Concrete Defect

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(full text)
SHEENA FLANT LANGGANGON
MAINTENANCE OF CONCRETE DEFECT IN
BUILDING
MR. BACHAN SINGH 850201-12-5450
1 FEBRUARY 1985
2007/2008
PSZ 19:16 (Pind. 1/07)
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I/we* hereby declare that I/we* have read this final year project and in my/our*
opinion this final year project is sufficient in terms of scope and quality for the
award of the Bachelor of Civil Engineering

Signature : ....................................................
Name of Supervisor : MR. BACHAN SINGH
Date : 18 April, 2008

MAINTENANCE OF CONCRETE DEFECT IN BUILDING

SHEENA FLANT LANGGANGON

A report submitted in partial fulfillment
of the requirement for the award of the degree of
Bachelor of Civil Engineering

Faculty of Civil Engineering
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia

APRIL, 2008

ii

I declare that this final year project entitled Maintenance of Concrete Defect in
Building is the result of my own research except as cited in the references. The final
year project has not been accepted for any degree and is not concurrently submitted
in candidature of any other degree.

Signature : ...
Name : Sheena Flant Langgangon
Date : 18 April 2008

iii

To my beloved family

iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Throughout the completion of this project, I have faced various challenges.
Without the help of people around me giving support and guidance would make it
harder to overcome these obstacles.

First and foremost, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my
supervisor Mr. Bachan Singh for his time and unlimited guidance from the start to
the completion of this study. His advice and motivation had indeed helped me a lot
throughout this study.

I would also like to thank the Public Work Department in Kota Kinabalu and
Penampang district for their cooperation in providing me useful information and
giving insights regarding my study.

Lastly, I would like to thank my family and friends for their invaluable
support. All of you have made this study possible. Thank you very much.

v
ABSTRACT

Malaysia is a developing country and many projects are being implemented.
Some of the projects involve construction of buildings. Nevertheless, some of the
buildings are poorly constructed and maintained. One of the components that need
attention is concrete. The concrete structure need to be inspected and maintained
regularly. Poor maintenance of concrete components will lead to the buildings being
rendered not fit for occupancy. The main objectives of this study are to determine
the types of concrete defect, the factors that cause concrete defects, the method of
repairs and the problems faced by the Public Work Department (PWD) in carrying
out the maintenance work. The study is carried out on government buildings in
Sabah. The data are collected through questionnaire and also from the records of the
PWD. The data is analyzed by using average mean index. From the study, it was
found that the main types of concrete defects are spalling and delamination. The
factors that cause the defects are inefficient maintenance and poor construction
method. The method of concrete repairs that are adapted by PWD are patching and
sealing.

vi
ABSTRAK

Malaysia adalah negara yang membangun dengan banyak projek-projek baru
yang dilaksanakan. Antara projek ini adalah melibatkan pembinaan bangunan baru.
Namun demikian, masih terdapat bangunan yang telah dibina dan diselenggara
dengan tidak memuaskan. Salah satu komponen yang perlu diberi perhatian adalah
konkrit. Pemeriksaan dan penyenggelaraan yang tetap adalah penting untuk struktur
bangunan konkrit. Sistem penyenggelaraan yang tidak memuaskan boleh
menyebabkan bangunan tersebut menjadi tidak sesuai untuk penghunian. Objektif
utama kajian ini adalah untuk mengenalpasti jenis kerosakan konkrit, faktor-faktor
yang menjadi punca kerosakan, teknik-teknik pembaikan dan masalah yang dihadapi
oleh Jabatan Kerja Raya (JKR) dalam sistem penyenggelaraan bangunan. Skop
kajian ini adalah pada semua bangunan kerajaan di Sabah. Data adalah dikumpul
melalui borang soal selidik serta rekod kerja penyenggelaraan daripada JKR.
Analisis data dilakukan dengan menggunakan Kaedah Purata Index. Daripada kajian
ini, didapati kerosakan utama pada bangunan adalah spalling dan pengupasan.
Faktor yang menyebabkan kerosakan ini adalah sistem penyenggelaraan yang tidak
cekap dan teknik pembinaan yang tidak sempurna. Teknik pembaikan yang paling
kerap digunakan adalah pembaikan tampalan dan sealing.

vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE
DECLARATION ii
DEDICATION iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv
ABSTRACT v
ABSTRAK vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS vii
LIST OF TABLES xii
LIST OF FIGURES xiii
LIST OF SYMBOLS xv
LIST OF APPENDICES xvi

1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of Study 1
1.2 Statement of Problem 3
1.3 Objectives of Study 4
1.4 Scope of Study 5
1.5 Summary of Study Methodology 5

2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction 6
2.2 Maintenance 7
2.2.1 Planned Maintenance 8
2.2.1.1 Preventive Maintenance 8
2.2.1.2 Corrective Maintenance 8
viii
2.2.2 Unplanned Maintenance 9
2.3 Assessment of Existing Structure 9
2.3.1 Preliminary Investigation 11
2.3.1.1 Past Records 11
2.3.1.2 Visual Inspection 11
2.3.2 Detailed Investigation 12
2.3.3 Test and Inspection Techniques 12
2.3.3.1 Structural integrity 13
2.3.3.2 Concrete Quality 13
2.3.3.3 Steel Serviceability and Condition 14
2.4 Types of Defects 14
2.4.1 Corrosion of Reinforcement Steel 15
2.4.2 Cracks 16
2.4.2.1 Longitudinal Cracks 17
2.4.2.2 Transverse Cracks 17
2.4.2.3 Shear Cracks 18
2.4.2.4 Plastic Shrinkage Crack 18
2.4.2.5 Plastic Settlement Crack 18
2.4.2.6 Crazing 18
2.4.2.7 Map Crack 19
2.4.3 Spalling 19
2.4.4 Delamination 20
2.4.5 Honeycombing 21
2.4.6 Scaling 21
2.4.7 Popouts 22
2.5 Causes of Deterioration 22
2.5.1 Excessive Concrete Mix Water 22
2.5.2 Sulphate Deterioration 23
2.5.3 Faulty Design 23
2.5.4 Construction Defects 24
2.5.5 Alkali-Aggregate Reaction 25
2.5.6 Structural Overload 26
2.5.7 Faulty Materials 26
2.6 Repair System 26
ix
2.7 Repair Method 27
2.7.1 Cathodic Protection 28
2.7.2 Cathite Method 28
2.7.3 Decholorisation Technique 29
2.7.4 Crack Repair 29
2.7.4.1 Dormant Cracks 29
2.7.4.2 Live Cracks 30
2.7.5 Patch Repairs 31
2.7.6 Sealing 31
2.7.7 Sprayed Concrete 31
2.7.7.1 Dry-mix Process 32
2.7.7.2 Wet-mix Process 32
2.7.8 Pre-packed Grouting 33
2.7.9 Recasting 33
2.7.10 Dry Packing 34
2.7.11 Thin Bonded Resurfacing 34
2.7.12 Stitching 34
2.7.13 Caulking 34

3 METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction 35
3.1.1 Primary Data 35
3.1.1.1 Reports and Records 36
3.1.1.2 Questionnaire 36
3.1.1.3 Interview 36
3.1.2 Secondary Data 36
3.2 Data Analysis 37
3.2.1 Average Index 37
3.3 Conclusion 38

4 CASE STUDY
4.1 Introduction 39
4.2 Building Works Department Sabah 40
4.3 Clients 41
x
4.4 Maintenance System 42
4.5 Problems Faced by PWD 43

5 DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULT
5.1 Introduction 45
5.2 Questionnaire Background and Number 46
Of Respondents
5.3 Partys Involved in Carrying out Maintenance 47
Works on Government Buildings
5.4 Types of Maintenance Conducted on Government 48
Building
5.5 Types of Concrete Defect that Occur in
Government Building 49
5.6 Factors that Causes Defects in Government
Building 52
5.7 Method of Repair in Rectifying Concrete Defects 54
5.8 Factors Affecting Choice of Repair 56
5.9 Common Problems Faced by PWD in Building
Maintenance 57

6 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
6.1 Introduction 60
6.2 Conclusion 61
6.2.1 Types of Concrete Defect that Occur
In Buildings 61
6.2.2 Factors that Causes the Concrete Defect
In Buildings 62
6.2.3 Method of Concrete Repair Carried Out 62
6.2.4 Problems Faced by PWD in Maintenance
Of Building 63
6.3 Recommendation 64
6.4 Recommendation for Further Study 64

xi
REFERENCES 66
APPENDICES A 69
APPENDICES B 73
APPENDICES C 74
xii
LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE

4.1 Summary of Financial Report 40
5.1 Party to Carry Out Maintenance 47
5.2 Types of Maintenance 48
5.3 Types of Defect that Occur in Government Building 50
5.4 Factors that Causes Concrete defects in Government
Building
52
5.5 Method of Repair in Rectifying Concrete Defects 54
5.7 Common Problems Faced by PWD in Building
Maintenance
58

xiii
LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE

1.1 A Flow Chart of research Methodology 5
2.1 Forms of Maintenance 7
2.2 Typical Flow Chart for Assessment Programs 10
2.3 Core Samples to Determine Chloride
Contents
13
2.4 Corrosion of Steel Reinforcement 16
2.5 Crazing on Concrete Structure 19
2.6 Heavily Rusted Reinforcement and Spalling
of the Concrete
20
2.7 Scaling in Concrete 21
4.1 Organization Chart of Building Works
Department
41
5.1 Number of Respondent on Questionnaire
Distributed to PWD Sabah
46
5.2 Party to Carry Out Maintenance 47
5.3 Types of Maintenance Conducted on
Government Buildings
49
5.4 Types of Concrete Defects that Occur in
Government Building
51
5.5 Factors that Causes Concrete Defects in
Government Building
53
5.6 Method of Repair in Rectifying Concrete
Defects
55
xiv
5.8 Common Problems Faced by PWD in
Building Maintenance
59

xv
LIST OF SYMBOLS

= - Equal to
! - Less than or equal to
< - Less than
" - Total of
% - Percentage

xvi
LIST OF APPENDICES

APPENDIX TITLE PAGE

A Example Questionnaire 69
B Computation Repair Work Form 73
C Repair Works Description Form 74

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Study

After almost 50 years of independence, Malaysia once known as Malaya is
going into a new era of globalization, unleashing its potential and competition
worldwide. Both federal and state government worked hand in hand to make full
utilization of the countrys source and expertise in expanding the infrastructure in
Malaysia. Most recent attribute is Northern Corridor Economic Region (NCER) in
which one of its main objectives is to promote social and community development
that will contribute greatly to Malaysias growth and economy. As the technology
advances and changes, the need of more infrastructures will be more apparent.

