CHAPTER 1 Literature Review

1.0 Introduction
Literature survey has been done to review our collective knowledge of previous course works related to design of reinforced concrete structures, building materials and building construction. For this purpose, Indian Standard Codes that were reviewed are: IS: 456 (200), IS:1893 (2002), IS:875 (1987) part 1,2,3. Extensive reference has also been taken by popular books as: Reinforced Concrete by A.K. Jain, Structural Analysis by C.S. Reddy. Internet search engines like Google and Wikipedia were also cited for reference.

1.1 Design philosophies

Structural design for framed R.C.C structure can be done by three methods:

1.1.1 Working Stress Method of Design:

It is earliest modified method of R.C.C structures. In this method structural element is so designed that the stress resulting from the action of services load as computed in linear elastic theory using modular ratio concept do not exceed a pre-designed allowable stress which is kept as some fraction of ultimate stress, to avail a margin of safety. Since this method does not utilize full strength of the material it results in heavy section, the economy aspect cannot be fully utilized in the method.

1.1.2 Ultimate Strength Method of Design

This method is primarily based on strength concept. In this method the structural element is proportioned to withstand the ultimate load, which is obtained by enhancing the service load of some factor referred to as load factor for giving desired margin of safety. Since this method is based on actual stress strain behavior of the material, of the member as of the structure that too right up to failure, the values calculated by this method agree well the experiment results. 1

1.1.3 Limit State Method of Design

During the past several years, extension research works have been carried out on the different aspects of the research in the actual behavior of member and structure has led to the development of design and approach of LIMIT STATE METHOD OF DESIGN.

In limit state method the working load is multiplied by partial factor of safety in accordance with clause 36.4.1 of IS 456- 2000; And also the ultimate strength of material is divided by the partial safety in accordance with clause 36.4.1 of IS 456-2000; and also the ultimate strength of the material is divided by partial safety in accordance with clause 36.4.2 of IS456-2000. Partial safety factor is introduced to reduce the probability of failure to about zero. When a structure or a part of a structure becomes unfit for use, it is said to have reached a limit state, unfitness for use can arise in various ways and aim of limit state method of design is to provide an acceptable probability that the structure will not reach any of the limit states during its service life span. Limit state can be broadly classified into two main categories.

1.1.3.1 Limit State of Collapse

It is the limit state on attainment of which the structure is likely to collapse. It relates to stability and strength of the structure. Design to this limit ensures safety of the structure from collapse.

1.1.3.2 Limit State of Serviceability

It relates to performance or behavior of structure at working loads and is based on causes affecting serviceability of the structure. This limit state is concerned with cracking and deflection of the structure.

1.2 Materials Used 1.2.1 Concrete

Concrete is a construction material that consists of cement (commonly Portland cement) as well as other cementitious materials such as fly ash and slag cement, aggregate (generally a

coarse aggregate such as gravel limestone or granite, plus a fine aggregate such as sand or manufactured sand), water and chemical admixtures. Concrete is used more than any other man-made material on the planet. As of 2005 about six billion cubic meters of concrete are made each year, which equals one cubic meter for every person on Earth.

1.2.1.1 Ready Mix Concrete(RMC)

Ready-mix concrete is a type of concrete that is manufactured in a factory or batching plant, according to a set recipe, and then delivered to a worksite by truck mounted transit mixers

1.2.1.2 Design Mix

The process of selecting suitable ingredients of concrete and determining their relative amounts with the objective of producing a concrete of the required, strength, durability, and workability as economically as possible, is termed the concrete mix design. The proportioning of ingredient of concrete is governed by the required performance of concrete in 2 states, namely the plastic and the hardened states. If the plastic concrete is not workable, it cannot be properly placed and compacted. The property of workability, therefore, becomes of vital importance.

The final mix proportions of M-25 grade of concrete become:For Water Cement Ratio: 0.43

Table 1.1: Constituents of concrete mix S No. Materials Mix proportions for 1 Cum of concrete (Kg/m3) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Mass of Cement Mass of water Mass of fine aggregate Mass of total coarse aggregate Mass of 20 mm CA Mass of 10 mm CA Mass of admixture 320 138 751 1356 977 380 1.60

1.2.2 Steel
Steel can handle both tensile and compressive stresses. Mainly steal in R.C.C is used to take tensile stresses but can also be used to take Compression if Concrete in a section is not enough to take Compressive stresses. For Reinforcing Concrete now a days HYSD (High Yielding Strength Deforming) steel bar are used. The steel used at site is HYSD FE415 and Diameters of bars required on site are: 8mm, 10mm, 12mm, 16mm, 25mm, 28 mm etc.

