Research Methods Manual

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter 1: The Purpose and Context of Research Summary Introduction Learning Objectives Definitions of Research Why is Research Important? The Research Paradigm Positivism Interpretivism The Research Approach The Research Method Qualitative and Quantitative Methods Primary and Secondary Data Assessment Criteria Assessment Questions Chapter 2: Asking the Right Question Summary Introduction Learning Objectives Choosing a Topic for Research Generating a Research Idea or Topic Identifying the Research Question Knowledge List The Delphi Technique Ideas Online The Research Hypothesis Establishing a Hypothesis The Research Pilot Ethical Considerations Health and Safety Issues Ethical Guidelines in Research Useful Web Sites Health and Safety Guidelines in Research Useful Web Sites Other Market Research/Marketing/Advertising Assessment Questions

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Chapter 3: Using Archives and Evaluating Published Material Summary Introduction Learning Objectives The Literature Search Finding Appropriate Information Retrieving Relevant Information Being Selective Evaluating the Material Evaluating Reliability Research journals Newspapers and Magazines Material That Goes Against the Consensus Summaries Recording Information Methods Photocopying Deciding What to Record Using the Internet Search Engines Metasearch Engines Information or Subject Gateways Assessment Questions Chapter 4: Methods for Data Collection and Analysis Summary Introduction Learning Objectives Research Methods The Experiment The Survey The Case Study Grounded Theory Ethnography Action Research Data Collection Techniques Sampling Interviews Questionnaires 50 50 50 51 51 53 55 57 57 58 59 59 61 62 33 33 33 34 34 38 38 40 41 41 41 41 42 42 42 42 43 45 46 46 47 49

Observation Data Analysis Variables Presentation of Data Analysis of Quantitative Data Analysis of Qualitative Data Reliability, Validity and Generalisability Assessment Questions Chapter 5: Publishing, Presenting and Communicating Summary Introduction Learning Objectives Communication and Dissemination Guidelines and Conventions The Audience Writing Styles Structure and Layout The Special Case of Qualitative Research Citations and References Referencing systems Books Journal Articles Articles in Collections/Edited Books Newspaper Articles Internet Sources Multiple Articles by Same Author(s) in Same Year Publishing Guidelines and Specifications Assessment Questions Chapter 6: Project Management and the Funding Application Summary Introduction Learning Objectives The Project Plan What Should the Plan Include? Planning Techniques Resource Requirements The Purpose of the Funding Proposal

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Benefits to the Researcher Benefits to the Funder Completing the Funding Application Form Title and Abstract Overview of the Research Project Aims and Objectives Methodology Common Reasons for Rejection Budget and Costs Funding Sources Types of funding source Funding Organisations in Ireland Research Councils The Health Research Board The Higher Education Authority Science Foundation Ireland (SFI) Royal Irish Academy The Arts Council Government and Public Bodies Charities and Foundations The EU and Other Non-Irish Bodies Assessment Questions

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CHAPTER 1

THE PURPOSE AND CONTEXT OF RESEARCH

Summary
This chapter presents an overview of the fundamental principles behind conducting a piece of research. The discussion opens by asking what is research. Various definitions, drawing on the work of researchers from different disciplines, are examined. The chapter proceeds with a discussion on why research is important and the role of research methodologies, the philosophical assumptions and the techniques involved in conducting qualitative and quantitative research. The chapter closes with information about research awards and assessment criteria.

Introduction
Research is 'all around us', suggest Saunders et al (2003). Politicians use it to justify their policies, documentary programmes delight and shock us with its findings and cosmetic companies reassure us that their miracle products result from arduous work in laboratories. Anybody who watches television or walks down a high street in the western world will be aware of the claims of research, but how many understand the principles behind it? More than likely, very few. This chapter introduces the idea of research. What is it for, what are its methods, its key principles and assumptions? Many readers will already be well-versed with many of these themes, others will not. It is hoped that all will take the time to read this chapter and those that follow after all, inspiration can often arise from readdressing familiar concepts.

Learning objectives
Upon completion of this chapter the learner will be able to: define research explain why research is important distinguish between positivist and interpretivist research paradigms compare and contrast qualitative and quantitative research procedures explain the difference between primary and secondary data

Definitions of Research
The Oxford English Dictionary defines research as the endeavour to discover facts by scientific study or a course of critical investigation. Both of these definitions lead to further questions. What is scientific study? What does critical investigation mean? Perhaps more can be learned by looking at how researchers in various disciplines define research. Here are three interpretations:
Research is a systematic, formal, rigorous and precise process employed to gain solutions to problems and/or to discover and interpret new facts and relationships. Waltz and Bausell (1981)

Research is a systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among natural phenomena. Kerlinger (1973) Research is a process through which we attempt to achieve systematically and with the support of data the answer to a question, resolution of a problem or a greater understanding of a phenomenon. Philips and Pugh (1999)

Two themes are consistently highlighted in these definitions. 1. Research is about finding out, in a formal and systematic way, what we dont already know. It is about searching systematically for answers to questions. This can be narrowed down even further. Research is the systematic search for information. 2. Research involves a 'process'. In other words, there is a series of actions, stages and steps that need to be followed when carrying out research. As Rutgers (2003) notes, good research involves the deliberate application of specific methods that are designed to produce accurate and meaningful results.

Why is Research Important?

This is a broad question with many answers. Research can benefit the individual, it can benefit academic institutions and it can benefit governments. Individuals can profit from carrying out research, and from the results of research. Academic institutions gain credibility (and finances) through the activities of their researchers. Governments and advertising agencies use research to persuade the populace to buy a policy or a product. Research provides information. It also provides misinformation. A knowledge of research methods is therefore essential for the individual trying to make sense of a constant barrage of information. For example, suppose that a local newspaper headline says that 82% of the inhabitants of Ballyville support the building of a new factory. The experienced researcher would want to know how many people were

asked, who those people were and what the question was. If the sample population was 25 unemployed people who were asked if they would like a job in a new factory, the headline would not be credible. It is a useful skill to be able to question so-called facts in this way. Completing several research projects is the best way to improve essential investigative skills. It also ensures a deeper understanding of the subject matter and encourages the expression of ideas in a logical and structured way. It might even be enjoyable! There are other benefits both of doing and of understanding about research. The creation and testing of theory. The researcher is able to add to existing knowledge of a subject or topic, using this new knowledge to create or test a theory (Cano 2003). The ability to debate issues. The effective researcher uses critical appraisal skills with which to question the views and arguments of others, either face-to-face or in print. The ability to present informed statements of fact. The researcher can support statements of fact with credible research findings. The ability to inform policy and strategy. Governments, policy makers and companies rely on research to provide information. Specialist research units and companies such as the ESRI and MORI use researchers to collect, analyse and report information in a systematic and structured way. The construction of something novel. The aim of research in the physical sciences and engineering is often to create a new product or design. The ability to explain. It is a very human trait to wish to explain the environment and what happens within it. Researchers are simply taking this desire a few steps further, making generalisations and formulating laws through their findings.

The Research Paradigm

All research is based on certain underlying assumptions about knowledge and how it can be acquired. These underlying assumptions influence the way in which a researcher designs and carries out a research project Saunders et al (2003) suggest that a research project resembles the multiple layers of an onion. The outer layers of the onion represent the research paradigm, the middle layers the research approach, while the inner layers represent the research methods.

First, to look at the outer layer, Positivism or Interpretivism are examples of two different research paradigms. Positivism A Positivist approach attempts to replicate the natural sciences, the researcher remaining as detached as possible from the research subject any emotional involvement is likely to make the research activity unscientific and worthless. Objectivity is the key. According to Blaxter et al (2002) 'The aims of positivist research are to offer explanations leading to control and predictability. While there are many varieties of positivism, quantitative approaches that use statistics and experiments are seen as classic examples.' According to Hughes and Sharrock (1997), positivism regards reality as that which is available to the senses. It is something that can be experienced and measured. As a result, the positivist regards human beings and their behaviour as something that can be objectively examined with detachment. Data must be observable, recordable and measurable. The experiment, the survey and the questionnaire are typical methods used in positivist research. It has been argued (for example by Jankowicz, 1999) that a positivist approach is not appropriate to the social sciences or to business and management. Interpretivism Interpretivism incorporates a wide range of sociological and philosophical ideas such as humanism, phenomenology, naturalism and social constructionism. It is often linked to the work of Max Weber (1864-1920), and is a subjective approach in which the researcher interacts with the environment, 'seeking to make sense of it through their interpretations of events and the meanings that they draw from these.' (Saunders et al, 2003). To the interpretivist, reality is socially constructed and given meaning by people. Following this idea, Easterby-Smith et al (1991) argue that the researcher's role is to examine and interpret the different meanings that people put upon their experiences rather than simply trying to measure them. The researcher should not remain detached from what is being observed, but should become a part of it, so gaining meaningful insights into the situation. The interpretive researcher typically uses a much less structured research methodology than the positivist. Methods such as the interview and participant observation lend themselves to an understanding of human action through subjective and empathetic means. For a detailed analysis of research paradigms see Saunders et al (2003), Blaxter et al (2002), Doherty (2003) and Perry and Coote (1994).

The Research Approach

The middle layer of the Saunders onion is the research approach. Saunders et al (2003) suggest that the research approach can be divided into two types deductive and inductive. In the deductive approach the researcher develops a theory and hypothesis which is then tested. In the inductive approach the data is collected and a theory is built based on the analysis of that data. The deductive approach is often associated with empirical research in which the researcher follows the five sequential stages listed below (Robson, 1993). 3. Deduct a hypothesis from the theory. 4. Express the hypothesis in operational terms (that is, indicating exactly how the variables are to be measured) which propose a relationship between two specific variables. 5. Test this operational hypothesis (this will involve an experiment or some other form of empirical enquiry). 6. Examine the specific outcome of the enquiry (it will either tend to confirm the theory or indicate the need for its modification). 7. If necessary, modify the theory in light of the findings. Inductive research begins with a specific idea or question, but allows the researcher to reach conclusions through the analysis of observed data. The researcher generally follows the four stages listed below. 8. Data are gathered without pre-classification or prioritisation 9. Data are analysed and classified without reference to existing theory 10. Generalisations are drawn from the analysis 11. Generalisations are tested further There follows a summary of the major differences between deductive and inductive approaches to research (Source: Saunders et al, 2003, p.89). The deductive approach emphasises: scientific principles moving from theory to data the need to explain causal relationships between variables the collection of quantitative data the application of controls to ensure validity of data the operationalisation of concepts to ensure clarity of definition a highly structured approach researcher independence from what is being researched the necessity to select samples of sufficient size in order to generalise conclusions

The inductive approach emphasises: gaining an understanding of the meanings humans attach to events a close understanding of the research context the collection of qualitative data a more flexible structure to permit changes of research emphasis as the research progresses a realisation that the researcher is part of the research process less concern with the need to generalise So which approach should the researcher choose? As Arbnor and Bjerke point out, this is not always a straightforward task:
You can never empirically or logically determine the best approach. This can only be done reflectively by considering a situation to be studied and your own opinion of life. Arbnor and Bjerke (1997)

Creswell (1994) is a little more helpful, suggesting that the researcher should consider a) the time frame available and b) the amount of literature available on the topic. The time frame is important in general, inductive research is more time consuming than deductive research, so there simply may not be enough time for an inductive approach. The quantity of relevant literature can make a difference too. Plenty of it makes it easier to define the theoretical framework and hypothesis, also making the deductive approach more suitable.

The Research Method

The inner layer of our hypothetical onion is the research method. In any research project, the results are only as reliable as the research methods employed. An understanding of these methods is an essential skill for any researcher. Research methods are the 'tools of the trade', the techniques and approaches that researchers use when studying a given topic. These methods can usefully be divided into qualitative and quantitative methods. Qualitative and Quantitative Methods Qualitative and Quantitative methods are both used extensively across all major research disciplines and, while there is some debate as to the strengths and weaknesses of each, both provide different yet valid approaches to research. Punch has a very simple description of the difference between these two approaches.
Quantitative research is empirical research where the data are in the form of numbers. Qualitative research is empirical research where the data are not in the form of numbers. Punch (1998)

Sherman and Webb (1988) are more generous with their consideration:
Qualitative implies a direct concern with experience as it is 'lived' or 'felt' or 'undergone'. In contrast, quantitative research, often taken to be the opposite idea, is indirect and abstracts and treats experiences as similar, adding or multiplying them together, or quantifying them. Sherman and Webb (1988)

These two approaches to research do have some overlaps they are not necessarily mutually exclusive. Blaxter et al (2002) highlight some similarities. While quantitative research may be mostly used for testing theory, it can also be used to support hypotheses and theory building. Qualitative research can be used for testing hypotheses and theories, even though it is mostly used for theory generation. Qualitative data often include quantification (for example, statements such as more than, less than, most, as well as specific numbers). Quantitative approaches ( for example, large scale surveys) can collect qualitative (non-numeric) data through open-ended questions. The underlying philosophical positions are not necessarily as distinct as they often appear in the literature. Denscombe (1998), while recognising that the boundaries can be blurred, distinguishes qualitative and quantitative research as follows: Words and numbers. Qualitative research tends to be associated with words as the unit of analysis while quantitative research tends to be associated with numbers. Description or analysis. Qualitative research tends to be associated with description, while quantitative research tends to be associated with analysis. Scale. Qualitative research tends to be associated with small-scale studies, while quantitative research tends to be associated with large-scale studies. Holistic or specific focus. Qualitative research tends to be associated with a holistic perspective, while quantitative research tends to be associated with a specific focus. Researcher involvement or detachment. Qualitative research tends to be associated with researcher involvement, while quantitative research tends to be associated with researcher detachment. Emergent or predetermined research design. Qualitative research tends to be associated with emergent research design, while quantitative research tends to be associated with predetermined research design. The motivations for using one type of research method over another are varied. While quantitative methods enable a more fact-based approach, supported by statistical analyses, these methods have their limitations and are not suitable for

research topics that appear to defy simple quantification. Kaplan and Maxwelll (1994), for example, argue that qualitative research enables researchers to better understand people and the social and cultural contexts within which they live. It can provide a flexible, open-ended, unstructured representation of a particular place and time (Moore, 2000, Hammersley, 1989). The discussion so far implies that most researchers use either one approach or the other, but in reality many find it useful to combine the two. For example, questionnaires are often combined with case studies in qualitative research. Similarly many quantitative studies combine questionnaires or interviews with statistical modelling of data. As Bell suggests:
Different styles, traditions or approaches use different methods of collecting data, but no approach prescribes nor automatically rejects any particular methodClassifying an approach as quantitative or qualitative, ethnographic, survey, action research or whatever, does not mean that once an approach has been selected, the researcher may not move from the methods normally associated with the style. Each approach has its strengths and weaknesses and each is particularly suitable for a particular context Bell (1987)

It is becoming increasingly common for researchers to combine one or more research methods in the one study, so bringing in data from different sources. Known as triangulation, this combining of data often provides strong evidence to support a particular hypothesis or theory. For further discussion on triangulation and the different research approaches see Gable (1994), Lee (1991) or Mingers (2001). Quantitative research methods Denzin and Lincoln (2000) define quantitative research methods as:
the measurement and analysis of causal relationships between variables. Denzin and Lincoln (2000)

Quantitative research methods were originally developed in the natural sciences to study natural phenomena. Quantitative research methods include: the experiment the survey Qualitative research methods Qualitative research typically involves the researcher going directly to the social phenomenon under study to observe it as completely as possible. The case study is an example of a qualitative research method, as is the unstructured interview, where the emphasis is on views and opinions. Many supporters of this approach believe it

can give a more 'holistic' means of data gathering, analysis, interpretation and understanding. Qualitative methods have typically been used by anthropologists working in the field, but they are used also by sociologists, historians, journalists, biologists, social workers. Qualitative research methods typically include: the case study grounded theory ethnography action research These methods are discussed in more detail in Chapter 4 (Methods for Data Collection and Analysis) and are dealt with comprehensively in the Data Handling and Analysis module. Primary and secondary data Whatever approach the researcher chooses to follow, there will normally be two basic sources of information primary and secondary data. Generally speaking, primary data are data or materials which are unpublished and which the researcher has collected. Secondary data refers to any materials (books, articles etc.) that have been previously published. Secondary data Secondary data are data that have already been collected for another purpose. There are a wide variety of sources from where they can be collected. They may be 'raw', that is, there has been little or no processing, or they may have been compiled or summarised in some way. Using secondary data has the following advantages: Collecting secondary data is much quicker than collecting primary data, so more time can be spent on analysis. The researcher will also be able to analyse more data. This is very useful for short-term projects, particularly where the researcher wishes to carry out a longitudinal study. Collecting secondary data is much cheaper than sending out questionnaires or conducting interviews. If the data have already been collected there is no point in collecting them again. The secondary data can be used to cross check the data obtained from a primary source.

There are however disadvantages to using secondary data: Unless the secondary data have been collected for the same purpose as that required by the researcher, they are likely to be only partly useful. If the data have been collected for commercial reasons they may be expensive to obtain, or access may be difficult. The data may be in a format that is not suitable. The reliability of the data will need to be checked. Secondary research forms a significant part of most research projects. It is a valuable way to gather information and gain new insights objectively reviewing the work of others can be a source of new ideas and understanding. For a detailed explanation of how to evaluate secondary data sources see Saunders et al (2003) pp.204-212. Primary data To gather primary data, the researcher must look for information that nobody else has found (Taflinger, 1996). The initial stages of this process are, of course, to discover what other people have already said on the subject and what results have already been published, (secondary data). This is the purpose of a literature review. The subsequent stages of the process, including potential ethical considerations, are discussed in the following chapters.

