Anna Worrell August 6, 2013 Hawaii Term Paper The Hawaiian Islands The Hawaiian Islands are located

in the southeastern part of the Hawaiian Emperor Seamount Chain, which is comprised of both the Hawaiian Islands and the Emperor Seamount Chain, commonly called the Chain. Together, they began forming about 80 million years ago. The Chain is composed of more than 80 volcanoes. Some volcanoes that make up the Chain have been submerged beneath the North Pacific Leutian Submarine Trench. The volcanoes and landforms above water make up the Hawaiian Island Chain, which are the youngest features in the Chain. The Hawaiian Emperor Seamount Chain, also known as the Hawaiian Ridge, stretches from the Hawaiian Islands to the Aleutian Trench. The Hawaiian Ridge extends about 1,600 miles, which is approximately the distance from Washington, D.C., to Denver, Colorado. Roughly 186,000 cubic miles of lava, enough to cover California with a mile thick layer, formed the Chain. The Hawaiian Islands are some of the most common volcanic islands in the world. They are most popular volcanic islands because each island has very distinctive features, providing great learning opportunities for scientists. The Hawaiian Islands are home to some well-known geologists, biologists, and other scientists because the island features reveal information concerning their formation. For example, geologists have mapped rock ages on the Hawaiian Islands, which demonstrates the Pacific plates movement to the northwest. By understanding this information, as well as other unique features, scientists are able to conclude that the Hawaiian Islands are formed because the Pacific plate has been slowly moving northwest, while a hotspot has remained stationary below the ocean crust. By examining each island individually, people can understand the Hawaiian Islands development and distinctive differences due to the age of each. Not only the rocks can help identify the age of development between each island, but also volcanic activity, beach development, and vegetation types on each individual island provide clarifications to the development process of the Chain. Other than Oahu, we visited the islands from youngest to oldest to see how each island changes over time. By visiting the islands in this order, we were able to understand the pattern of progression better. Hotspots and the Formation of the Chain The most recognizable hot spot in the world is that which formed the Hawaiian Islands. The islands get progressively older from south to north, as the American geologist, James Dwight Dana, uncovered in 1838. All of the islands are created by the same hotspot and source of lava. The islands and seamounts were created when the Pacific Plate passed over a single point source of magma as it moved toward the northwest, leaving behind a long trail of volcanoes across the Pacific Ocean floor. The oldest of the Hawaiian Islands at the western end of the Chain are about 40 million years old. At this point, the islands change to a northern direction and become the submerged mountains called the Emperor Seamounts, which are 80 million years old and believed to show the rotation of the pacific plate around a new pole of rotation. The Hawaiian Islands and the Emperor Seamounts 1

show the movement of the Pacific Plate over time. Almost all of the worlds earthquakes and active volcanoes occur along the boundaries of the Earths shifting plates, but the Hawaiian volcanoes are more than 2,000 miles from the nearest boundary with any tectonic plate, proving the hotspot theory is accurate. To truly understand the formation of the Hawaiian Islands, one must understand the concept of hotspots, described by John Tuzo Wilson. John Wilson believed the Hawaiian Islands were created as a result of a hot region beneath the surface of the slow moving Pacific Plate. However, later it was determined that actual streams of hot mantle, or mantle plumes, were rising from the Earths core-mantle boundary and feeding the hotspots. It is now recognized that the Hawaiian Islands and Emperor Seamounts were formed by hotspots fed by mantle plumes. One usually associates hotspots with volcanic activity, such as lava flows on land surface. However, hot spots do not always create volcanoes that emit lava. Seamounts are features, which form from underwater volcanoes. Hot spots are distinguishable from mid-ocean ridges and subduction zones because of their isolation in the middle of a lithospheric plate, their broad crustal uplift, and the composition of their lava. Hot spot lavas are made of basalts. They also have a greater amount of alkaline metals on the basalt. These types of basalt are not commonly seen at plate margins. The mechanism that produces hot spots is mantle plumes; however, any attempt to explain mantle plume origins is at this time speculative. Loihi- The Newest Volcanic Island Because the Pacific Plate continues to move northwest over the hotspot, it will one day set stage for a new volcanic island. The volcanic island, already named Loihi Seamount, is in the