Infrastructure includes buildings, roads, bridges, utilities, water supply,
sewerage system, mechanical and electrical systems. All of these infrastructures are
important because it helps civilians to be able to live in a more systematic and ease
environment. It helps to save cost, traveling time and providing facilities that will
make life easier.
2
Many of these infrastructures will need proper maintenance to extend the
lifespan besides promoting safety and reliability to the public. In the Malaysian
Budget 2006, a total of RM4.3 billion have been provided to public agencies for
maintenance and another RM 1 billion to the government for the maintenance of
public facilities in the year 2007. Buildings in particular are important structures and
are a main concern of the government to make sure it is maintained regularly to
prevent it from deteriorating and eventually could pose as a threat to the public.

Poor maintenance might result in structural failure and wastage in money.
For example, six roof leakages were spotted on May 9, 2007 at the Parliament
building in Malaysia. After inspection, it was found that the leakage was caused by
cracks and seepage of water through the concrete roof. There was also no sign of
maintenance done. Restoration and renovation works of the Parliament Building was
previously done in 2005 with a total budget of RM90 million executed by Public
Works Department (PWD). Although PWD had carried out a lot of repairs but there
was reoccurring damage due to absence of maintenance (Daily Express, May 20,
2007). Even though the maintenance was under the responsibility of the Parliament
building management unit and not PWD, the issue here is not who to blame but to
prove that poor maintenance will result in repeated repairs and dire consequences.

One of the major components of building that needed attention is concrete
defects. Defects in concrete, if not repaired, will eventually lead to major
maintenance. Failure to provide necessary maintenance will cause more expensive
repairs or replacement of otherwise useful structures. Besides that, any negligence in
any of the phases of its maintenance would lead to its deterioration and ultimately
failure to perform its intended function. Therefore a proper and systematic
maintenance management is required to reduce possible occurrence of disaster that
may cause life injury due to structural failure.

3
1.2 Statement of Problem

Concrete is a very high durable and versatile material as it can be cast in place
with or without reinforcement and precast or prestressed for achieving any required
strength. Therefore it is a very popular construction building material. Under normal
conditions, concrete buildings are expected to have a long life service.

However, concrete members can deteriorate due to several factors such as
aggressive environment, faulty design and construction defects etc. Inadequate
maintenance will leave these defects unattended thus compromising the integrity of
the building.

Many reasons can contribute to poor maintenance of concrete buildings such
as local authorities as they often lack manpower when being confronted or
challenged to check the safety of structures (Lee, 2004). The economical aspect is
also a decisive factor on types of repair works that might be conducted. There is
usually more than one method of repair in concrete defects. These techniques vary
from each other in terms of cost, execution time and effectiveness. The more higher
the cost, it would deter many building owners from executing essential repair works.

Other than that, remedial works are only done on areas where the damage is
visible. This is to avoid stability problems in the structure. Unfortunately what
usually happens is reoccurrence of the damage shortly after the previous remedial
work has been carried out and leads to repeated repairs. This only contributes to
wastage in money and time besides compromising the safety factor of the structure.

In Sabah, maintenance of many government buildings, schools and hospitals
is under the custody of Public Work Department (PWD). The biggest challenge
faced is conducting effective maintenance. As stated by Prime Minister Datuk Seri
4
Abdullah Badawi, the weakness of government department was that they lack a
building maintenance culture. He also added that they will not see the need to
inspect if they think it is a new building (The Star, April 13, 2007).

A preliminary survey is conducted on government buildings in the district of
Kota Kinabalu, Sabah. From the survey, it was found that the problems faced are
poorly maintained buildings. Buildings have become an eyesore or a danger to
general public. There were even cases of pieces of concrete falling from canopies,
ceilings, pillars and walls of unattended buildings in Commercial Business District
(CDB) areas and rainwater chute collapsing onto a car (Daily Express, April 16,
2006).

The repair works for concrete defects will be carried eventually. Some
defects are only visually disturbing and will not affect the structural integrity of the
whole structure. Some on the other hand can be dangerous and lead to major
failures. Hence, a study will be carried out as stated in the objectives in section 1.3.

1.3 Objectives of Study

The objectives of carrying out this study are as follow:
i. To study the types of concrete defects that occurs in buildings
ii. To identify the factors that causes the concrete defects in buildings
iii. To identify the method of concrete repair carried out
iv. To identify the problems faced by PWD in maintenance of buildings

5
Problem Identification
Discussion with supervisor
Title
Objective and Scope
Data Collection
Primary Data
-Records
-Questionnaire
-Interviews
-Observation

Secondary Data
-Reference books
-Journals
-Newspaper
-Magazines

Compile and organize
Analyze
-Using average mean index
Conclusion and recommendation
Exploration of sources
1.4 Scope of Study

In relation with the objectives of the study, this study is carried out on
buildings in Sabah under the supervision of Public Work Departments (PWD). All
government buildings under PWD are taken into count.

1.5 Summary of Study Methodology

Figure 1.1: A Flow Chart of Research Methodology

CHAPTER 2

LITERARURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

Maintenance is a very important element for concrete structures. Although
concrete is a very high durable building material, concrete can deteriorate and
become defective under certain circumstances such as environmental conditions. To
further probe this problem is poor maintenance.

Improper maintenance work could lead to repetition repairs that can be more
costly and wastage in materials. Therefore maintenance plays an important role as it
sustains the building serviceability up to its required and expected standard.
Maintenance works in Malaysia are under the concern of Public Work Department
(PWD). PWD is in charge of inspection and performing maintenance on all for state
and federal buildings. A through inspection on concrete structures would be
determining the cause of defect, having adequate knowledge regarding the extent of
the problem and carrying appropriate repair works that could minimize or eliminate
the problem altogether.

7
2.2 Maintenance

According to BS3811:1993 British Standard Glossary of Maintenance Terms
in Terotechnology, the term maintenance is the combination of all technical and
administrative actions, including supervision actions, intended to retain an item in, or
restore it to, a state which it can perform its required function.

Generally, there are two process of building maintenance activities. There are
rehabilitation and repair.

i. Rehabilitation
An activity to make sure the building is up to current acceptable functional
conditions, often involving improvements.

ii. Repair
An action that is intended to restore a building back to its original appearance
or state by renewal, replacement and restoration.

Meanwhile maintenance can be divided into two main categories which is
planned maintenance and unplanned maintenance.

Figure 2.1: Forms of Maintenance (BS3811, 1993)
Maintenance
Planned
Maintenance
Unplanned
Maintenance
Preventive
Maintenance
Corrective
Maintenance
8
2.2.1 Planned Maintenance

As stated in BS3811(1993), planned maintenance can be described as the
maintenance organized and carried out with forethought, control and the use of
records to a predetermined plan. There are two sub categories of planned
maintenance which is preventive and corrective maintenance.

2.2.1.1 Preventive Maintenance

Preventive maintenance is the maintenance carried out at predetermined
intervals or according to predescribed criteria and intended to reduce the probability
of failure or the degradation of the functionality of an item. There are two different
types of preventive maintenance which is scheduled maintenance and condition-
based maintenance. Scheduled Maintenance is the preventive maintenance carried
out in accordance with an established time schedule. Meanwhile condition-based
Maintenance is the maintenance carried out according to the need indicated by
condition monitoring (BS3811, 1993).

2.2.1.2 Corrective Maintenance

The type of maintenance carried out after fault recognition and intended to
put an item into a state in which it can perform a required function. Scope of work
comprises repair, restoration, rehabilitation or replacements of components (BS3811,
1993).

9
2.2.2 Unplanned Maintenance

Unplanned maintenance is maintenance carried out to no predetermined plan.
It consists of any maintenance activity that has no predetermined plan in all aspects
including labor, materials, tools and equipment to perform the task (BS3811, 1993).

2.3 Assessment of Existing Structure

The purpose of inspection is not only to document the type(s) and extent of
deterioration but also to investigate the cause(s) of the deterioration and provide
guidance on remedial action to prevent or mitigate against its occurrence.
Assessment on existing structures is a systematic process of evaluating the condition
and strength of the structure. This process includes two levels which is preliminary
investigation followed by detailed investigation. The need to assess structures is due
to (Singh, 1991):

! Age of structure
The more the age causes a decrease in concrete strength and corrosion related
problems.

! Change in occupancy
Make sure structure is sound for additional loading.

! Presents of defects
Presents of cracks and other deformation may affect the overall performance
of the structure.

! Statutory requirements
10
GENERAL
INFORMATION
INFORMATION
FROM
MAINTENANCE
RECORDS
VISUAL INSPECTION
PLAN
INVESTIGATION
LOCATE ACCESS
OVERALL SURVEY
AND SELECTION OF
AREAS FOR
DETAILED STUDY
INFORMATION
FROM
CONSTRUCTION
RECORDS BLUE
DETAILED MAPPING
AND N.D.T OF
SPECIFIED AREAS
SAMPLING-CORING
AND DRILLING
LABORATORY TEST
AND ANALYSIS
ANALYSIS AND
INTERPRETATION
OF RESULTS
REPORT AND
RECOMMANDATION

Mandatory requirements to check on the structural integrity and safety of
existing structure.