Assessment Criteria
Before this chapter ends, some mention must be made of research awards and assessment criteria. A researcher who is working towards a higher degree or other award must be aware of exactly what is expected of them. The two bodies responsible for setting standards for higher education and training awards and for the validation of higher education and training programmes in Ireland are the Higher Education and Training Awards Council (HETAC) and the National University of Ireland (NUI). Both have web sites that provide information on the various awards and the assessment criteria. They are, respectively, www.hetac.ie and www.nui.ie.

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Assessment Questions

1. Research involves: gathering and analysing data defining and refining problems understanding and applying the findings all of the above

2.

Which of the following limits the value of research? Not defining the problem clearly and accurately Using only quantitative methods of data collection Paying too much money for it Not getting a full report of the findings

3.

Research evidence is most useful for: decision making the formulation of government policy the evaluation of products, services, policies and so on all of the above

4.

The first step in conducting research is to: decide on whether to use primary or secondary research choose the method of data collection, for example, interviews, surveys etc. think about the nature of the research enquiry choose a quantitative or qualitative approach or both

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5.

In which one of the following areas of the research process have technological developments had the most impact in recent years? In the data collection process In data handling, storage and analysis In office communications Throughout the whole research process

6.

Which of the following organisations commission social research? Governments, political parties and the media Charities, not-for-profit organisations and non-governmental organisations Universities and research institutes All of them

7.

Research is used to collect: facts and figures perceptions and perspectives data on values, attitudes, opinions, beliefs and behaviour all of the above

8.

The use of more than one research method is referred to as: action research basic research quantitative research multimethod research none of the above

9.

Which of the following best describes Quantitative Research? The collection of non-numerical data An attempt to confirm the researchers hypotheses Research that is exploratory Research that attempts to generate new theory

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10. In qualitative research, research questions: provide the researcher with a focus give the researcher considerable latitude usually ask how or what all of the above

11. In the context of research design, validity is about: the ability of the researcher to deliver robust and credible evidence the ability of the research to measure what it claims to measure the quality of the research all of the above

12. Which of the following best describes a case study approach? An in-depth interview An in-depth investigation of a phenomenon of a situation or case A detailed report of a particular phenomenon or situation or case A series of in-depth interviews

13. Triangulation is: the same as operationalisation a qualitative data collection method a quantitative data collection method the use of several kinds of methods of data collection

14. In qualitative research, the researcher: uses questionnaires and surveys to collect data from participants sets up the interaction environment to observe what needs to be observed is the primary data collector may use a research assistant so that he or she does not see or talk with interactants has as much control as a researcher in a laboratory

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15. A field interview: is very similar to a survey that a researcher conducts in person or by phone is simply a process of asking questions and getting the answers does not require that the researcher interacts with the participants has the goal of uncovering the respondents point of view by drawing on terminology, issues, and themes introduced into the conversation by the respondent occurs spontaneously without prior planning by the interviewer

16.

Ethnography is best described as research: conducted from the role of the complete observer in which the researcher controls the interaction field that relies on surveys, questionnaires, or polls that develops an in-depth and holistic description of interactants in their cultural or subcultural environment on simulated environments

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CHAPTER 2

ASKING THE RIGHT QUESTION

Summary
This chapter examines some practical research issues. The discussion begins with how to identify a suitable research topic. Following this, alternative approaches to generating research ideas are outlined, including consulting past projects, relevant trees and brainstorming. The need to identify the research question(s), formulating the research hypothesis and the importance of piloting are also discussed. The second part of the chapter focuses on ethical and health and safety issues in conducting research. The chapter closes with a brief overview of some useful ethical and health and safety web sites for researchers.

Introduction
All research starts with a research question or problem. It is identifying this question or problem that is often the greatest challenge. According to Saunders et al (2003) choosing a research topic can be among the most difficult and most important steps in the research process. Even if the research topic or issue is already given, the researcher must still decide on the precise research question. It is worth spending time on determining the research question. A well-defined question is at the centre of a well-designed project.

Learning Objectives
Upon completion of this chapter the learner will be able to: discuss the attributes of a good research topic describe alternative approaches to generating a research idea or topic describe techniques for identifying the research question discuss the formulation of a hypothesis explain the importance of piloting research discuss the necessity of following ethical and health and safety guidelines when undertaking research

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Choosing a Topic for Research

Being asked to decide on a research topic can, according to Luck (1999), fill the researcher with dread. Fortunately, it can also excite, provide an opportunity to realise a dream or offer a means of self expression. Whatever the initial reaction of the researcher, the chosen topic must provide motivation, otherwise the research project is unlikely to be completed successfully. So what makes a good research topic? Table 2.1, taken from Saunders et al, provides an overview of questions to consider when choosing a research topic. Table 2.1: Checklist of attributes of a good research project Does the topic fit the specifications and meet the standards set by any relevant examining institutions? Is the topic something with which you are really fascinated? Does the research topic contain issues that have a clear link to theory? Do you have or can you develop within the project time frame, the necessary research skills to undertake the topic? Is the research topic achievable with the available time? Is the research topic achievable with the financial resources that are likely to be available? Are you reasonably certain of being able to gain access to data you are likely to require for this topic? Are you able to state your research questions and objectives clearly? Will your proposed research be able to provide fresh insights into this topic? Does your research topic relate clearly to the idea you have been given (perhaps by your organisation)? Are the findings for this research topic likely to be symmetrical that is of similar value whatever the outcome? Does the research topic match your career goal? Source: Saunders et al (2003). For an alternative discussion of some of these questions, and the attributes of a good research topic, see Moore (2000) and Luck (1999). This table is useful to the researcher in two respects. Firstly, while some of the attributes may not be directly relevant, most will and can be used by researchers at any level and from any discipline to evaluate possible research topics. Secondly, the list forces the researcher to thoroughly think about the research topic. For example, why the topic was chosen, whether the objectives and research questions can be clearly stated and whether the research topic matches the researcher's career goals.

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Generating a Research Idea or Topic Numerous techniques and approaches exist to help researchers to generate a good research topic. Luck (1999) identifies thirteen different ways in which research ideas are generated, ranging from TV advertisements to 'a chat with a post graduate about their work'. Similarly, Blaxter et al (2002) list ten ways to choose a research topic. These range from 'follow your hunches' to 'ask your supervisor, manager, friends, colleagues etc'. Ideas can sometimes arise from the most unlikely sources. The experienced researcher will be aware of this, keep an open mind, and jot down ideas for possible future projects. One interesting approach, identified by Saunders et al (2003), is the use of rational and creative thinking techniques. The techniques are briefly outlined below. Rational thinking This involves a logical or a common sense approach to generating ideas in which researchers should take the steps listed below. Examine their own strengths and weaknesses, choosing a topic in an area in which they have some prior knowledge and experience, and in which they are interested. Look at past projects for something that captures the imagination. Talk with colleagues, friends and other researchers who are often the first source of knowledge for researchers. They can also provide some interesting and useful advice on the topic and the research approach. Search the literature. Journals, academic papers, reports and books provide a rich source of information on research areas of controversy and new and emerging areas. Creative thinking Keep a notebook of ideas. According to Saunders et al this is 'one of the most creative techniques' available. Noting down interesting questions or ideas that can be pursued later is always worthwhile. Explore personal preferences using past projects. Raimond (1993) suggests the researcher should first select six topics that attract interest. Then, for each project, note down the following: What is appealing about the project What is good about the project Why is the project good Next, the researcher selects three projects that do not attract interest. The same procedure is repeated, but this time the following is noted down: What is unappealing about the project

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What is bad about the project Why is the project bad This exercise should clarify for the researcher the characteristics that are important in a project, and the type of research that should be avoided. Relevance trees Relevance trees are a useful method for narrowing down a subject. They are a way of developing related ideas from a starting concept and are excellent models of one of the ways people think about problems. (Howard and Sharp, 1993). For the idea to work most effectively the starting concept needs to be fairly broad. The relevance tree then allows the researcher to generate alternative topics or to concentrate on a specific parameter. As the name suggests, relevance trees take the form of a tree trunk producing increasingly smaller branches. The 'tree' is usually inverted, starting at the top of the page with the 'trunk' and moving downwards to more and more subdivisions. Saunders et al (2003) recommend the following steps for constructing the relevance tree. 1. Start with the research question or objective at the top level. 2. Identify two or more subject areas that appear to be important. 3. Further subdivide each major subject area into subareas that are thought to be of importance. 4. Further subdivide the subareas into more precise subareas that are thought to be of importance. 5. Identify those subareas that need to be searched immediately and those that require a particular focus. The supervisor may play an important role here. 6. As reading and reviewing progresses, add new areas to the relevance tree. Brainstorming Often associated with problem solving in corporate and business courses. Moody (1983) suggests the following approach. 1. Define the problem. Try to be as specific as possible. 2. Ask for suggestions relating to the problem. 3. Record all suggestions. Do not criticise or evaluate before all the ideas have been recorded. No suggestions should be dismissed and as many suggestions as possible should be recorded. 4. Review and analyse each suggestion. 5. Decide which suggestions appeal. Brainstorming is best undertaken in a group situation, with other researchers. A final piece of advice on choosing a research topic from Edwards and Talbot:

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Be selfish, focus on what interests you, think about your curriculum vitae and your future professional development as well as the impact your study might have on the workplace and then step forward with confidence. Edwards and Talbot (1994)

For a fuller discussion of each of these techniques, see Saunders et al (2000), Ch.2.

Identifying the Research Question

So the general area of interest has been narrowed down to a research topic. The next step is to clearly identify the research question. This is important. As Saunders et al state,
One of the key criteria for your research success will be whether you have a set of clear conclusions drawn from the data you have collected. The extent to which you can do that will be determined largely by the clarity with which you have posed your initial research questions. Saunders et al (2003)

According to Punch (1998), well-defined research questions: organise the project, giving it direction and coherence delimit the project, showing its boundaries keep the researcher focused during the project provide a framework for writing up the project point to the data that will be needed There are several approaches (and numerous books see Bennett, 1991, and Jankowicz, 2000) designed to help researchers define the research question. Here are just three of them. Knowledge List The researcher simply puts down various thoughts on paper. Table 2.2 provides an example of how this can be done.

Table 2.2: Aid to defining the research question

Topic Area: What you currently know What you want to know

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This exercise should take no more than five or ten minutes. This method can be a useful starting point, highlighting gaps in knowledge that may prompt further investigation into a topic. Further reading will often provide further insights. The Delphi Technique This is a more structured approach involving a group of people who are either involved or interested in the research idea or area. Here the researcher needs to: 1. Brief each member of the group about the research idea or topic. 2. Ask each member of the group to generate individually up to three specific research ideas based on the idea that has been described. 3. Collect the ideas in an unedited and non-attributable form. 4. At the end of the discussion encourage clarification and more information if appropriate. According to Saunders et al (2003) the process works well because 'people enjoy trying to help one another'. For a fuller discussion of this approach, see Saunders et al Chapter 2 and Robson (2002). Ideas Online There are various examples of software that will help the researcher to develop ideas. For example, Inspiration Software Inc. have developed Inspiration, a product dedicated to developing and providing visual thinking tools. It is designed to 'inspire learners of all ages to brainstorm, organise, plan, and create'. A free trial version can be downloaded from www.inspiration.com. Below are listed some general guidelines for the novice researcher (the experienced may also find something of use here). Avoid taking on too much in defining the research question, especially in terms of access to information. Formulate questions that generate new insights. A good understanding of the research topic and adequate reading will help here. Seek guidance from other researchers in the area. Consulting with others helps to avoid questions that are too easy or too difficult. Carry out brainstorming sessions they may reveal new research questions. Look at existing research projects to find out more about what is involved in identifying the research question. For further information and examples see Luck (1999).

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The Research Hypothesis

The hypothesis is a 'narrowed down' version of the research question. It is a proposed statement of (or conjecture about) the relationships between the variables that a researcher intends to study. According to Verma and Beard a hypothesis is:
a tentative proposition which is subject to verification through subsequent investigation. It may also be seen as the guide to the researchers in that it depicts and describes the methods to be followed in studying the problem. In many cases the hypotheses are hunches that the researcher has about the existence of relationships between variables. Verma and Beard (1981)

Some qualitative researchers may specify no hypothesis or conjecture. The researcher will undoubtedly have a strong idea of what and how the research will unfold, but does not identify any particular relationship or question. Indeed, in some approaches (for example, grounded theory), it is the collected data that lead the researcher to new hypotheses. The danger with this approach, according to Bell (1993), is that the researcher may end up with large volumes of data, collecting everything in sight in the hope that some pattern will emerge. This, she wisely suggests, is not recommended. A precise statement or hypothesis, formulated at the beginning of a project, will help the researcher to avoid the unpleasant experience of floundering in a quagmire of data. Establishing a Hypothesis A hypothesis must always be testable. There is no point in postulating that blackbirds who eat black cherries grow more feathers than those who don't if you have no method of measuring the growth rate of a blackbird's feathers. Equally, if the hypothesis states that the stock market (one variable) is positively influenced by economic growth (another variable) then it must be possible to measure and test this hypothesis by analysing the nature of the relationship between the two variables. Some further pointers for the researcher drafting a hypothesis are listed below. The hypothesis needs to be well defined, making an arguable assertion that is capable of being tested either quantitatively or qualitatively. It is always a good idea for the researcher to be flexible when formulating a hypothesis. In many cases, the initial hypothesis changes and develops as the research progresses. The researcher needs to be sure that the hypothesis is sufficiently narrow, allowing the subject to be researched in depth. The hypothesis needs to be original and of interest to both the researcher and others who may be involved in this area of study. It should also be something that is worth pursuing. The hypothesis should convey to the readers of the research the focus of the study.

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The researcher needs to be aware of the time factor when drafting a hypothesis. In other words, the hypothesis should be clear and sufficiently well-defined to enable the researcher to complete the research within an appropriate time frame. Once the study has been undertaken and analysed, the hypothesis can be either accepted or rejected according to the nature of the results accepted if it is determined to be consistent with the data, rejected if it is not.

The Research Pilot

Carrying out a small-scale pilot of the proposed research is an important part of the research process. The pilot may try out a questionnaire on a small sample, check whether a hypothesis really is testable or establish the best method for measuring the growth rate of a blackbird's feathers. In other words the pilot enables the researcher to judge the feasibility of the overall research plans, making modifications where necessary (Blaxter et al, 2002). It is also an effective way of checking and focusing ideas, enabling the researcher to identify and address problems at an early stage. It is very frustrating to discover half way through the research that a small tweak in the design would have made the difference between a useful project and a disaster. As Blaxter et al argue:
Things never work quite the way you envisage, even if you have done them many times before, and they have a nasty habit of turning out very differently from how you expected on occasion. Blaxter et al (2002)

There is a process involved in piloting a research design, just as there is in carrying out the main study. Blaxter et al (2002) suggest the researcher follow the stages set out below. 1. Begin with a clear vision of the research topic, questions and methods to be used. Also of the time schedule and resources available. 2. Carry out two or three interviews, observations, experimental trials or whatever other method is to be used to collect the data. 3. Complete an analysis of the material collected. 4. Note how long these processes take. Ask these questions: Will there be enough time to collect and analyse all the data? Will it matter if there is not? Does the scope of the study need to be reduced? 5. Note how well the data collection and analysis techniques worked. Consider how they might be changed to improve their effectiveness and whether this requires special expertise.

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For a further discussion of time schedules and piloting see Blaxter et al (2002), Ch.1 and Ch.5.

Ethical Considerations
Ethical concerns emerge in all areas and stages of research and cover research design, data collection, analysis and interpretation. In research, ethics refers to:
the appropriateness of your behaviour in relation to the rights of those who become the subject of your work or are affected by it. Saunders et al (2003)

All researchers need to be aware of ethical issues, whatever their area of study, although some disciplines will need to be more attentive than others. For example, researchers in the areas of anthropology, sociology and psychology are likely to be working directly with people. As noted by Wells:
in general the closer the research is to actual individuals in a real world setting the more likely are ethical questions to be raised. Wells (2003)

Many disciplines have a code of ethics which sets out procedures and principles that researchers should follow when conducting research. For example, the Social Science Research Association in the UK publishes ethical guidelines for researchers in social science disciplines. As well as these national committees, many institutions have a Research Ethics Committee whose role is to develop an ethical code and disseminate advice about aspects of research. A list of some useful internet locations for codes of ethics is available at the end of this chapter. As a general rule, all researchers, irrespective of discipline, should ensure ethical research practices. Although ethical guidelines are not legally binding on individual researchers, institutions, through their Research Ethics Committees, will normally expect to see that ethical guidelines are being followed in any research project. In some cases, proposals that require approval, either internally or externally, will be dependent on adherence to ethical guidelines. Table 2.3 shows typical ethical guidelines for researchers.

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Table 2.3: Ethical guidelines for research on human subjects Recruitment Of Volunteers No one should be made to participate in a research study against their will. Those recruiting volunteers should ensure that no undue influence is exerted in order to persuade subjects to take part in research. Subjects should be made aware that participation is entirely voluntary. Where those recruited are drawn from a subordinate or dependent group (e.g. students, staff of a lower grade than the researcher), every care should be taken to ensure that they have, and that they are fully aware that they have, nothing to gain or lose as a result of their decision whether or not to take part in a study, and that they are free to leave the study at any time without detriment to their standing as employee or student. Selection of Volunteers Volunteers should be carefully screened in order to ensure that their state of health does not suggest that they should be excluded from the study. Payment of Volunteers It is inappropriate to offer volunteers excessive payments which might induce them to participate in a study against their better judgement. Small payments may be made in order to compensate subjects for their time and inconvenience. Out-of-pocket expenses may also be met. Informed Consent Researchers should ensure that informed consent proportionate to the nature of the study has been received from subjects. Researchers should be willing to answer any questions put to them by (potential) subjects. A period of reflection should be allowed between the initial approach and the signing of the consent form. This should be at least 24 hours. Precautions Where there is to be personal contact between researchers and subjects, the investigator is responsible for ensuring that the premises to be used for the study are appropriate and that there is access to emergency medical treatment if appropriate. The investigator is responsible where appropriate for making sure that all researchers are aware of sources of help to whom subjects may be referred.