midst of forming and lies about 35 kilometers off the coast of The Big Island of Hawaii. Already about 2 km above the ocean floor and 1000 meters below the water surface, Loihi is bound to be the next island to join the Hawaiian Islands in about 10,000 to 100,000 years. Loihi is a seamount, or underwater volcano, and seems to be mimicking the formation of other Hawaiian Islands. Furthermore, one hypothesis says that Loihi could eventually fuse together with the Big Island, which is comprised of five volcanoes already. Loihi is the only Hawaiian island still in the preshield stage of development. The preshield stage is characterized by infrequent, typically low volume eruptions. In this stage, the lava emitted is alkali basalt and typically forms pillow lava underwater, or rounded balls of lava that had little to no time to cool due to immediate exposure to water. The pillow lava actually solidifies quickly because water pressure prevents it from exploding once in contact with cold water. The preshield stage of development lasts about 200,000 years. Loihi is thought to be transitioning from the submarine preshield stage into the submarine shield stage. Since the other volcanoes in the Chain have had their preshield stage lavas buried by other lavas, it is hard to tell the exact timing between the preshield and shield stages. Furthermore, Loihi has undergone frequent landslides with debris, similar to other Hawaiian volcanoes early stages of development, making timing difficult. To get a better idea about the age of Loihi, geologists used submarines to explore the volcano in 1978. They discovered rocks dating back to 300,000 years ago. From these samples, scientists estimated Loihis age to be about 400,000 years old. Loihi represents a unique opportunity for scientists to study an emerging volcanic island. 2

The Big Island (Hawaii) The Big Island, commonly just referred to as Hawaii, is the southeastern most and biggest island in the Hawaiian Island chain, being twice the size of other islands in the chain. Presently, the Big Island remains over the Pacific hotspot, therefore making it also the youngest island. Although youngest, Polynesian settlers were thought to have come to the Big Island in 750 A.D, before reaching the other older Hawaiian Islands. Historically, the Big Island is the birthplace of the great King Kamehameha and is home to the famous goddess of volcanoes, Pele, whom resides in Halernaumau. Another interesting fact about the Big Island is that it has eight climate zones, the most climate zones out of any Hawaiian Island. What struck me most about the island of Hawaii was the lack of vegetation and immense amount of volcanic rock in comparison to Oahu. Also, I noticed there were not as many coral reefs on the Big Island as there were on Oahu. However, we did visit one beautiful coral reef on the Fairwind Sailboat, where we saw Captain Cooks monument and interesting marine life. Many deem this snorkeling place best in Hawaii. Hawaii was constructed by five volcanoes: Kohala, Mauna Kea, Hualalai, Kilauea, and Mauna Loa. Mauna Loa is the largest active volcano on Earth, and the tallest standing mountain from seafloor to above ground, surpassing Mount Everest. The volcano itself covers half of the Big Island. It is characterized by frequent eruptions. Another active volcano, Kilauea, has been erupting since 1983. The other three volcanoes are dormant or extinct, depending on their age. The continuous eruptions by Mauna Loa and Kilauea have altered the island tremendously in different ways, ranging from ash or pumice covered hiking trails to demolished towns and infrastructure. Mauna Loa is one of the active shield volcanoes on Hawaii, with rocks dating back to 100,000 to 200,000 years ago. It is estimated to have been active for the last 700,00 years. The last eruption by Mauna Loa occurred in 1984, and no civilian deaths resulted from it. Other eruptions from the 1800s resulted in part of the town, Hilo, being built on flows. Kilauea, the other active shield volcano on Hawaii, is thought to be about 300,000 to 600,000 years old and the second youngest Hawaiian hotspot volcano. Kilauea, which means spewing, has had a major impact on the biology and geology of the land. We were able to understand its damaging effects by a hike down Devastation Trail. During late 1950, a 37-day eruption blasted from Kilauea Iki Crater and devastated the plant life and animal life on the island. After the explosion, roads were rerouted and most of the land was cleared. The surviving trees continued to bud with new life, while other trees sprouted all over again. The trail is presently still recovering from the 1,900-foot blast of lava. As we walked down the trail, we saw thriving plant life that shows the trail is in full recovery mode. Some animals, such as birds, could not manage to avoid the lava flow, and were ultimately buried alive. Another first hand example of Kilaueas eruption, was the notorious lava hike. Not only did we see a sign emerging from the ground that read road closed, but there was also part of a road that had been covered by lava. As we moved closer to the source of flowing lava, the rocks grew unstable because they have had less time to cool and solidify. We saw magma emerging from the ground, which was bright orange, scorching, slow moving, and very thick. We could not get very close because the magma could severely injure you due to its heat. Ivan told us the story of a man getting too 3

