Renewable Energy 28 (2003) 499507 www.elsevier.

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Technical note

Biogas energy technology in Sudan

A. M. Omer , Y. Fadalla
NCMWE, P.O. BOX 15007, Khartoum 12217, Sudan Received 3 January 2001; accepted 14 March 2002

Abstract Biogas from biomass appears to have potential as an alternative energy in Sudan, which is potentially rich in biomass resources. This is an overview of some salient points and perspectives of biogas technology in Sudan. The current literature is reviewed regarding the ecological, social, cultural and economic impacts of biogas technology. Sudan is blessed with abundant solar, wind, hydro, and biomass resources. Results suggest that biogas technology must be encouraged, promoted, invested, implemented, and demonstrated, but especially for remote rural areas. 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Sudan is the largest country in the African continent, with an area of approximately one million square miles (2.5 million square kilometers). Sudan is viewed as one of the potentially richest nations especially in livestock beside water and land with 30 million head of cattle, 70 million head of sheep and goats, and 3 million head of camels [1]. Besides that, Sudan has a great wealth of the wild life, birds, reptiles, and sh wealth, which are estimated to give 200,000 tons of food annually. Sudan has a total population of about 30 million people, which is growing at an annual rate of about 2.8%. About 70% of the population live in rural areas. About 62% of the population are employed in agriculture [2]. Agriculture contributes about 33% of the gross national product (GNP), and 95% of all earnings. Energy is an essential factor in development since it stimulates and supports econ-

Corresponding author. Present address: School of Built Environment, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK Tel.: +44-115-9513163; fax: +44-115-9513159. E-mail address: laxamo@nottingham.ac.uk (A.M. Omer).
0960-1481/03/$ - see front matter 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. PII: S 0 9 6 0 - 1 4 8 1 ( 0 2 ) 0 0 0 5 3 - 8

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omic growth and development. Fossil fuels, especially oil and natural gas, are nite in extent, and should be regarded as depleting assets, and efforts are oriented to search for new sources of energy. The clamour all over the world for the need to conserve energy and the environment has intensied as traditional energy resources continue to dwindle whilst the environment becomes increasingly degraded. Biomass energy supply in Sudan has contributed 87% of the total energy supply since the 1980s [6]. The basic form of biomass comes mainly from rewood, charcoal and crop residues. Out of total fuel wood and charcoal supplies 92% was consumed in the household sector with most of the rewood consumption in the rural areas. The total area of the land of Sudan is 600 million Feddans (Feddans=1.038 acres=0.420 hectares). The land use in the country is classied into four main categories. There are arable land (8.4 million hectares), pasture (29.94 million hectares), forest (108.3 million hectares), and about 38.22 million hectares used for other purposes [9]. Agricultural residues consist mainly of cotton stalks, groundnut shells, and bagasse, with estimates of more than 15 million metric tons [2]. Also, considerable amounts of non-woody biomass is available as animal dung, which is estimated at 300 million metric tons annually [4]. Biogas technology was introduced to Sudan in the mid-seventies when GTZ designed a unit as part of a project for water hyacinth control in central Sudan. During the last fteen years about 200 biogas units have been built in Sudan in different areas, producing methane, CH4, for cooking, water pumping and electricity generation. In order not to repeat this successful technology to excess on local conditions, conscientious planning is urged [6]. The goals should be achieved through: Review and exchange of information on computer models and manuals useful for economic evaluation of biogas from biomass energy. Exchange and compilation of information on methodologies for economic analysis and results from different types. Investigation of the constraints on the implementation of the commercial supply of biogas energy. Investigation of the relations between supplies and demand for the feedstock from different industries. Documentation of the methods and principles for evaluation of indirect consequences such as the effects on growth, silvicultural treatment, and employment.

2. Biomass energy Agriculture is the backbone of economic and social development in Sudan. Biomass resources play a signicant role in energy supply in Sudan as in many countries as shown in Table 1 and Table 2. Cooking is largely done with rewood (45%) and charcoal (30%). Hence, 75% of total energy per annum, represented by roughly 3 million metric tons of forest reserves and agricultural residues, which come mainly from cotton stalks, groundnut shells and bagasse which are estimated at more than 15 million metric tons. Also,

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Table 1 Sources of biomass energy available in Sudan, Million tons of equivalent (TOE) [3] Item 1. 2. 3. 4. Source Natural and cultivated forests Agricultural residues Animal wastes Water hyacinth Total 106 TOE 2.90 6.20 1.05 3.16 13.31

Table 2 Biomass energy consumption in Sudan, 1000 Tons of equivalent (TOE) [7] Item 1. 2. 3. Sector Residential Industrial Othersa Total
a

103 TOE 4549 169 209 4927

(%) 92.0 3.4 4.6 100.0

Others are commercial, construction, and Quranic schools.