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Use of Data and Results Data and results obtained from a study should only be used in the way(s) for which consent has been given. The requirements of the data protection act should be observed in relation to all records held. Withdrawal from Study Subjects should be free at any time to withdraw from a study without reproach or penalty, and without needing to give a reason for withdrawal. Where financial recompense for participation in a study is offered, subjects who withdraw from the study should be paid on a pro-rata basis, and there should be no premium attached to completion of the study. Confidentiality and Security of Records It is the responsibility of the investigator to ensure that confidentiality of subjects is maintained except where express consent for disclosure has been obtained. Every effort should be made to maintain the security of records, and the requirements of the data protection act should be observed. Arrangements should be in place to de-anonymise data in an emergency, if this is necessary in order to determine what treatment a subject has undergone. Information Sheet The information sheet given to subjects at the start of their research project is an important source of reference for subjects. It is therefore important that it include sufficient information on the ethical procedures operated by the institution. Source: University of Manchester Ethical Guidelines for Research on Human Subjects.

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Health and Safety Issues

The type and nature of the research generally determines the important health and safety issues. This is particularly the case for those involved in applied or field research. While a detailed review of health and safety guidelines is beyond the scope of this chapter, as a general guide all researchers should try and adhere to the guidelines shown in Table 2.4.

Table 2.4: Health and safety guidelines Research must be conducted or supervised only by those who are experienced, qualified and competent in the research area. Research must only be conducted using facilities and resources appropriate for the research. Higher education institutions and research centres should ensure that their staff and students have the skills and training they need to produce effective and rigorous research. Institutions may provide health and safety rules, procedures and systems. These are designed to help staff and students to work safely. If the institution has a Health and Safety Handbook, all researchers should read it thoroughly. In some cases anyone working on the premises will be expected to sign a declaration stating that the handbook has been read and understood. Researchers should feel free to ask for details of health and safety provision. If they suspect that they are being put at risk in any way, they should contact the health and safety officer at their institution or seek advice from some of the additional sources outlined below. The researcher has prime responsibility for working safely in research. The researcher needs to identify, assess and control the hazards of the proposed work before it starts. Advice from supervisors and Health and Safety Officers should always be followed. Universities take the subject of research safety extremely seriously, so all researchers should be aware of the various legislative and regulatory instruments that apply to research, ensuring that these arrangements are complied with.

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Ethical Guidelines in Research Useful Web Sites

The British Educational Research Association. Ethical Guidelines. Available at: www.bera.ac.uk/publications/guides.php Social research Association. Guidelines. Available at: www.the-sra.org.uk/ethical.htm British Psychological Societys Code of Conduct. Available at: www.bps.org.uk/the-society/code-of-conduct/code-ofconduct_home.cfm The British Sociological Associations Statement of Ethical Practice. Available at: www.britsoc.co.uk/equality/Statement%20Ethical%20Practice The Royal Society of Chemistry Ethical Guidelines. Available at: www.rsc.org/pdf/journals/ethicalguidelines.pdf The Irish council for Bioethics Available at: www.bioethics.ie

Health and Safety Guidelines in Research Useful Web Sites

The following disciplines provide statements on best practice, to help prevent allegations of fraud or scientific misconduct. Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BBSRC). BBRSC statement on ensuring good scientific practice in research. Available at: www.bbsrc.ac.uk/funding/overview/good_practice.pdf Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC). EPSRC guidelines on good research practice in science and engineering. Available at: www.epsrc.ac.uk/ResearchFunding/GrantHolders/GuideToGoodPracticeInResearch. htm Medical Research Council (MRC). MRC policy and guidance on good research practice. Available at: www.mrc.ac.uk/PolicyGuidance/EthicsAndGovernance/GoodResearchPractice/index .htm Medical Research Council (MRC). MRC policy and guidance on good clinical practice in clinical trials. Available at: www.mrc.ac.uk/PolicyGuidance/EthicsAndGovernance/ClinicalResearchGovernance /index.htm

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Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC). Career development schools for post-graduate researchers. Available at: www.epsrc.ac.uk/ResearchFunding/Opportunities/Networking/WorkshopsAndSchool s.htm Health and Safety Executive (HSE) Government agency responsible for ensuring health and safety at work in the UK. Available at: www.hse.gov.uk/index.htm

Other Market Research /Marketing/Advertising

www.bmrb.co.uk British Market Research Bureau www.aqr.org.uk Association for Qualitative Research www.the-sra.org.uk Social Research Association www.aura.org.uk Association of Users of Research Agencies

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Assessment Questions

1.

Which of the following are attributes of a good research project? The research topic contains issues that have a clear link to theory. The research topic is achievable within the available time. The researcher is reasonably certain of being able to gain access to required date. The researcher is able to state the research questions and objectives clearly. All of the above.

2.

Which of the following techniques can be employed to generate research ideas? Relevance trees Brainstorming Looking at past projects Discussion with colleagues, friends and other researchers All of the above

3.

According to Punch (1998), the purpose of the research question is to: Organise the project and give it direction and coherence Delimit the project, showing its boundaries Keep the researcher focused during the project Provide a framework for writing up the project. Point to the data that will be needed All of the above

4.

The research hypothesis is: Formulated prior to review of the literature A statement of predicted relationships between variables A proposed statement of (or conjecture about) the relationships among variables that a researcher intends to study All of the above

5.

The research hypothesis in qualitative research is usually: Very specific and stated prior to beginning the study Usually generated as the data are collected and analysed Never used Stated a priori

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6.

Which of the following statements best describes the importance of clearly defining the problem in the research process? Defining the problem clearly and accurately is necessary if you are to deliver good quality, actionable research. The problem should not be too clearly defined at the outset as it gets in the way of interpreting the data. Problem definition is not really important sampling and questionnaire design are more important in achieving good quality, actionable research. Defining the problem is important but not critical it can be sorted out once the project is up and running.

7.

The research pilot allows the researcher to: Carry out a small-scale test of the proposed research See what is involved in the exercise Identify problems at an early stage that can be addressed later All of the above

8.

A pilot study should be undertaken : If data are to be collected using computer-aided methods On all questionnaires If the questionnaire has been translated from another language If the questionnaire is on a complex or sensitive topic

9.

Which of the following is not an ethical guideline when conducting research with humans? Getting informed consent from the participant Telling participants they must continue until the study has been completed Keeping participants identity anonymous Telling participants they are free to withdraw at any time

10.

Which of the following statements is not true? Misrepresenting and creating fraudulent data is dishonest Misrepresenting data is easy to detect Misrepresenting data can be difficult to detect Breaking confidentiality is not a problem

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11.

When the research participants identity is not known to the researcher this is referred to as: Anonymity Confidentiality Deception Desensitising

12.

Before they can participate in a study, research participants must give: Public information A commitment Informed consent Private information

13.

A set of principles to guide and assist researchers in deciding which goals are most important and in reconciling conflicting values is known as: Research ethics Deontological approach Utilitarianism None of the above

14.

Which of the following is not included in planning a research study? Identifying a researchable problem A review of current literature A statement of the research problem Conducting a meta-analysis of the research Developing a research plan

15.

Which of the following are important in the treatment of research participants? Transparency and deception Informed consent Anonymity, confidentiality and privacy All of the above

16.

Which of the following best describes a professional code of conduct? A code that sets out what qualifications researchers should have A code that sets out what sort of research can be conducted A code that makes public what is and what is not acceptable practice A code that sets out how to design research

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17.

The aim of the European Union Date Protection Directive is to protect: Research agency data Personal data Client data All of the above

18.

A key tenet of the EU Data Protection Directive is: Notification Informed consent Compliance Equality

19.

If a follow-up or further interview is likely to be needed with the same respondent consent: Is not needed Must be obtained as soon as possible after the initial interview Can be obtained at any time after the initial interview Must be obtained at the initial interview

20.

Under the EU Data Protection Directive unless adequate protection is in place data should not be transferred outside of which of the following? The EEA and North America The EEA and the USA The European Economic Area (EEA) The European Union (EU)

21.

If a researcher uses or rents a client database for sampling, which of the following applies? The researcher becomes the data controller for that data. The client or owner of the database remains the data controller for that data. The client and the researcher are both data controllers for that data. The researcher temporarily becomes the data controller for as long as he or she is in control of the database.

22.

Which term refers to publishing several articles from the data collected in one large study? Duplicate publication Partial publication Triplicate publication None of the above

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CHAPTER 3 USING ARCHIVES AND EVALUATING PUBLISHED MATERIAL

Summary
This chapter provides guidance on gathering the information required to complete a high quality piece of research. The chapter begins by discussing the function of the literature search, continuing with an overview of the sources of information available to the researcher. The chapter goes on to cover the gathering, evaluating and recording of relevant information. It closes with a discussion about the use of the Internet.

Introduction
Chapter 2 (Asking the Right Question) concentrated on the vital first step in any research choosing the right topic and determining the research question. A literature search forms a part of this process, but also goes further. A critical analysis of previous research is an essential aspect of any research project. Every successful project is built upon a bedrock of solid information. The effective researcher reads around the subject, compiles an accurate review of the available data and evaluates published materials.

Learning Objectives
On completion of this chapter the learner will be able to: describe the functions of the literature search discuss and evaluate different sources of information explain how to retrieve relevant information effectively read and evaluate different sources of information evaluate methods of recording information

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The Literature Search

The literature search has many functions. Initially, it helps to generate ideas the researcher is able to spot any gaps that exist in the current body of knowledge and avoid areas that have already been thoroughly investigated. The ideas generated can then be refined into a clear and specific research objective. The literature search is also an essential aid to building up the knowledge necessary to complete the project successfully and to discuss it with confidence. Once the research has begun, information in journals and reports can be used to build and support arguments, to justify the methodology used and to make an effective critical analysis of other research. Finally, a literature search allows the researcher to acknowledge and reference previous work. Finding Appropriate Information Howard and Sharp (1993) suggest three sources of information that are particularly useful when carrying out the preliminary literature search generating the research question, building up knowledge and so on. 6. Reports produced by the government or other organisations usually contain accurate and up-to-date information with many recommendations that may lead to further research ideas. 7. Books often provide a useful review of previous work carried out. The reference section or bibliography will provide a further source of useful books or articles/papers. It should be noted however that in many cases books are less likely to be up-to-date with the latest happenings in the field. 8. Peer reviewed journal articles are often the most useful to the researcher. They are specialised, with many of the contributors being the recognised experts in the field. They provide the researcher with valuable information - who are the major players, what are the hot topics and what research has already been done? If they can be found, academic review articles are particularly useful they will contain a review of the research in the field and areas that the contributors feel require further research. The most useful place to find all this information is, of course, the library. From early in your research career it is important to build a relationship with the librarian. He/she is one of your most valuable contacts. Librarians: Luck describes the librarian:
Wonderful people: friendly, approachable, unexpectedly knowledgeable and full of surprises. Have the world of information (electronic as well as paper) at their fingertips. Often turn out to be subject specialists as well as information gurus. Invariably busy but delighted to be (politely) interrupted by requests for directions, advice and help. Luck (1999)

Where would the researcher be without them?

34

Library catalogues: If researchers are to make the most of the available resources in the library they need to understand how the library is catalogued. Catalogues are mainly accessed through computer terminals but some information may still be catalogued using traditional card indexes or microfiche. Many catalogues can be accessed over the internet through the Librarys web page, allowin g the researcher to search using key words, authors, titles or classification numbers. Open shelves: All libraries will contain large areas of open shelving which contain books, monographs, conference summaries and so on that can be borrowed. They will also contain a periodicals section. Past issues in the periodicals section will be bound in volumes and these are usually arranged alphabetically and year by year. The most recent journals are usually kept in a separate section arranged by subject. Generally these cannot be removed from the library except in exceptional circumstances with special permission. References: This will contain dictionaries, magazines, newspapers, encyclopaedias and atlases. These are generally not allowed to be removed. Dissertations: Copies of dissertations or theses produced within the institution will be kept by the library. These will often provide useful information and references. The library will also be able to access other theses kept at different libraries through inter-library loans. Computer databases: These are often stored either on CD-Rom or linked to the internet and the wide variety of databases allows the user to search for information and view abstracts or full texts. Each library will use different systems so once again the best port of call is the Librarian, who will be able to tell the researcher what sources are accessible and how to search most effectively. Abstracts and reviews: These are not contained in all libraries but are extremely useful at the beginning of an information search. Abstracts contain up-to-date summary information on the most recent publications in the subject area. Reviews are often published in the more popular periodicals and are a useful guide to recent publications. Citation index: This extremely helpful source allows the researcher to get a feel for the development of ideas over time. It is relatively straightforward (if time consuming) to find and read the references given in an article looking back over time. However, it is often useful to know what developments there have been since this publication, and who since then has referenced this particular author or publication looking forwards in time. The citation index allows the researcher to do just that. It is a listing, by author, of everyone who has referred to that author's publications since they appeared. According to Jankowicz (2000) the citation index is The finest creation of the librarian's craft.

35

Stacks: These are usually only found in older, more established libraries generally hidden away down in the basement or up in the attic. They contain rare and precious material and access is usually restricted. It can be helpful to divide useful sources of information into three types: 9. Primary sources. Original information that may or may not have been published. These include materials such as government documents and research papers or unpublished letters, company memos and e-mails. 10. Secondary sources. These include data that have been organised, collated and indexed. 11. Tertiary sources. These include materials such as subject guides and catalogues there to help in finding the primary and secondary sources. Table 3.1 provides more detail about these different sources of information. Something to note is that the information at the top of the table is likely to be more accurate than that at the bottom, but will be much more difficult to find. The sources towards the bottom of the table will, on the other hand, be easier to find, but less detailed and less accurate. Blaxter et al (2002) and Saunders et al (2003) both provide excellent summaries of these sources of information.

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Table 3.1 Sources of information Data Generated by Individuals and Organisations government bodies private companies trade associations chambers of commerce local employer networks trades unions and employers' organisations research organisations and professional bodies Patent Office consumer organisations Data Recorded in Primary Sources monographs (books on a single topic) academic journal articles conference papers unpublished research reports (available from author) newspapers and magazines (some features and news items) company annual reports company price lists company internal 'house magazines' Data Organised, Collated and Indexed in Secondary Sources books of readings (collations of journal articles) textbooks encyclopaedias bibliographies dictionaries academic journal review articles academic journal annual index pages annual review books (of topics in academic disciplines) abstracts (periodic issues in many academic disciplines) 'Current Contents' (a collation of journal contents pages) Data Summarised and Signposted in Tertiary Sources subject guides library catalogues and indexes on-line databases e.g. Management Contents, ABI Inform, on DIALOG off-line databases on CD-ROM e.g. ABI Inform, ANBAR Abstracts, EXTEL, FAME Source: Jankowicz (2000).

37

Retrieving Relevant Information Having access to the sources of information listed in Table 3.1 is one thing, retrieving relevant information for a specific project is quite another. There is generally so much information available on any particular topic, and so many sources of that information that even the thought of the search can be overwhelming. The most important starting place is an effective plan, otherwise the researcher may end up with out-of-date and irrelevant information. Good planning cuts down the long and laborious process of collecting the necessary information. Clearly defined research parameters are an important starting position. Unless a project is very tightly defined, it may be impossible to judge which areas of the literature are relevant. According to Saunders et al:
For most research questions and objectives you will have a good idea of which subject matter is going to be relevant. You will however, be less clear about the parameters within which you need to search. Saunders et al (2003)

How does the researcher define these parameters? An example from the field of Business and Management may be useful here. Bell (1999) suggests that in this area the researcher needs to be clear about the: language of publication (for example English) subject area (for example finance) business sector (for example manufacturing) geographical area (for example Europe) publication period (for example the last 10 years) literature type (for example refereed journals and books) Jankowicz (2000) suggests that the items in a relevance tree (discussed in Chapter 2) will also help the researcher in deciding exactly what to search for. He also suggests that the researcher look for information which is consistent, complementary or relevant to the knowledge already gained. Finally the researcher should avoid trivialities, sticking to the main issues and not getting side-tracked. Strict selfdiscipline is often necessary here. Being Selective So, after frequent consultation of the relevance tree, the researcher has made a careful plan. Clear parameters have been drawn. The material has been accessed. But there is too much! It is rarely possible to read all the information that is accessed, so researchers need to be able to quickly evaluate the worth of what they are reading and learn to become selective. Blaxter et al (2002) give the following suggestions to help get to the gist of the argument and pull out the material or details within minutes.

38

Note down the author(s), title, publisher and date of the book, report or article. Keep this record and any notes on the content safe. Look for an introduction, concluding chapter, abstract or executive summary. If there is one, read it quickly, scanning the contents. If the book or report has a cover, publishers notes may be useful. If it is a book or a report look for the contents page. Identify any chapters which appear to be of particular relevance and focus on them, again starting from the introduction and/or conclusion. The way through the chapter or section can be navigated by using sub-headings. If it is a book or report look for an index. If there are specific points of interest, the index should indicate where they are located in the text. In the text itself, key points will often be highlighted, or in the first or last paragraphs. Similarly, the first and last sentences of paragraphs are often used to indicate and summarise their contents.

39

Evaluating the Material

Although the literature review has so far been referred to as the starting point and foundation of a project, it is not an activity that is confined to the beginning of a piece of research. As Saunders et al suggest:
For most research projects, your literature search will be an early activity. Despite this early start, it is usually necessary to continue searching throughout your projects life. The process can be likened to an upward spiral, culminating in the final draft of a written critical literature review.