! Other factors
Accidental overloading, fire damage, seismic movements and etc.

Figure 2.2: Typical flow chart for assessment program (Singh, 1991)
11
2.3.1 Preliminary Investigation

Before planning an investigation, it is recommended to conduct a site visit
first. Initial visual inspection is normally done by client representative and the
consulting engineer.

2.3.1.1 Past Records

The survey done in preliminary level is observation and identifying the
existing defects, loading, conditions and alterations in the structure. Information
could be obtained from past drawings, past records and other documents related.
Past records will be able to provide important information regarding layout and
sectional views, past weather and climatic records, original design which include
architectural, structural, mechanical, electrical, structural design calculations and type
of construction materials. Service history such as maintenance record will provide
information about previous defects and remedial work done.

2.3.1.2 Visual Inspection

Visual inspection is a visual survey on the whole structure. All apparent
signs of distress, deterioration and damage can be detected. The outcome of
conducting a visual survey is to provide a general picture of existing structure so that
more detailed investigation may be planned to assess the structure. It is important
that these surveys are conducted by experienced personnel capable of making careful
observations and record findings in a systematic manner. Engineers may take
photographic survey and non-destructive test measurements to assess the structures
structural integrity.

12
2.3.2 Detailed Investigation

After visual survey is conducted and there are signs of defects, deformation
and deterioration a more detailed investigation is conducted. It is a thoroughly
examination on al members to determine the cause and then to propose a suitable
remedial work.

The detailed inspection will identify the crack size, extent of spalling, depth
of carbonation and extent of corrosion besides basic geometry on existing members
such as shape, size, cross section and location of embedded elements such as steel
bars. Destructive and non-destructive testing will be conducted to check on the
structural capacity of every key member and foundation. Analysis of the result will
be conducted and engineers for further action.

2.3.3 Test and Inspection Techniques

There are various methods and techniques available for in situ during
inspection or on samples removed from the structure for laboratory testing. There are
three categories on test and inspection techniques (Mays, 1992):

i. Those dealing with determination of structural integrity
ii. Those dealing with determination of concrete quality
iii. Those dealing with determination of steel serviceability and condition

13
2.3.3.1 Structural integrity

As mentioned previously, visual survey is important as it provides
information on the condition of the structure. Tapping survey is an in situ testing
whereas a small hammer is used to sound the concrete surface to detect spalls and
delaminations over the reinforcement. For deeper delaminations, more suitable
equipments can be used such as Delamtech and instrumental delamination device
(IDD). Through these techniques, the main and secondary reinforcement, minimum
cover and location of reinforcing steel can be determined. Other than that, acoustic
emissions, thermograph, dynamic response and radar can yield information on
structural integrity of concrete structure.

2.3.3.2 Concrete Quality

Core sampling is capable of producing sample most suitable for the use of
laboratory testing. To obtain a core sample, usually water cooled diamond bits are
used. Diameter of sample ranges from 40mm to over 200mm and the depth of core is
equivalent to the diameter.

Figure 2.3: Core samples to determine chloride content (Strecker, 1988)
14
To determine the chloride content and sulphate profiles in concrete, powder
drilled samples of hardened concrete are taken at various depths usually at 5-25mm.
25-50mm, 50-75mm and 75-100mm. However this technique is not recommended
for determining alkali content due to alkali-silica reaction.

To investigate the depth of carbonation, phenolphthalein indicator is sprayed
upon fractured surface of concrete. The indicator will give a measurement of total
carbonation in concrete.

2.3.3.3 Steel Serviceability and Condition

Corrosion of steel reinforcement is most common symptom of defective
concrete. However what actually affects the mechanical stability of concrete
structure is spalls and cracking as a result of corrosion. Half-cell potential mapping
can be used to delineate anodic and cathodic areas of reinforcement. Potential of
steel in concrete is expressed by the potential developed by common current flow
that is normally potential from both anodic and cathodic corrosion processing. The
rate of corrosion is measured by determining the conductivity or resistivity
particularly using surface contact probes.

2.4 Types of Defects

Design and construction defects can at the least cause minor cracking or
spalling leading to a major source of a structural failure. Many other causes of
deficiencies such as alkali-aggregate reaction, sulphate deterioration and structural
overloading can lead to defects in concrete structures. Following are common types
of defects in reinforced concrete structures.
15
2.4.1 Corrosion of reinforcement steel

Numerous concrete structures have been repaired due to corrosion problems
of steel reinforcement. There are several causes that trigger this problem which are
irregular and insufficient concrete cover of the reinforcement, unsuitable concrete
mixture proportions for outdoor structure and insufficient concrete curing (Raupach,
2006).

The corrosion of steel in concrete is generally initiated by a chemical reaction
related to the composition of the constituent parts and the influence of one or more of
the following (Berkeley, 2001):

(i) Chloride concentration
(ii) Carbonation penetration
(iii) Other acid radicals
(iv) Oxygen concentration
(v) Degree of moisture ingress
(vi) Bacterial action

The alkalinity of the Portland cement used in concrete normally creates a
passive, basic environment (pH of about 12) around the reinforcing steel which
protects it from corrosion. When that passivity is lost or destroyed, or when the
concrete is cracked or delaminated sufficiently to allow free entrance of water,
corrosion can occur. Corrosion at reinforcement can occur provided that sufficient
oxygen and moisture are available.

Corrosion of steel reinforcement may only be revealed only after years of
exposure. It can be due to the concrete cover being too thin or by cracks that makes
it exposed to aggressive environment that can penetrate through the reinforcement
16
and rust it. If not properly repaired, it will gradually deteriorate to the extent that the
reinforcement is completely exposed.

Figure 2.4: Corrosion of reinforcement steel

2.4.2 Cracks

Cracking is the most common phenomenon in concrete defects. Cracking can
be the result of one or a combination of factors, such as drying shrinkage, thermal
contraction, restraint (external or internal) to shortening, and applied loads. Cracks
can also be a sign of corroded reinforcement. Cracking can be significantly reduced
when the causes are taken into account and preventative steps are utilized. Cracks
are divided into two groups which are structural cracks and non-structural cracks.

Structural cracks are cracks that are caused by dead loads, applied forces or
other totally external influences. It can develop on structure element such as beam,
slab, column and foundation. Structural is much more critical compared to non-
structural cracks because it interferes with stability and safety factor of the building.
It is fundamental that hardened reinforced concrete cracks in the tensile zone when
17
subjected to externally imposed loadings such as false in design, false in
construction, overloading and accident such as fire and earthquake.

There are three common structural cracks which are tensile cracks,
compressive cracks and shear cracks (See Shiou Ling, 2006). Tensile cracks happen
when the structural element fails to resist imposed tensile load. It usually occurs on
beams and slab. These elements are also subjected to shear cracks. Meanwhile
compressive cracks are cracks when compressive strength of material is less than
imposed loads. Concrete column are more open to this problem.

Concrete is also liable to crack in both plastic and hardened state due to
stresses sustain by the nature of its constituents materials. Concrete containing them
may often be summarily and unjustifiably condemned. There are various types of
cracks in concrete structures that appear such as plastic cracks, early thermal
contraction, and long term drying shrinkage, longitudinal and transverse cracks, map
cracks and surface crazing.

2.4.2.1 Longitudinal Cracks

Longitudinal cracks are cracks directly over reinforcing bars. This type of
cracks occurs due to rust forming on the reinforcement leading to spalling and
complete loss of cover.

2.4.2.2 Transverse Cracks

Transverse cracks form after the concrete hardened and is caused by
shrinkage, thermal condition, thermal contraction or structural loading. If there is an
18
absence of secondary reinforcement, cracks will only transverse to main
reinforcement and are harmless except if it is very wide.

2.4.2.3 Shear Cracks

Shear cracks form due to structural loading or movement. Cracks develop
when the shear capacity of element is less than shear force acting on it.

2.4.2.4 Plastic Shrinkage Crack

Plastic shrinkage cracks form during construction if rapid evaporation causes
a large moisture loss from the surface. It is harmless unless the cracks are exposed
to salts or contaminated dust.

2.4.2.5 Plastic Settlement Crack

Plastic settlement crack form during construction if there is a high amount of
bleeding and there is some restraint. If the concrete mix is workable, solids can settle
and allow water to bleeds at the top. This type of crack forms longitudinally over the
reinforcement.

2.4.2.6 Crazing

Crazing is a pattern of fine cracks. It does not penetrate below the surface
and usually is cosmetic problem only. Crazing is barely visible except when the
concrete is drying after the surface is wet. Cracking of the surface layer into small
19
irregular shaped areas depend on the environmental condition and not necessarily
affected by time.

Figure 2.5: Crazing on concrete structure

2.4.2.7 Map Crack

Map crack is caused by alkali-aggregate reaction. This type of concrete
deterioration occurs when the active mineral constituents of some aggregates react
with the alkali hydroxides in the concrete. Alkali-aggregate reactivity occurs in two
formsalkali-silica reaction (ASR) and alkali-carbonate reaction (ACR).
Indications of the presence of alkali-aggregate reactivity may be a network of cracks,
closed or spalling joints, or displacement of different portions of a structure.

2.4.3 Spalling

Spalling is commonly known as concrete cancer. Steel reinforcing rods that
are affected by moisture or salt from the environment cause the steel to rust and
20
expend. Thus pushing off surface that encases the reinforcement steel. Carbonation
that triggers corrosion in reinforcement and insufficient concrete cover also cause
spalling.

