Author
refers
to
the
individual
or
group
credited
with
writing
a
text.
The
term
is
often
used
to
mean
originator
of
a
text,
but
modern
theory
argues
that
texts
never
have
such
clear
and
singular
origins.
FOR EXAMPLE: Fairy tales are authorised by traditional wisdom. This creates the impression that
culture is fundamentally unchanging, and that fairy tale morals are always relevant and true (when in fact they may be racist or sexist). Literary texts are often authorised by a belief in the talent and originality of the writer (human ingenuity). However, this ignores the fact that most texts use techniques and ideas drawn from the shared traditions and conventions of the culture, and those assessments of their values change over time. Increasingly, therefore, there is a preference for the term writer.
FOR
EXAMPLE:
Here
is
the
opening
chapter
of
Charles
Dickens
novel,
A
Tale
of
Two
Cities
It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair, we had everything before us, we had nothing before us, we were all going direct to Heaven, we were all going the other way in short, the period was so far like the present period, that some of its noisiest authorities insisted on its being received, for good or for evil, in the superlative degree of comparison only. Binary
oppositions
encoded
in
the
text:
best wisdom light spring hope worst foolishness darkness winter despair
belief heaven
Organisation of the words enables us to see that the terms are all drawn from a common Christian
discourse, implying a specific way of thinking about the world. The relationship between
wisdom, belief and Heaven in line with best, implies a rather narrow definition of wisdom. Perhaps most strikingly, the listed above are used to mask another common opposition: past / present. The text uses a string of contrasts to develop the argument that the past and the present are essentially the same. The extract implies that humans remain the same across time. Common uses of binary opposites: mind masculine rational individual body feminine emotional collective
Context
is
the
multitude
of
factors
which
shape
the
meanings
of
a
text
within
the
social
frameworks
of
its
reading.
This
framework
may
include
particular
ideas
about
the
texts
history,
but
it
is
also
powerfully
shaped
by
competing
beliefs
and
practices
in
the
present.
SCENARIO:
Imagine
that
you
are
taking
an
exam
in
which
you
have
been
asked
to
analyse
a
Shakespearean
sonnet.
Consider
the
influence
of
the
following
factors:
Your cultures perceptions of Shakespeare What you have learned about literary analysis Your personal experiences and values Shakespeares personal reasons for writing the sonnet The dominant values and beliefs of your society (around ideas such as love and time) The politics and literary values of Elizabethan England
The original (17th century) meaning of the words Changes in word meaning since the poem was written The structure and workings of the education system in which you are sitting the exam The exact wording of the exam question
Context is about considering the interplay of present day factors of reading and interpreting the text as well as the historic factors of when the text was written. Understanding context is about recognising the power of reader subjectivity and that what we individually bring to a text will shape the reading and meaning of the text.
Conventions
are
common
and
recognised
uses
of
textual
codes
or
forms
which
stabilise
the
range
of
meanings
that
can
be
applied
to
a
text
FOR
EXAMPLE:
The
genre
conventions
of
procedural
writing
include:
use
of
bullet
points
and
sub-
headings
to
list
steps
in
sequential
order,
use
of
imperatives
and
active
precise
verbs,
use
of
adverbs
to
show
how
an
action
should
be
done,
use
of
the
second
person
pronoun
to
create
direct
address.
FOR
EXAMPLE
Action
movies
contain
conventional
or
stock characters
such
as:
an
attractive
and
likeable
male
protagonist
who
has
been
framed
or
wrong
accused
and
must
prove
their
innocence,
saving
others
in
the
process;
a
beautiful
woman
who
is
caught
up
unintentionally
in
the
protagonists
adventures
but
her
fate
becomes
dependant
upon
his,
there
will
be
sexual
chemistry
between
she
and
the
protagonist;
a
villain
who
is
not
immediately
apparent
to
all,
perhaps
occupying
a
high
status
or
respect
position,
he
operates
on
deceit
and
is
often
violent,
vengeful
and
sociopathic.
Brilliant
texts
that
seek
to
provide
social
critique
or
challenge
conventional
thought
will
often
purposely
subvert
conventions
for
a
specific
effect.