Saunders et al (2003) The written critical literature review generally forms an important part of the research paper or thesis (Howard and Sharp, 1993). Here the researcher argues the strengths and weaknesses of the pieces already written. Blaxter et al (2002) describe a critical reading as one that: goes beyond mere description by offering opinions, and making a personal response, to what has been written relates different writings to each other, indicating their differences and contradictions, and highlighting what they are lacking does not take what is written at face value strives to be explicit about the values and theories which inform and colour reading and writing views research writing as a contested terrain, within which alternative views and positions may be taken up shows an awareness of the power relations involved in research, and of where writers are coming from uses a particular language (authors assert, argue, state, conclude or contend), may be carefully qualified and may use an umpersonal voice This describes the function of the critical review of the literature. To put this into practice within a research paper or thesis, Dees (2000) suggests that the researcher should: refer to work by recognised experts in the chosen field consider and discuss work that supports and work that opposes the ideas of the researcher make reasoned judgements regarding the value of others work to the research support the arguments with valid evidence in a logical manner distinguish clearly between fact and opinion

40

In other words put forward a well-structured, logical argument in which the present project is discussed in the light of the previous research.

Evaluating Reliability
Alongside critically evaluating the content of primary information sources, the researcher must also be able to evaluate its reliability. This is particularly important when dealing with sources on the Internet. Just because the information has been printed does not mean it is reliable. According to Luck (1999), how the researcher assess reliability depends on the nature of the source. In general, research databases and peer reviewed journals are the most reliable sources of information. Research Journals Contributions to research journals are 'peer reviewed'. This means they have been critically assessed by experts before being accepted for publication and so can normally be trusted to be reliable. Some journals have a better reputation than others in this respect. Newspapers and Magazines Articles in newspapers, supplements, magazines and other popular media are not peer reviewed. There are editorial constraints which mean an article may have been cut (so what is left may not accurately reflect the author's intention). Some publications are very selective about the information they include in a piece, so the article may not include many of the facts. Indeed, it may not be clear what is fact and what is opinion. The researcher needs to take care when using data from such sources. Material That Goes Against the Consensus The researcher needs to be careful of such sources. They may or may not be wrong, but material that challenges the current paradigm must be able to prove itself. In these circumstances Luck (1999) suggests that the researcher ask these questions: Why were these observations made or these facts recorded? Did the authors have access to recent evidence? Did they use a representative sample? Was their investigative approach appropriate? Did they use the right controls? Was the information collected for one purpose but used for another? Has the information been used to test an hypothesis or to reinforce a prejudice? Was the work done for academic reasons or was it commercially sponsored? To what extent have the facts been summarised?

41

Summaries Good summaries or review articles provide a balanced overview of the available opinions about existing literature so can be a useful guide to its reliability.

Recording Information
Methods There are many ways to record information. Some would argue that the only sensible method in this electronic age is on chip or disk, but paper still has its place (especially for the technophobe). As Luck charmingly argues:
Paper is flexible stuff which can be cut, scribbled on, spread around, piled up, carried about in individual pieces, or even scrunched to a ball in fury. You can do very few of these exciting things with a computer. Compared with written script, the amount of text visible on a computer screen at any one time is limited and generally linear in the way it flows. Spontaneous freehand sketches to show how ideas are related come naturally when you have a pen in your hand but are a pain on the keyboard. In short, paper offers you the utmost freedom and flexibility; it is the medium of choice for your primary note taking. Luck (1999)

There are certainly many situations where the use of a computer is not practical. Not everyone has a laptop, for example, and the desktop PC can hardly be taken on the train or into the library. As Luck suggests, freehand sketches can be an excellent aid to creativity, and simple lists of ideas are often better jotted down with a pencil. Luck also likes the old-fashioned file card, again for its versatility, but it doesn't suit everyone. The important thing is to use a method that is appropriate: a) to the situation b) to the type of material being recorded c) to the researcher Photocopying Photocopying is undoubtedly a way of recording information, but whether it is useful is another question. Some would argue that it is really just a form of procrastination, of putting off the chore of having to read endless material that may or may not be relevant. It is certainly not the same thing as reading and taking notes, which not only creates a record of what has been read, but helps the researcher to digest and understand the information. Nonetheless photocopying does have its place. For example, if the researcher is gathering data in a library away from home, the photocopier is an invaluable tool. Equally, it is useful to accurately record a list of references or a quotation. Some items may be of continuing interest, for example if the researcher needs to refer regularly to a particular methodology or a complicated diagram.

42

Deciding What to Record Deciding what to record is as important as deciding what to read. The section Being Selective gave a brief guide (Blaxter et al) to identifying relevant material quickly and easily from various sources. Luck (1999) has also put together a useful guide (see Table 3.2). Luck's guide refers only to research papers, but he does include information about what to record alongside advice about what is essential reading.

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Table 3.2: Using research papers effectively

Order
1 2

Paper Section
Title Authors

Need to Read?
Essential Essential

Need to Record?
Essential Essential

Value
The initial guide content. Needed for referencing. Remember key/prolific authors. Remember where they work. Needed for referencing. Associate the date with the authors in your mind. Guide to content and main findings. Read it all. Read the last sentence first. Sets the scene for the work. Use as a guide to:

Bibliographic details (journal, volume, date, page numbers) Abstract

Essential

Essential

Essential

Optional

First paragraph of introduction

Optional but wise

Optional

6 Last paragraph of discussion Optional Optional

the level at which the paper is set the authors writing style the value of the rest of the introduction

The papers bottom line. Often provides a bite-sized summary of the work and its significance. Use as a source of new references. Outlines questions being addressed. May be a useful review of recent literature. Skim through, paragraph by paragraph, to find what you need. Dont get bogged down. Use the graphics and tables to fix the key results in your mind. Read text if this had important details. Usually the most turgid part of the paper. Read only if:

7 8

Bibliography Rest of introduction Rest of discussion

Essential Optional

Optional Optional

Optional

Optional

10

Results

Optional

Optional

11

Materials & Methods

Optional

Optional

Source: Luck (1999).

you need to understand the detail of the experimental design you are likely to need this methods yourself something about the results requires clarification

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Most pieces of research will have to include a reference section and bibliography. This part of the paper or thesis must be accurate and complete. It is vital to stress the importance of collecting this information immediately the source is discovered even if the researcher believes the source may not be used again trying to find a lost reference is dispiriting in the extreme. The easiest and most efficient way to record this information is probably on a computer (remembering to keep back up copies). If it is a research paper, the researcher should note: author(s), year of publication, full title of paper, full name of the journal, volume, part, page numbers If it is a book: author(s) or editor(s), year of publication, full title of book, volume, edition, publisher, place of publication Here are some additional dos and don'ts suggested by Luck (1999): Do: make sure that the family or surname is correct, taking extra care with foreign or unusual names include diacritical marks (accents, cedillas and so on), making sure that they are correct record the details directly from the paper or book, not from the reference which pointed to it it is embarrassing to find that someone else's error has been copied Don't: correct any apparent errors that are found, for example, in the title - tell it just like it is abbreviate the information recorded (for example, by leaving out titles or by substituting et al in place of secondary authors).

Using the Internet

The Internet is a network that connects millions of computers all over the world through the international telecommunications system. This is most commonly done using the World Wide Web (WWW) allowing documents that contain not only text but also graphics, audio and video to be exchanged over the Internet. It is now one of the fastest growing and most widely used sources of information. It contains information such as journals, research papers, newspaper articles, government reports, company reports and information, advice centres, databases, contact points for other researchers and so on.

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Anybody can place information on the Internet and for any purpose. The researcher should therefore be extremely careful and sceptical when dealing with such sources unless they are known to be reliable. The researcher also needs to be disciplined when searching for information, starting out with a clear and specific agenda to avoid information overload (and getting distracted). There are several ways of searching the Internet for documents and webpages, although the distinctions between them are often blurred. These are: Search Engines Search engines enable the researcher to search using keywords which describe the subject being sought. Examples of search engines are Google, Altavista, Excite. Advantages: wide coverage of the Web may sort material according to how relevant it is to the query many offer the opportunity to refine and enhance the search many offer links to useful related material Disadvantages: frequently returns too much material minimal sorting of material returned, particularly of similar material at the same address all engines have slightly different rules for refining a search some engines have been found to include paid listings in search results and not clearly label them as advertisements Metasearch Engines These enable the researcher to search across many search engines at once. Examples of metasearch engines are Dogpile, Search, Metacrawler. Advantages: searches in many different search engines some are able to eliminate duplicate records, or pages on similar topics at the same address some will sort pages into topics, or will eliminate duplicate pages Disadvantages: frequently returns too much material do not allow sophisticated searches because they are searching in many different search engines, all with different rules some are inefficient at sorting records, or only show some of the search results to save space

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Information or Subject Gateways These are organised lists of webpages, divided into subject areas by humans. Also known as directories. Some gateways are general and cover material on as many subjects as possible. Examples of these are Yahoo and LookSmart. Others are specifically designed to cover a particular subject area in depth, or specialise in academic information. Advantages: less likely to return sites that are no longer available subject organisation makes finding material on a topic easier information is likely to be more substantial and relevant Disadvantages: smaller coverage of the Web less likely to have very new sites subject organisation and categories are not always clear maintenance is very dependent on the amount of human input available

Source, Monash University Library.

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Assessment Questions
1. Secondary research is: research involving data originally collected for another purpose conducted after primary research less important research additional or extra research 2. The first step in designing research is to: decide to use primary or secondary research choose a qualitative or quantitative approach or both think about the nature of the research enquiry choose the method of data collection, for example, telephone interviews or face-to-face interviews 3. The best source of secondary data is: non government published data government published data in-house data no one source is inherently better 4. Familiarity with the available literature allows the researcher to: clearly understand the arguments presented in the information they are reading cross-reference these with other pieces of similar work generate ideas for the research all of the above 5. The most important part of any research project is: good planning finding information identifying data sources having access to the WWW

6.

Which of the following is the odd one out?

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Library catalogues References Dissertations Computer databases Data analysis 7. What is the main advantage of using the WWW? There is very wide coverage, therefore the researcher should find more material. The researcher is able to sort material by relevance to the question. It offers the opportunity to refine and enhance the search. It may offer links to useful related material. It can return a large quantity of information. 8. Which of the following is the odd one out? AltaVista Google Excite Citation index

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CHAPTER 4 METHODS FOR DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Summary
This chapter guides the reader through the different methods used for gathering and analysing data. The discussion begins with a brief description of research philosophies and approaches. The chapter proceeds by examining the role of different research methods and the appropriate data collection techniques. The chapter closes with a brief description of reliability, validity and generalisability.

Introduction
Chapter 1 (The Purpose and Context of Research) introduced the learner to the assumptions that underpin a research approach. Does the researcher follow a positivist paradigm or is an interpretive paradigm more appropriate? Is a qualitative methodology more appropriate than a quantitative approach or is a combination of both most suitable? Chapter 1 also introduced the idea that a research project resembles the multiple layers of an onion (Saunders et al, 2003). The outer layers (the research paradigm) and the middle layers (the research approach) were peeled away in Chapter 1(hopefully without too many tears). It is time to move on to the next phase of the project, the research method (or methods many projects will need to use more than one).

Learning objectives
describe the different methods available to the researcher compare and evaluate these methods describe data collection techniques explain the appropriate use of these techniques describe and evaluate different methods of data analysis demonstrate understanding of reliability, validity and generalisability

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Research Methods
The good researcher must ensure that the research is conducted properly in other words, that it is carried out in a way that guarantees the accuracy of the results. The researcher must therefore have an excellent working knowledge of the different research methods available. The research methods examined in this chapter are: the experiment the survey the case study grounded theory ethnography action research The Experiment Denscombe (2003) has identified three major factors that lie at the heart of conducting a successful experiment: experimental controls identification of causal factors observation and measurement Experimental controls Experiments involve the manipulation of circumstances to see what will happen. First the researcher identifies the factors or variables that may be meaningful. These variables are then introduced to or excluded from the experimental situation so that their effect can be observed. Some of the ways in which this can be achieved are listed below. Eliminate the variable from the experiment. This is one of the most direct ways of controlling for factors or variables that might affect the outcome of an experiment. For example, a researcher may remove a particular food from a person's diet in order to determine the cause of a skin rash. Hold all other variables constant. There are some factors that cannot be eliminated from an equation and so must be held constant. For example when studying the impact of food types on skin rashes the researcher may use people with the same blood type, so that their blood type will not intrude on the outcome of the food type analysis.

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Use control groups. This is the most established way of exercising control over meaningful variables. For example, in an experiment using two groups of people, each group will be either matched to make them as similar as possible or chosen randomly. Only the experimental group will have the meaningful variable introduced to or excluded from it (for example, a particular food type is excluded from the diet). The other group will experience no change. Any differences between the groups can then be measured. The way in which controls are used in an experiment will depend on the nature of the research while controls may be easy to introduce in the physical sciences, the process may be much more difficult in the social sciences it is often just not feasible or ethical. Identification of causal factors The introduction or exclusion of variables to or from the experimental situation enables the researcher to pinpoint which variable causes the observed outcome. It is generally not enough to show that the variables are linked or occur simultaneously. Observation and measurement Experiments rely on precise and detailed observation of outcomes and changes that occur following the introduction or exclusion of potentially relevant factors. They also involve close attention to the measurement of what is observed. This is why, where possible, experiments take place in a laboratory. In the social sciences however, all this becomes more difficult people are involved, and people who know they are being observed rarely behave as they would in their natural setting. This has to be taken into consideration when designing the experiment. There's no doubt that the experiment is an effective way of controlling variables when seeking to observe cause and effect, but there are drawbacks. Denscombe (2003) suggests that there are both advantages and disadvantages to this method. Advantages: Provided details of the experiment have been carefully recorded, and the variables controlled for, then the experiment will be repeatable. Laboratory experiments permit the highest degree of precision for measurement. Laboratory experiments are convenient in terms of location and setting up the project. The researcher does not have to go into the field or spend time and money on travelling.

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Disadvantages: Ethical matters need to be taken into consideration, especially in the social sciences. Some experiments, for example, involve deceiving the subjects, or at least keeping the purpose of the experiment secret from the subject. The experiment is usually conducted in an artificial setting, which may lead to artificial responses. It can be very difficult to achieve a sample which is representative of the population, especially in the case of control groups. It may be very difficult for the researcher to be able to effectively control the relevant variables which lie at the heart of experimentation. The Survey The survey can be a useful tool for the researcher. It facilitates the collection of large amounts of data from a large number of sources in a reasonably efficient, effective and economical manner. It is versatile the sample may be people, artefacts in archaeology, buildings in architecture. Hutton describes the survey as:
the method of collecting information by asking a set of preformulated questions in a predetermined sequence in a structured questionnaire to a sample of individuals drawn so as to be representative of a defined population. Hutton (1990)

This is perhaps a rather narrow definition the researcher may not necessarily use a structured questionnaire but it does describe the basis of the survey. The questionnaire and the interview are the primary methods of data collection for surveys. Of course an interview is simply a way of asking someone questions face to face or by telephone instead of asking them to complete a written questionnaire. Both methods can use either open ended questions or closed, predetermined questions. The choice will depend on the nature of the project, but a survey in which the data collected is standardised will enable the researcher to ensure more accurate analysis and comparison. Designing the questions is the most difficult part of any survey. Questionnaires and interviews depend on the goodwill of the subject, someone who is giving up their own time to answer the researcher's questions. Necessarily, therefore, the number of questions has to be limited, and this will in turn restrict the amount of data that can be gathered. This can be a difficult decision for the researcher who may have to choose between depth and breadth. To make most effective use of the time available for each questionnaire or interview, the researcher must ensure that only necessary

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questions are included, those which will gather the most wanted data. This requires huge amounts of preparation. It also requires a pilot test, perhaps more than any other method. Only through the pilot test will the researcher discover the questions that do not work the questions which the subjects completely misinterpret, which elicit only yes or no answers, or which provide data that has nothing whatsoever to do with the study. The response rate This can have a huge impact on the accuracy of the survey. The response rate refers to the proportion of the sample that responds to the survey. Non-responses can lead to bias in the survey if the non-respondents are significantly different to the respondents, so the researcher needs to minimise non-responses as much as possible. There are two types of non-response that can lead to bias. Refusal. This is where the subject refuses to take part in the survey. Several factors can influence this. The appearance of the interviewer. Respondents need to feel comfortable with the interviewer. If they do not, or if they feel intimidated, their willingness to participate, or to a lesser extent their truthfulness of response, is likely to be lower. The appearance or structure of the questionnaire. If the questionnaire is untidy, full of mistakes or difficult to follow people are unlikely to take the time to complete it. Questionnaires should be easy to follow and laid out logically, enabling the subject to follow the instructions on their own. The questions themselves should be clear and straightforward. The subject of the research. If the research is on a sensitive issue such as income or sex, or these form part of the survey, then the response rate is likely to be lower. The social climate may also have a profound affect. For example there may be government censorship or fear of persecution, or organisational culture issues such as confidentiality. This is likely to have an impact on the accuracy or truthfulness of the data obtained. Non-contact. If there is systematic non-contact then the sample and therefore the survey will be biased. The researcher therefore needs to take care that contact is made with all potential respondents, or if contact is not made, that it is due to purely random factors. For example, a researcher who calls only at houses that have cars in the drive in the belief that at least the occupants will be at home (so saving time for the researcher) will be guilty of systematic non-contact. So what is an acceptable response rate? There are no real hard and fast rules. The response rates for prearranged interviews are always expected to be much higher than for large postal surveys. Denscombe (2003) suggests that rather than look for a set figure, it is more productive to evaluate the response rate achieved in terms of the following questions:

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Is the level of response reasonable and in line with comparable surveys? Have appropriate measures been adopted to minimise the likelihood of nonresponses, and have suitable steps been taken to follow up non-respondents to encourage them to collaborate with the research? Do the non-respondents differ in any systematic and relevant way from those who have responded? The Case Study The case study is often the method of choice for the novice researcher seeking to undertake a small-scale piece of research, for example a study comparing a small number of organisations or a study in their own workplace. However, the case study frequently suffers from a bad press, having a reputation for lack of rigour and objectivity. In spite of its reputation, the case study is still a useful tool. For example, it can offer insights that might not have been achieved with other approaches (Rowley, 2003). It is also an effective way of examining a specific contemporary phenomenon within a real life context (Robson, 2002). This is a claim that cannot be made for the experiment. The researcher who has chosen the case study as a research method is not limited to carrying out a single study. In fact Rowley (2002) suggests that multiple case studies are generally the preferred option - the more cases that can be used to test a theory the more robust the outcome. The single study is useful as a starting point, perhaps as a pilot study for the main project, or can be used in a particular situation where multiple studies would not be possible. An example of a multiple case study is that carried out by Len Tiu Wright (1996) from the University of Birmingham, Alabama. This study looked at the views of senior marketing managers on low pricing as a strategic option in their international marketing strategies, comparing comparable US and Japanese firms. The sample size was 26 companies 13 American and 13 Japanese. In spite of its problems of subjectivity of the replies and the non-replicable nature of case studies, Len Tiu Wright believes that the case study, with its in-depth interviews, was the best (and perhaps the only) way of overcoming individual reservations concerning confidentiality:
qualitative techniques such as in-depth interviews may provide the only means of obtaining sensitive information directly affecting the organisations involved Len Tiu Wright (1996)

Another use for the case study is as a starting point for new research. Einenhardt suggests that it is:

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particularly well suited to new research areas or research areas for which existing theory seems inadequate. This type of work is highly complementary to incremental theory building from normal science research. Einenhardt (1989)

So how does the researcher decide on an appropriate case to study? Denscombe (2003) puts forward these suggestions. The case should be: typical of other, similar, cases and so the findings are likely to apply elsewhere relevant to previous theory a strong example of its kind that clearly illustrates the factor being investigated It may be that there is no choice. Circumstances may be beyond the researcher's control. For example, the study may be part of a commissioned research project, in which case there will be little leeway. Or unique events may occur (for example, famines, earthquakes or strikes) that provide unique opportunities for study. Other considerations may be cost, or the time it would take to travel to collect data. A novice researcher, for example, would be unlikely to have the funds to carry out a study in two countries. But pragmatic factors, says Denscombe, should not be the main reason for choosing one case over another. There is no point in completing a case study where the outcome will have little meaning, even if it does cost next to nothing and only involves taking the elevator to the next floor. The next important step to consider is the collection of evidence. Rowley (2002) proposes three key principles of evidence that need to be observed. 12. Triangulation - one of the great strengths of case studies is that evidence can be collected from multiple sources (for example interviews, articles, newspapers, observation, questionnaires). Triangulation means using evidence from different sources to corroborate the same fact of finding. 13. Case study database - a case study database of the evidence gathered needs to be constructed that will strengthen the repeatability of the research and increase the transparency of the findings. This database may include case notes etc. 14. Chain of evidence - the researcher needs to maintain a chain of evidence. The report should make clear the sections on the case study databases that it draws upon, by appropriate citation of documents and interviews. Collecting the case study evidence is only the first part of the process analysis is the second. Analysis of case study evidence is often difficult due to its nonstandardised nature, but Yin (1993) offers guidelines for good case study analysis. The analysis should: make use of all relevant evidence

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consider all major rival interpretations, exploring each of them in turn address the most significant aspect of the case study draw on the researcher's prior expert knowledge in the area of the case study, but in an unbiased and objective manner Grounded Theory According to Martin and Turner grounded theory is
an inductive, theory discovery methodology that allows the researcher to develop a theoretical account of the general features of a topic while simultaneously grounding the account in empirical observations of data. Martin and Turner (1986)

One of the major differences between grounded theory and other qualitative methods is its focus on theory development. A key aspect of this approach, (see for example, Glaser and Strauss, 1970, Strauss and Corbin, 1990, 1994), is that the researcher deliberately avoids specifying any theoretical propositions. Grounded theorists believe that establishing a theory before beginning to collect data will only impede the development of new theories and conceptual frameworkds. Therefore data collection begins before the initial theory is framed. Theory is developed as the research project progresses and data is collected. These data lead the researcher to new hypotheses or predictions which are tested in further observations. A detailed account of grounded theory can be found in Charmaz (1983), Glaser (1992) and Hadden and Lester (1994) among others. Strauss. A. and Corbin. J. M. 1998. The Basics of Qualitative Research: Techniques and Procedures for Developing Grounded Theory.2nd ed. Sage. Ethnography Ethnography literally means a description of peoples or cultures. Ethnographic research was traditionally used in social and cultural anthropology and involves the researcher spending a significant amount of time (often in excess of 6 months) in the field. According to Myers (1999),
Ethnographic research is one of the most in-depth research methods possible. Because the researcher is at a research site for a long time - and sees what people are doing as well as what they say they are doing an ethnographer obtains a deep understanding of the people, the organization, and the broader context within which they work. Ethnographic research is thus well suited to providing information systems researchers with rich insights into the human, social, and organizational aspects of information systems. Myers (1999)

Saunders et al (2003) suggest that its purpose is to 'interpret the social world the research subjects inhabit and the way in which they interpret it.' According to

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Denscombe (2003), the characteristics listed below are typical of ethnographic research. It requires the researcher to spend considerable time in the field among the people whose lives and culture are being studied. Routine and normal aspects of everyday life are regarded as worthy of consideration. Special attention is given to the way the people being studied see their world. There is an emphasis on the need to look at the interlinkages between the various features of the culture. Individual aspects of the culture are not seen in isolation from the wider context within which they exist. There is some acknowledgement that the ethnographer's final account of the culture or group being studied is more than just a description - it is a construction which inevitably owes something to the ethnographer's own experiences. For a much more detailed description of ethnography, including the strengths and weaknesses, see Denscombe (1998) Ch.5. Action Research Action research had its beginnings in the 1940s when social scientists wanted closer links between the social theories that had been and were being developed and the solving of the current social problems. In other words, they wanted to be able to apply the theories in the real world. According to Saunders et al (2003) there are three common themes in the literature concerning action research. 15. The first focuses on and emphasises the purpose of the research - the management of change. 16. The second relates to the involvement of practitioners in the research and in particular to a close collaboration between practitioners and researchers. 17. The third theme suggests that action research should have implications beyond the immediate project.

Denscombe (2003) lists four defining characteristics of action research: 1. It is practical, aimed at dealing with real world problems and issues, typically at work and in organisational settings.

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2. Change is regarded as an integral part of research both as a way of dealing with practical problems and as a means of discovering more about phenomena. 3. It is a cyclical process. The research involves a feedback loop in which initial findings generate possibilities for change which are then implemented and evaluated as a prelude to further investigation. 4. Participation of the practitioners is active not passive. Practitioners are the crucial people in the research process. The use of action research has increased over the last few years and is now generally accepted as a valid research method. It is applied in such fields as organisation development and education (Kemmis and McTaggart, 1988) and management training (Cardno and Piggot-Irvine, 1996) among others.

Data Collection Techniques

So far this chapter has considered the more theoretical side of a research project. Eventually, however, the researcher reaches a stage where real data needs to be collected. This section of the chapter will consider: sampling interviews questionnaires observation secondary data Sampling In an ideal world a researcher would collect data from the entire population, who would all be delighted to take part. However, only some governments have this luxury when they carry out a census, an extremely expensive and time-consuming activity. So the humble researcher makes do with only a sample of the population. Sampling, says Jankowicz, is:
the process of selecting a few (a sample) from a bigger group (the sampling population) to become the basis for estimating or predicting a fact, situation or outcome regarding the bigger group. A sample is a sub-group of the population you are interested in. Jankowicz (1999)

Sampling is a trade-off with advantages and disadvantages - although it may save time and money, it may well compromise the level of accuracy of the results. Kumar (1999) suggests that there are three main factors that can influence the accuracy of the results obtained from sampling: 1. The size of the sample the bigger the sample, the more accurate the findings are likely to be.

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2. The amount of variation in the population (in terms of the characteristics under investigation). The more homogeneous the population, the smaller the required sample size. 3. Bias in the selection of the sample. Bias is often the most difficult factor to control. Kumar lists three common causes of bias: sampling is done by a non-random method, that is, if the selection of subjects is consciously or unconsciously influenced by human choice the sampling frame-list, index or other population records from which the population is selected does not cover the sampling population accurately and completely a section of a sampling population is impossible to find or refuses to cooperate. Random sampling (also known as probability or representative sampling) This is probably the most common sampling technique. Here, each element in the sampling population must have an equal and independent chance of selection. For example, suppose a research project is looking at the reading skills of 11 year old children in Schoolsville. A random sample means that all children of this age in Schoolsville have an equal chance of being included in the sample. They also have an independent chance of selection. So the selection of one child will not affect the selection of another child. Each selection is independent of any other. Random samples are useful. With this type of sample the researcher can represent the total sampling population, so any inferences drawn can be generalised to the total sampling population. There are various techniques for selecting a random sample ranging from simple to multi-stage. Non-random sampling (also known as non-probability or judgemental sampling) There is no element of chance or probability in non-random sampling methods. These sampling designs are generally used when the number of elements in a population is either unknown or cannot be individually identified. The main non-random designs commonly used in qualitative and quantitative research include quota sampling, accidental sampling, judgemental or purpose sampling and snowball sampling. For more information on sampling techniques, see Kumar (1999) Ch.12 and Saunders et al (2003) Ch.6. Interviews Any person-to person interaction between two or more individuals with a specific purpose in mind is called an interview. An interview can be very flexible (unstructured) or it can be rigid (structured). The unstructured interview allows the

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researcher to ask questions as they spring to mind, following the flow of the conversation. The structured interview consists of a predetermined set of questions. Semi-structured interviews are somewhere in between in this case the interviewer has a set list of questions but there is a certain amount of flexibility. For example the order of questioning may be changed, or the interviewer may follow up on particular answers to questions. Interviews can be carried out on a one-to-one basis or with groups of people. Another form of interview technique that has become popular is the focus group. This is much used by advertising agencies and governments, not always with universal approval. Jankowicz (1999) describes the focus group.
This is a form of group interview in which the data arise from dialogue and general discussion among participants, rather than from a dialogue between yourself as investigator exploring their story with a single person as respondent. It is particularly useful for discovering the range of views and attitudes present within an organisation or part of it, and offers you the opportunity to observe the processes by which people interact, and hence to infer something of the culture and climate of the organisation as well as providing you with data about the content of people's views on the issues which you are exploring. Jankowicz (1999)

Recording information The interviewer can either use a tape recorder or pen and paper. In some cases the researcher may have no choice they may not be able to access a tape recorder or the interviewee may refuse to answer questions if they are being taped. Blaxter et al (2002) have identified advantages and disadvantages to both methods. Using the tape recorder means that the researcher can concentrate on the process of the interview and study the non-verbal language of the interviewee. Tape recording may make the respondent anxious and less likely to reveal information. Tapes take a long time to transcribe and analyse. Note taking gives an instant record of the key points of the interview. Note taking can be distracting for the respondent. The physical process of taking notes means that some of the key information may be lost whereas the tape recorder will give a verbatim record of the whole interview. For a more detailed description of interviewing, including issues such as the types of questions to be asked, data quality issues, recording the information, appropriateness of interviewing, the interviewer effect, planning and preparation and how to conduct the interview see Denscombe (2003) Ch. 7, Saunders et al (2003) Ch. 9 and Blaxter et al (2002) Ch. 6.

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Questionnaires Questionnaires are everywhere in popular magazines, on the internet, in the post. They are used by market researchers, by insurance companies and by undergraduates. It would be a rare person who has never completed such a thing. The questionnaire is, as Jankowicz (1999) points out, 'a written list of questions, the answers to which are recorded by respondents'. People generally know what to do with a questionnaire. They 'read the questions, interpret what is expected and then write down the answers' (Jankowicz, 1999). A simple matter, but not easy to design. Designing the questions One of the benefits of using a questionnaire instead of, say, an interview, is that the researcher does not need to be present when it is being completed. Therefore it must be able to stand on its own - the respondent cannot ask questions of an absent researcher. The questions themselves must be carefully worded. Blaxter et al (2002) give the following advice for both questionnaires and interviews: Try to avoid questions that are ambiguous or imprecise, or which assume specialist knowledge on the part of the respondent. Questions which require the respondent to recall events that occurred a long time ago will obtain less accurate responses. Several simple questions are usually more effective than one long one. Try not to draft leading questions. Try to avoid too many questions that are couched in negative terms. Hypothetical questions beyond the experience of the respondent are likely to obtain a less accurate response. Avoid questions that may be offensive and be careful with sensitive questions. Open-ended questions take more time to answer and are more difficult to analyse. (In an open-ended question the possible responses are not given. In a closed-ended question the possible answers are set out in the questionnaire and the respondent or the investigator ticks the category that best describes the respondent's answer.) Administering the questionnaire The way in which the questionnaire this is done will depend on the nature of the research project, time available, finances available and so on. Some ways in which it may be administered are: on-line over the internet by post by delivery and collection in person by telephone as a structured interview

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as a collective exercise for example, to students in a classroom in a public place For more detail see Saunders et al (2003) Ch.10. All questionnaires that are administered by post, e-mail or other form where there is no personal contact should contain a covering letter which according to Kumar (1999) should: introduce you and the institution you are representing describe in two or three sentences the main objectives of the study explain the relevance of the study convey any general instructions indicate that participation in the study is voluntary - if recipients do not want to respond to the questionnaire, they have the right not to assure respondents of the anonymity of the information provided by them provide a contact number in case they have any questions give a return address for the questionnaire and a deadline for its return thank them for their participation in the study. The pilot study The pilot study is essential. It allows mistakes to be corrected and difficult, sensitive or misleading questions to be changed. For further information on questionnaires including uses, types, data collection, design, question formulation, coding, pilot testing read Denscombe (2003) Ch.6, Saunders et al (2003) Ch.10 and Blaxter et al (2002) Ch.6. Observation
Observation is a purposeful, systematic and selective way of watching and listening to an interaction or phenomenon as it takes place. Jankowicz (1999)

Participant observation Here the researcher participates in the activity under observation, for example joining the staff of a fast food restaurant to examine the relationships between workers. The people under observation may or may not know that they are being observed. This type of observation usually produces qualitative data. A recognised problem of participant observation is that the more the researcher participates the less they are able to observe. The researcher who participates completely in an activity will find it very difficult to observe what is happening, being too busy making beef burgers or whatever. The researcher who spends the whole time watching the behaviour of others could hardly be said to be participating at all.

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Most participant observers will, of course, fall somewhere between these two extremes. Systematic or structured observation This type of observation has a high level of predetermined structure. It aims to overcome one of the main problems associated with participant observation, that is, the fact that two different observers will often produce completely different impressions of what is being observed. This type of observation usually produces quantitative data, generally explaining how frequently things happen rather than why they happen. For this reason it may form only part of the data collection method. For a more detailed analysis of observation see Denscombe (2003) Ch.8, Saunders et al (2003) Ch.8 and Blaxter et al (2002) Ch.6.

Data Analysis
Data analysis needs to be considered at the very beginning of the project. A mistake often made by the novice researcher is to rush out with great enthusiasm to collect lots of information, and then discover it is almost impossible to analyse. It is in the wrong format, or the questions were too open ended, or there's just too much of it. Plus many researchers begin their analysis before they have finished collecting the data, analysis that can be a useful guide in later data collection. The appearance of the initial data is likely to be chaotic, even if the data collection methods were very orderly or methodical. The researcher should not despair! Data analysis is about moving from chaos to order, and from order to chaos, often simultaneously according to Blaxter et al:
Data which seem under control are likely to become somewhat more disorganised, at least for a while; while some semblance of order will be found, or imposed upon, even the most chaotic collection....By the end of the process however areas where you think that your data add to the understanding of the topic you are researching may be seen as ordered, while areas in which your work has raised more questions than answers (the normal pattern) may appear as more chaotic. Blaxter et al (2002)

Many studies will contain both qualitative and quantitative data, although they may be predominately one or the other. Although the two types of data are often referred to as very separate and distinct groups the distinction between the two is often far from watertight. These two types of data were discussed in some detail in Chapter 1. Jankowicz (1999) believes that the process of analysing the data really involves two closely related processes: Managing the data, by reducing the size and scope, so that it can be reported on adequately and usefully.

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Analysing the managed set of data so drawing attention to what is felt to be of particular importance or significance. Blaxter et al (2002) suggest the following techniques for managing both qualitative and quantitative data: Coding. This is where items or groups of data are assigned codes. One use for codes is to simplify and standardise data before analysis. For example, age or occupation are replaced by numbers ( for example, male = 1, female = 2). Another is to reduce the quantity of data, for example when ages are categorised into a limited number of groups, which are in turn allocated their own unique number. Annotating. Notes or comments are added to written, audio or visual material, or some other alteration is made to draw attention to important sections. This makes it easier for the researcher to abstract or quote this material at a later date. Labelling. Already having an analytic scheme in mind, the researcher labels specific passages with key or significant words which will help to direct further analysis. Selection. The researcher selects interesting, significant, unusual or representative items to illustrate particular arguments. Summary. The researcher produces a reduced version of the data. The aim is illustrate the variability of the original data while also saying something about typical cases. Source: Blaxter et al (2002) p.204 Variables The variable is an image, perception or concept that is capable of being measured. It is something that varies, something to which numbers or values can be attached (Kerlinger, 1986). The variable that is introduced to or excluded from the experimental situation is the independent variable. The dependent variable is the factor that is being measured. For example, in the skin rash experiment mentioned earlier the independent variable is the excluded food type. The dependent variable is the affect it has on the skin rash (that is, whether a skin rash appears or not). Variables can be measured on any one of several measurement scales, which have varying degrees of precision in measurement. Stevens (1946) has classified the different types of measurement scale into four categories:

The nominal or classificatory scale Individuals, objects or responses are classified into sub-groups based on a common characteristic. For example, people are classified as having brown, blue or hazel eyes.