close to the magma, and he accidently fell waist deep. The man suffered tremendously, so we stayed back in fear that would become our fate. The hike was my favorite by far because new rocks were being formed as we watched, something not many people can say they have experienced. The slow-forming, volcanic land was fresh and unused, making it all the more spectacular. Hawaii is a unique island for observing active lava flows. Mauna Kea, a dormant volcano on Hawaii, is 13,796 feet above sea level. Mauna Kea, meaning White Mountain, lives up to its name in that there is snow at the top of the mountain. Due to its height, there is has 40% less atmospheric pressure at the top of Mauna Kea than at sea level. This pressure differential was evident at the top of the mountain, where the inflation bladder of the boot I was wearing filled up with air. We almost had to pop it so my foot could fit back in. Jason did, however, have to let air out of the bladder, so I could walk properly on the top of the summit. Similar to the other older volcanoes, Hualalai and Kohala, Mauna Kea has evolved beyond the shield-building stage. This is evident from the chemical composition of lava, steeper and more irregular topography, the absence of a summit caldera and elongated fissure vents that radiate its summit and its low eruption rates (Mauna Kea). Because Mauna Kea has low eruption rates and the last eruption was 4,000 years ago, it is considered dormant; however, that does not mean it will not erupt again. Scientists manning the astronomical telescopes on top of Mauna Kea would likely be the first to detect eruptions of the volcano. These telescopes and observatories are some of the most famous in the world because stars and planets are so clearly visible from the remote location. Although one can easily argue Hawaii is the youngest island by the study of its volcanoes, one can also look at beach development and composition to tell the age of the island. On the Kohala Coast and Pololu Valley hike we saw black sand beaches that are evidence of a young island. Black sand beaches are a result of basaltic rocks being churned and smoothed by wave action of the ocean. The wave action at this beach forced the smaller rocks further away from the shore, leaving behind the big rocks. In a few million years, these rocks will turn into sand by erosion, resulting in well-developed sand beaches. Because the island is so young, sheer cliffs form due to rock weathering over time. When the weathered rock falls, it helps to form cliffs. Another place that shows Hawaiis age is the famous Papokolea Green Sand Beach. Because it is one of two green sand beaches in the world, we were lucky to have the opportunity to visit such a unique place. The volcanic sand seen at other beaches is actually swept out to sea. But here, due to olivine being denser and tougher than the ash fragments, the green sand remains on the beach. The olivine, a silicate mineral containing iron and magnesium, comes from the cinder cone surrounding the beach. Scientists also study the rock surrounding the area since it has not been eroded too extensively, and it allows investigation of the geologic layers formed by eruptions, lava flows, and other volcanic events. The different types of beaches and landforms in Hawaii help to disclose the Islands age. Personally, I loved Hawaiis unique environment and different climate zones. At one spot in Hawaii it could be scorching, yet it could be freezing at the top of the volcanoes. It is important to pack layers on the Big Island when venturing to the top of a volcano because the climate zones vary. Maui Maui is the third oldest island and the second largest Hawaiian Island. It is part of Maui Nui, a large volcanic mass that includes Lanai, Molokai, and Kahoolawe. All together, 4

the islands form a single, 5120 square kilometer island. The West Maui Mountains and the Haleakala Crater, two hotspot volcanoes that rose more than a mile above the ocean floor, formed Maui. The two volcanoes produced enough lava to fill the valley in between them. The West Maui Mountains and Haleakala formed an isthmus due to the overlapping of each volcano during eruptions. The island is commonly referred to as Valley Isle because of its many canyons and valleys. The West Maui Mountains are an extinct volcano, but they are now referred to as a mountain range due to its mountainous characterization. Steep valleys, cliffs, and ridges portray the range. The Mountains are more eroded and older than Haleakala. The Puu Kukui is the highest peak of these mountains, standing 5,788 feet. During some of the volcanic