DETERMINERS

= a set of items which occur before the head noun: the article, some of the pronouns (demonstrative, possessive, interrogative, indefinite), the numeral and some adjectives.

THE ARTICLE
A. The Definite Article (the)

It is used in the following situations: 1) with a demonstrative function, i.e. instead of a demonstrative pronoun (e.g. It was cheap at the price. He did nothing of the kind.) 2) with a distributive function, i.e. with nouns expressing a unit (e.g. They were paid by the day. Eggs are bought by the dozen.) 3) with specific reference, i.e. with nouns referring to a particular object or person: nouns whose reference is immediately understood, even if they were not previously mentioned e.g. Have you fed the dog? at home The flowers are very beautiful. in the garden nouns considered unique, like the sun, the moon, the earth, the air, the sky, the north e.g. The sun began to turn crimson. nouns generally known to the people, like the mayor, the Pope, the President e.g. What is the President doing about all this? nouns denoting parts of the body e.g. He was hurt in the leg. nouns already mentioned or closely connected to a noun already mentioned e.g. I cant enter the room, because the door is locked. nouns preceded by adjectives e.g. He is the best student in the class. nouns followed by a prepositional phrase, a relative clause, a to-infinitive, a participle, an adverb or a noun in an apposition

4)

with generic reference: singular countable nouns e.g. The dog is a useful animal. How long does it take on the train? collective generic nouns e.g. He hopes to marry into the nobility. nouns denoting a class of people, like the poor, the rich, the young, the unemployed e.g. They tried to raise money for the poor. nouns denoting abstractions, like the good, the evil e.g. I dont know what will happen in the future. nationality names e.g. The Greeks have a very long history. nouns denoting musical instruments e.g. The horn is a very difficult instrument to play. Obs: I used to play trumpet in my school orchestra.

5)

with proper nouns: nouns denoting a whole family e.g. The Browns are not at home. names of persons used as common nouns e.g. He is the Shakespeare of modern poetry. proper nouns with modifiers e.g. the pretty Miss Jones; the artist William Turner names of regions, countries, unions (sg. or pl.) e.g. the Netherlands, the Highlands, the United Kingdom, the United States of America, the Crimea names of islands in the plural e.g. the Hebrides, the Bahamas, the Shetlands names of chains of mountains e.g. the Alps, the Carpathians names of deserts e.g. the Sahara, the Gobi names of oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, channels, canals, straits, bays

e.g. the Pacific Ocean, the Black Sea, the English Channel, the Straits of Dover, the Bay of Biscay, the Panama Canal names of some capes e.g. the Cape of Good Hope names of public institutions (hotels, theatres, banks, museums, places, monuments) e.g. the Hilton, the British Museum, the Tower, the Green Park, the Pyramids names of ships, trains, planes e.g. the Orient Express, the Queen Mary names of some English newspapers or magazines e.g. the Times, the Observer 6) in front of some general determiners like few, little, many, other (e.g. We have done the little that is in our power.) 7) in expressions like by the way, to tell the time, to take the trouble, on the one hand on the other hand, to play the fool, in the end, at the moment

B.

The Indefinite Article (a / an)

It is used in the following cases: 1) with a numerical function, i.e. instead of the numeral one (e.g. I need a pencil. He goes there three times a year. A hundred people were present.) 2) with specific reference, determining: nouns considered as a single item of a class e.g. He picked up a book. nouns denoting a profession, class, religion, situation e.g. Jane is a model and an artist. He is a Christian. They called her a fool. His father is an alcoholic. nouns already mentioned or implied e.g. What a pretty girl! What a day! 3) 4) 5) with generic reference (e.g. A computer can only do what you program it to do.) with proper names in expressions like to be in a hurry, to take an interest in, to have a headache, to have a chance, on an average, all of a sudden, as a matter of fact, to have a good time