Figure 2.6: Heavily rusted reinforcement and spalling of the concrete

2.4.4 Delamination

There are many reasons that can contribute delamination in concrete. It can
be a result from bleed water and bleed air being trapped below the prematurely
densified mortar surface. Disruptive stresses from chloride-induced corrosion of
steel reinforcement results delamination that are deeper called spalls. This defect can
be detected by using sounding method by dragging a chain on the surface of tapping
using a hammer. Hollow sounds produced indicate delaminated areas.

21
2.4.5 Honeycombing

Formation of honeycombing is due to the presence of air and bubble at the
surface of the formwork and results a separation between aggregates and cement
mixture. Other than that, improper consolidation during construction process such
as not properly vibrating the concrete mixture will cause honeycombing to occur.

2.4.6 Scaling

Scaling is quite similar to spalling however not as serious. Scaling happens
when water is added to increase workability of concrete. The rate of water cement
ratio in the concrete will increase and further reduce the strength and durability of the
concrete.

Figure 2.7: Scaling in concrete

22
2.4.7 Popouts

Popout is a conical fragment that breaks out of the surface of concrete thus
leaving a hole usually displaying fractured aggregate particle at the bottom of the
hole. Contributory factors to popouts in concrete can be either due to pieces of
porous rocks having a high rate of absorption and relatively low specific gravity or
swelling of aggregates under moisture conditions. It forms a pressure that ruptures
the concrete surface.

2.5 Causes of Deterioration

There are many causes of deterioration in concrete structures. This problem
can bring defects such as cracking, corrosion of steel reinforcement, spalling of the
concrete and blemishes such as popouts, scalling, honeycombing etc.

2.5.1 Excessive Concrete Mix Water.

The use of excessive water in concrete mixtures is the single most common
cause of damage to concrete. Excessive water reduces strength, increases curing and
drying shrinkage, increases porosity, increases creep, and reduces the abrasion
resistance of concrete. High durability is associated with low water-cement ratio and
the use of entrained air. Damage caused by excessive mix water can be difficult to
correctly diagnose because it is usually masked by damage from other causes.
Freezing and thawing cracking, abrasion erosion deterioration, or drying shrinkage
cracking, for example, is often blamed for damage to concrete when, in reality,
23
excessive mix water caused the low durability that allowed these other causes to
attack the concrete. Extreme cases of excessive mix water in hardened concrete can
sometimes be detected by the presence of bleed water channels or water pockets
under large aggregate.

2.5.2 Sulphate Deterioration.

Sodium, magnesium, and calcium sulfates are salts commonly found in the
alkali soils and ground waters. These sulfates react chemically with the hydrated
lime and hydrated aluminate in cement paste and form compounds that have volume
greater than initial volume. The volume of these reaction byproducts results in
tensioning and cracking, causing disruption of the concrete from expansion.

2.5.3 Faulty Design

Design faults can create many types of concrete damage. One type of design
fault that is somewhat common is positioning embedded metal such as electrical
conduits or outlet boxes too near the exterior surfaces of concrete structures. Cracks
form in the concrete cover and around such metal features and allow accelerated
freeze-thaw deterioration to occur. Bases of handrails or guardrails are placed too
near the exterior corners of walls, walkways, and parapets with similar results. These
bases or intrusions into the concrete expand and contract with temperature changes at
a rate different from the concrete. Tensile stresses, created in the concrete by
expanding metal cause cracking and subsequent freeze thaw damage.

24
Insufficient concrete cover over reinforcing steel is also a common cause of
damage. Reclamation usually requires a minimum of 3 inches of concrete cover over
reinforcing steel, but in corrosive environments, this can be insufficient. Concrete
exposed to the corrosive effects of sulfates, acids, or chlorides should have a
minimum of 4 inches of cover to protect the reinforcing steel. Insufficient cover
allows corrosion of the reinforcing steel to begin. The iron oxide byproducts of this
corrosion require more space in the concrete than the reinforcing steel and result in
cracking and delaminating in the concrete.

2.5.4 Construction Defects

Some of the more common types of damage to concrete caused by
construction defects are rock pockets and honeycombing, form failures, dimensional
errors, and finishing defects. Honeycomb and rock pockets are areas of concrete
where voids are left due to failure of the cement mortar to fill the spaces around and
among coarse aggregate particles.

More likely, the resulting defect is either simply accepted by the owner, or the
contractor is required to remove the defective concrete and reconstruct that portion of
the structure. Whenever possible, it usually is best to accept the resulting deficiency
rather than attempt to repair it. If the nature of the deficiency is such, that it cannot be
accepted, then complete removal and reconstruction is probably the best course of
action. Occasionally, dimensional errors can be corrected by removing the defective
concrete and replacing it with epoxy-bonded concrete or replacement.

Finishing defects usually involve over finishing or the addition of water
and/or cement to the surface during the finishing procedures. In each instance, the
25
resulting surface is porous and permeable and has low durability. Poorly finished
surfaces exhibit surface spalling early in their service life.

2.5.5 Alkali-Aggregate Reaction.

Certain types of sand and aggregate, such as opal, chert, and flint, or
volcanics with high silica content, are reactive with the alkalis of Portland cement
released during hydration. Some concrete containing alkali reactive aggregate shows
immediate evidence of destructive expansion and deterioration. However other
concrete might remain undisturbed for many years. The product of alkali-aggregate
reaction shows that a gel will form around the reactive aggregate. This gel undergoes
extensive expansion in the presence of water or water vapor (a relative humidity of
80 to 85 percent is all the water required), creating tension cracks around the
aggregate and expansion of the concrete.

Usually, some type of whitish exudation will be evident in and around the
cracked concrete. In extreme instances, these cracks have opened 1.5 to 2 inches. In
large concrete structures, alkali-aggregate reaction may occur only in certain areas of
the structure. Only portions of the structure constructed with concrete containing
alkali reactive sand and/or aggregate will exhibit expansion due to alkali-aggregate
reaction.

26
2.5.6 Structural Overload

Defects as a result of structural overload will be obvious and easy to detect.
It will show distinctive patterns of cracking that indicates the source and cause of
excessive loading and point load application. Overloading can weaken the concrete
and make it incapable of carrying the design loads. Damage can be repaired with the
expectation that the cause of damage neither will nor reoccur in the future.

2.5.7 Faulty Materials

Concrete that is contaminated with a significant level of chloride from the
original mix materials or as a result of chloride penetration from salty environment
must be cut away and replaced with uncontaminated concrete wherever it is close to
the reinforcement (Strecker, 1988).

2.6 Repair System

It is essential to have a solid plan and specifications for repair works.
Improper planning will lead to more tedious and unnecessary works besides not
being cost effective. Therefore a systematic and detailed system is important.
Among the important criteria are (Emmons, 1993):

! Diagnosis of the causes(s) of damage
The cause of damage must be correctly determined to prevent unsuitable
repairs that may further provoke the damage on the structure.
27
! Diagnosis of the extent of the damage
It is wise to know the effect of existing deterioration on current and future
structural efficiency. Engineers will have to investigate the progression of
the damage and the possibility of the damage to aggravate further.
Investigative methods are mentioned in the earlier part which is by
preliminary and detailed investigation.

! The need of repair
Repair is required if the damage effects the structural stability and safety
operation of the structure. Non-structural cracks due to drying shrinkage can
be justified for cosmetic purpose. Meanwhile structural cracks will usually
require repair. However the precise evaluation on the current status is
extremely difficult and depends on a more subjective appraisal of an
experienced engineer. Clients on the other hand might delay repair to fit their
maintenance plan or to avoid disruption at difficult times (Grantham, 1997).

! Costs
There is no clear guideline on what the costs of repairs will be as data for
basing estimates of cost are sparse. In repair works, the economic decision is
usually made on whether a regular sequence of local repairs is needed or a
more expensive corrective measure that will be less costly in the future.
Besides that early detection of damage will allow orderly budgeting of
funds for the cost of repair.

2.7 Repair Method

The concrete repair industry is both specialized and huge. Many of the repair
methods, when applied correctly are perfectly adequate for the purpose for which
they are intended. However the types of repair method are crucial as choosing the
wrong technique will be more costly and further deteriorates the concrete structure.
28
There are various factors affecting choice of repairs such as degree of deterioration,
available budget and cost of repair, accessibility to site (Singh, 1991).

2.7.1 Cathodic Protection

Cathodic protection is another option for repairing corroded reinforcement.
This process will be able to nullify the corrosion current thus stopping corrosion
process (Ho N Y, 1991). An external will receive external current from a direct
current source and forcing the current into or on the concrete. Induced current
generated opposes the electrochemical reaction that is responsible for corrosion
problems.

Cathodic protection may not necessarily be the only acceptable method of
controlling corrosion at a specific location but it will always remain the only
technique which is capable of totally reversing the chemical and electrical
phenomena causing reinforcement corrosion. On the other hand, it is probably one of
the less economical techniques for small isolated repairs (Berkeley, 1990).

2.7.2 Cathite Method

Cathite method is suitable to repair concrete that has been damaged by
corroded reinforcement. It acts by halting the electrolytic action within the
reinforcement. This process will offer high electrical resistance between anode
(steel) and cathode (envelopes between the bars).

29
2.7.3 Decholorisation Technique

This process is based on electomosis principle (Ho N Y, 1991) which is the
extraction of chlorides electrochemically and realkalised the affected area. The
affected area is the area with corroded reinforcement. Concrete surface is covered
with mesh electrode that is covered with alkaline gel. Electrical connection between
electrode and existing reinforcement will cause the hydroxyl ions to migrate into
carbonated zones thus increasing its pH. The cost is low compared to cathodic
protection.