1.3 Design of Structural Components 1.3.1 Slabs

Slabs are plain structural members forming floors and roofs of building whose thickness is quite small compared to their other dimensions. These carry load primarily by flexure and are in various shapes such as square, rectangular, circular and triangular in buildings, tanks etc. inclined slabs may be used as ramps for multistoried as parking. A staircase is considered to be an inclined slab.

The thickness of the reinforced concrete slabs ranges from 75mm to 300mm slabs are designed just like beams keeping the breadth of slab as unity depending on the system of units. Thus the total slab is assumed to the consisting of strips of unit width compression reinforcement is used only in exceptional basis in a slab. Slab may be supported by beams or by walls and may be simply supported or continuous over one or more supports. When the ratio of the length to the width of a slab is more than 2, and then most of the load is carried by the shorter span and in such a case is known as one-way in case the ratio is less than 2 then it is called a Two-way slab, which is further classified as restrained and simply supported slabs. The various other types of the slabs are flat slabs, which rest directly on columns with beams and Grid Floors or Ribbed slabs.

1.3.2 Beams
A reinforcement concrete beam should be able to resist tensile, compressive and shear stresses induced in it. Concrete is fairly strong in compression but very weak in tension.

Plain concrete beams are thus limited in carrying capacity by the low tensile strength. Steel is very strong in tension. Thus, the tensile weakness of concrete is overcome by the provision of reinforced steel in the tension zone to make a reinforced concrete beam. beams and slabs in concrete structure are cast monolithic. Hence the structure becomes, a slab which is stiffened by concrete ribs in which the intermediate beams act as T beam, and beams around the staircase, Lift openings, supports frames, etc. act as L beams. The portion of the slab that acts as a -flange of T or L beams on its own thickness and span. Beams may be singly reinforced or doubly reinforced. The

1.3.2.1 Design Specification According To IS: 456-2000 and SP: 16 Effective Depth (Clause :23.0 )
Effective depth of beams is the distance between the centroid of the area of tension reinforcement and the maximum compression fiber, excluding the thickness of the finishing material not placed monolithically.

Deflection limitation (Clause :23.2 )

The final deflection due to all loads including the effects of temperature, creep and shrinkage are measured from the as-cast level of the support of the floor, roofs and all other horizontal members not normally exceed span/250. The deflection including the effects of temperature, creep and shrinkage occurring after erection of partitions and the application of finishes should not normally exceed span/350 or 20mm whichever is less.

Effective Span (Clause 22.2 )

The effective span of a beam shall be taken as the length between the centres of the supports, except for the provision of 3 in Subclause9b) and where, under Clause34, the point of application of their action is taken as eccentric to the support, when it shall be permissible to take the effective span as the length between the assumed points of application of the reaction

Shear (Clause :26.5.1.6 )

A beam subjected to shear force and bending moment experience diagonal tension. Vertical shear force alone is not as critical when compared with the result due to the intersection of bending moment and shear force. The resultants of these stresses produce diagonal tension, which may develop crack in the beam.

To take care of this resultant diagonal tension shear reinforcement is provided in two forms. 1. Cranked bars 2. Stirrups -Vertical -Inclined.

1.3.3 Columns
A column or strut is a compression member, which is used primarily to support axial compressive loads and with a height of at least three times its least lateral dimension. A reinforced concrete column is said to be subjected to axially loaded when the line of the resultant thrust of loads supported by the column is coincides with the line of C.G. of the column in the longitudinal direction. Depending upon the architectural requirements and the loads to be supported, R.C.C. column may be cast in various shapes i.e. square, rectangular, hexagonal, octagonal or circular.

1.3.3.1 Orientation of Columns:

Column normally provided in the building are rectangular width of the column not less than the width of support for effective load transfer. As far as possible, the width of the column shall not exceed the thickness of the walls to avoid the offsets. Restrictions on the width of the column necessitate the other side (the depth) of the column to be larger the desired load carrying capacity. This leads to the problems of orientation of columns.