FOR
EXAMPLE:
Stories
that
use
stock
fairy
tale
characters
to
tell
unconventional
tales
or
satirical
texts
that
exaggerate
conventions
for
comic
or
absurd
effect.
and associative meanings of a word or phrase. However, these distinctions may be very
For example: here are two possible readings of the word police 1. Denotation: government workers who uphold justice and the law. Connotation: protection, security, order 2. Denotation: government workers who maintain social inequality Connotation: harassment, repression, danger Approaches to studying literature emphasise connotation as the key to a texts meaning. This applies particularly to the study of poetry. Often the differences between denotative and connotative meanings can be used to create irony or humour or innuendo or express a particular tone. Stemming from the multiple ways in which a word can be read is the concept of Polysemy. This refers to the signalling of multiple meanings by a single set of words or other symbols. Some reading practices emphasise the multiplicity of meanings; others work to limit or close off the possibilities of a text.
FOR EXAMPLE: what Western cultures now call mental illness was once regarded as possession
by evil spirits. This change in thinking has been due, in part, to the rise of the discourse of psychology and an understanding that madness is a subject of medical discourse rather than religious discourse. In simple terms, this shows the movement of power from priests to discourse, reflecting a shift in power from the ideology of religion to that of science. Examples of types of discourse: Western discourses discourses of authority discourses of power educational discourses
Examples of specific discourses: the discourse of progress environmental or conservation discourse sexist discourse legal discourse feminist or anti-sexist discourse
By identifying the discourses of a text, and observing which ones have been privileged, we can find out which views a text supports or
perhaps challenges.
Foregrounding
refers
to
an
emphasis
placed
on
certain
features
of
the
text
(words,
phrases,
etc.).
Privilege
refers
to
the
promotion
of
particular
values
and
meanings.
Foregrounding
and
privileging
are
the
combined
effects
of
textual
organisation
and
reading
practices.
Foregrounding:
Certain
features
in
a
text
may
be
emphasised
through
a
variety
of
techniques.
For
example:
Here
is
an
extract
from
Joseph
Conrads
Heart
of
Darkness,
a
text
which
is
now
seen
as
offensively
racist
in
many
respects.
Now and then a boat from the shore gave one a momentary contact with reality. It was paddled by black fellows. You could see from afar the white of their eyeballs glistening. They shouted, sang: their bodies steamed with perspiration, they had faces like grotesque masks these chaps; but they had none, muscle, a wild vitality, an intense energy that was natural and true as the surf along their coast. They wanted no excuse for being there. They were a great comfort to look at. 1. This
description
of
the
people
in
the
boat
can
be
read
as
foregrounding
physical
appearance.
It
describes
the
people
as
mere
bodies,
as
something
to
be
looked
at.
2. European
culture
has
traditionally
privileged
the
mind
over
body.
Mind
and
spirit
have
been
regarded
as
having
higher
value
than
the
body.
In
this
passage,
the
foregrounding
of
the
Africans
bodies
has
a
number
of
effects:
it
obscures
the
mental
and
spiritual
qualities
of
the
Africans;
by
associating
the
Africans
with
nature
(the
surf)
it
sets
them
up
as
a
reverse
image
of
the
European
narrator
(who
therefore
represents
culture)
it
constructs
the
narrator
as
mind
rather
than
body.
Through
this
process
the
Africans
are
made
visible,
while
the
European
captain
remains
hidden
and
escapes
description
and
judgment.
In
this
way
the
European
perspective
is
privileged,
and
readers
are
invited
to
take
up
this
privileged
position.
Gaps
are
places
in
the
text
where
readers
are
invited
to
make
connections
by
drawing
on
their
common
sense
understanding
of
the
world.
Silences
result
from
the
fact
that
textual
gaps
enable
readers
to
avoid
questioning
certain
cultural
values.
Texts
are
made
up
on
elements
selected
from
a
cultural
system,
such
as
language,
and
arranged
according
to
certain
conventions.
For
a
text
to
mean
anything
at
all,
readers
must
apply
a
set
of
procedures
to
decode
the
signs
and
fill
in
background
information.
Readers
make
meaning
with
texts
by
supplying
readings
that
are
already
available
in
the
culture.