2.7.4 Crack Repair

There are two purpose of deciding the most suitable repair for cracks. Before
proposing repair works, it should be determine if it is dormant cracks or live cracks.

2.7.4.1 Dormant Cracks

Dormant cracks are unlikely to open, close or extend further. There are three
categories of dormant cracks (Turton et al, 1992):

i. Fine cracks - up to 1 mm wide
ii. Wide cracks - from 1-6 mm wide
iii. Fractures - over 6 mm wide

30
The common method of repair for fine cracks is by injecting the crack with
epoxy resin or other suitable synthetic resin. Epoxy resins will displace water from a
crack and adhere well to damp surface. However it is hard to seal the reverse face of
cracked structure for structures such as slabs or retaining walls. Sealing of the
reverse surface will prevent the resin from flowing out. The usage of thixotropic
resins will eliminate this problem as it will cease to flow when the injection pressure
is released. (Turton et al, 1992)

Wide cracks can occur on vertical or horizontal surfaces. Injection of epoxy
resin is an option for both conditions. There is a more other simpler option for
horizontal wide cracks that can be treated by sealing the underside (Turton et al,
1992). A slight V opening is done on the upper surface and repair material is
poured in. The materials that can be used are epoxy resins or cement grouts such as
ordinary Portland and fast hardening cement.

Usually the repair method for fractures relies more on the economic factor.
Epoxy resin mortar or grout will be a suitable option for shallow fractures. Another
option is to open out the fracture and pour mortar or concrete mix. However,
precautions should be taken to prevent premature drying out and to ensure proper
curing.

2.7.4.2 Live Cracks

Live cracks can be subjected to more movement from external loadings.
Therefore it is important to choose the right method of repair in relation to the crack
movement. Flexible resin can only be used on live cracks with a certain movement.
In cases of large and rapid cyclic movement, the cracks should be treated as
movement joints. Repair works should cater anticipated movement, cut along the
line of crack then sealed with appropriate sealant (Turton et al, 1992). Whereas if the
31
concrete is carbonated or contaminated with chlorides, it must be broken out and
replaced.

2.7.5 Patch Repairs

Patch repairs is an option for repairing spalled concrete or honeycombing.
Concrete mix can be used in cases of large voids. It is important to make sure that
the concrete surface is clean and free from dusty materials that can interfere with the
bond between patching materials and existing surface. Coats are used as bonding
agent. Epoxy mortar and epoxy concrete can be used on relatively small damage of
corrosion besides insufficient cover to steel.

2.7.6 Sealing

When a concrete member is generally porous it is not suitable to use patching
method. The whole surface must be sealed. There are various sealant materials such
as silicone or a propriety deep penetration compound.

2.7.7 Sprayed Concrete

Sprayed concrete, or gunite, is not a new convention. Today the term
sprayed concrete and shortcrete are commonly used (Bernard, 2001). It is a
32
repair method for corrosion problems, fire-damaged concrete members and distressed
structure requiring large area of reconstruction. Air pressure is an important element
as it shoots mixed concrete. The high velocity will deposit layers of concrete on the
surface and each layer gets compacted as a result of impacting action of subsequent
layering. The main advantage of guniting is producing a high strength concrete with
low permeability without formwork. Sprayed concrete can be divided into two
categories which are dry process spraying and wet process spraying.

2.7.7.1 Dry-mix Process

Dry-mix process is a technique in which the content and aggregate are
batched either at site based plant or pre-batched. Dry mix system virtues is a simple
system and few mechanical and mix design issues that can go wrong. However,
every process has its drawbacks. For dry-mix method (Bernard, 2001):

(i) Low equipment performance
(ii) In terms of quality control, sprayed concrete, materials have a great degree of
variance due to the inadequate mixing between the nozzles of the substrate.

2.7.7.2 Wet-mix Process

The wet-mix sprayed concrete process uses concrete that is batched in a
similar way to conventional concrete, making it possible to check and control the
water content ratio and thus the quality at any time. The advantages of wet-mix
method are its ability to produce homogeneous product with uniform quality
throughout the process. Other advantages are low dust levels, effective use of
admixing material and better total economy for applied sprayed concrete. The
disadvantages are higher demands on mix design, cleaning cost and limited open
time/workability (Bernard, 2001).

33
2.7.8 Pre-packed Grouting

Plate bonding can strengthen members that are under strength or require
accepting greater loading. In this process, steel plates are bonded onto the structural
members using bolts and epoxy adhesive. Epoxy is used to bond two different
surfaces which is the steel and concrete. Plate bonding is very economical and
effective at the same time. After repair works is conducted, the cross section size is
not altered drastically.

2.7.9 Recasting

Recasting is a method recommended when exposed concrete finish needs
maintenance and is done by ordinary manpower. In large replacement concrete,
ordinary Portland cement is an economical option. Concrete is mixed in ordinary
mixers to ensure that the mix obtained is workable and achieve required slump.

2.7.10 Dry Packing

Dry packing is appropriate for vertical members with cavities that have
greater depth than width. Concrete surface should be cleaned before hand. Only after
it is free from dust, bonding agent is applied. Dry pack mortar is added with certain
amount of water so that the mix can be rammed into the place without slumping.

34
2.7.11 Thin Bonded Resurfacing

Improvement of surfaces that have deteriorated through impact of heavy
loading or displaying uneven profile can be repaired by thin bonded resurfacing.
Mortar is applied uniformly on the prepared surface. It is important to make sure that
each layer is cured properly to make sure there is a strong bond between each layer.

2.7.12 Stitching

Stitching is a technique to provide structural continuity in repairs. In tension
cracks, U-shaped anchors are placed inside drilled holes on both sides of the crack.
These holes will then be filled with a non-shrink grout.

2.7.13 Caulking

Caulking is suitable for small or medium width crack repair. Plastic material
is used to fill the narrow raptures in the concrete member. Materials usually used for
dormant cracks are Portland cement mortar or expanding mortar. Meanwhile,
elastomeric caulking materials are used for live cracks.

CHAPTER 3

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

In order to achieve the objectives of this research, it is important to have a
planned and structured study methodology. This is to ensure smoothness and
effectiveness while conducting the study process. Data collection is an important
element of research to provide more knowledge and information for this study.
There are two types of data which is primary and secondary data.

3.1.1 Primary Data

Primary data refers to all real data collected within the study area. These data
can be obtained through questionnaires, interviews, observations and many more.

36
3.1.1.1 Reports and records

By collecting reports and records from Public Work Department (PWD),
Sabah will give an overview on the maintenance done by PWD. In doing so it will
help to accomplish the objectives of this study such as to identify what are the most
common defects in concrete building under PWD, cause of deterioration and the
method of repair.

3.1.1.2 Questionnaire

The purpose of a questionnaire is to obtain answers and opinions for
questions that are made in relation to the objectives of the study. Questionnaires are
prepared beforehand by referring to information and sources gathered in literature
review.

3.1.1.3 Interview

Interview sessions are two-way communication which permits exchange in
ideas and information. It is conducted with professional and experienced officers
from PWD regarding concrete building maintenance. These sessions will provide
important ideas and opinions from officers on the common practice of maintenance
done by PWD that cannot be collected through questionnaires.

3.1.2 Secondary Data

Secondary data are data collected from references books, journals,
newspapers, magazines, conference papers, unpublished materials etc.
37
3.2 Data Analysis

All the data and information that have been collected through reports,
questionnaires, interviews and literature review will need to be organized,
summarized and analyzed. Information that will be analyzed is conclusive of type of
defects in concrete structures, cause of these defects and the most common practice
of repair. Results will be analyzed using frequency counts and other descriptive
statistics method. It is then presented in a clearer manner by using graphs such as
histogram, frequency polygon, pie charts etc. Tables and pictures are attached to
give illustration of the result obtained.

3.2.1 Average Index

The average index is calculated based on the following formula:

Average Index =
"
"
i
i i
x
x a

Where:
a
i
=

Constant expressing the weight

given to i
x
i
= Variable expressing the frequency of respondent, for i = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5

38
Average index method is used to determine the frequency of adoption of
defects occurrence and method of repair. The categories of scales are:

1 = least frequent 1.00 ! min index < 1.50
2 = less frequent 1.50 ! min index < 2.50
3 = average 2.50 ! min index < 3.50
4 = frequent 3.50 ! min index < 4.50
5 = very frequent 4.50 ! min index ! 5.00

3.3 Conclusion

This research utilizes various types of data collection technique. After the
data have been analyzed and tabulated for easy reference, conclusions will be made
by the results obtained in conjunction with the objectives of the study.
Recommendations will be made for future study as well as improvements in
maintenance for defective concrete.

CHAPTER 4

CASE STUDY

4.1 Introduction

Sabah is one of a state in east Malaysia. It is a part of Borneo which consists
of Sabah and Sarawak. Also known as the land below the wind, Sabah is now vast
developing with implementations of various projects. Many developments of
facilities and infrastructure are set up to improve the quality of life of residents in
Sabah. In line with that, many new buildings are being built as well as maintaining
old ones. Government buildings in Sabah can also be classified into state and federal
building. Public Work Department (PWD) is in charge of maintaining government
buildings throughout the districts in Sabah. Owners of government buildings are
considered as clients in whom they are also partly responsible in conducting
maintenance upon buildings with the supervision of PWD. Table 5.1 shows the
summary of financial report of building projects implemented from the year 2002-
2004.