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The ordinal or ranking scale This has all the properties of a nominal scale plus one of its own. Besides categorising individuals, objects or responses into sub-groups on the basis of a common characteristic, it also ranks the sub-groups in either ascending or descending order. For example, income can be measured as 'above average', 'average', and 'below average' and ranked in ascending or descending order. The interval scale This has all the characteristics of an ordinal scale plus it uses a unit of measurement that places individuals, objects or responses at equally spaced intervals. It has a starting point and a terminating point. Centigrade and Fahrenheit scales are examples of the interval scale. In the Centigrade system the starting point (considered as freezing point) is zero and the terminating point (considered as boiling point) is l00oC. The gap between freezing and boiling points is divided into 100 equally spaced intervals, known as degrees. The ratio scale A ratio scale has all the properties of nominal, ordinal and interval scales plus its own property: the zero point of a ratio scale is fixed, which means it has a fixed starting point. Therefore, it is an absolute scale - the difference between the intervals is always measured from a zero point. This means the ratio scale can be used for mathematical operations. The measurement of income, age, height and weight are examples of this scale. A person who is 40 years of age is twice as old as a 20-yearold. A person earning 60 000 per year earns three times the salary of a person earning 20 000. Presentation of Data This is where the researcher performs a bit of magic by transforming a chaotic mass of raw data into a form that is easy to understand. This means putting it into descriptive tables and charts that contain all the necessary information. Denscombe (2003) describes this as a 'process of artfully moulding, extracting and refining the raw data, so that meaning and significance can be understood.' Producing good tables and charts is a skill in itself. There are excellent computer packages that can help with this, but it is up to the researcher to decide what information should be presented, and what form will give the best visual impact.

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The skill of producing good tables and charts relies on the ability to: present enough information without drowning the reader with information overload help the reader to interpret the table or chart through visual clues and appropriate presentation use an appropriate type of table or chart for the purpose at hand Information that must always be included if the chart or table is to have value for the reader include: a title, indicating what the table is about information about the units being represented in the columns of the table or on the axes of the chart the source of the data, if originally produced elsewhere For information regarding the appropriate uses of tables and charts see Denscombe (2003) Ch.10. Analysis of Quantitative Data Tables and charts allow the researcher to interpret the data to a certain extent, and for qualitative data this may be all that is possible. However, a statistical analysis is normally carried out on quantitative data. A statistical analysis is important, as not only does it allow the researcher to make more generalised conclusions on the basis of the evidence, it also gives credibility to the research findings. A statistically significant result shows that the outcome was due to the independent variable, not due to chance. There are numerous computer packages that can be used to analyse the data very useful when there are large amounts of it. Many packages are tailored to specific disciplines. It may take time to learn how to use them properly, but it is usually well worth the effort. As the researcher becomes familiar with using the package it becomes a powerful tool for analysing the data. As with charts and tables, a computer package can only do so much. It is still up to the researcher to understand which statistics are appropriate in which situation.

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Analysis of Qualitative Data One of the most important things to remember when analysing qualitative data is the role played by the researcher. Denscombe describes the temptation faced by the researcher who is new to this type of research:
..the nature of qualitative data lends itself to the temptation to present words as though they were pure and untouched by the act of the research itself. It might be tempting, for example, to present a quote extracted from an interview transcript as though it needs no commentary and can be taken at face value. This is not a practice that would be supported by the vast majority of 'qualitative' researchers...because... it stems from the general premise underlying the analysis of qualitative data: that the researcher's self plays a significant role in the production and interpretation of qualitative data. The researchers identity, values and beliefs cannot be eliminated from the process. Source: Denscombe (2003)

Below are two possible ways in which the researcher can deal with this difficulty. Both acknowledge the part that the researcher plays in the collection and analysis of data. 1. The researcher tries to remain detached from the process as much as possible, to keep everyday beliefs at a distance and to suspend judgements on social issues. 2. The researcher includes as part of the description and analysis the way in which his or her beliefs, experiences and social background have shaped the research agenda. In reality most researchers probably do something that is a compromise between keeping a distance and describing the effect of background on the outcome of the study. There are numerous different strategies that can be used to deal with the analysis of qualitative data. Saunders et al describe them as follows: Categorisation. First the data is classified into meaningful categories. The choice of categories is guided by the purpose of the research as set out in the research questions and objectives. Utilising data. The next stage is to attach bits of the data - words, sentences or paragraphs (referred to as units) to the appropriate categories. This reduces the data into a more manageable and comprehensible form. Recognising relationships and developing categories. The researcher looks for key themes and patterns or relationships in the rearranged data. This may lead to changes being made to the existing categories, which in turn helps the researcher to refine and refocus the analysis. Developing and testing the hypothesis to reach conclusions. While seeking patterns and relationships in the data the researcher begins to develop hypotheses that can test these relationships and patterns. Gradually

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the researcher is able to develop valid and well-grounded conclusions through the rigorous testing of these propositions and hypotheses against the data. Adapted from Saunders et al (2003) Ch.12. As with quantitative data there are now numerous computer packages that aid in the analysis of qualitative data. Denscombe (2003) provides a useful insight into the advances in analysis that computers have allowed while at the same time warning of too much reliance on their capabilities. Reliability, Validity and Generalisability It is the aim of every researcher to make sure that the results of any research project are reliable, valid and generalisable. Reliability This is the extent to which an experiment or any other measuring procedure yields the same results on repeated trials. If the experiment or test does not yield consistent results, the researcher will not be able to draw useful conclusions, formulate theories, or apply the results to a wider population. Robson (2002) proposes four ways in which reliability can be undermined. Subject error. Mistakes are made by the subjects, for example in filling out badly designed questionnaires. This type of mistake can be very difficult to identify. Subject bias. Subjects may say what they think the researcher or their boss wants them to say rather than what they actually believe. Observer error. Mistakes may be made in carrying out the research by the observer, for example, incorrect recording of answers given. Observer bias. The researcher may have ideas or views that colour their interpretation of the answers they receive or the observations they make. Validity This refers to the degree to which the study accurately measures what it sets out to measure. A method can be reliable because it consistently measures the same thing, but not valid, because what it is measuring is not what the study set out to measure. Generalisability This refers to whether the findings have a broader applicability beyond the focus of the research. In other words the extent to which research findings and conclusions from a study conducted on a sample population can be applied to the population at large.

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Assessment Questions
Note: this section needs to be updated.

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CHAPTER 5

PUBLISHING, PRESENTING AND COMMUNICATING

Summary
This chapter examines some of the practical issues involved in writing up a piece of research. The chapter begins with a discussion about the importance of communication and dissemination in the research process. It proceeds with an overview of the guidelines and conventions followed by a discussion about layout and structure. The chapter concludes with a description of referencing styles and publishing conventions.

Introduction
Writing up is one of the most exciting activities in the research process. For the researcher it indicates completion (or near completion) of the research. It is also an opportunity to publicise the work and to present the findings to the wider research community. Writing a report is not always easy, particularly for those who prefer the process of the research to putting pen to paper (or finger to keyboard). It is, however, a job that has to be done, so it might as well be done as painlessly and effectively as possible. This chapter aims to help the reluctant writer to produce a paper that is worthy of the research.

Learning objectives
On completion of this chapter the learner will be able to: discuss the importance of communication and dissemination in the research process describe common guidelines and conventions used in research documents describe the structure and layout of a typical research paper summarise referencing methods

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Communication and Dissemination

It is the process of telling others about a research project that makes it 'active'. Without the written results of a project, the research would have happened, findings would have been made, but few people would know about it. As Moore points out:
a research project which discovered the cure for cancer would be immensely valuable, but that value would only be realised or released when the results of the research were communicated to those who could make use of them. Moore (2000)

This communication normally takes the form of publication in a journal, a conference paper, a book or a thesis. Publication is the avenue by which most researchers present their research in a formal way, which will be subject to scrutiny and evaluation by others, in most cases, other researchers. According to Moore (2000), there is a tendency to pay only scant attention to this part of the project. It can certainly be tempting for the researcher to move on to the next thing, especially if it is the doing, not the writing that excites. However, as Moore argues, it is:
a process which should not be overlooked. Not only is it essential in the general transmission of ideas and the collective growth of knowledge and understanding, it can also be the most rewarding part of the whole research process, as it provides an opportunity to discuss ideas with other interested people and to gain the maximum value from the research process as a whole. Moore (2000)

Good communication is an essential part of the research process, beginning at the outset of the project and continuing as the work progresses. Some communication will be verbal, but much of it will need to be written the researcher will normally be required to provide detailed information to a number of parties at different stages. For example, information may be requested by: a supervisor as part of the monitoring process researchers in related fields the funder the community at large The research paper, thesis or report is the document that will be used to judge whether a Masters or PhD will be awarded. It is also the document that the editors of a journal will use to determine whether the research is of sufficient quality and credibility to be published. In other words, it is important that it is not only written, but written well. This does not mean that the researcher needs to be a talented writer. It is much simpler than that. When asked about style Matthew Arnold is reputed to have replied:

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People think I can teach them style. What stuff it is. Have something to say and say it as clearly as you can. That is the only secret of style. Moore (2000)

A research paper is not a novel. While elegant writing is a joy to read, it is no use if it does not tell the reader what they need to know. The most important thing is that ideas should be presented in a logical, clear and concise manner. Writing a research report or thesis is a dynamic process in which the researcher continuously revises and refines the work. Some people compose at the computer, others write in longhand first. One person discards fourteen drafts, another fortunate soul has it all done in two. There is no one way of writing a research paper. In spite of the individual nature of the process, however, there are certain guidelines that can be helpful to everyone.

Guidelines and Conventions

Any form of writing has its own rules and conventions which need to be followed if the writer is to gain acceptance and credibility. A consistent format makes sense from the point of view of both the reader and the writer. It enables the reader to find the required information quickly and easily and leaves the writer free to concentrate on other issues. As a general rule, the researcher should use the conventions listed below. 1. Write in the third party using 'the subject', 'the researcher', 'the author'. Never use I or we unless advised otherwise. 2. Write in the past tense. 3. Always check grammar and spelling. The spell checker on word processing packages is useful but should never replace careful reading of the document. A spell checker will not find such errors as 'that' written instead of 'the' or 'matter' written instead of 'manner'. Ensure that the language is appropriately set (generally to UK English). Blaxter et al provide tips on grammar and punctuation in writing research papers. 4. Ensure the paper or thesis is well structured so that it brings the reader logically through the discussion. If appropriate, follow the format set out by the institution or publisher. If there is no set format, for example for a thesis or dissertation, look at past successful examples. 5. Check the required length before starting to write. Finding out the word limit at the outset allows the researcher to make a proper plan. 6. Use heading and sub-heading to divide text into sections. 7. Ensure all headings, tables and figures are presented clearly. As a general rule all tables and figures should have a title, a source, units of measurement clearly stated, and a brief statement of explanation. Never insert a table or figure without an explanation.

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A final list of writing tips appears in Table 5.1.

Table 5.1: Writing tips Never assume prior knowledge. Never be patronising. Use simple everyday English words. Keep sentences short and simple. Use the active tense rather than the passive. Write as though explaining the research points to a panel of readers sitting across the table. Split complex ideas into simpler sub-sections. Avoid jargon. Always read through the report to check that it flows well. Further advice is given in the Allyn & Bacon Handbook. Make a clear, concise statement that outlines the subject in question, making the reader aware of the focus and nature of the research. Consider all the elements that will be dealt with by the paper or thesis. Think about the purpose and tone of the paper or thesis. What are the main points? What should be the correct tone? State the main point in a sentence or two, asserting the main idea in a short, coherent sentence. Revise as often as is necessary.

The Audience
Imagine being asked to write a letter to someone, but not being given any information about the recipient. A difficult task. How would the letter be pitched? It could be to a grandmother of 72 or a child of 6. Knowing the audience is important to the researcher too. Different audiences have different needs and expectations. According to Hale, there are two types of audience the real and the intended. The real audience is 'anyone who reads or perceives the message'. The intended audience is the 'target group' that the writer has in mind. Paying attention to and understanding this target group, the intended audience, is an important part of the communication process.

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Writing Styles
There are many ways of writing formal or informal, concise or detailed, technical or specialised. The style chosen is directly influenced by the audience or reader. Hale stresses the importance of knowing the audience before starting to write. He argues that this will: make the process of writing easier because it simplifies decisions about content, pitch and so on give the paper or thesis more unity of purpose and style help the researcher to decide how formal or casual to make the writing style enable the researcher to focus on specific questions rather than general issues enable the researcher to decide whether or not to define special terms allow the researcher to challenge (or appease) the readers Source: www.facstaff.gpc.edu/~shale/humanities/composition/handouts/audience.html Hale also points out that even if the researcher knows the intended audience well, they should never assume that the readers already agree with or know the material being communicated. In other words, the researcher needs to take account of the intended audience, but not make assumptions about opinions or prior knowledge.

Structure and Layout

Structure and layout will vary according to whether the document is in the form of a paper, report, or thesis. The structure and layout for a Masters or PhD award will be specified by the examining institution. A paper in an academic journal would generally include, in this order, the following elements: title abstract introduction literature review research methodology or methods of investigation findings analysis and discussion conclusions and recommendations appendices notes references

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For a detailed review of what should and should not be included in the different sections, see Kane (1983), Ch.12. Irrespective of whether the final product is to be a research paper for publication, a thesis or a report, there are some universal aspects to writing up that all researchers must follow: an explanation of the purpose of the research, generally outlined in the introduction a description of how the research was conducted, in other words, the methods used presentation of findings or results discussion and analysis of findings or results conclusions For a detailed review of each of these sections, see Moore Ch.7. Each of these sections should, of course, comprise only original writing unless the original author is given credit. Reproducing the work of others without giving recognition is plagiarism, which, as Brosi states,
is not only unethical; it is illegal. Anyone who plagiarises the work of another person is liable in civil court for damages. Society thus recognises the rights of writers to credit for their work. G. Brosi.

Available at: www.english.eku.edu/SERVICES/COMP102/HAND3.HTM In order to avoid plagiarism, Brosi suggests following these guidelines: At any time the words of a writer or speaker are used in writing, those words should be in quotation marks. In oral presentations, the speaker should say, "quote" at the beginning and "end quote" at the end of the direct quotation. Always give the name, that is, who is being quoted and the source. This is true whether an oral or a written source is being used.

The Special Case of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is usually reported somewhat differently to quantitative research due to its distinctive nature. This is especially true for research based on ethnographic or grounded theory approach. However, Denscombe suggests that the interpretative social researcher may still find it useful to follow the same format as that for quantitative research, using the same headings and so on.

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Citations and References

Every report, paper or thesis must include a full list of references and sources. There are several reasons for this. Listing all references allows the researcher to acknowledge the work of other writers. The reader is able to see the full body of knowledge upon which the research is based. The reader can assess the full extent of the researcher's reading and research ability. The reader can find the material to which the researcher refers. The researcher can show how material is used to support a point or argument. The researcher can avoid any accusations of plagiarism. Referencing systems Probably the most widely used referencing method is the Harvard system. This was developed in the USA during the 1950s and 1960s and has now become the most common system used nationally and internationally. Frequently it is the standard house style adopted by academic journals because it is considered to be flexible and easy to use. The Harvard system specifies that when referencing material in the body of the paper, the researcher should cite the name of the author and the date of the publication. This is done at the appropriate stage in the paper. When quoting directly from a textbook or article, the researcher should include the authors surname and the year of publication (of the book/article), followed by the quotation. This is normally indented and in italics, and includes the page numbers where the quotation can be found. If there are two authors, both surnames should be included. If there are more than two, the name of the first author appears followed by et al (and others). The final bibliography or reference section should list full details of all authors mentioned. The following guidelines from the University of Ulster provide an example of the Harvard referencing system. Books Saunders, M, Lewis, P and Thornhill, A (2000) Research Methods for Business Students, 2nd edition. Harlow, Financial Times/Prentice Hall Punch, K (2000) Developing Effective Research Proposals. London, Sage

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Mullins, LJ (1999) Management and Organizational Behaviour, 5th edition. London, Financial Times/Pitman. Journal Articles Kelloway, EK and Barling J (2000) "What have we learned about developing transformational leaders" in Leadership and Organization Development Journal, Vol 21, No 7, pp355-362. Love, PED and Li, H (2000) "Overcoming the problems associated with quality certification" in Construction Management and Economics, Vol 18, pp139-149. Articles in Collections/Edited Books The same principles for journal articles apply to chapters/readings appearing in edited books. Mason, J (1994) "Linking qualitative and quantitative data analysis" in A Bryman and RG Burgess (eds) Analyzing Qualitative Data. London, Routledge. Handy, C (1997) "Finding sense in uncertainty" in R Gibson (ed) Rethinking The Future. London, Nicholas Brealy Publishing. Newspaper Articles Articles from newspapers are dealt with in the same way as journal articles. The author's surname and initials come first, followed by the year, and then the title of the article in inverted commas. The name of the newspaper follows, which is underlined or put into italics. The date on which the newspaper was published follows, for example, February 1, 2002. Internet Sources Internet sources must be acknowledged and properly recorded just like any other. In general, the reference should include the name of the author(s), year of publication, title of the article, journal name (in italics), volume and part numbers and the day on which it was cited. This is followed by the URL address. Internet sites are dealt with in a broadly similar manner. For example: Jenkins, M and Bailey, L (1995) "The role of learning centre staff in supporting student learning" in Journal of Learning and Teaching, Vol1, part 1, For more information and access to similar journal articles by these authors visit the following website: www.glos.ac.uk/ceal/contacts/martinjenkins.cfm A web site that may be of use is: http://www.lc.unsw.edu.au/onlib/pdf/harvard.pdf

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Multiple Articles by Same Author(s) in Same Year Some authors are extremely prolific, producing more than one piece of work in the same year. Referencing in this situation is straightforward. The researcher simply suffixes 'a' or b or 'c' to the year of publication, for example, Smith (2001a) , Smith (2001b), Smith (2001c). These details should be recorded in the main text and in the final bibliography. A reference checklist appears in Table 5.2.