eruptions of the West Maui Mountains, magma exploded through the air and sides of the growing volcano. There was a loss of magma from the summit that resulted in a caldera formation. Erosion formed the gullies on the flanks of the volcano. Gases rose and softened the rock after the lava flow stopped. Rain collected near the summit, and the Iao Stream cut through the softened rock. As erosion continued, an amphitheater valley was created and smaller streams enlarged the valley. One can see such streams at the Ioa Valley Needle, which is actually the largest irrigated agricultural system in Hawaii. Another popular spot on these mountains is the Iao Valley, which we saw has mystical scenery and thriving topical vegetation. At the Needle, I felt as though I was in Harry Potter while looking up at the mountains because the fog and magical scenic views. Although the land is now used for tourism, it was once Mauis most important political center where battles and religious conflicts took place. Furthermore, the West Maui Mountains were originally referred to as Mauna Kahalawai, meaning house of water. The name derived from the Mountains 400 inches of rainfall per year, making it the second wettest spot in the world. Such a moist environment allows lush vegetation to thrive, in contrast with Haleakalas barren and dry summit. Haleakala, Mauis biggest volcano, occupies almost the whole eastern section of Maui. The enormous mountain is 25,000 feet in height when measured from its actual base at sea floor, and classified as one of the largest mountains in the world. Due to erosion of wind, water, and ice during a dormant period, however, it now stands lower than it once did: 10,023 feet above sea level. During the ice ages, Maui was equivalent to the size of Hawaii; but, overtime, erosion and weathering occurred, causing Maui to shrink. The volcano was set-aside in 1916 as a national park, so scientists and visitors could observe and study the volcanic craters and unique plant life. The Haleakala volcano is dormant, with the last eruption around 1790. Nevertheless, scientists hypothesize that the next eruption could be within the next 100 years. Also differentiating from the West Mountains wet region, Haleakala ranges from sub alpine to subtropical rain forests. We observed the vast change in ecosystems on the mountain, as we traveled from the summits barren, red desert of cinder cone to the craters volcanic rock, and, finally, to sea levels lush plant life beneath a waterfall. The lush vegetation towards the bottom of the mountain developed because the upper slopes have captured enough moisture to feed streams and waterfalls in the valleys. Because of the different environments, it is challenging for many animals and plants to thrive. One plant that has adapted to the harsh conditions of Haleakala is the Haleakala Silversword. The Haleakala Silversword, a plant that does stand exclusively on Haleakala, is forced to undergo these tremendous weather conditions and the high elevation environment. It has also adapted to the environment by their shallow roots and 5

protective leaf coverings. Due to the mountains staggering heights, diverse climates, spectacular summit crater, and unique vegetation, the area is very popular. Many different types of beaches, such as red sand beaches, basalt pebble beaches, and even white coral beaches, characterize Maui. With over 30 miles of beautiful beaches surrounding Mauis coastline, one is bound to see the distinctive types of world-famous beaches. At the Waianapanapa State Park, we saw a black sand beach. Here, the sand is made of fine black pebbles that had not yet been weathered down to the type of sand we are used to. The pebble size or rocks are indicative of a new beach derived from lava flows. I liked it here because the sand was easy to rub off because it was bigger pebbles than most other beaches we have been to. Mauis Red Sand Beach, called Kaihalulu, not only held interesting colored sand, but also contained an interesting rock structure. Beside the beach was a reddish rock that used to be a cinder cone, seen from the stratigraphy and angled lines of the rock. The beach action and waves eroded the cinder cone to where it actually split. The red color of the rock is due to oxidation of Iron, and it shows the rock is older and has rusted. The red sand is a result of the nearby, iron-rich cinder cone that has eroded over many years. Although we could not stay at the famous Red Sand Beach due to weather conditions, it was an interesting site to see and learn about. Maui is well known for its famous white coral sand beaches. Mauis white sand beaches formed from the breakdown of dead coral, shells, and other reef-derived materials. Maui has more white sand beaches than the Big Island because it is older, meaning more reefs providing coral to the beaches have developed around the island. One white sand beach we visited on Maui was Makena Beach. This beach has giant waves and was very popular, even despite its high danger rate. The beach had fine, white sand and