C. The Zero Article It is used in the following situations: 1) with generic reference 2) with uncountable nouns (e.g. Furniture is a costly item. They fight for freedom.) with plural nouns (e.g. Flowers brighten up a room.)

with proper nouns denoting: persons even when accompanied by an adjective or a noun expressing title, rank, profession, family relations, etc. (e.g. Mary, old John, President Lincoln, Captain Smith, Doctor Ford, aunt Jane) Exceptions: the Prince of Wales, Edward the Confessor, the famous Captain Cook continents, countries, counties or towns (e.g. Medieval Europe, Elisabethan England, ancient Rome) Exceptions: the Antarctic, the Hague lakes (e.g. Lake Michigan, Loch Ness)

Exception: the Lake of Lucerne mountains (e.g. Mount Everest) bays, capes, harbours (e.g. Hudson Bay, Cape Horn, Pearl Harbour) buildings, streets, places (e.g. Covent Garden, Oxford Street, Hyde Park, Waterloo Bridge) months, days of the week, festivals (e.g. April, Friday, Easter) magazines and periodicals (e.g. Time, Newsweek, Punch)

3)

in expressions like day by day, in case of, to catch fire, at sunset, to be in trouble, by mistake, to shake hands, in silence

4)

other uses family relations or familiar persons with unique reference (e.g. Mother is doing the dishes. Cook is old now.) a profession or an office held at one time by one person only (e.g. They appointed him manager.) meals in a general sense or referring to the time of the meal (e.g. We have dinner at 7.) the nouns school, church, hospital, prison, sea, when the use of that building or place is implied seasons (e.g. Winter is coming.)

languages (e.g. He speaks French fluently) means of transportation preceded by the preposition by (e.g. They travel by bus.) nouns determined by a cardinal numeral (e.g. Room 9 has been taken by a stranger.)

NOTE: Leaders try to fix role for new force.

THE PRONOUN
some pronouns can be both determiners and substitutes of nouns/NPs (the possessive, the demonstrative, the interrogative and the indefinite pronouns) others function only as noun/NP substitutes: personal, reciprocal, relative and self-pronouns

I.
-

The Personal Pronoun

Personal pronouns replace nouns or NPs which precede (e.g. Mary said that she was busy.) or follow them (e.g. When he had time, John read detective novels.)

They have person, number, gender and case distinctions Some forms of the personal pronouns have special characteristics and uses: I is always written with a capital letter You may be used with an indefinite meaning We is sometimes used instead of the first person singular pronoun and it is called: royal we: when a king or a queen refers to him-/herself editorial we: in formal, especially scientific writing inclusive authorial we: in serious writing, from a wish to avoid sounding egotistical (e.g. We believe that immediate action should be taken.) rhetorical we: in the collective sense of the nation, the party, etc.

We may replace you when speaking to children or sick people (e.g.) and can be also used in reference to a third person (e.g.). They may be employed with the meaning of people or in co-reference with indefinite pronouns in order to avoid the use of he or she.

It is used in the following cases: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) as a substitute for a singular noun denoting a thing or an animal to refer to the content of a whole sentence with impersonal meaning in statements concerning time, distance, weather, etc. with an introductory/anticipatory function introducing: the subject expressed by an infinitive, a gerund or a subject clause the object expressed by an infinitive or an object clause as a formal, meaningless object after some verbs as an emphatic pronoun, emphasizing any part of speech, except for the verb to identify an unknown person

II.
A. -

The Possessive Pronoun

The possessive pronoun as determiner (my, your, his, her, its, our, your, their) It agrees with the possessor in number, person and gender (e.g. Jane has lost her pen. She is their friend.)

It may refer to parts of the body or personal belongings (e.g. She hurt her leg. He took off his hat.)

Obs: The definite article replaces the possessive pronoun: They hit him in the back. He was shot in the leg. The house is quiet with the children away.