40
Year Project Total Allocation (RM) Total Expenditure (RM) Number of Projects
2002 State 21,799,648.29 17,967,038.48 18
Federal 49,569,862.00 39,946,393.98 31
2003 State 28,983,501.00 14,093,932.75 18
Federal 38,681,725.15 33,852,725.15 29
2004 State 86,243,000.00 40,850,653.00 15
Federal 43,577,200.00 18,621,283.00 8
Table 4.1: Summary of Financial Report (Laporan Tahunan, 2002-2004)

4.2 Building Works Department Sabah

In the year 2005, Building Works Department or previously known as
Building Department was established in Public Work Department (PWD), Sabah.
The main objectives of this department are (Laporan Tahunan 2005):

! Planning, budgeting, implementation and monitoring of all building projects
of state and federal government.

! Coordinating, monitoring and reporting of all buildings under Public Work
Department (PWD) while construction to handing over.

! Managing PWD building maintenance system

! Inspecting and maintaining all state and federal buildings

41
KETUA PENOLONG PENGARAH
ARKITEK KANAN
PEMELIHARAAN PERANCANGAN
DAN PEMANTAUAN
PENTADBIRAN
DAN AKAUN
JURUTERA JURUTERA PEMBANTU
TADBIR
Next is the organization chart of Building Works Department (PWD) Sabah.

Figure 4.1: Organization Chart of Building Works Department (Laporan Tahunan
2004)

4.3 Clients

Clients will either request Public Work Department (PWD) to inspect their
building or conduct maintenance. Below are among the lists of PWD clients in Sabah
(Laporan Tahunan 2002-2005):

1. Jabatan Arkib Negara
2. Jabatan Bomba
3. Jabatan Hidupan Liar
4. Jabatan Hutan Sabah
5. Jabatan Imigresen
6. Jabatan Kastam, Malaysia
42
7. Jabatan Kebajikan
8. Jabatan Kerja Raya (JKR)
9. Jabatan Ketua Menteri
10. Jabatan Perhutanan
11. Jabatan Pertanian dan Industri Makanan
12. Jabatn Perpustakaan Negara
13. Kementerian Kebudayaan, Belia dan Sukan
14. Kementerian Kehakiman
15. Kementerian Kesihatan
16. Kementerian Pelancongan, Kebudayaan dan Alam Sekitar
17. Kementerian Pembangunan dan Luar Bandar
18. Kementerian Pembangunan Infrastruktur
19. Marine Polis
20. Pejabat Daerah
21. Perpustakaan Negeri

4.4 Maintenance System

Building maintenance upon government buildings should be conducted
annually. Upon request from clients, Public Work Department (PWD) personnel
will conduct inspection. PWD from the related district will send request and visual
pictures of the defects to PWD Headquarters in Kota Kinabalu, Sabah. Then, PWD
lab department will be informed to conduct investigation.

PWD team which consists of engineers and technician will go to the site and
do visual inspection. Recordings of defects and its severity will be reported.
Meanwhile Schmidt Hammer test will be conducted to determine the structural
integrity of the concrete structure. More detailed and close-up photographs are
taken. The engineer will then prepare a report which consists of findings including
43
defects, test results, comments and recommendation. Structural Department will
receive this report and do assessment on the structural integrity of the building.

After full validation by both lab department and structure department,
recommendations will be sent back to District PWD and thereafter to the clients.
Clients then will decide whether or not they will conduct maintenance and also by
whom. If the client agrees to conduct repair work, PWD Headquarter will be
informed. Cost and estimates will be done and the maintenance work will be open
out for tender if the total cost is more than RM50, 000.00. If the total cost is less, it
will proceed with quotation. Sometimes PWD conduct maintenance by themselves,
however it must comply with certain term and conditions.

Elected contractor will conduct the maintenance work but with the
supervision of PWD superintending officer (S.O). The contractor carrying out
concrete repairs must comply with the J.K.R. General Specification for Building
Works (September 1974, revised April 1989 edition) except if indicated in the
specification provided by Public Work Department itself. After all repair work is
completed, a joint checking between PWD, contractor and client will be done.

4.5 Problems Faced by Public Work Department (PWD)

There are various problems faced by PWD in building maintenance. The
responsibilities of making sure the building is safe for occupancy lies in the hand of
both clients and PWD. However, the building maintenance culture is still not
efficient enough. Clients do not usually conduct yearly maintenance. They will only
see the need to inspect and maintain the building when there are serious defects and
reports of major failure in other buildings. Meanwhile PWD faces challenges in the
delay of maintenance procedure.
44
In Sabah, the problem defective concrete is still prominent in some
government buildings. According to several cases from previous reports, the use of
sea sand in concrete mix in which it is widely used as fine aggregate for construction
in 1980s have further aggravated the problem of steel reinforcement corrosion in
buildings. However there are some building that use sea sand are still in perfect
condition. The main factor is poor treatment and site workmanship that has elevated
the problem. The maintenance of these buildings can be tedious and could
eventually lead to major failure.

For most concrete defect, patching is the most common repair technique that
is adapted. According to J.K.R. General Specification for Building Works
(September 1974, revised April 1989 edition), mortar patching will be used to repair
horizontal repairs. Meanwhile for overhead and vertical repairs will use free flow
cementitious grout and also patch repair mortar. However, some defects have
reoccurred even though maintenance has been done. This can be due to many
factors. Insufficient previous maintenance such as plastering of spalling concrete and
others usually causes the problem to reoccur. This eventually led to more repetitive
repairs.

CHAPTER 5

DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULT

5.1 Introduction

Maintenance is an important part in a building to ensure it is safe for
occupancy and is able to function at its intended function. Poor maintenance will
result in repetitive, expensive repairs and replacement of otherwise useful structures.
Federal and state building in Sabah are under the supervision of Public Work
Department (PWD.

In this chapter, analysis have been carried out to study the type of
maintenance done by PWD, types of concrete defects that occur in building, factors
that causes these defects, method of repair to rectify defects and also problems faced
by PWD in building maintenance. All the data analysis are collected through
questionnaires to PWD personnel and supported by PWD records.

Primary data are collected from questionnaires, interview and observation on
government building in Sabah. Meanwhile secondary data are obtained from
reference books, journals and unpublished materials. All collected data are analyze
46
Questionnaire Respondent
50% 50%
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
Replied Not Replied
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
a
g
e

(
%
)
by using average mean index method by using statistical software and are presented
in the form of tables, charts and graphs to make it easier for interpretation.

5.2 Questionnaire Background and Number of Respondents

A total of 40 questionnaires have been sent to district engineers, engineers at
building department and lab investigation department throughout the districts of
Sabah. These questionnaires have been manually distributed to the district office in
Kota Kinabalu and Penampang. Other questionnaires are distributed through email
to the other districts in Sabah. However, out of 40 questionnaire forms, there were
only 20 completed replies returned and is used for this study. Figure 5.1 shows 50%
of forms returned and the other 50% not replied.

Figure 5.1: Number of respondents on questionnaire distributed to Public Work
Departments (PWD) Sabah

47
Party to Carry out Min
Maintenance 1 2 3 4 5 Index
a. Public Work Department 4 14 1 1 0 2.05
b. Contractor 0 0 2 6 12 4.50
Number of Respondents
Party to Carry Out Maintenance
Contractor, 4.5
Public Work
Department,
2.05
5.3 Partys Involved in Carrying out Maintenance Works on Government
Buildings

Government buildings needs to be maintained to ensure its reliability and is
safe for occupancy. There are two parties involved in the maintenance of
government building. The two parties are Public Work Department (PWD) and
contractor.

From the questionnaire analysis, it is known that most maintenance works are
conducted very frequently by contractor under the supervision of Public Work
Department (PWD). This is shown by an average index of 4.50 from Table 5.1.
However it is up to the client (building owner) to whether contractor or PWD will
conduct the maintenance works. PWD does conduct maintenance works but under
certain terms and condition only. However, it is quite seldom as compared to
contractor with a mean index of 2.05. The average means index can also be seen in
Figure 5.2 which shows the plotted distribution of party to carry out maintenance.

Table 5.1: Party to Carry Out Maintenance

1 Least frequent 2 less frequent 3 average 4frequent 5- Very frequent

Figure 5.2: Party to Carry Out Maintenance
48
Types of Maintenance Min
1 2 3 4 5 Index
a) Planned Maintenance
(i) Preventive Maintenance 3 6 6 5 0 2.65
(ii)Corrective Maintenance 0 6 10 4 0 3.10
b) Unplanned maintenance 1 2 6 11 0 3.35
5.4 Types of Maintenance Conducted On Government Building

Government buildings consist of federal and state building. It is both under
the custody of Public Work Department (PWD) to inspect and maintain these
buildings. There are two types of maintenance which is planned maintenance which
is both preventive and corrective and unplanned maintenance.

The type of maintenance with the highest average mean index is unplanned
maintenance (3.35). Meanwhile the average index for corrective maintenance and
preventive maintenance is 3.10 and 2.65 respectively. This shows that maintenance
that is done the most is done without any predetermined plans. Through the
interview conducted with district engineer at Kota Kinabalu, he stated that all
government buildings are required to conduct yearly maintenance. However, in
Sabah most maintenance action is only done when the defects have already occurred
to certain extent. Table 5.2 shows the mean index for each type of maintenance.

Table 5.2: Type of Maintenance


Figure 5.3 shows the rating for each type of maintenance. For unplanned
maintenance is average with a mean index of 3.35. For corrective maintenance is
also in the rank of average (3.10). Lastly is preventive maintenance which is average
but with a lower mean index (2.65).

49
Type of Maintenance Conducted on Government Building
2.65
3.1
3.35
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
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3
3.5
4
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Figure 5.3: Type of Maintenance Conducted on Government Buildings

5.5 Types of Concrete Defect that Occur in Government Buildings

There are many types of concrete defects that can occur in building. Various
types of concrete defects have been studied in literature review and are listed down in
the questionnaire. The frequency of these defects to occur in government building is
as analyzed and the mean index is as follows.