1.3.3.2 Effective Length(Clause 25.2)

The effective length of a column is defined as the length between the points of contra flexure of the buckled column. The code has given certain values of the effective length for normal usage assuming idealized and condition shown in appendix E of IS 456 (table 28)

Table 1.2: Effective Length of Compression Members

S No. Description

Theoretical value of Effective length

Recommended value of effective length

Effectively held in position, restrained against rotation in both ends

.50 L

.65 L

Effectively held in position at both ends, restrained against rotation at one end

.70 L

.80 L

Effectively held in position at both ends, but not restrained against rotation

1.00 L

1.00 L

Effectively held in position and restrained against rotation at one end, and at the other restrained against rotation but not held in position

1.00 L

1.20 L

Effectively held in position and restrained against rotation in one end, and at the other partially restrained against rotation but not held in position

1.50 L

Effectively held in position at one end but not restrained against rotation, and at the other end restrained against rotation but not held in position

2.00 L

2.00 L

Effectively held in position and restrained against rotation at one end but not held in position nor restrained against rotation at the other end

2.00 L

2.00 L

NOTE: L is the unsupported length of compression member.

1.3.3.3 Design of Axially Loaded Colum with minimum eccentricity: (Clause 25.4 and 39.2)
Sections 10.21.4 and 12 of Lesson 21 explain that all columns including the short axially loaded columns shall be designed with a minimum eccentricity (cls. 25.4 and 39.2 of IS 456). Moreover, the design strengths of concrete and steel are further reduced to 0.4 f and 0.67
ck

f , respectively, to take care of the minimum eccentricity of 0.05 times the lateral dimension,
y

as stipulated in cl.39.3 of IS 456. It is noticed that there is not attempt at strain compatibility. Also the phenomenon of creep has not been directly considered. e D/30) or 20 mm or e
y min x min

greater of (l/500 +

greater of

or 20 mm

The maximum values of l /D and l /b should not exceed 12 in a short column as per
ex ey

cl.25.1.2 of IS 456. For a short column, when the unsupported length l = l (for the purpose
ex

of illustration), we can assume l = 12 D (or 12b when b is considered). Thus, we can write the minimum eccentricity = 12D/500 + D/30 = 0.057D, which has been taken as 0.05D or 0.05b as the maximum amount of eccentricity of a short column.

It is, therefore, necessary to keep provision so that the short columns can resist the accidental moments due to the allowable minimum eccentricity by lowering the design strength of concrete by ten per cent from the value of 0.446f , used for the design of flexural
ck

members. Thus, we have the design strength of concrete in .

P = 0.45 f A + 0.75 f A
uz ck c y

sc

Where A = gross area of the section

g

A = total area of steel in the section

sc

1.3.3.4 Design of Uniaxially Loaded Colum: (Clause39.5 )

IS 456 recommends the following simplified method, based on Bresler's formulation, for the design of biaxially loaded columns. The relationship between M and M for a particular
uxz uyz

value of P = P , expressed in non-dimensional form is:

u uz

n = 0.67 + 1.67 P /P , when 0.2 < (P /P ) < 0.8

u uz u uz

1.3.3.5Design of Biaxially Loaded Colum: (Clause39.6 )

IS 456 recommends the following simplified method, based on Bresler's formulation, for the design of biaxially loaded columns. The relationship between M and M for a particular
uxz uyz

value of P = P , expressed in non-dimensional form is:

u uz

(Mux/Mux1) + (Muy/Muy1)t 1 whereM andM = moments about x and y axes due to design loads, and t is related to
ux uy

P /P ,
u uz

P = 0.45 f A + 0.75 f A
uz ck c y g

Where A = gross area of the section A = total area of steel in the section
sc

The exponent t Equation is a constant which defines the shape of the load contour and depends on the value of P . For low value of the axial load, the load contour is approximated
u

as a straight line and, in that case, t = 1. On the other hand, for high values of axial load, the load contour is approximated as a quadrant of a circle, when t = 2. For intermediate load values, the value of t lies between 1 and 2. Chart 64 of SP-16 presents the load contour and Fig.10.26.3 presents the relationship between t and P /P . The mathematical relationship
u uz

between t and P /P is as follows:

u uz

t = 1.0, when P /P 0.2

u uz

t = 0.67 + 1.67 P /P , when 0.2 < (P /P ) < 0.8

u uz u uz

t = 2.0, when (P /P ) 0.8

u uz

1.4 Conclusion
Based on above literature survey we conclude:

1. That Limit State method may be employed for the design of structure. 2. Individual structural component shall be designed for the gravity loading as sample calculations for better understanding for a project selected. 3. The same shall also be validated on some design tools. 4. Additional literature survey shall be done for Earthquake Resistant Design of Structure. 5. The same project shall also be designed for seismic loads. 6. The structure shall be designed for all the load combination as specified by the code and a final design shall be laid.

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