A cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) is used to see the waveform of a repetitive electronic signal.

The signal is amplified or attenuated as required a nd used to deflect an electron beam in the vertical direction. This electron beam is deflected in the horizontal direction at a suitable speed. The electron beam impinging on a phosphorescent screen enables the viewer to see the wave shape of the signal An optical system with astigmatism is one where rays that propagate in two perpendicular planes have different focus. If an optical system with astigmatism is used to form an image of a cross, the vertical and horizontal lines will be in sharp focus at two different distances. The term comes from the Greek " (a") meaning "without" and stigma, "a mark, spot, puncture The ELECTRON GUN consists of a HEATER and a CATHODE to generate electrons, a CONTROL GRID to control brightness by controlling electron flow, and two ANODES (FIRST and SECOND). The main purpose of the first (FOCUSING) anode is to focus the electrons into a narrow beam on the screen. The second (ACCELERATING) anode accelerates the electrons as they pass. The control grid is cylindrical and has a small opening in a baffle at one end. The anodes consist of two cylinders that contain baffles (or plates) with small holes in their centers. sheet of material coated with a fluorescent substance so as to emit visible light when struck by ionizing radiation such as x"rays or electron beams. A fluorescent screen includes a substrate made of a light"scattering material and a mixture of an organic fluorescent substance and a binder dispersed therein. Since the luminescent light is scatteredby the light"scattering material, the light emittedfrom the screen is increased to a levelhigher than that of a conventional fluorescent screen to enhance brightness thereof. An electronic clock that creates its own timing signals for synchronization and measurement purposes. Radar sets, oscilloscopes, and computer circuits all use saw tooth (voltage or current) waveforms. A saw tooth wave shape must hav e a linear rise. The saw tooth waveform is often used to produce a uniform, progressive movement of an electron beam across the face of an electrostatic cathode ray tube. This movement of the electron beam is known as a SWEEP. The voltage which causes this movement is known as SWEEP VOLTAGE and the circuit which produces this voltage is the SWEEP GENERATOR, or TIME"BASE GENERATOR. Most common types of time"base generators develop the saw tooth waveform by using some type of switching action with either the charge or discharge of an RC or RL circuit.

Probes:

The simplest type of probe is the test lead.Since a CRO has high input impedance and high sensitivity, the test leads should be shielded to avoid hum pickup.The input capacitance of the scope and the stray capacitance of the test leads may cause oscillation.To prevent the effect, the carbon resistor is used as shown in Figure 7.44 (textbook).However, this probe cause a slight reduction in the waveform amplitude and a slight change in the waveshape.7RDYRLGWKLV WKHKLJKLPSHGDQFHSUREHLVXVHG34Toavoidthis, he10:1highimpedanceprobe Isus.

LVDT:

An LVDT, or Linear Variable Differential Transformer, is an absolute displacement transducerthat con verts a linear displacement or position from a mechanical reference (or zero) into a proportional electrical

signal containing phase (for direction) and amplitude information (for distance). The LVDT operation does not require electrical contact between the moving part (probe or core rod assembly) and the trans -former, but rather relies on electromagnetic coupling; this and the fact that they operate without any built -in electronic circuitry are the primary reasons why LVDTs have been widely used in applications where long life and high reliability under severe environments are a required, such Military/Aerospace appli -cations.

The LVDT consists of a primary coil (of magnet wire) wound over the whole length of a non-ferromagnetic bore liner (or spool tube) or a cylindrical non-conductivematerial(usually a plastic or ceramic material)coil formor bobbin. Two secondary coils are wound on top of the pr imary coil for long stroke LVDTs (i.e. for actuator main RAM) or each side of the primary coil for Short stroke LVDTs (i.e. for electro -hydraulic servo-valve or EHSV). The two secondary windings are typically connected in opposite series(Differen -tial). A ferromagnetic core, which length is a fraction of the coil assembly length, magnetically couples the primary to the secondary winding turns that are located alongthe length of the core. Even though the secondary windingsof the long stroke LVDT are shown on top of each otherwith insu-lation between them, on the above cross section, Measurement Specialties actually winds them both at the same time using custom designed, dual carriage computerized winding machines. This method saves manufacturing time and also creates secondary windings with symmetrical capacitance distribution and therefore allows meeting customer specifications more easily.

When the primary coil is excited with a sine wave voltage (Vinexcitation), it generate avariable magnetic field which, concentrated by the core, inducesthe secondarysine wavevoltages. While the secondary windings are designed so that the differential output voltage (Va-Vb) is proportional to the core posit ion from null, the (Va-Vb) phase shiftwith reference to the excitation (close to 0 degree or close to 180 de -grees depending on thedirection) determines the direction away from the mechanical zeroposition. The zeroposition, called Null Position,is defined as the core position where the phase angle of the (Va-Vb) differential output is 90 degrees he differential output between the two secondary outputs (Va-Vb) when the core is at the mechanical zero (or Null Position) is called the Null Voltage; as the phase angle at null position is 90 degrees, the Null Voltage is a quadrature voltage. This residual voltage is due to the complex nature of the LVDT elec trical model, which includes the parasitic capacitances of the windings. This complex nature a lso explains why the phase angle of (Va-Vb) is not exactly 0 degree or 180 degrees when the core is away from the Null Position.

A very basic transducer which is always useful in the field of instrumentation, I have studied about this in my college days. Now let me explain about the LVDT with its Principle of Operation and I will explain how it is constructed for its well known operation and you can understand the working of LVDT.

Principle of LVDT: LVDT works under the principle of mutual induction, and the displacement which is a nonelectrical energy is converted into an electrical energy. And the way how the energy is getting converted is described in working of LVDT in a detailed manner. LVDT consists of a cylindrical former where it is surrounded by one primary winding in the centre of the former and the two secondary windings at the sides. The number of turns in both the secondary windings are equal, but they are opposite to each other, i.e., if the left secondary windings is in the clockwise direction, the right secondary windings will be in the anti-clockwise direction, hence the net output voltages will be the difference in voltages between the two secondary coil. The two secondary coil is represented as S1 and S2. Esteem iron core is placed in the centre of the cylindrical former which can move in to and fro motion as shown in the figure. The AC excitation voltage is 5 to 12V and the operating frequency is given by 50 to 400 HZ.

Working of LVDT: Let's study the working of LVDT by splitting the cases into 3 based on the iron core position inside the insulated former. Case 1:On applying an external force which is the displacement, if the core reminds in the null position itself without providing any movement then the voltage induced in both the secondary windings are equal which results in net output is equal to zero i.e., Esec1-Esec2=0 Case 2:When an external force is appilied and if the steel iron core tends to move in the left hand side direction then the emf voltage induced in the secondary coil is greater when compared to the emf induced in the secondary coil 2.

Therefore the net output will be Esec1-Esec2 Case 3:When an external force is applied and if the steel iron core moves in the right hand side direction then the emf induced in the secondary coil 2 is greater when compared to the emf voltage induced in the secondary coil 1. therefore the net output voltage will be Esec2-Esec1

Advantages of LVDT: * Infinite resolution is present in LVDT* High output* LVDT gives High sensitivity* Very good linearity* Ruggedness* LVDT Provides Less friction* Low hysteresis* LVDT gives Low power consumption.

Disadvantages of LVDT: * Very high displacement is required for generating high voltages.* Shielding is required since it is sensitive to magnetic field.* The performance of the transducer gets affected by vibrations* Its is greatly affected by temperature changes.