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Table 5.2: Reference checklist 1. Use the correct title: bibliography or references. A bibliography is the list of sources you have used. A reference is a detailed description of the item from which you have obtained your information. 2. Arrange items alphabetically. Set these out in alphabetical order according to authors' surnames (or title, if no author can be identified). 3. There are three common styles to highlight key elements in the reference; bold text, underlining and italics. You should use one, and one only. 4. Maintain consistency throughout. In your bibliography, for example, use the initial letters of the authors forename(s), even when you have more information. 5. The Harvard system is NOT the same as publishers' in-house style. When writing an article for a journal, always consult the editors to ensure you follow the specific guidelines. 6. When compiling the reference or bibliography section you need to be aware of what information you need. Find out what reference style is used. Keep an accurate record of every source you use in preparing your work (author, date, title, place of publication and publisher). If you take notes from your sources, keep a record of the page number as well as the source. Failure to do so will cause additional work on your part.

Publishing Guidelines and Specifications

All researchers should be aware of the research guidelines outlined by the publisher or examining institution before beginning to write up and they must be followed. Adherence to all of the specified regulations is essential if the research to be accepted for publication or a research award is to be made. Each journal will have its own guidelines which will specify the type of research it publishes and the conventions authors must follow. Academic institutions will also have their own guidelines which tend to cover content, style and presentation. Taylor and Francis Publishing is an organisation that publishes journals in Education, Business and Management, Chemistry and Computer science among others. Table 5.3 reproduces their guidelines for authors as an illustration to the researcher.

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Table 5.3: Taylor and Francis Publishing: Instructions for Authors

Submission. Authors should submit three copies of their papers along with an abstract to Professor Mark P. Taylor, Department of Economics, Warwick University, Coventry, CV4 7AL, UK. Submission of manuscripts on disc is encouraged. These should be prepared using a standard word processing package. Three printed copies are to be supplied with the disc, these matching the contents of the discs exactly. The contents of the papers shall be the sole responsibility of the authors and publication shall not imply the concurrence of editors or publishers. The Manuscript. Manuscripts must be typed with a double spacing throughout on one side of A4 paper only, with a 4cm left-hand margin. The text and references should be checked thoroughly for errors before submission. It is the responsibility of the author to ensure that the typescript is correct in style, syntax and spelling (Shorter Oxford English Dictionary). Papers should normally be divided into headed sections. Title Page. The first page of the typescript must contain: the full title; the affiliation and full address of all author(s); a running title of not more than 75 letters and spaces; an abstract of not more than 200 words; the name and full postal address of the author who will be responsible for correspondence and correcting of proofs. Abbreviations. Any word or words to be abbreviated should be written in full when first mentioned followed by the abbreviation in parentheses. Tables. Tables should be numbered and headed with short titles. They should be typed on separate sheets at the end of the manuscript. Illustrations. Illustrations should not be inserted in the pages of the manuscript but supplied separately with the typescript. Line drawings should be drawn clearly in Indian ink on tracing paper and at about double the intended size. Lettering should be stencilled either in Indian ink or Letraset, again large enough for any necessary reduction; typewritten annotations are not acceptable. The captions should be typed on a separate page at the end of the manuscript and not included in the text or under the illustrations. Acknowledgements. Acknowledgements should appear at the end of the text. References. The Harvard system is used. When quoted in the text the style is: ...Smith (1972) ... or (Brown and Jones, 1972) or... Smith et al. (1972a). References are listed alphabetically after the text. Journal and book titles should be written out in full. Examples are: Brigham, E. F. (1965) The determinants of residential land values, Land Economics, 41, 325--34. Phelps-Brown, H. (1981) Labour market policy, in Changing Perceptions of Economic Policy (Ed.) F. Cairncross, Methuen, London, pp.68--113. Footnotes. These should be numbered consecutively in the text and gathered on a separate sheet of the typescript Proofs. Proofs will be sent to the `corresponding' author for correction. These must be corrected and returned within three weeks otherwise publication may be delayed. Alterations to proofs other than corrections of printer's errors may be charged to the authors.

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Early Electronic Offprints: Corresponding authors can now receive their article by email as a complete PDF. This allows the author to print up to 50 copies, free of charge, and disseminate them to colleagues. In many cases this facility will be available up to two weeks prior to publication. Or, alternatively, corresponding authors will receive the traditional 50 offprints. A copy of the journal will be sent by post to all corresponding authors after publication. Additional copies of the journal can be purchased at the authors preferential rate of 15.00/$25.00 per copy. Copyright. Submission of a paper to Applied Economics will be taken to imply that it presents original unpublished work, not under consideration for publication elsewhere. A copyright assignment form will be sent to the authors of submitted papers prior to refereeing. This publishing agreement should be completed and returned to the editorial office. The agreement becomes void if the paper is not accepted for publication in the journal. The copyright covers the exclusive rights to reproduce and distribute the article, including reprints, photographic reproductions, microfilm or any other reproductions of similar nature, and translations. Permission to publish illustrations must be obtained by the author before submission and any acknowledgements should be included in the captions.

Source Oxford Publishing. Available at www.tandf.co.uk/journals/sublist.html For further information on how to write a research report, see Moore (2000), Ch.7.

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Assessment Questions
1. Which of the following is not true about the use of language in research reports? The researcher should choose accurate and clear words that are free from bias. The researcher should avoid labelling people whenever possible The researcher should avoid using the term subjects whenever possible. All of the above are true.

2.

In writing research papers, these and so on, the researcher should avoid the use of sexist language? True False

3.

Which is more appropriate when referring to someone with a disability or disease? A cancer victim A person who has cancer

4.

The researcher should try to use abbreviations frequently when writing a research paper or thesis. True False

5.

In writing a research paper or report, the researcher should try to avoid technical language. True False

6.

When writing a research paper or thesis the researcher should: use words for numbers that begin a sentence and for numbers that are below ten always use numbers use numbers and words avoid numbers

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7.

The aim in presenting and reporting the findings of research is to: demonstrate or sell the skills and expertise of the research supplier disseminate the findings influence and persuade the client in a course of action all of the above

8.

Which of the following is not a major part of the research paper or thesis? Results Abstract Methodology Footnotes

9. The Methodology section should start on a separate page. True False

10. The research results are interpreted and evaluated in the: introduction method results discussion 11. A step-by-step account of what the researcher and participants did during the research study is included in the: introduction abstract methodology design 12. References should always be double-spaced. True False

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13.

Qualitative research generally does not need a Methodology section. True False

14.

When writing the qualitative results section, you will need to find an appropriate balance between description and interpretation. True False Diagrams, matrices, tables and figures should never be used in qualitative research papers, reports and theses. True False

15.

16.

The most important element in giving a presentation is to: know the material know how to use the equipment know the audience all of the above

17.

Which of the following advice should you not give to a report writer? Use a much jargon and as many long words as possible. Pay attention to layout and appearance Start writing early even before the data arrives. Prepare an outline or map of the report.

18.

Tables and diagrams should be designed: so that the relevant findings stand out clearly to show how much data there is to be as eye-catching and colourful as possible to get as much information in a single table or diagram as possible

19.

A bar chart:

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is for displaying continuous data can be used for displaying any type of data is for displaying nominal or ordinal data is the same as a histogram

20.

The conclusions section in a report or presentation should include: advice to the client about what to do next the main facts and arguments presented in the main body your opinion of the research findings a discussion of the significance of the findings

21.

In reviewing the findings of research it is important to check that: the methods used and the approach taken were technically sound they provide clear and unambiguous evidence in relation to the research problem they have been interpreted or placed within the relevant wider context all of the above

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CHAPTER 6

PROJECT MANAGEMENT AND THE FUNDING APPLICATION

Summary
This chapter opens with a discussion about project management, including information about planning techniques. It continues with an overview of the process of writing and sourcing funding for research. This begins with a discussion about the purpose of the funding application. It proceeds with a consideration of what is involved in completing and submitting an application for funding. Key areas such as the abstract, project overview, methodology, aims and objectives and budgets are all examined in detail. The next section looks at the funding sources available to researchers. The chapter closes with guidelines for completing the funding application.

Introduction
Every project needs adequate funding as without it there will be no project. Applying for this funding is generally the responsibility of the researcher. It can be an arduous, frustrating task, but there is no question that it is necessary. Not only does a wellwritten application lead to funding, it also helps the researcher at all stages of the project. Before writing a funding application, the researcher must be very clear about exactly how the project will progress. In other words, a proper plan must be made. Between them, the project plan and the funding application will help to keep the research (and the researcher) on track. Some readers may be wondering why this chapter has been included in a module on research methods after all, neither of these tasks count as research methods in themselves. However, preparing a funding application and managing a project are both skills that require a methodical approach. Also, a well-constructed proposal and good management plan are essential if the project is to achieve the desired outcomes. A large proportion of the scoring system used to decide competitive bids is based on the description of aims, research methodology and management plan. The researcher therefore needs to make sure that these are in place before the project begins. It is, therefore, appropriate that a discussion of good funding application practice and good project management practice appear in this module of the course.

Learning objectives
Upon completion of this chapter the learner will be able to: explain the need for comprehensive project planning list the elements that should be included in a research timetable describe the purpose of the funding proposal list the main funding sources available

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explain the importance of following funding guidelines summarise reasons why applications are rejected complete an application for funding

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The Project Plan

The project plan not only sets out the schedule of work, it is also a chart against which progress can be measured. A good plan needs to be flexible, allowing adjustments to be made if problems arise or new information comes to light. It should also be sturdy enough to stand up to poor project management and control on the part of the researcher. According to Howard and Sharp (1993) such planning should: make clear the aims and objectives define what needs to be done to attain these aims, and the order in which these tasks take place identify critical points where progress can be reviewed and the research plan reassessed produce an estimate of when these critical points will be reached so that progress can be clearly measured ensure that effective use is made of key resources, including the researcher define priorities once the research is underway serve as a guide that increases the likelihood of successful completion on time What Should the Plan Include? A good plan needs to be comprehensive. Even the very early stages of the project should be timetabled. These will probably include checking up on regulations, writing an outline proposal document, carrying out a literature review and deciding on methodology, data collection techniques and methods of analysis. Once the project is underway, the researcher will need to timetable events even more carefully. Table 6.1 shows the different elements that the researcher should include in the plan.

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Table 6.1: Items to include in the timetable

Data collection and analysis initial pilot work fine tuning of techniques main data collection examination of data, necessary revisions further data collection more systematic analysis, tentative conclusions checking the plausibility, reliability, and robustness of these conclusions further data collection, possibly employing different technique or method possible implementation and evaluation of some recommendations reading and talking to relevant people writing and note making

Writing up systematic and organised writing checking that stated objectives have been achieved checking of drafts with tutor, sponsor, other relevant people final update of literature review elements checking bibliography references

Production typing or word-processing necessary (probably frequent) revisions binding

Delivery distribution of project document viva/presentations Source: Jankowicz (1999)

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Planning Techniques There are numerous techniques that can be used for planning a research project. Howard and Sharp (1993) suggest the use of network planning. Here the planning process is broken down into the stages listed below. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Determine the objectives. Identify and list (in any order) the activities that need to be carried out. Order the activities. Establish for every activity those activities that precede it, those that follow it, and those which may be undertaken concurrently. Draw a diagram of this 'network'. Estimate the time needed to complete each activity. (See Table 6.2 for estimated times.) Analyse the network using the completing times. Check the resources and draw up the schedule. Replan as necessary.

For a detailed example of network planning see Howard and Sharp (1993), pp. 4963.

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Table 6.2: Estimated times for research activities

TASK: TIME 3 hours 10 hours 50 hours 1 day 1 day 1 minute 1 hour 1 day 7 hours 1 day up to 4 weeks 2 weeks 1 week 2 weeks 3 weeks 4 hours 5 hours

reading an empirically based journal article thoroughly reading a book thoroughly absorbing and using a statistically based technique (with a total elapsed time of 6 weeks) preparing a 10-question interview schedule pre-testing the schedule on two interviewees and amending the result destroying a relationship through lack of pre-testing an inept interview schedule conducting an interview conducting four interviews in the same location (five possible but very tiring) transcribing one hour of tape-recorded interview informal pre-testing of a questionnaire by five respondents located on one site piloting a larger questionnaire more formally time for respondent completion time for postal return add lag time since many respondents peak at 2 weeks, but some take longer time to post, complete, return chase-up letter and questionnaire creating a six-field (mixed numeric and textual) database ready for printout filling the database with 50 records each of 400 characters across 6 fields

Source: Jankowicz (1999). A useful tool for drawing up a project plan is the Gantt Chart (see Figure 6.1 for a typical 3 year example) or similar representation which makes it easy to visualise the timing and relative size of tasks, allowing easy modification if circumstances change. Planning packages such as Microsoft Project can help in accomplishing this task.

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Figure 6.1: Gantt Chart of three-year research project

Months Activity Enrolment Familiarisation Literature Review Problem Identification Research Methodology Design Submission for Registration Selection of Research Methods Identification of Data Sources Equipment Purchasing Methods of Calibration Data Collection Data Analysis Validation Writing Editing Final Document Soft Binding Progress Reports Sponsor Reports
2 3 5 6 8 9 11 12 14 15 17 18 20 21 23 24 26 27 29 30 32 33 35 36

A practical way of monitoring progress is to allow space on the planning chart for a control procedure. So, for example, when using a Gantt chart, space should be left below each of the bars so that it can be filled in as progress is made on that particular task. This gives an immediate impression of which tasks are ahead of schedule and which are behind, provides a warning when dates begin to slip and provides a tangible measure of progress which, as Howard and Sharp (1993) point out, is important in maintaining motivation as the project progresses. Although tools such as the Gantt Chart can make the task of project planning more agreeable, they are no substitute for good groundwork by the researcher. Every possible element of the project must be included, and timescales must be realistic and achievable. Resource Requirements The project plan should also include a careful consideration of the resources needed throughout the project. The researcher must anticipate and estimate likely costs such as experimental equipment, copying, telecommunications, printing, stationary, books, inter-library loans, IT, travel and subsistence to seminars and conferences, and so on. The researcher also needs to bear in mind that they may not have sole use of facilities and may be expected to work around existing schedules. For example, the research methodology may require access to shared or departmental facilities such

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as computers, laboratories or specialist equipment. This is especially important if the research is being undertaken in conjunction with collaborating establishments. The Purpose of the Funding Proposal Funding application forms are intimidating documents. Some are 50 pages long and require information and detail that seem to require a research project all of their own. Beginning the process with the determined belief that it is an important part of the overall project can reduce potential frustration. As Moore notes:
Most professional researchers find themselves returning again and again to the proposal when the research is in progress. It provides a framework within which they manage the research. Moore (2000)

So what does the researcher gain from putting together a funding application apart, of course, from finances? Moore (2000) suggests several benefits.

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Benefits to the Researcher 1. The researcher is forced to think through all stages of the project. Once the research begins, it is too late to make changes that would have been obvious had the project been planned properly. For example, suppose the initial research design calls for a specific technique. When the project begins, the researcher realises that special training is required. Without it the project cannot continue, but there is neither time nor money to include it. 2. The researcher has the opportunity to demonstrate to the funding body an ability to carry out such a piece of research. 3. The researcher is forced to structure and develop ideas, think clearly about how the project will be conducted and consider what will be achieved. Probably, according to Moore (2000), the 'most important function of the research proposal'. 4. Most funding proposals specify a fixed period of time, usually two or three years. This will require thinking through the different stages of the research and specifying objectives and outcomes at each stage. The proposal will help the researcher to manage the project. It can be particularly helpful when things are not going well, for example, data collection is taking longer than planned or contact with the people involved in the study is proving difficult. Consulting the original proposal can keep things on track. Benefits to the Funder 5. Most proposals are structured in such a way that they enable the funder to see exactly what the aims, rationale, objectives, outputs and deliverables of the project are. They can then make a judgement about whether the project fits in with their overall strategy and objectives, and whether it is therefore worthy of funding. 6. Funding organisations, just like any company or organisation, must account for all monies allocated. They need to be convinced that the proposed project is within their terms of reference and that the researcher will successfully complete the project. 7. The funders need to be convinced that: there is a clear need for the proposed research the research is valid and achievable the funding will be spent wisely and provide value for money

Completing the Funding Application Form

For this section, a specific application form will be used to illustrate how to complete a proposal for funding. The example form is the Higher Education Authority (HEA) Strand I Application form, available at www.hea.ie.

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The Strand I form, like most funding applications, comprises five key areas: title and abstract of the project overview of the research proposal aims and objectives methodology budget and costing Title and Abstract The title is the first thing your potential funder will read. According to Moore a good title should:
be sufficiently precise to indicate the nature and scope of the project but concise enough to be referred to quickly and easily throughout the course of the work. You will probably need to use it on questionnaires and other documents such as press releases. It is worth spending a little time trying to find something that meets these very different requirements. Moore (2000)

More specifically, a good title should: be clear and unambiguous quickly enable the reader to see the key ideas/issues clearly reflect the focus of the proposal be a single sentence ensure that the most important words come first The abstract is like the executive summary of a report. It is usually a one-page overview, and in some cases is limited to 200 words or less. It is designed to paint the picture of the project in the mind of the funder. In terms of the content most abstracts have three parts. Context and framework this usually consists of a brief background discussion, the historical context and the general subject area within which the proposal is set. Justification for the research this part is designed to justify the research in the context of the existing literature. Only research that is directly relevant to the proposal should be cited. Issues discussed here include: o existing relevant research o key gaps or problems that have emerged from the existing research o the main recommendations from the literature o how the research fits with other research o how the research adds to knowledge in the subject area

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Aim of the project this is the final section of the abstract. The research question should be clearly specified. Table 6.3 gives further guidelines.