For
example:
Here
is
an
extract
from
a
news
report:
Miss Smith is the second girl to be reported missing this week. She was last seen hitchhiking along a city street late on Friday afternoon. Police have issued a warning to young girls not to go out alone at night. These
sentences
do
not
explicitly
say
that
there
was
a
connection
between
Miss
Smiths
hitchhiking
and
her
disappearance;
it
is
assumed
that
readers
will
make
the
connection.
But
the
link
is
not
obvious.
It
relied
on
specific
cultural
knowledge
about
the
way
the
world
works.
In
order
to
construct
the
dominant
reading
of
this
passage,
readers
must
assume:
that
the
girl
was
kidnapped
while
walking;
that
she
was
kidnapped
by
a
male;
that
this
would
be
less
like
likely
to
happen
if
she
was
accompanied;
that
she
was
taking
a
risk
by
hitchhiking.
In this example, the text remains silent about the behaviour and motivations of men. This has the double effect of making safety on the streets a womans problem, and of vaguely implicating all men in the disappearance. The text could have said: Police have issued a warning for men not to go out at night, although this too would make the streets safer.
Ideologies
are
systems
of
though
and
action
which
work
to
the
advantage
of
particular
groups
of
people
and
which
might
be
shared
even
by
people
who
are
disadvantaged
by
them.
Groups
of
people
who
share
similar
interest
develop
similar
ways
of
looking
at
the
world.
Manufacturers
might
see
the
world
in
terms
of
profit
and
loss;
humanitarians
might
see
the
world
in
terms
of
justice
and
exploitation;
religious
zealots
might
see
it
in
terms
of
good
and
evil.
Ideologies
are
spread
from
one
group
to
another
through
cultural
practices
such
as
education,
employment,
advertising,
and
child-raising,
and
through
texts
such
as
novels
and
films.
This
can
occur
because
of
the
control
of
these
practices
is
generally
in
the
hands
of
particular
groups
of
people.
Their
values
are
reproduced
and
passed
on
to
people
as
knowledge.
In
the
case
of
literature,
the
values
of
white,
Anglo- Saxon,
middle-class
males
have
tended
to
dominate,
because
of
these
are
the
people
who
exercised
control
over
schooling,
publishing,
etc.
Thus,
much
of
what
was
claimed
to
be
objective
literary
knowledge
was
ideological.
It
is
important
to
realise
that
there
are
no
neutral
approaches
to
literature
either
in
terms
of
its
writing,
or
in
terms
of
its
reading.
The
idea
that
ideology
shapes
the
way
a
text
is
written,
produced
and
read
underpins
the
many
Which ideological positions are evident in the text? Which ideological positions do we occupy as readers and how they do they influence our reading of texts?
Power
refers to the ability of members of one group to exert influence (often unconsciously) over members of another group due to socially constructed differences between them. Literary texts can be examines and judged in terms of they reproduce or disrupt conventional power relations.
Semiotics is the name given to a method of analysing texts. It is the study of sign
systems and the way they operate within a culture. It examines texts not as personal messages communicated by an author to a reader, but as a collection of signs drawn from a public system of meaning, and representing cultural ideas. It stems from the idea that all forms of language (gestures, forms of dress, speech, writing, traffic signs etc.) are systems of signs that are culturally determined. Therefore, texts are products of the social context in which they are created and no writer operates autonomously outside of this context. Semiotics is closely related to understanding the construction of particular genre conventions and the use of representative characters.
Theme
refers
to
the
central
meaning
or
message
which
readers
attribute
to
a
text.
Because
themes
are
produced
through
the
process
of
reading,
different
groups
of
readers
may
attribute
very
different
themes
to
the
same
text,
depending
upon
the
beliefs
and
practices
which
shape
their
reading.
about women, operate in the reading and writing of literary texts. Analysis using this approach is used to ascertain whether a text is sustaining or challenging male power structures.
the production of texts (publishing houses, printing presses, bookshops have traditionally been owned by men making the publishing industry more receptive to stories which support masculine or patriarchal values). the structure and language of texts (language that marginalises femininity such as use of the male pronoun he as the general term for human being or literary conventions that cast males as heroes and protagonists while women are objectified). through reading practices (dominant reading practices encourage readers to identify with characters in stories. This often means that women must identify with feminine characters who play subordinate roles).