a considerable amount of non-woody biomass is available as animal dung, estimated at 17 million tons as shown in Table 3. Water hyacinth and aquatic weeds are estimated at 9000 and 3000 tons per annum, respectively. Biogas technology has been known for a long time, but the interest in it has recently increased very considerablymainly because of the higher costs and the rapid depletion of local traditional fuel sources and fossil fuels. In developing countries the interest in biogas technology has been further stimulated by the promotional efforts of various international organizations and foreign aid agencies through their publications, meetings, and visits.
Table 3 Biomass energy potential from animal dung in different states of Sudan [10] Item 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. States Northern states Eastern states Khartoum state Central states Darfur states Kordofan states Southern states Total Animal dung available (1000 Tons) 102.4 1222.9 104.3 4223.7 5062.5 2596.9 4545.2 17857.9 Energy (TOE) 1543 18431 1572 63658 36301 79140 68505 269150

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Table 4 Anaerobic degradation of organic matter [5] Level Initial Intermediate Substance Manure, vegetable, wastes Molecule Bacteria

Final

Cellulose, proteins Cellulolytic, proteolytic Acidogenic, Acids, gases, oxidized, inorganic salts CH3COOH, hydrogenic, sulfate CHOOH, SO4, reducing CO2, H2, NO3 Methane formers Biogas, reduced inorganic compounds CH4, CO2, H2S, NH3, NH4

3. Technical description Bacteria form biogas during anaerobic fermentation of organic matters. The degradation is a very complex process and requires certain environmental conditions as well as different bacteria populations. The complete anaerobic fermentation process is briey described below as shown in Table 4, and Fig. 1. Biogas is a relatively high-value fuel that is formed during anaerobic degradation of organic matter. The process has been known, and put to work in a number of different applications, during the past 30 years, for rural needs such as described in [8]: food security, water supply, health care, education, communications. 4. Biogas digester designs There are in practice two main types of biogas plant that have been developed in Sudan; the xed-dome digester, which is commonly called the Chinese digester, and

Fig. 1. Biogas production process.

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Table 5 Optimum condition for biogas production Parameter Temperature C pH Carbon/nitrogen ratio Solid content (%) Retention time (days) Optimum value 30 35 6.87.5 2030 79 2040

Table 6 Average daily gas production based on head count Source of waste 1 cow 10 chicken 1 latrine user 1 sheep/goat Waste production (kg d1) 10 1 Gas production (m3 d1) 0.250.40 0.020.04 0.020.03 0.020.04

the type with a oating gas holder known as the Indian digester. The optimum range in Table 5 is for ambient temperatures during hot seasons of Sudans tropical climate. The potential gas volumes produced from wastes vary depending on many factors, and can be expressed based on head count as shown in Table 6, or on a xed weight as shown in Table 7. A list of the potential gas production from a number of materials is presented in Table 8. The requirements for gas for various purposes, and a comparison between biogas and various commercial fuels in terms of caloric value and thermal efciency, are presented successively in Table 9 and Table 10. The amount of biogas actually produced from a specic digester depends on the following factors: (1) the amount of material fed, (2) the type of material, (3) the carbon/nitrogen ratio, and (4) digestion time and temperature.

Table 7 Average gas production based on waste amount Source of waste Dairy cattle Beef cattle Poultry Pretreated crop waste Water hyacinth Gas production m3/103 kg animal 2.53 2.47 6.92 Gas production m3/103 kg waste 65.5-115 3040 4050

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Table 8 Ultimate gas yields for some different materials Materials Manure: b Cow b Poultry b Human Vegetable matter: b Straw b Grass b Leaves b Water hyacinth Yield (m3/kg day solids) 0.34 0.48 0.40 0.17 0.43 0.30 0.40

Table 9 Comparison of various fuels Fuel Electricity, kWh Coal gas, kg Biogas, m3 Kerosene, l Charcoal, kg Soft coke, kg Firewood, kg Cow dung, kg Caloric value (kcal) 880 4004 5373 9122 6930 6292 3821 2092 Burning mode Hot plate Standard burner Standard burner Pressure stove Open stove Open stove Open stove Open stove Thermal efciency (%) 70 60 60 50 28 28 17 11

Table 10 Biogas requirements for various purposes Purpose Cooking Lighting Specications per person stove 10 cm dia. 200-candle power 40-watt bulb 2-mantle Per HP Per HP Per m3 Per m3 30 cm diameter 30 cm diameter Gas required (m3) 0.425/day 0.47 0.1 0.13 0.14 0.43 0.45 1.2 0.6 0.17 0.16

Gasoline engine Diesel engine Refrigerator Incubator Table fan (indirectly) Space heater

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5. Economic Aspects In Sudan, people are requested to construct biogas plants by themselves in order to reduce costs. In remote areas, the costs for materials increase by about 1520% due to transportation. The costs of construction of the xed digester are given in Table 11. In an economic analysis, many factors have to be considered, as outlined in Table 12. It is clear that many factors listed cannot be expressed in monetary terms. The basis of evaluation of the gas produced is of signicance. For example, in places where people use waste, but not kerosene, as fuel valuing the gas at the market price of kerosene equivalent is not correct, since this over-estimates the benets. It has been observed that some of the present evaluations on biogas systems, while comparing the benets with respect to existing practices, make the error of double accounting. For example, if the dung, which is already used as manure, is fed to a digester, only its incremental value can be taken into account. Due to the lack of knowledge and awareness, villagers cannot be expected to understand the benets of deforestation control, nutrient conservation, or health improvement. A poor rural peasant is very hesitant to enter a new venture. The negative attitude towards the use of nightsoil varies from place to place, but when it occurs, it is a major obstacle to the implementation of biogas technology.

