CHE 3166: HANDOUT 3 Stresses, Deformation and Fracture

LEARNING OBJECTIVES: Part I

Stress and Strain

Elastic Deformation Plastic Deformation Ductility Toughness

Stress and Stress Types

Stress ( : Force (F) / Cross-sectional Area (A) =F/A

States / Types of Stress Tension Compression Shear / Torsion

Engineering Stress and Strain

Ft Ao Engineering stress, Ft
Area, A

:
Units of Stress: N/m2 or lb/in2

original area before loading

Ft Engineering strain, : = (L-L0)

L /2

/2

Lo

wo

Lo

True Stress and Strain

True stress,
T:

Load F divided by the instantaneous cross-sectional area Ai (after deformation)

F Ai
li ln l0

True strain,

Elastic Deformation
1. Initial 2. Small load
bonds stretch return to Initial

3. Unload

Elastic Deformation is reversible

Linearelastic Non-Linearelastic

Plastic Deformation
1. Initial 2. Small load bonds stretch & planes shear 3. Unload p lanes still sheared

elastic + plastic

plastic

F F

Plastic Deformation is NOT reversible

linear elastic

linear elastic

plastic

Linear Elastic Behaviour

When stress ( ) is proportional to strain ( )
F
E
Linearelastic

F
simple tension test

Hooke's Law:

E: Slope, a Constant, also known as:

Modulus of Elasticity or Youngs Modulus Stiffness of the materials Materials resistance to elastic deformation

=E

Youngs Modulus (E) of Different Material Types

Youngs Modulus (E):
Metals: 40 400 GPa
Polymers: 0.2 4GPa Ceramics: 80 1200 GPa
E
Metals Alloys
1200 10 00 8 00 6 00 4 00

Ceramics Polymers
Diamond Si carbide Al oxide Si nitride Si crystal
<100> <111>

Composites /fibers

(GPa, 2 00 0 109 Pa) 10 80

60 40 20 10 8 6 4

Tungsten Molybdenum Steel, Ni Tantalum Platinum Cu alloys Zinc, Ti Silver, Gold Aluminum Magnesium, Tin

Carbon fibers only

C FRE(|| fibers)*
A ramid fibers only

Glass - soda

A FRE(|| fibers)*
Glass fibers only

G FRE(|| fibers)* Concrete GFRE* G raphite CFRE * G FRE( fibers)* C FRE( fibers) AFRE( fibers) * *

Polyester PET PS PC PP HDP E PTF E

Epoxy only

1GPa = 103 MPa = 109 N/m2

1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2

Wood(

grain)

LDPE

Effect of Temperature on Youngs Modulus (E)

E decreases with increase in temperature

Yield strength
A plastically deformed structure, will experience permanent change in shape and may not be intended for good functionality. Stress level at which plastic deformations begins is known as yielding. It is the point of linearity of stress-strain curve, shown as proportional limit.

Yield Strength of Different Material Types

Metals/ Alloys 20 00
Steel (4140) qt

Ceramics

Polymers

Composites/ fibre

(MPa)

Room Temp. Data

10 00 700 600 500 400 300 200

Yield strength,

Based on data in Table B4, Callister 7e. a = annealed hr = hot rolled ag = aged cd = cold drawn cw = cold worked qt = quenched & tempered

100 70 60 50 40 30 20
Tin (pure)
Al (6061) a

dry

PC Nylon 6,6 PET PVC humid PP HDPE

LDPE

10

Hard to measure,

Al (6061) ag Steel (1020) hr Ti (pure) a Ta (pure) Cu (71500) hr

since in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

in ceramic matrix and epoxy matrix composites, since in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a W (pure) Cu (71500) cw Mo (pure) Steel (4140) a Steel (1020) cd

Hard to measure ,

Tensile Strength (TS) or Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS)

TS / UTS: Maximum stress on an engineering stress-strain curve

TS Engineering stress
y

F = fracture or ultimate strength

Typical response of a metal

Neck acts as stress concentrator

Adapted from Fig. 6.11, Callister 7e.

strain Engineering strain

Metals: when noticeable necking starts.

Ductility
Ductility is a measure of degree of plastic deformation that has been sustained at fracture. A material that experiences very little or no plastic deformation upon fracture is termed brittle. Ductility may be expressed quantitatively as percent elongation or percent reduction in area. %EL is the percentage of plastic strain at fracture.

Ductility
Plastic tensile strain at failure
smaller %EL Engineering tensile stress,

%EL

Lf

Lo Lo

x 100

larger %EL

Lo

Ao

Af

Lf

Engineering tensile strain,

Another ductility measure:

Ao - Af %RA = x 100 Ao

Toughness / Fracture Toughness

Energy to break a unit volume of material

Approximated by the area under the stress-strain curve

Engineering tensile stress,
Low toughness: ceramics High toughness: metals Very low toughness: unreinforced polymers

Engineering tensile strain,

Brittle fracture: elastic energy Ductile fracture: elastic + plastic energy

Why are metals/alloys and reinforced plastic so popular as structural materials?

Mechanical Properties and Testing

LEARNING OBJECTIVES: Part II Materials response to: Excessive Loading: Tensile Test Localized Loading: Hardness Test Sudden Intense Loading: Impact Test Loading at High Temperatures: Creep Test Cyclic Loading: Fatigue Test

Excessive loading: Tensile Test

Tensile Test
Tests are performed as per the ASTM, BS or Australian Standards. A tensile test measures the resistance of a material to a static or slowly applied force. A machined specimen is placed in the testing machine and load is applied. A strain gage or extensometer is used to measure elongation. The stress obtained at the highest applied force is the Tensile Strength.

Tensile Test
Test provides data: strength, stiffness, ductility

Other Tensile Test Data

Yield Strength: The stress at which a prescribed amount of plastic deformation (commonly, 0.2%) is produced. Elongation: The extent to which the specimen stretches before fracture.

Tensile Properties: Effect of Temperature