Many texts make use of stereotypes representations which place women in one of four categories 1. 2. 3. 4. nurturing mothers / carers / loyal wives; damsels in distress; sexual / provocative; mad / bad women.
It can be argued that these stock characters act to accentuate positive attributes of the male heroes. For example, damsels in distress are often used to highlight the strength of the male hero while evil, sexually aggressive women can serve to emphasise the virtue and respectability of a male counterpart.
and beliefs that support the ruling classes in society. It explores both the features of the text, and the historical background in which the text is created, circulated and read.
To be different from others is shameful Women are unreliable employees as they are soon distracted by thoughts of motherhood
Which of the two readings of Peter Pan would you support? It is an innocent story, told in terms of how the world looks to a child. It entertains its readers with a middle-class, British, male-orientated view of the world, but presents this way of thinking as amusingly typical.
If you were a parent, what action might you take with regard to Peter Pan? Read it to children because it is entertaining? Read it to children for fun, but discuss other possible readings? Read other books which present alternative views of life? Ban it from the house?
New Historicism emerging
in
the
1970s
and
1980s,
acknowledges
the
importance
of
the
literary
text,
but
is
also
about
analysing
the
text
with
an
eye
to
history.
It
views
history
skeptically
(historical
narrative
is
inherently
subjective),
but
also
more
broadly;
history
includes
all
of
the
cultural,
social,
political,
anthropological
discourses
at
work
in
any
given
age,
and
these
various
"texts"
are
unranked
-
any
text
may
yield
information
valuable
in
understanding
a
particular
milieu.
(Siegel,
2012)
Rather
than
forming
a
backdrop,
the
many
discourses
at
work
at
any
given
time
affect
both
the
writer
and
the
text;
both
are
inescapably
part
of
a
context
and,
therefore,
a
social
construct.
New Historicism has been informed by Marxist and Feminist literary criticism and offers a particular perspective for post colonialism. New historicists remind us that it is treacherous to reconstruct the past as it really wasrather than as we have been conditioned by our own place and time to believe that it was. And they know that the job is impossible for those who are unaware of that difficulty, insensitive to the bent or bias of their own historical vantage point. Thus, when new historicist critics describe a historical change, they are highly conscious of (and even likely to discuss) the theory of historical change that informs their account. The concept of reader subjectivity is at the center of New Historicist discussion that our readings of literary texts and analysis of history inevitably tell us more about our own values, cultures and beliefs that it can about an authors or anothers societys.
Postcolonial literary criticism examines the way that colonialism was reinforced and legitimated in discourse and literature, challenging the position in the canon of texts like Heart of Darkness. Among the many challenges facing postcolonial writers are the attempts both to resurrect their culture and to combat preconceptions about their culture created by the colonial period. Some postcolonial critics see the increasing growth of English as a global language and the attendant prestige and economic value attached to the language as another form of
imperialism
promoted
by
the
western
world.
They
point
to
the
devaluation
and
decline
of
local
languages
and
cultures
as
evidence
of
globalization
as
another
form
of
cultural
colonialism.
FOR EXAMPLE: In the left hand column below are some truth claims produced by particular
social institutions and forms of knowledge (way of knowing, using TOK speak). Consider which institutions or knowledges might construct these statements as truth. Statement Economic growth is the basis of a healthy society. The desire for economic growth is crippling the environment. Economic growth is predicated on the fundamental idea that only some will benefit. The only effective way of dealing with young offenders is to punish them. The only way to deal with young offenders is to improve their living conditions and provide them with jobs. Institution / knowledge
FOR EXAMPLE: The idea that the building in the image above is a phallic representation does not
express the authors personal preoccupation with the male genitals; but they may reflect a cultural preoccupation with images of male power, as encoded in language and other social practices.
References
Eagleton,
T.
(2003).
After
Theory.
Basic
Books.
London.
Moon,
B
(1999).
Literary
Terms
A
Practical
Glossary.
NCTE.
Illinois.
http://bcs.bedfordstmartins.com/virtualit/poetry/critical.html,
visited
September
2012
http://www.kristisiegel.com/theory.htm,
visited
September
2012