The meaning of the possessive may be intensified by own (e.g. I did it with my own hands.) In an enumeration, the possessive is not repeated (e.g. My pens and pencils are in that box.)

Obs: My friend and my neighbour have arrived. You are my friend and my adviser. Syntactically, the possessive pronoun as determiner is an attribute.

B.

The possessive pronoun as noun substitute (mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs = the genitive forms of the personal pronoun)

The double possessive is also possible (e.g. She is a cousin of mine.)

Obs: This/That brother of yours is in trouble again.

These possessive pronouns may function as subject, object, predicative, prepositional object or attribute

III.

The self Pronouns

They are formed by adding - self / -selves to the determiner possessives (myself, yourself, ourselves, yourselves) or to the objective case forms of the personal pronouns (himself, herself, itself, themselves).

A.

The Reflexive self Pronouns

-The subject and the reflexive pronoun are in co-referential relation (e.g. Im teaching myself French. He shaves himself every morning.) 1. The reflexive pronouns occur in the following cases: with verbs that are always reflexive: pride oneself, absent oneself, ingratiate oneself, demean oneself (e.g. The students absented themselves from the class.) 2. with verbs that are reflexive in certain meanings: behave, avail, enjoy, apply, acquit (e.g. He availed himself of the opportunity to speak to her.) 3. with some verbs that are optionally reflexive: dress, wash, prove, shave, prepare, hide, worry (e.g. He proved [himself] a better actor than we expected.) 4. whenever the object or the predicative is identical with the subject of the sentence (e.g. They found themselves rich. She is herself again.) 5. after the prepositions among and between, with a reciprocal value (e.g. They were busy arguing among themselves. This is just between ourselves.) Obs.1: If a preposition expresses locality, spatial relation, the self-pronouns are not used (e.g. She placed the case beside her. He took the book with him.) Obs.2: Reflexive pronouns are sometimes used instead of personal pronouns (e.g. She suspected they recognized her sister but not herself. My wife and myself were invited to the party.) Reflexive pronouns enter a number of set expressions: of oneself, to come to oneself, to do something with oneself, to speak for oneself, to keep to oneself The reflexive pronoun can function as direct object, indirect object, prepositional object or predicative

B. -

The Emphatic self Pronouns They are used for the sake of emphasis they can be omitted without destroying the sense of the sentence (e.g. I saw him do it [myself].)

They are placed either at the end of the sentence or immediately after the noun/pronoun (e.g. You yourself told me the story.)

When emphatic pronouns are preceded by the preposition by, they have the meaning of alone, without help (e.g. He lives all by himself.)

Emphatic pronouns function as appositions

Obs: Oneself may be a reflexive or an emphatic pronoun.

IV.
-

The Reciprocal Pronouns

Traditionally, each other involves two persons and one another more than two persons. However, this rule is not always observed in usage.

They are used after transitive verbs, but also after intransitive verbs and prepositions. They may have possessive forms.

V. The Demonstrative Pronoun

- The demonstratives are this, that for the singular, and these, those for the plural. Some grammarians consider such and same as demonstratives, too. - They are used both spatially and temporally this and these for nearness, that and those for remoteness.

A. -

The demonstrative pronoun as determiner The demonstratives agree in number with the nouns they determine, but not in gender or case (e.g. that man, those jobs)

This and that can have an emotive or familiar colouring (e.g. This man Brown told me . I hate that Brown.)

In familiar style, this and these are used to introduce a new person or thing into the narrative (e.g. Then I saw this man coming up to me.); similarly, that and those are used to point back to some shared experience (e.g. It gives you that great feeling of eternity.)

This is used in phrases such as this day week, this day last year, this time next month Such and same are used with both countable and uncountable nouns (such a day, such questions, such nonsense, the same girl(s), the same information)

B. 1.

The demonstrative pronoun as noun substitute is used: with an anaphoric function, referring to a noun or to a sentence mentioned previously (e.g. Which dress do you like? This/That.; He will probably pass the exam. That will please his parents.)