Table 5.3 and Figure 5.4 both shows that the average means index for
concrete defects ranges from 1.90 to 3.45. The list of defects through the
questionnaire shows that the most frequent defect that occurs is spalling of concrete
with an average mean index of 3.45. This is followed by delamination with 3.25.
Other defects such as cracks have an average mean index ranging from 2.85 to 2.00.
The highest for cracks is plastic shrinkage crack (3.00) followed by longitudinal
crack (2.85), plastic settlement crack (2.55), transverse crack (2.50), shear crack
(2.25) and crazing map crack (2.00). Scaling has an average mean index of 2.65. The
50
Types of Defect Min Rank
1 2 3 4 5 Index
1. Longitudinal Crack 3 2 12 1 2 2.85 4
2. Transverse Crack 3 4 13 0 0 2.50 7
3. Shear Crack 3 10 6 1 0 2.25 8
4. Plastic Shrinkage Crack 5 1 4 9 1 3.00 3
5. Plastic Settlement Crack 3 5 10 2 0 2.55 6
6. Crazing Map Crack 5 11 3 1 0 2.00 9
7. Spalling 1 0 9 9 1 3.45 1
8. Delamination 1 2 8 9 0 3.25 2
9. Honeycombing 6 11 2 1 0 1.90 11
10.Scaling 1 6 12 1 0 2.65 5
11.Popouts 4 13 3 0 0 1.95 10
lowest mean index which shows the defect that is less frequent is popouts (1.95) and
honeycombing (1.90). Throughout the questionnaire it is also known that the main
factor that triggers defect is the corrosion of steel reinforcement that leads cracks and
further spalling of concrete.

Table 5.3: Types of Defect that Occur in Government Building


51
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52
Factors That Cause Min
Concrete Defects 1 2 3 4 5 Index
1. Construction Defect
a. Faulty Material 1 10 5 3 1 3.30 3
b. Poor Construction Method 0 3 11 3 3 3.45 2
c. Deficiencies in Quality Control 0 1 12 4 3 2.20 10
2. Faulty Design 1 14 5 0 0 2.25 9
3. Sulphate Deterioration 0 11 8 1 0 2.50 7
4. Alkali-aggregate Reaction 0 4 13 2 1 3.00 4
5. Structural Overloading 0 11 7 2 0 2.55 6
6. Inefficient Maintenance 0 3 3 9 5 3.80 1
7. Fire Damage 1 4 14 1 0 2.75 5
8. Seismic Movements 1 11 8 0 0 2.35 8
Rank
5.6 Factors that Causes Concrete Defects in Government Buildings

Many factors can cause concrete defects in buildings. These defects must be
attended accordingly to prevent more dangerous failure. Therefore it is important to
understand the nature of defects before taking steps to rectify the defects.

Many factors can lead to concrete defects. Table 5.5 show the average mean
index for respondents response to the factors that causes concrete defect in
government building.

Table 5.4: Factors that Causes Concrete Defect in Government Building

1 Totally disagree 2 Disagree 3 Average 4 Agree 5 Totally agree

According to past reports from Public Work Department (PWD), reoccurring
defects are due to failure of previous maintenance to arrest or deter the deterioration
of structure. This is also shown by inefficient maintenance being the having the
highest mean index of 3.80. Meanwhile for construction defects such as poor
construction method has an average of 3.45. Other ratings for factors that causes
concrete defect can be referred to Figure 5.6.
53
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54
5.7 Method of Repair in Rectifying Concrete Defects

There are many methods that can be adopted to repair concrete defects.
Through this part of the questionnaire will identify the methods that are used by
Public Work Department (PWD) in rectifying concrete defects.

Table 5.5: Method of Repair in Rectifying Concrete Defects
Method of Repair Min Rank
1 2 3 4 5 Index
1. Crack Injection 4 9 7 0 0 2.15 7
2. Patch Repairs 0 0 4 8 8 4.20 1
3. Sprayed Concrete 0 14 6 0 0 2.30 6
4. Grouting 3 11 3 1 2 2.40 5
5. Cathite Method 10 10 0 0 0 1.50 13
6. Cathodic Method 9 11 0 0 0 1.55 11
7. Decholorisation Method 7 12 1 0 0 1.70 10
8. Sealing 3 0 8 9 0 3.30 2
9.Dry Packing 4 12 3 1 0 2.05 8
10.Thin Bonded Resurfacing 4 1 6 9 0 3.00 4
11.Stitching 7 11 2 0 0 1.75 9
12.Caulking 10 9 1 0 0 1.55 12
13.Recasting 1 1 11 7 0 3.20 3

Table 5.4 shows the results in which the most common repair technique used
by Public Work Department (PWD) to rectify concrete defect is by patching.
According to the analysis shows that the average mean index is 4.20 which is
significantly high. This is followed by sealing and recasting with 3.30 and 3.20 each.
The methods which are least used are caulking (1.55), cathodic method (1.55) and
cathite method (2.50). The distribution of method of repair is further described in
Figure 5.5.
55
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56
Factors Affecting Choice Min
Of Repair 1 2 3 4 5 Index
a. Severity of defects 0 3 4 9 0 3.70
b. Time needed to execute the repair work 0 2 10 6 2 3.40
c. Repair cost (material and labour) 0 0 5 12 3 3.90
d. Total manpower available to conduct work 0 3 12 5 0 3.10
5.8 Factors Affecting Choice of Repair

There are various choices of concrete repairs depending on the type of defect
that occur and its severity of damage. This part of the questionnaire asks respondents
regarding the factors that affect the choice of repair done by PWD. In PWD Sabah
the two departments that are in charge of proposing method of repair are lab
investigation department and building (structural) department.

Through Table 5.6, it clearly shows that the four main factors are clearly
important. However, most respondents agreed that repair cost which consists of
material and labor with an average mean index of 3.90 plays an important role in the
choice of repair. Others agreed that the severity of defects (3.70) also is dependent
on the choice of repair. Meanwhile the time needed to execute the repair work is also
taken into consideration with a mean index of 3.40. Lastly is the lowest mean index
(3.10) for the total manpower available to conduct work.

Table 5.6: Factors Affecting Choice of Repair


Meanwhile Figure 5.6 shows the bar chart for the factors and its average
mean index.

57
Factors Affecting Choice of Repair
3.70
3.40
3.90
3.10
0.00
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
3.50
4.00
4.50
Severity of
Defects
Time Needed to
Execute the
Repair Work
Repair cost
(material and
labour)
Total manpower
available to
conduct work
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Figure 5.7: Factors Affecting Choice of Repair

5.9 Common Problems Faced by PWD in Building Maintenance

In building maintenance, there are more than one party involved and various
procedures. This part of the questionnaire is to identify the common problems faced
by Public Work Department (PWD) in building maintenance.

From Table 5.7, the average mean index for the common problems faced by
PWD ranges from 2.75 to 3.65. Figure 5.8 shows that the most frequent problem
faced is delay in maintenance procedure (3.65) followed by delay from contractor
(3.35), inefficient funding (3.25), lack of manpower (3.10), unavailability of previous
records of building (3.10), less exposure to current technologies (3.00), incomplete
and outdated tools/equipment (2.95) and the lowest mean index is personnel lack of
experience and skills (2.75).

58

Table 5.7: Common Problems Faced by PWD in Building Maintenance
Common Problem in Building Maintenance Number of
Respondents
Min
Index
Rank
1 2 3 4 5
1. Insufficient Funding 0 2 11 7 0 3.25 3
2. Lack of Manpower 1 4 10 2 3 3.10 4
3. Personnel lack of experience and skills 0 8 10 1 1 2.75 8
4. Incomplete and outdated tools/equipment 0 6 10 3 1 2.95 7
5. Delay in maintenance procedures 0 0 8 11 1 3.65 1
6. Less exposure to current technologies 0 4 12 4 0 3.00 6
7. Unavailability of previous records of building 0 6 7 6 1 3.10 5
8. Delay from contractor 0 0 13 7 0 3.35 2
59
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CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

6.1 Introduction

This research has been carried out to study the maintenance of concrete
defects in government building. The scope includes maintenance done by Public
Work Department (PWD) throughout Sabah. The data collected consists of data
from PWD past records, interviews, observation and questionnaires. Analysis of data
has been carried out using SPSS software and results are shown in chapter 4. From
the analysis, the conclusion is made in relation to these following objectives:

v. To study the types of concrete defects that occurs in buildings
vi. To identify the factors that causes the concrete defects in buildings
vii. To identify the method of concrete repair carried out
viii. To identify the problems faced by PWD in maintenance of buildings

61
6.2 Conclusion

Conclusions are drawn based on the outcome of analysis from the previous
chapter. All of the results are based on the questionnaire distributed. Besides that,
past records and information that is collected from Public Work Department (PWD)
are also used as comparison and added value to this whole research. From the study
these are the conclusions that are described as follow.

6.2.1 Types of Concrete Defects that Occurs in Buildings

From the study, the types of concrete defects that occur in government
buildings under the supervision of Public Work Department (PWD) can be
determined. Below are the lists of defects from highest to lowest occurrence.

(i) Spalling
(ii) Delamination
(iii) Plastic Shrinkage Crack
(iv) Longitudinal crack
(v) Scaling
(vi) Plastic Settlement Crack
(vii) Transverse crack
(viii) Shear Crack
(ix) Crazing Map Crack
(x) Pop outs
(xi) Honeycombing

62
6.2.2 Factors that Causes the Concrete Defects in Buildings

From the study, the factors that cause concrete defects in buildings are
identified and analyzed to obtain each average mean index. The conclusion are as
below from highest to lowest mean index.

(i) Inefficient maintenance
(ii) Poor Construction Method
(iii) Faulty Materials
(iv) Alkali-aggregate Reaction
(v) Fire Damage
(vi) Structural Overloading
(vii) Sulphate Deterioration

6.2.3 Method of Concrete Repair Carried Out

From the study, the method of repair adopted by PWD can be identified.
Different types of method apply to different type of defects. These are the method of
concrete repair that are rated from highest to lowest mean index.

