
x
. x (a
y
+g). y +C


To find C apply a boundary condition
At, x = y =0 then, p=po sub. Above to get:
Po=C

P = P
u
p. a
x
. x p(a
y
+g)y

For points on a line of constant pressure (dp=0):
Thus:

dy
dx
= tan0 =
a
x
a
y
+g

Discuss some example for open and closed tanks.


Uniform Rotation

a
t
=
v
2
i
=
2
. i

we know that
p
x
= . a
x

p
i
= .
2
. i

Also,

p
y
=

up =
p
i
ui +
p
y
uy

0r: up =
2
i ui uy


P =
1
2
2
i
2
y +const.

Iokc o bounJory conJition
at i = u, y = u P = P
o
sub. obo:c to gct: const. = P
o

P = P
u
+
1
2
pm
2
r
2
yy

or: P
2
= P
1
+
1
2
2
i
2
y

Where:

r and y is the position according to (o) point.

For points on a horizontal line through the vortex (o), we have
(y=0) thus:

P P
o
= h
u
=
m
2
r
2
2g

Notc
paraboIa
=
1
2
cyIIndcr oI samc basc and hcIght

1
2
4
B
2
h
o
=
4
B
2
Z

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Chapter Two FLUID STATIC

Dr.Mohammed Al-jibory 2012/2013 1

when = totol :olumc,

cyIIndcr oI samc basc and hcIght

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