2.

with an cataphoric function, referring to a noun that follows (e.g. You can make a cake like this: take a pound of flour and mix it with a cup of milk, then )

3.

with a deictic function, pointing to or specifying an object (e.g. This is where I live. These are my sons.)

Such can also be a noun substitute (e.g. Such is life.) Demonstrative pronouns can be preceded by a limited number of determiners or by ofconstructions (e.g. Why are you telling me all this? He gave me half [of] that. Id like both [of] these.)

They are sometimes post-modified by place adverbials or relative clauses (e.g. These over here will have to leave. Those who tried hard were rewarded.)

VI. The Indefinite Pronoun

A. 1. a) The indefinite pronoun as determiner some (of) has the following uses: in affirmative sentences with uncountable or plural countable nouns, to express an indefinite quantity or number (e.g.) with singular countable nouns meaning a particular but unidentified person or thing (e.g.) with singular countable nouns which express temporal notions (e.g.) with uncountable nouns and plural nouns to suggest contrast (e.g.)

 b)

with a numeral meaning approximately (e.g.) with singular nouns, in familiar English, meaning of considerable worth (e.g.)

in interrogative sentences, if an affirmative answer is expected, or in invitations, requests (e.g.)

c)

in negative sentences, when its meaning is affirmative (e.g.)

2. a) b)

any (of) is used in: interrogative sentences (e.g.) sentences with a negative meaning with words negative in form like not, never, no, neither, nor (e.g.) with words negative in meaning like hardly, without, little, few, only, seldom, difficult, to fail, to prevent, to avoid (e.g.)

c) d) e)

conditional sentences or sentences which imply doubt (e.g.) affirmative sentences, meaning it doesnt matter who, which or what (e.g.) negative sentences, meaning normal, ordinary (e.g.)

3. a) b) c) d)

no is used: with singular or plural nouns, meaning not any (e.g.) with singular nouns, meaning not a (e.g.) with a numeral (e.g.) in expressions like in no time, no wonder, no end (of), by no means

4.

none (of) is used for persons and things, meaning not one or not any (e.g.)

5.

much (of) and many (of)

They are preferred in negative and interrogative sentences (e.g. Not many people know about it. He hasnt got much time.) In affirmative sentences, they are used in: formal statements (e.g. Much money is spent on health care.) time references (e.g. Theyve known each other for many years.) when they are preceded by as, so, too, rather (e.g. Take as many books as you like. I have so many things to tell you.)

Obs1: In informal English, in affirmative sentences, they are replaced by plenty of, a lot of/lots of, a good/great deal of, a large quantity/number of (e.g. There is plenty of time to do it. Lots of books were written on this topic.) Obs2: many a/an is followed by a singular countable noun (e.g. War brought misery to many an innocent child.)

6.

(a) little (of) and (a) few (of)

e.g. I have (a) little spare time. She has (a) few good friends. Few and little can be intensified by adverbs like very, extremely. (e.g. Extremely few TV sets have been sold this month. They have very little money.) Obs: Quite a few people believe in such things.

7.

all (of) and both (of) All (of) can be used with singular uncountable nouns or with plural countable nouns (All the money is gone. All of your friends are nice people.) Before singular nouns, all is frequently replaced by whole, which is less formal. (The whole world condemned that aggression.)

Both (of) applies to only two persons/things; it is used with plural nouns (Both the men were found guilty. Both of his children can sing very well.) In informal English, the definite article is dropped after both; both can also be replaced by two (both actors or the two actors). All and both can take a position after the noun they determine (e.g.).

8. every and each (of) ( distributives) Every is used with singular countables, when the total number exceeds two (e.g. He has every reason to do it.) Obs: All the students / Every student answered correctly. Every may be preceded by not, nearly, almost (e.g. Not every / Nearly every / Almost every musician can play this.) Every can be used in phrases like every other day, every five minutes, etc.