(i) Patch Repairs
(ii) Sealing
(iii) Recasting
(iv) Thin Bonded Resurfacing
(v) Grouting
(vi) Sprayed Concrete
(vii) Crack Injection
63
(viii) Dry Packing
(ix) Stitching
(x) Decholorisation Method
(xi) Cathodic Method
(xii) Caulking
(xiii) Cathite Method

6.2.4 Problems faced by PWD in Maintenance of Buildings

From the study, the most common problems faced by PWD are identified
based on the replies of respondents. The ratings are as below from highest to lowest
average mean index.

(i) Delay in maintenance procedures
(ii) Delay from contractor
(iii) Insufficient Funding
(iv) Lack of Manpower
(v) Unavailability of previous records of building
(vi) Less exposure to current technologies
(vii) Incomplete and outdated tools/equipment
(viii) Personnel lack of experience and skills

64
6.3 Recommendation

Based on the study, these are a few recommendations that can be made to
improve the maintenance done by PWD.

(i) There should be proper documentation of building maintenance records by
PWD. A system database can provide the faster and easier access to
information rather searching manual documentation.

(ii) Inspection and supervision on government buildings should be stricter as
regular maintenance can reduce the possibility of structural failure that is more
expensive and time consuming to rectify.

(iii) Personnel should undergo more training to gain more exposure on current
technologies and techniques.

6.4 Recommendation for Further Study

From this study, a few recommendations are made for further study. There
are as listed below:

(i) Detailed study on building maintenance procurement

(ii) To study the selection of material and repair technique in maintenance of
concrete defect

(iii) To study the relationship between cost and defects in buildings

65
(iv) To study the difference of building maintenance works done by PWD and by
contractor

(v) To study the selection of contractor by PWD to conduct works

(vi) To study the implementation of information system in building maintenance

66
REFERENCES

Abdul Hakim bin Mohammed and Wan Min bin Wan Mat (1991). Teknologi
Penyenggelaraan Bangunan. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.

Abid, A. and Ribakov Y. (2006). Non-destructive measurements of crack assessment
and defect detection in concrete structures. Material and Design. 1-9.

Bernard,E.S (2001). Shortcrete: Engineering Developments. Netherland: Swets &
Zeitlinger Publishers.

Campbell,D and Allen (1977). Cracking in Concrete. Cracks, codes and creep. 27
July. Concrete Institute of Australia.

Emmons, P.H (1993). Concrete Repair and Maintenance Ilustrated. Kingston: R.S.
Means Company.

Grantham, M.G., Barret, Herts and Dr Broomfield, J. (1997). The Use of Linear
Polarisation Corrosion Rate Measurements in Aiding Rehabilitation Options
for the Deck Slabs of Reinforced Concrete Underground Carpark.
Construction and Building Material. Volume (II). 215-224

Hans, B. (2005). Corrosion in Reinforced Concrete Structures. Woodland: Woodland
Publishing Limited.

67
Ho. N. Y. (1991). Techniques of Repairing Concrete Structures. Buletin IEM (20-25)

Mays, G. (1992). Durability of Concrete Structures: Investigation, Repair,
Protection. London: Chapman and Hall.

Pathmanaban, S and Berkeley K. G. C. (1990). Cathodic Protection of Reinforcement
Steel in Concrete. Cornwall: Butterworth & co Ltd

Raupach, M. (2006). Patch Repairs on RC Structures: Model Investigations on the
Required Size and Practical Consequences. Cement and Concrete
Composites. Volume (28). 679-684

Said, K.and Romdane, B. (2003). Evaluation and repair of Algiers new airport
building. Cement and Concrete composites. Volume (25). 633-641

Sansalone, M. and Arino, N.J. (1986). Detecting honeycombing, the depth of surface-
opening cracks, and un-grouted ducts. ACI Annual Convention, San Antonio

SchieBl, P., Breit, N., and Raupach, M. (1994). Durability of local repair measures
on concrete structures damaged by reinforcement corrosion. 22-25 May
1994. Third International Conference, Nice France.

See Shiou Ling (2006). Periodical Inspection on Reinforced Concrete Building.
Bachelor Degree . Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai

Singh, P (1991). Seminar on Repair and Maintenance of Concrete Structures, 28
August. Institut Teknologi Mara

Strecker, P.P. (1988). Corrosion Damaged Concrete Assessment and Repair. Essex:
Anchor Brendon Ltd.

Turton et al. (1992). Non Structural Cracks in Concrete: Third Edition. Concrete
Society

68
Uemote, T. (2000). Maintenance of concrete structures and application of non-
destructive inspection in Japan.1-11

Yeng Kim Ling (2006). Bridge Maintenance. Bachelor Degree (Constuction
Management). Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai

69

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA
FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
SKUDAI JOHOR

QUESTIONNAIRE FORM

MAINTENANCE OF CONCRETE DEFECTS IN BUILDING
This research is conducted to have a better understanding on the maintenance of
government buildings throughout Sabah.

ALL GIVEN INFORMATION IS STRICTLY CONFIDENTIAL AND STRICTLY FOR ACADEMIC
PURPOSES ONLY

Section A

For question 1-5, please refer to the rating below. Please circle the numbers. As:


1. The type of maintenance conducted on government buildings:

(a) Planned Maintenance
(i) Preventive Maintenance 1 2 3 4 5
(ii) Corrective Maintenance 1 2 3 4 5
(b) Unplanned Maintenance 1 2 3 4 5

2. Maintenance works on government buildings are usually carried out by:

a) Public Work Department (PWD) 1 2 3 4 5
b) Contractor 1 2 3 4 5

3. According to your experience, how soon in the life of a structure do defects start to
occur?

a) <1 years 1 2 3 4 5
b) 1-5 years 1 2 3 4 5
c) 6-10 years 1 2 3 4 5
d) >10 years 1 2 3 4 5

70
4. Types of concrete defects that frequently occur in government buildings?

a) Corrosion of steel reinforcement 1 2 3 4 5
b) Cracks 1 2 3 4 5
i. Longitudinal crack 1 2 3 4 5
ii. Transverse crack 1 2 3 4 5
iii. Shear Crack 1 2 3 4 5
iv. Plastic Shrinkage Crack 1 2 3 4 5
v. Plastic Settlement Crack 1 2 3 4 5
vi. Crazing Map Cracks 1 2 3 4 5
c) Spalling 1 2 3 4 5
d) Delamination 1 2 3 4 5
e) Honeycombing 1 2 3 4 5
f) Scaling 1 2 3 4 5
g) Pop outs 1 2 3 4 5
h) Others (please state)
____________________________________1 2 3 4 5
____________________________________1 2 3 4 5
____________________________________1 2 3 4 5
____________________________________1 2 3 4 5
____________________________________1 2 3 4 5

5. The method of repair carried out in rectifying concrete defects:

a) Crack injection 1 2 3 4 5
b) Patch Repairs 1 2 3 4 5
c) Sprayed concrete 1 2 3 4 5
d) Grouting 1 2 3 4 5
e) Cathite method 1 2 3 4 5
f) Cathodic method 1 2 3 4 5
g) Decholorisation method 1 2 3 4 5
h) Sealing 1 2 3 4 5
i) Dry packing 1 2 3 4 5
j) Thin bonded resurfacing 1 2 3 4 5
k) Stitching 1 2 3 4 5
l) Caulking 1 2 3 4 5
m) Recasting 1 2 3 4 5
n) Others (please state)
____________________________________1 2 3 4 5
____________________________________1 2 3 4 5
____________________________________1 2 3 4 5

71

Section B

For question 6-8, please refer to the rating below. Please circle the number. As:


____________________________________________________________________

6. Factors that usually causes concrete defects in government buildings:

a) Construction defect 1 2 3 4 5
i. Faulty materials 1 2 3 4 5
ii. Poor construction method 1 2 3 4 5
iii. Deficiencies in quality control 1 2 3 4 5
b) Faulty design 1 2 3 4 5
c) Sulphate deterioration 1 2 3 4 5
d) Alkali-aggregate reaction 1 2 3 4 5
e) Structural overloading 1 2 3 4 5
f) Inefficient maintenance 1 2 3 4 5
g) Fire damage
h) Seismic movements
i) Others (please state)
___________________________________ 1 2 3 4 5
___________________________________ 1 2 3 4 5
___________________________________ 1 2 3 4 5
___________________________________ 1 2 3 4 5

7. The factors affecting the choice of repair technique to rectify concrete defects:

a) Severity of defects 1 2 3 4 5
b) Time needed to execute the repair work 1 2 3 4 5
c) Repair cost (material and labour) 1 2 3 4 5
d) Total manpower available to conduct work 1 2 3 4 5
e) Others (please state)
____________________________________1 2 3 4 5
____________________________________1 2 3 4 5
____________________________________1 2 3 4 5
____________________________________1 2 3 4 5

72

8. Common problems faced by PWD in building maintenance

a) Insufficient funding 1 2 3 4 5
b) Lack of manpower 1 2 3 4 5
c) Personnel lack of experience and skills 1 2 3 4 5
d) Incomplete and outdated tools/equipment 1 2 3 4 5
e) Delay in maintenance procedures 1 2 3 4 5
f) Less exposure to current technologies 1 2 3 4 5
in repair technique
g) Unavailability of previous 1 2 3 4 5
records of building
h) Delay from contractor 1 2 3 4 5

i) Others (please state)
__________________________________ 1 2 3 4 5
__________________________________ 1 2 3 4 5
__________________________________ 1 2 3 4 5
__________________________________ 1 2 3 4 5

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