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Table 6.3: Guidelines for writing the abstract 1. Stick to the word limit. If the guidelines state abstracts of no more than 200 words, this means 200 words, not 201 words. 2. Make the abstract easy to read. The reviewer may not be an expert in the area, so never use technical words or abbreviations. Never assume prior technical knowledge of the area. 3. Avoid vague statements such as the aim of this study is to examine and review the important issues that have emerged in the area of community education over the last number of years'. Be specific, for example, the aim of this study is to investigate the key challenges in community education over the last 10 years. 4. If the study involved collaborative research, include this in the abstract. This is considered a major plus by most funders. 5. If possible, try to show knowledge of the funder. One approach is to tie in the aims of your research with the concerns of the funding agency. 6. Make sure the case for the research remains clear and that the rationale is well developed. Lack of focus here is usually indicative of problems at a later stage. 7. If you do not have experience of research then draw on other experience you have to support your idea. For example, contacts with groups in the area, access to key individuals in the sector etc. 8. Always reference any studies or research clearly. This conveys knowledge and understanding of the research area.

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It is often a good idea to write the abstract once everything else has been done, or at least after completing the overview the abstract is a summary of the research project and highlights the key issues explored in the research project overview. Overview of the Research Project The overview is usually between three and five pages long. It is the first substantial part of the proposal and is a more detailed review of some of the issues discussed in the abstract. There are four main sections. 1. Context and framework. This section provides a brief background discussion similar to, but more extensive than, that in the abstract. It should include the historical context and any relevant previous research in the area within which the proposal is set. It should also justify the research. The overview might open something like this: Over the last number of years, interest in the area of management training has increased substantially. According to a recent government report (Training for the Future, Remaining Competitive, 2001), the promotion of management training is vital if Ireland is to remain competitive within the world economy. 2. Documentation of research. This section cites prior studies and research relevant to the project. The studies referenced in the abstract should be discussed in more detail. What were the principal findings? What issues are unresolved? Quotes and conclusions should be reproduced if necessary. This section could begin: A number of studies have examined this issue from the perspective of skills development, but to date no study has examined the training implications of ... 3. Context of the research. The researcher needs to position the project in the context of the existing evidence. Issues to consider include: How the study will augment the existing research. In other words, what research already exists in this area and how is this project different? The emphasis is on the uniqueness of the research study. Contribution of the study will it lead to new collaborations, inform policy makers, look at new and emerging issues? 4. Aims and objectives of the study. The researcher should state clearly the aim, the research question and the objectives. Other issues to add where appropriate: There may be particular reasons why the researcher or the researcher's organisation is particularly suited to undertaking the study, for example the researcher is an expert in the area. If so, make it clear in the overview.

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Give any evidence of prior or preliminary research, including details of the findings and whether it calls for further research. This is important to many large funding bodies. If the research involves collaborators, state this and why they are involved. What expertise do they bring? Will this mean a wider dissemination of results? It is worth bearing in mind that the decision to fund or not will be based solely on the information presented in the application form, and the overview is the most detailed part of this form. The opinion of others can be a great help in redrafting the overview until it includes all relevant information and reads well. Aims and Objectives All funding organisations need to know that the project is consistent with their terms of reference. The specified outputs the aims and objectives will do this job. In examining the aims and objectives, the funder will want to see that they are: within the scope of their terms of reference achievable within the time period specified measurable or quantifiable Aims and objectives often appear in the same breath, almost as though they are the same thing, but there is a difference between them. Aims are large statements of what the researcher hopes to achieve. In most cases the aims are not directly observable or measurable. For example, the aim of a study might be to: examine the use of training models by small companies in the ICT sector Objectives are specific targets that the researcher hopes to achieve and are typically measurable. For example, the objectives of a study might be to: determine what training models are used by small firms in the ICT sector evaluate the effectiveness and use of these models produce a framework, based on evaluation, of the important elements of a good training model publish the research findings and make them available to trainers, small firms, policy makers and so on A final word on aims and objectives. The objectives frequently form the basis of the research method, so the researcher needs to be very clear about what they are. They also provide a way for the funder to monitor progress, so they must be achievable.

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Methodology According to Moore:

this is the part of the proposal that most often presents people with difficulties. It is also the bit that referees are likely to spend more time reviewing Moore (2000)

The novice researcher should not panic. A simple application of logic and proper preparation will ensure that this section is completed as successfully as any other. Having to describe the methodology is a useful exercise, as it forces the researcher to think carefully about it. This is important, as the methods used will ultimately determine the results of the research, and in many cases where the findings from the study are published. It will also help the researcher to justify the choice of methodology, clearly indicating how the methods employed will enable the objectives of the study to be achieved. Table 6.4 outlines the issues to note when completing this section. Table 6.4: Guidelines for describing the methodology 1. Keep in mind that there should be a direct link between methodology and the objectives of the study. 2. Justify your choice of methodology. If you are using questionnaires, then be clear why questionnaires are preferable to interviews. Use prior research to support your decision. 3. If you are using a new methodology never previously applied to this area, state this clearly, outlining why this method has been chosen. 4. If the project requires training in research methods, state this and how you will equip the researcher with the necessary skills to undertake the study. 5. Specifics such as sample size, individuals interviewed and so on should be stated here if known.

Common Reasons for Rejection

Understanding why funding applications are commonly rejected will help the researcher to avoid these pitfalls when making their own application. 1. Ignoring funding priorities. No matter how good your application, if the project or research topic does not match the interests of the funder it is unlikely to be successful. Failure to stick to the funder's guidelines. Guidelines must be adhered to even if they seem trivial. If the guidelines ask for 12 point font, double spaced, that is what must be used. Allowing inadequate time. The researcher must leave time to:

2.

3.

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4.

5. 6.

7.

prepare the application allow others to review the application make changes to the application submit the application on time (many grant deadlines occur in early summer when staff and colleagues are on holidays the researcher must take account of this) Vague Outcomes. There must be specific measurable targets and outcomes. In identifying outcomes, the researcher should look beyond the topic area and ask whether there are any benefits to the local community, to the small business sector, to local minorities and so on. Such information as whether the project will have policy implications should be included. Unrealistic objectives. The application must show that the researcher will be able to achieve the objectives. Poor presentation. Surprisingly many applications have errors in financial accounting, typing mistakes, and general poor grammar. This does not give a good impression. Good research proposals require meticulous attention to detail. The funder is likely to think that mistakes at this stage will be indicative of mistakes later. Duplication. Funders receive hundreds of proposals each year, many of which will appear very similar. The researcher should try to distinguish the project from other proposals pointing out that it is unique because of location, unique demographics and so on.

Budget and Costs

The budget is something that the researcher needs to consider very carefully. As Moore points out:
this is where you commit yourself. If you get the costing wrong you may well find that you end up with fewer resources than you need to get the job done satisfactorily. Moore (2000)

In computing the costing and allocation of funds, there are certain key principles to follow: 1. Budgets and costing must be realistic. The researcher must be clear about what funds are needed and why. Funding agencies receive many funding applications. If costs appear inflated this will immediately be apparent to the funder. 2. Format of costs. In most cases the funding body will specify budget categories such as personnel costs, equipment, material, travel and so on. In this case the format for presenting the costing will be pre-determined. If this is not the case, then the researcher may find it helpful to look at other funding applications for guidance in what categories to use.

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3. Funding allocation. The researcher needs to describe how the funds requested will be spent over the term of the project. This description should show in detail (where possible) how these budget figures were arrived at. Any funding guidelines provided should outline what costs can be included. Some funding bodies will specify that the researcher's organisation must provide expenses for such things as administration and photocopying. 4. Costing unknowns. It may not be possible to predict certain aspects of the proposal, for example, travel and consumables. However, if the initial costing is too low, this can significantly limit the potential of the project. It is important that the costs in these categories are realistic and based on a clear rational. Cash flow and inflation. Be clear about when and how will the money be paid if the proposal is successful. Some pay in equal quarterly instalments, others pay on a yearly basis. Others will pay when the work is completed. Make sure if this is the case, that any expenses will be covered. In the case of inflation, ensure you account for price increases, especially for projects over one year. If the average rate of inflation over the past five years is 3%, then adjust costing accordingly.

Funding Sources
There is a wide range of funding bodies open to researchers at all levels and across most disciplines. Types of Funding Source Funding can come from both internal and external sources. The institution or organisation within which the researcher works may provide internal funds. One example of this is the Seed Fund programme at DKIT for new and existing researchers. In most cases, however, funding comes from external sources where the researcher applies directly to an external body, or is commissioned by a funding agency to undertake a piece of research. The two types of funding body require slightly different approaches, but the fundamental principles remain the same. In both cases the researcher has to put forward a proposal, justify the research question, define the methodology and so on.

Funding Organisations in Ireland Numerous organisations provide funding for research in Ireland. Some exist with the sole purpose of funding research. Others, such as the HEA, have funding research as part of their overall remit. There are four main sources of funding in Ireland: research councils government and public bodies charities and foundations non-Irish bodies

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Research Councils IRCHSS is the Irish Research Council for the Humanities and Social Sciences. Established in 2000, it funds cutting edge research in the humanities, social sciences, business and law. Its objective is to create new knowledge and expertise beneficial to Irelands economic, social and cultural development. It operates six separate funding schemes. See www.irchss.ie for more information. IRCSET is the Irish Council for Science, Engineering and Technology. It operates the Embark funding initiative, which funds people as opposed to projects. Its objective is the creation of knowledge for the long-term benefit of society and the economy. See www.ircset.ie for more information. The Health Research Board The Health Research Board is a statutory body that promotes, funds, commissions and conducts medical, epidemiological and health services research in Ireland. The HRB encourages research that translates into improved diagnosis, understanding, treatment and prevention of disease and improves efficiency and effectiveness of the health services. It has a range of grants in three broad headings, Research Project Grants, awarded for up to three years, Programme Grants, awarded for up to five years and Career Development, Fellowships awarded for up to three years. See www.hrb.ie for more information. The Higher Education Authority The HEA funds research through a number of large-scale, cross-sectoral schemes, including the Programme for Research in Third Level institutions (PRTLI), the Transport Research Programme, the North-South Programme for Collaborative Research and the Fund for Collaborative Research between Irish Third level institutions and Media-Lab. See www.hea.ie for more information. The Council of Directors of Institutes of Technology (COD) provides funding for research in the Institutes of Technology under the Technological Sector Research fund. It is in three parts, Strand I (Post-graduate R&D Skills), Strand II (Enterprise Platform Programme) and Strand III (Core Strengths Enhancement). See www.councilofdirectors.ie for more information. Science Foundation Ireland (SFI) The aim of this organisation is to create research excellence in basic research within Bio-technology and Information and Communications Technologies, ICT. Funding is offered up to 1.3m per year to a maximum of 6.5m over 5 years. Funding programmes available include: SFI Investigator Programme Grants SFI Centres for Science, Engineering and Technology Campus Industry Partnership SFI Fellow Awards

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SFI Workshop and Conference Grants the Basic Research Grants Scheme (formerly Enterprise Ireland) Further information on deadline and submission guidelines is available from the web site www.sfi.ie. Royal Irish Academy The Academy awards some sixty research grants each year in both the humanities and the natural sciences. These are made through a network of awards, including Archaeological Research grants and the Third Sector Research Programme scheme, as well as smaller schemes for fieldwork in the natural history of Ireland, scientific and historical essays and travel bursaries. Further information can be found on the web site www.ria.ie. The Arts Council The Arts Council is an autonomous body established in 1951 to stimulate public interest in and promote knowledge, appreciation and practice of the arts. The Council commissions and publishes research and information, often jointly with other public sector or non-government agencies. For further information on the conditions, procedures and funding criteria, see the web site www.artscouncil.ie. Government and Public Bodies Public sector organisations provide funding across a range of areas for both applied and basic research. One of the main funders is Enterprise Ireland. Enterprise Ireland Programmes include (www.enterprise-ireland.com): R&D supports for companies - R&D Funding
- Innovation Vouchers

Supports for Research Performing Organisations

- Research Equipment Grant - Applied Research Enhancement Programme

Supports for Industry Representative Groups - Enterprise Innovation Networks Supports designed to build collaborative links
- Innovation Partnerships - Industry led Research Programmes

Charities and Foundations A number of charities and Foundations support research in Ireland. In the UK the biggest is the Wellcome Trust, which spends about 400m each year, mainly in medical research, but also providing funding to Ireland. See the Wellcome Trust web

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site at www.wellcome.ac.uk for further information on the funding opportunities available for research and details of how to apply. Other Funding Charities include www.hospice-foundation.ie. The EU and Other Non-Irish Bodies Increasingly, the EU has become a major source of research funding in Ireland. Funding initiatives such as Framework 7 (FP7) are all readily available to researchers in Ireland in all areas of research including business, IT, health and medicine among others. EU research funding is designed to encourage co-operation among EU researchers and promote research excellence at the highest level. Strict guidelines are in place and should be consulted before undertaking EU funded research. Projects and programmes available include ERASMUS-MUNDUS. For further information on available ERASMUS-MUNDUS programmes visit: http://ec.europa.eu/education/index_en.html SOCRATES-ERASMUS This is devoted to higher education. The programme covers all types of higher education establishments, all subject areas and all levels of higher studies up to postgraduate level. Its purpose is to support 'European activities of higher education institutions and to promote the mobility and exchange of their teaching staff, students and administrators'. There are two forms of funding: financial support to Universities to enhance the European dimension of Studies mobility grants for students and teachers wishing to study/teach in another participating country There are numerous other funding programmes available. For all EU funding programme see the web site www.europa.eu.int. For further information on submitting a research proposal, see The Contents of a Research Proposal, Kumar, 1999, Ch.13.

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Assessment
You are required to complete a Council of Directors Strand I HEA funding application form and complete the form adhering to guidelines and terms of reference. You will have to select a title, and complete the form with abstract, overview of the project, costing, methodology etc.

Questions
1. Proper planning allows the researcher to: clarify the aims and objectives of the research define the activities required to attain these aims, and the order in which they should take place identify various critical points in the research at which progress can be reviewed and the research plan assessed all of the above 2. Which of the following are important in choosing a supervisor? The supervisors: record in terms of student completions view of the management of student research and their role in it eminence in their specialism level of competency in regard to research methodology accessibility all of the above 3. The usual cause of failure to complete a research project is:

the researcher runs out of time the researcher lacks direction lack of results no one specific reason

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4.

The academic environment and research institution should provide the following support for researchers: experienced research supervision by staff who are themselves engaged in advanced study and research opportunities for interaction with other postgraduate research candidates and their supervisors, both within and without the institution subject based and/or interdisciplinary seminars to facilitate the dissemination of the results of research, enabling peer review and quality assessment adequate physical facilities including library and IT facilities, together with technical and administrative support structures and attendant staff all of the above

5.

Which one of the following is not a responsibility of the postgraduate research student? To: agree in advance the programme of work, the aims, objectives and timeframe for the proposed programme agree a schedule of meetings with the supervisor(s) and arrangements for the evaluation of progress inform the supervisor(s), as early as possible of any significant problems and difficulties encountered submit a thesis in accordance with the schedule of exams of the sponsoring recognised institution initiate formal contact with the external examiner(s)

6.

Having a set routine when conducting research: makes organising work easier makes it easier to predict workflow and progress makes it easier to plan meetings and keep appointments spreads the workload evenly over time all of the above

7.

Which of the following can be used to identify a research topic? Researchers own experiences as educators Practical issues that require solutions Theory and past research All of the above

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8.

Research objectives: should be decided on once fieldwork has been completed and data is available for analysis are not really necessary at all should be as general as possible so that the researcher can collect data on everything that might be of relevance to the topic under investigation should be as specific and as precise as possible so that the research addresses the researchers information needs

9.

A detailed review of the literature prior to formulating the research hypothesis allows the researcher to: become familiar with prior research on the phenomenon of interest identify potential methodological problems in the research area develop a list of pertinent questions relative to the phenomenon of interest all of the above

10.

A formal statement of the research problem or purpose of research study is generally: made prior to the literature review used to define the methodology designed to help guide the research process all of the above

11.

Which of the following quantitative research questions is superior? What is the effect of participation in various extracurricular activities on academic performance? What effect does playing high school football have on students overall grade point during the football season?

12.

A specific statement of the research question allows the researcher to: understand the research problem select appropriate participants, measures, and materials specify the variables of interest all of the above

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13.

A research proposal should: Be detailed Be given to others for review and comment Set out the rationale for a research study All of the above

14.

The Methodology section of the research proposal generally specifies: the research participants the results of prior studies that address the phenomenon of interest the apparatus, instruments and materials for the research study the planned implementation strategies

15.

The Introduction section of the research proposal: gives an overview of prior relevant studies contains a statement of the purpose of the study concludes with a statement of the research hypothesis all of the above

16.

A research proposal should: describe the type of research that will deliver the evidence needed to be address the research problems set out costs and timings for the project show that the researcher understands the problem to be researched all of the above

17.

An abstract is: an extract from the report all of the key details from the research a brief summary or map of the report an edited extract of the interesting findings

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18.

Recommendations should cover suggestions about: how the research should have been conducted what action the client should have taken what action the client should not take in the future what methodology should have been used

19.

Prior to undertaking any research study it is important to consider: cost and time required to conduct the study skills required of the researcher potential ethical concerns all of the above

20.

A good title should: be clear and unambiguous quickly enable the reader to see the key areas/issues clearly reflect the focus of the proposal be a single sentence all of the above

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