Each (of) is used with singular countable nouns and refers to two or more (e.g. Each of the students has written an essay.)

9. either (of) and neither (of) ( distributives) They refer to two people or things. Either (of) means one or the other of the two (e.g. Take either half; they are the same.)

Obs: There were trees on either side of the river. Neither (of) means not one nor the other of the two (e.g. I can agree in neither case.)

10. (the) other and another Other is used with singular or plural nouns and means different (e.g.), additional (e.g.), the remaining one(s) (e.g.). The other has the meaning the remaining one(s) (e.g.) or opposite (e.g.).

(The) other is used in phrases like the other day, on the one hand on the other hand, in other words, etc. Another means an additional one (e.g.) or a different one (e.g.).

11. several (of) and enough (of) Several (of) is used with plural countable nouns, meaning three or more, but not many (e.g. There are several new people in this office.) or separate (e.g. They went their several ways.) Enough (of) is used with singular uncountable nouns or plural countable nouns and its meaning is as much/many as necessary (e.g. There is enough coffee for everybody. We have enough glasses for the party.)

B. The indefinite pronoun as noun substitute 1. some, something, somebody, someone Some substitutes an uncountable noun or a plural countable noun in affirmative sentences (e.g. If you have no money, Ill lend you some.) Obs: Ive just baked apple pie. Will you have some? Somebody and someone substitute singular nouns denoting persons (e.g. There is somebody at the door.)

Something refers to a singular noun denoting an object, event, etc. (e.g. I want something to eat.)

2.

any, anybody, anyone, anything in interrogative, negative or conditional sentences Any substitutes a countable (singular or plural) or an uncountable noun (e.g. I left my cigarettes at home. Do you have any?) Anybody and anyone for nouns denoting persons (e.g. Is there anyone/anybody in the room?) Anything for nouns denoting objects, events (e.g. There isnt anything I want to ask you.)

3.

none, nobody, no one, nothing in negative sentences

Obs: There are none so deaf as those who will not hear. None is perfect. 4. everybody, everyone, everything

Every can combine with one and, for emphasis, also with single to refer to both persons and things (e.g. They played several matches, but lost every single one.) NOTE - The compound pronouns with body, one, thing are singular and have concord with a singular verb. - They can be used in the genitive case (e.g. There is somebodys cap on the floor.) - They can be followed by else (e.g. Nobody else came.) - They can be postmodified by adjectives, prepositional phrases and relative clauses. 5. 6. 7. much, many (a) little and (a) few all for singular or plural nouns (e.g. He is afraid that all is lost. All were glad when it was over.) 8. each for countable nouns denoting two or more; it takes a singular verb (e.g. Each has done his best.) 9. both, either and neither Both takes a plural verb (e.g. Both were glad to see me) Either and neither take a singular verb (e.g. He offered two solutions and I think that [n]either is good.) 10. the other, (the) others, another

the other = the second of two; the others = the remaining ones; others = different or people beside oneself; another = an additional or a different one 11. several and enough Several for plural countable nouns (e.g. There are some guests in this room and several in the other.) Enough can substitute uncountable or plural countable nouns (e.g. I cant eat any more cakes. I had enough.) 12. one(s) One substitutes a noun standing for a member of a class (e.g. Ive lost my pen. Can you lend me one?) or for a person (e.g. One must do ones best.) Ones is used instead of a plural noun to avoid repetition (e.g. I prefer bright colours to dull ones.)

VII. The Interrogative Pronoun

A. The interrogative pronoun as determiner what, which, whose used in direct or indirect interrogative sentences for persons or for things What refers to a selection from an unlimited number (e.g.)

It is also used in exclamatory sentences (e.g.). Which (of) refers to a selection from a limited number (e.g.) Whose indicates possession (e.g.)