reminded me of a Florida Panhandle beach. The wave intensity was so great that turning your back on wave could result in broken bones or death. The lifeguard warned us of the wave lull, which could trick people into thinking the waves settled down, yet the intense waves will come back strong about every five minutes. This beach was experiencing intense erosion, seen by the beachs steep shore break. All of Mauis beaches are experiencing intense erosive action from waves and one-day they will have sand equivalent to that of Kauai. Oahu Oahu, known as the gathering place, is the third largest and second oldest Hawaiian Island. Although smaller than the Big Island, Oahu still contributes more to the Hawaiian tourism industry than the other islands do. Oahu also has the greatest population of any Hawaiian island, a year-round average temperature of 75 degrees F, and Waikiki Beach water temperature of 80 degrees F. Pearl Harbor Naval Base is also locationed on Oahu, and the island is a center for commerce with lush valleys behind the towering buildings. Oahu is also a surfing mecca, and has many music venues, and a wonderful diversity of people. Its name, the gathering place, suits the island well because of the many different types of people present: Japanese, Chinese, Filipinos, Germans, Canadians, Blacks, and many others. Unlike the younger islands of Hawaii and Maui, Oahu has more dense and diverse vegetation; more developed, white sand beaches, greater evidence of erosion, and has been removed from volcanic activity for a longer period of time. Oahu has experienced severe erosion over the years due to natural hazards with high waves, storms, and flooding. Erosion has taken a greater toll on Oahu than the Big Island and Maui in that Oahu has lost 6

a quarter of its sandy shoreline. State conservation projects have helped the island pump in about 2-3 million dollars worth of sand from offshore so that the tourism industry does not decline and the public infrastructure does not ruin. Two volcanoes, Waianae and Koolau, created Oahu. These volcanoes have been extensively eroded through time to form different mountain ranges. Waianae, the older volcano, makes up the northwest quadrant of Oahu, while Koolau makes up the east side of the island. Waianaes main shield is about 3.8-2.95 million years old, and stands at about 1.2 km above sea level. The remaining Waianae Mountain range is a result of the significantly eroded, extinct volcano. The Koolau range is similar to Waianae in that it is a mountain range formed by a volcano. In contrast to Waianae, however, Koolau is younger at about 2.7-1.8 million years old. Thousands of years ago, Koolaus highest elevation exceeded 3,000 meters; yet today, the summit is only about 914 meters. This difference is due to erosion eating away at the mountains slopes. The Koolau volcano remained dormant for thousands of years but finally erupted about thirty times within 500,000 years. Although unclear about the official date of the volcanos last eruption, it was at least 10,000 years ago, ultimately making the volcano dormant. Some of these eruptions have formed separate features such as tuffs and individual cinder cones. Diamond Head and Hanauma Bay, both well-known landmarks we visited, were formed due to these eruptions. Because Diamond Head is so close to the commercial areas of Oahu and only a short hike up, it is easily accessible and the most photographed place in Hawaii. Vegetation, different rock layers, and a tuff cone characterize Diamond Head. It is younger than the main mass of the Koolau Mountain Range, being that it was formed only 200,000 years ago. Another popular formation that was a result of the more recent Koolau eruptions is Hanauma Bay. If closely looked at, one can see volcanic ash, fragments of white coral limestone, and dark basalt rock embedded in the walls of tuff. In addition, crystals of olivine were found in the region and are only found in areas of volcanic activity. Hanauma Bay is a great place to snorkel because of the well-developed coral reef, a characteristic of an older island. Because we saw a vast amount of marine life and the beach was so pretty, Hanauma Bay was my favorite snorkeling place on the whole trip. In addition to Oahus mountain regions that give evidence of the islands age, one can also take a closer look at Oahus beaches. Oahus beaches are white sand beaches because the rocks have had enough time to erode and weather into fine sand particles. This means the sand is finer than that of Maui and Hawaii, because Oahu is older. Also, the reefs surrounding the island are more developed, ultimately supplying more white coral to the sand. The natural white sand is a mixture of crushed corals and shells. However, a lot of the sand seen on beaches in Oahu is imported sand due to the excessive beach eroding. The most popular beach in Oahu and one of my favorite beaches, Waikiki Beach, even has some imported sand from various places in the world. Kauai Kauai is the most northern and oldest island in the Hawaiian Island Chain, dating back to about 5-6 million years ago. The island was actually the first one that Captain Cook explored in 1778. It is also the fourth largest island in the Chain, being 1416 square kilometers. The island has the nicest white sand beaches out of any Hawaiian Island because of its age and erosion affects. Another positive feature of Kauai is the lush vegetation surrounding the island. There are less volcanic remains on Kauai than on the 7