6. Recommendations 1. The introduction of biogas technology on a wide scale has implications for macro planning, such as the allocation of government investment and its effects on the balance of payments. Factors that determine the rate of acceptance of biogas plants, such as credit facilities and technical backup services, are likely to have
Table 11 Cost of construction materials for a 7 cubic meters xed dome digester in Sudanese Dinars (D.S) (July 2000) Construction material 1. Cement, 23 bags (1 bag=2500 Dinars) 2. Sand, 3 m3 (1 m3=2000 Dinars) 3. Gravel, 3 m3 (1 m3=2500 Dinars) 4. Construction steel, 1 m3=9000 Dinars 5. Pipe, 63 m 6. Pipe, 82 m 7. Steel wire (1 kg=400 Dinars) 8. Gas valve, 2 pieces (1 piece=3500 Dinars) 9. Rubber pipe, 2030 m (1 m=150 Dinars) 10. Burner Total Cost (D.S) 57500 6000 7500 90000 23000 23000 400 7000 4500 51250 270150

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Table 12 Factors to be considered in economic analysis Economic Factors b Interest on loan b Current/future cost of alternative fuels b Current/future cost of chemical fertilizer b Current/future cost of construction materials b Saving of foreign currency b Current/future labor cost b Ination rate b Costs of transport of feeding materials and efuents Social factors b Employment created b Better lighting: more educational/cultural activities b Less time consumed for fetching rewood and for cooking b Improved facilities in villages; thus less migration to cities b Less expense for buying alternative fuels b More time for additional income earning activities Technical factors b Construction, maintenance and repairs of biogas plants b Availability of materials and land required b Suitability of local materials Ecological/health factors b Improved health b Forest conservation (positive or negative) b Environment pollution abatement b Improvement in yields of agricultural products

to be planned as part of general macro-policy, as do the allocation of research and development funds. 2. In some rural communities, cultural beliefs regarding handling animal dung are prevalent and will inuence the acceptability of biogas technology. 3. Co-ordination of production and use of biogas, fertilizer and pollution control can optimize the promotion and development of agricultural and animal husbandry in rural areas.

7. Conclusions 1. Biogas technology cannot only provide fuel, but is also important for comprehensive utilization of biomass forestry, animal husbandry, shery, evolution of the agricultural economy, protecting the environment, realizing agricultural recycling, as well as improving the sanitary conditions in rural areas. 2. Biomass energy is one of the important options which might gradually replace oil, which is facing increasing demand and may be exhausted early in this century. Sudan can depend on the biomass energy to satisfy part of local consumption. 3. Development of biogas technology is a vital component of the alternative rural

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energy program in Sudan, the potential of which is yet to be exploited. A concerted effort is required by all if this is to be realized. The technology will nd ready use in domestic, farming, and small-scale industrial applications. 4. Support for biomass research and exchange of experiences with countries that are advanced in this eld is necessary. In the meantime, the biomass energy can help to save exhausting the oil wealth. 5. The diminishing of agricultural land may hamper biogas energy development, but appropriate technological and resource management techniques will offset the effects.

References
[1] Omer AM. Biogas technology and the environment. Regional Energy News, vol. 2, no. 4, Nairobi, Kenya, November, 1996. [2] Omer AM. Sudan energy background; an overview. Renewable Energy Journal 1998;14(1 4):46772. [3] Omer AM. Renewable energy potential and future prospect in Sudan. Agriculture and Development in Arab World 1996;3:413. [4] Omer AM. Biomass energy potential and future prospect in Sudan. Khartoum, Sudan, 1999. [5] Anonymous. Chinese or Indian: a comparison. Biogas Newsletter, Nepal, Vol.7, 1979. [6] National Energy Administration (NEA). The National Energy Plan 19852000. Khartoum, Sudan, January, 1985. [7] Omer AM. Sudan: experience with renewables technology. Renewable Energy World, vol. 2, no. 2, James & James Science Publishers Ltd, UK, March, 1999. [8] Energy Research Institute (ERI). Renewable energy resource potential in Sudan. Khartoum, Sudan, January, 1985. [9] Abdalla AA. Agriculture, globalization and information. Ministry of Finance and Economic PlanningSudan, December, 1997. [10] Ali GE, Ali SS. Sudan biomass energy issues and options. Energy Research Institute (ERI), Khartoum, Sudan, April, 1993.