B. The interrogative pronoun as noun substitute Who, whom, whose refer only to persons (e.g. Who wrote that letter?)

Whom is used as a direct or prepositional object (e.g.) Whose is the possessive of who (e.g.) What refers to things and activities (e.g.)

It is also used to ask for a persons profession, status (e.g.), or for a description (e.g.) Which is selective and indicates a choice from a limited number; it is used for things and persons (e.g.)

Obs: Who ever heard of such a silly idea? What ever were you thinking of to suggest such a plan? Interrogative pronouns are used in a number of phrases: what about, and what not, to know whats what, what-d you-call him/her/it/them, whats his/her/its name, what with , what if?, to give smb. what for

VIII. The Relative Pronouns

They introduce relative clauses and refer to a NP in the main clause they are used only as noun substitute. Who, whom, whose who used of persons or of animals, if the animal is named (e.g. The man who spoke was my uncle. Our dog Jack, who had been lost for two days, was found by ...) whom used in the objective case or after a preposition (e.g. He is one of the men whom I feel I can trust.) Obs: Whom can be replaced by who or even omitted in colloquial speech (e.g. The man [who] he spoke to was Jim.) whose is the genitive case of who and can be used for both persons and things (e.g. The boy, whose father is a teacher, is good at maths. The room, whose walls are painted blue, looks very nice.) Which used for things and animals (e.g. The current, which is very rapid, makes the river dangerous. The dog which was lost has been found.) It is also used when the antecedent is a whole sentence (e.g.) Obs: The team, which played so well last season, now occupies the last position. The team, who are just getting their tickets, will meet on the platform. That refers to both persons and things, in the nominative or objective case, singular or plural.

It is generally used after: superlatives (e.g.) ordinal numerals (e.g.) indefinite pronouns (e.g.) the same, the only, the very (e.g.)

THE NUMERAL
I. The Cardinal Numeral - Cardinal numerals denote an abstract whole number or a number of objects. The numeral one co-occurs with singular countable nouns and all the other numerals co-occur with plural countable nouns. e.g. She has one sister and two brothers.

- Ways of forming the cardinal numerals.

- The numerals hundred, thousand and million do not get the s when preceded by a definite number. Obs. Two millions of tickets. The new furniture cost me thirty millions.

Cardinal numerals occur either before the noun (e.g. twenty books), or after the noun, to indicate order (e.g. bus 33); they can be followed by an of phrase if the noun is preceded by another determiner (e.g. Two of their children abandoned school.)

Cardinal numerals can be preceded by other determiners (e.g.)

To express an indefinite number, we can use the noun odd (e.g. We received twenty-odd books. The computer costs six hundred odd pounds.) Obs. Other means of indicating approximate numbers

Ways of reading the sign 0

II. The Ordinal Numeral Ordinal numerals show the place which objects occupy in a series e.g. John was the first person that I met there.

Ways of forming the ordinal numerals

As a rule, ordinal numerals occur before the noun (e.g. April is the fourth month of the year.), but also after it, when they indicate order in the succession to the throne or to a title (e.g. Richard the Second).

Obs1: the expression the nth Obs2: the words umpteen and umpteenth

III. The Fractional Numeral The fractional numeral denotes a specific number or quantity. It is of two main types: a) Common fractions: expressed by cardinal numbers for the numerator and by ordinals for the denominator (e.g. 2/5 two fifths, 2 5/7 two and five sevenths); as determiners, they are followed by an of phrase (e.g. three fifths of the population). b) Decimal fractions: written with a point after the whole number; the whole numerals are read out in the usual way, but the numerals to the right of the point are read out as single digits (e.g. 77.83 seventy-seven point eight three) Obs: 0.72 ton vs. 1.72 tons IV. The Multiplicative Numeral The multiplicative numerals show the proportion in which a quantity has increased. The first number is single and the rest are formed with the suffix fold: e.g. twofold (double), threefold (triple), fourfold, etc.

Obs1: adverbial numerals Obs2: distributive numerals