other islands. Kauai attracts many tourists a year because of its beautiful Na Pali Coast, which is famous for kayaking, hiking, or boating and offers people one of the best scenic opportunities in the world. The Na Pali coast is 17 miles full of waterfalls and green vegetation that cannot be accessed by car. It also contains some of the most isolated coastal lands in the world. Some call Kauai a hidden gem because roads cannot reach 90% of the island. This is due to the swamps, coasts, and other tremendous landforms Kauai has to offer. Kauai, sometimes called the Garden Isle, is covered in rare vegetation, home to unique history, and offers beautiful valleys and coasts that lure tourists and natives. A now intensely eroded, single shield volcano that is long extinct formed Kauai. On top of the volcano is a caldera that is 16-20 kilometers across. There is another, smaller caldera, Haupu Caldera, that is about 3 kilometers long. Because Kauai comes from volcanic origins, the mountains that have shaped the island are not formed like typical mountains. The highest points on these mountains are Kawaikini, at 5,243 feet, and Mount Waialeale, 5,148 feet above sea level. Mount Waialeale is famous for its annual average rainfall of 450-470 inches of rain per year, making it one of Earths wettest spots. The rainfall has severely eroded valleys into the central mountains, creating ridges, canyons, and valleys with scenic waterfalls. On the west side of the island, Waimea Rivers flow formed one of the most scenic and magnificent canyons in the world. Although smaller than the Grand Canyon, Waimea Canyon is still called the Grand Canyon of the Pacific because both canyons were formed by erosion and consist of sedimentary rock. Unlike the Grand Canyon, however, Waimea Canyon actually has volcanic ash and more greenery. The Waimea Canyon is 3,000 feet deep and ten miles long. The Canyon adjoins with Kokee State Park, which is located on the upper plateau of Kauai. The park offers many hikes, one being along the Na Pali coast and another being through a swamp. The AlakaI Swamp hike is known for its deep mud, lack of inhabitants, and rare birds and plants. The Swamp includes areas where 600 inches of rain per year can be common. This shows how rainy parts of the Waimea Canyon are and why it is considered one of the wettest places on Earth. In addition to unique landforms, Kauai also offers the best white sand beaches out of all the Hawaiian Islands. Because of Kauais many white sand beaches and gorgeous scenic opportunities, the island is my favorite. It is calmer than most of the other islands, yet it still provides tourist activities. Not only do I like how much calmer Kauai is than Oahu, but I also like how Kauai has more beaches because erosion has caused beaches to ultimately surround the whole island. Although Kauais beaches are much like Oahus beaches in that most have fine sand with well-developed offshore reefs, more people go to Oahus beaches because . When comparing Kauai and Maui beaches, most people say Kauais beaches are nicer due to the softer sand. Another advantage to the Kauai beaches is the large waves that come during winter. The Hanalei Bay, which had no waves while we were there, supposedly has waves that reach a staggering 50 feet. Professional surfers flock to the region due to the intensity and availability of significant wave action at so many different beaches on Kauai. Conclusion The Hawaiian Islands are a universal demonstration of the volcanic island development cycles. Each island is in a different stage of development. The islands 8

different developmental stages are differentiated by the amount of vegetation, the volcanic activity, and the development of the reefs and beaches. These stages help people and scientists understand not only the islands better, but also learn about the islands formation. The older islands, such as Kauai and Oahu, have each gone through Hawaiis present cycle. Today, Kauai and Oahu are rich in vegetation and beautiful white sand beaches. There is no volcanic activity on both of these islands. This is in contrast to Hawaii, the youngest island with active volcanoes, which has few rocky sand beaches and areas of sparse vegetation. Both of the older islands have had black sand beach and coarse sand like Hawaii; but due to their age, their sand is now fine, white, and soft. This is only one stage distinction between the Hawaiian Islands. The differences between the close-nit Hawaiian Islands are unique and fascinating to the volcanic Chain.

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